e SAFETY

ESSENTIAL
OF
OILS

TONY BURFIELD

In a world increasingly concerned with safety legislation, we have

to improve our corn@-ehension of safety issues, and make this
available to our respective colleagues, customers and clients. This
safety knowledge may have global, continental, national and
local aspects enshrined within it, and it is our duty to become
familiar with these requirements and act according to the law, or
the spirit of the law. This paper attempts to cover topics around
safety and aromatherapy.

P
erceptions of safety issues in risks can be obtained using informa- follows:

aromatherapy tend to be the tion gleaned from: Set 1. Chemical product and

views of aromatherapy educa- 1. Material Safety Data Sheets company information

tors whose opinions appear to fall (MSDS) Set 2. Composition/ Information

within either of two categories: 2. Professional organizations on Ingredients

0 Those that fail to make a clear 3. Internet databases Set 3. Hazards identification

distinction between the hazard 4. Specialist safety publications, Set 4. First Aid measures

and risk, but loudly proclaim near books and scientific literature Set 5. Fire Fighting measures
zero risks for the widest spectrum Set 6. Accidental release measures
of essential oils using conven- Set 7. Handling and Storage

tional aromatherapy practices. These are a legal requirement for deliv- Set 8. Exposure controls/

0 Those who adopt a more cautious ered chemical goods (e.g. essential personal protection

approach where scientific data is oils). MSDS sheets were originally Set 9. Physical and chemical
insufficient, for example over written in complex technical language properties
issues such as chronic toxicity and for persons responsible for Health and Set 10. Stability and reactivity
use of oils in pregnancy Safety matters in the chemical industry. Set 11. Toxicological information
(Tisserand and Balacs, 1995). Requirements for openness, and US Set 12. Ecological information
In order to conduct risk identifi- State right-to-know information and Set 13. Disposal considerations
cation, we need to be aware of several the Control of Substances Hazardous Set 14.Transport information
factors: to Health (COSHH) regulations in Set 15. Regulatory information

0 The hazardous properties of the Britain has lead to a wider audience for Set 16. Other information.
materials need to be identified. this sort of information. In recent years As a customer, you have a legal

?? An evaluation of exposure is the Chemical Manufacturers right to return an MSDS sheet from a
needed, i.e. the extent to which Association (CMA) has developed a supplier if you cannot understand the
client/ worker/ therapist is likely standard aimed at international accept- information, and ask that it be re-
to be exposed. An interpretation ability, and the American National written in terms that you can under-
must be made of what this means Standards Committee (ANSI) has stand. Similarly, you have rights to
in toxicological terms. adopted this format. The sixteen information where blank sections
Help in identifying and assessing sections according to ANSI are as occur or if you think that the informa-

doi:10.1054/ijar.2000.0020, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on IOE+l@’

tion is poor, and you are legally entitled template. There is an absolute and publish data on fragrance mate-
to a re-submission. minimum of data on the proper- rials, which includes data on essential
Aromatherapists and aromatherapy ties of the individual oil. oils. They then make a risk assessment
companies who supply oils are legally The job of assembling the data and recommendations for individual
bound to supply MSDS sheets to sheets usually falls to a clerk substances used in fragrances. The
customers. Additionally, aromathera- rather than a chemist, and the Decision Tree Approach (Cramer et al.,
pists in their work (clinical) setting are task is usually of low priority 19’78) underlies much of the approach
required to have safety information to within the company. RIFM have used for toxicity assessment.
hand. This is important. In the USA a MSDS sheets are notorious for The RIFM designed a basic set of tests:
similar situation applies with mistakes, especially regarding 0 Skin irritation and sensitization
Occupational Safety and Health Chemical Abstracts Service (GAS) testing
Administration (OSHA) Hazard numbers, incorrect Latin names, ?? Oral and dermal limit tests (at
Standard 1910.1200, requiring private incomprehensible toxicological 5 g/kg) or LD50 tests
employees to provide information and information and incorrect trans- 0 Phototoxicity
training to employers. OSHA legisla- port labelling details. Do not rely ?? Photosensitization
tion additionally requires that MSDSs on the absolute accuracy of the ?? Sensitization: originally carried
are kept and maintained in a marked information. You have a legal out using the Kligman (1966)
and accessible area. requirement to check the infor- human maximization test, using
Aromatherapists could follow the mation independently before use. petrolatum as solvent.
following scheme: In any case there is usually a In addition RIFM also carries out inves-
1. Collect MSDS sheets; file disclaimer. tigations into chronic effects, and the
them and have them readily Downplaying information on metabolism of fragrant substances as
available. toxicity might have occurred in and when necessary.
2. Follow up references to safety the past to allay public fears. The The International Fragrance
information for each oil and law now requires a personal Association (IFRA) receives and
construct a written safety written evaluation and updating considers the RIFM recommendations
assessment for each material process. and produces guidelines for individual
used. fragrance ingredients for its members
3. Encourage aromatherapy in the fragrance industry. We can,
organizations to compile data Aromatherapy organizations are therefore, say that IFRA is concerned
and generate their own unlikely to have the individual written with the management of risk.
written assessments of every assessments of the substances used in Some 1300 substances have been
raw material used in their trade mentioned above, a neces- tested by RIFM and some 50 have been
aromatherapy. sary stage in the process in order to subsequently not recommended for
4. If possible, ask a suitably qual- carry out risk assessments. Other use in perfumes (“banned IFRA”). A
ified person or expert on any professional organizations that use further 58 are subject to quantitative
safety queries regarding oils. essential oils may be more advanced in limits in formulations, or have special
5. Encourage your professional this respect, or can draw on expertise criteria governing their use. A number
organization, or a group of within their (often extensive) member- of these substances, in both categories,
aromatherapy associates to ship. are essential oils. Results of the toxicity
produce guidelines on the use findings are published as monographs
of essential oils, preferably The R.IFM and the IFRA in the Food and Chemical Toxicology
with expert input. The Research Institute for Fragrance journal. Reputable fragrance compa-
6. Make links with other profes- Materials (RIFM) was established in nies widely adhere to this voluntary
sional and trade organiza- 1966 by the American Fragrance self-regulation (i.e. the strict following
tions. Manufacturers Association, and is a of IFRA guidelines), especially when
When you receive an MSDS sheet, take non-profit-making international organ- selling to IFRA compliant markets. In
into account the following observa- ization, whose expert panel is wholly practice, however, some skin fragrances
tions: independent of any manufacturing have been found to be breaking the
0 They are constructed on a basic interests. The RIFM collect, produce rules.
 As one of the principle investiga- used materials like MOC (methyl Other organizations
tive programs on fragrant substance octine carbonate, a chemical which has There are a large number of additional
toxicology, IUFM data have been widely a powerful violet note), styrax resinoid organizations that are directly involved
adopted and referenced by industry and oakmoss products, which at one or interact with the essential oils trade
and, perhaps not surprisingly, by time had unrestricted status in and its user groups, e.g. the
authors of books on essential oils. This formulae, are now severly restricted. International Federation of Essential
may be because the data are widely Amongst others, perfumes like Miss Oil and Aroma Trades (IFFAT), The
available, whereas other toxicological Dior with its high level of oakmoss, European Cosmetic, Toiletry and
sources may be less comprehensive and could not be put on the market now in Perfumery Association and in America
difficult to access. It has been stated in original form. the Cosmetics Fragrance and Toiletries
the public domain that KIFM is re-eval- IFRA recommendations are regu- Association (CFTA). Also of interest to
uating the original 1300 materials that larly published in the bi-monthly trade aromatherapy are the Food and Drugs
it investigated, as the original data are magazine, Perficmerand Flautist, and are Administration (FDA) and the
now considerably out-dated, and is eval- posted on the Internet (see Appendix). American Medical Association (AMA).
uating another 1400 materials in
common use. It is also undertaking a The European Flavours and Fragrance
worldwide survey of volume usage of all Association Information about the safety and toxi-
materials on the European indicative This represents the interests of its cological properties of raw materials of
inventory, although it is debatable at member associations to the authorities interest to aromatherapists is widely
present whether this information will and professional bodies of the spread. See Appendix.
become available to the public. European Union. It works with

Established in 1973, members of member states and their scientific

IFRA comprise the national associa- advisers to establish a workable legisla- See appendix.
tions from a number of countries, tive framework and cooperates with It is sometimes advantageous for
including the USA. The fragrance associations in other countries. professional bodies to associate with
industries work loosely on a system of Further, each member state may have one another to achieve common aims,
voluntary self-regulation implementing its own national trade associations, e.g. share information, formulate strategies
the findings of KIFM regarding the British Essence Manufacturers to deal with forthcoming legislation,
perfume ingredient use; a policy that Association (BEMA) and the British etc., and it will be interesting to see if
has avoided wholesale imposition of Fragrance Association (BFA). My view aromatherapy organizations eventually
legislation without consultation. Self- is that the European Flavours and evolve in this direction.
policing under IFRA’s voluntary regu- Fragrance Association (EFFA) has
latory system is in continuous practice effectively built bridges between
as companies analyse competitors numerous bodies in order to achieve Various statements have been made

products and customers analyse the common aims. about essential oil inhalation toxicity.

products from their supplier. In fact, a Almost 40 years ago, a somewhat

major perfume launch in recent years The Flavour Essence Manufacturers worrying declaration was made: ‘In

was perceived by other major fragrance Association view of the relatively high systemic toxi-

houses to breach the rules, and Of some interest to aromatherapists is city of the vapours of certain essential

provoked an immediate trade reaction. the fact that Fragrance and Flavour oils, the hazards of excessive inhalation

Other countries, such as the Data Sheets, including many on essen- of these oils should not be disre-

Netherlands, Denmark and the USA, tial oils, are produced by the USA garded”, (Kowalski et al., 1962). It is

have (additional) mechanisms to regu- organizations the Flavour Essence perhaps the quantitation of “excessive”

late at government level. Manufacturers Association (FEMA), that is important. In a search for data

It has to be said that IFRA’s volun- the IUFM and the Fragrance on the toxic effects of Volatile Organic

tary self-regulation system has Manufacturers Association (FMA). A Compounds (VOCs), information was

inevitably changed the face of set of 1500 is available at around $1000, found that related to various essential

perfumery and has already influenced or they can be purchased in sets of 10, oil components, e.g. 9-14 mg/kg for

some aromatherapy practice. Formerly choosing from a published list. benzaldehyde, benzyl acetate, o-terpi-
neol and ethanol (Cooper et al, 1995). was found that 1,8-cineole was easily Exposure Survey (NOES) and National
The conclusion was that from the liter- absorbed from breathing air and Institute for Occupational Safety and
ature, health effects were unclear, plasma concentration peaked at 18 Health (NIOSH) between 1981 and
although the levels of exposure that minutes (Jaeger, 1996). Elimination 1983 noted that almost 11000 workers
they were considering looked extraor- from the blood was biphasic, with a were exposed to thujone via Dalmatian
dinarily high. It was concluded that mean distribution half-life of 6.7 sage oil, and over 43000 to cedar-leaf oil
reductions in levels ofVOCs to substan- minutes and elimination half-life of in their workplaces. The most compre-
tially less than 25 mg/m3 were required 104.6 minutes. These figures are useful hensive account of thujone toxicity that
if a “non-irritating” work environment in considering the metabolic fates of I could find seems to be the Priority-
was desired (Pappas et al., 2000). In a substances with regard to elimination based Assessment of Food Additives
more extreme example of exposure in and accumulation. Database (PAFA) published via the
Swedish sawmills, it was noted that the Limits for dietary intake of 1,8- FDA.
air-levels of u-pinene, P-pinene and 6-3- cineole had been proposed at 0.07
carene were found to be 80-550 mg/m3 mg/kg bodyweight/day (private Inhalation and allergy
- these are relatively high figures. communication) which equals 4.9 Whilst the acute toxicity effects from
Exposure to terpenes and heating mg/day for a 70 kg adult. This inhalation might give less cause for
products from coniferous woods is proposed (low) limit was envisaged to concern, the allergic effects of
significantly associated with the risk of cause problems for confectionery airborne chemicals continue to pose
respiratory cancer after 5 years’ dura- manufacturers from dietary intake of problems. A contact allergy in a 53.year
tion of exposure (Kauppinen et al., products containing peppermint old woman suffering from relapsing
1986). Other studies on cl-pinene enan- (Mentha piper&a) and eucalyptus oils. eczema due to sensitization from

tiomers (Falk et al., 1990) indicated Subsequently, the Council of Europe previous exposure to lavender, jasmine
that for short-term exposures of lo-450 has approved the use of eucalyptus oil and rosewood oils was investigated
mg/ms, no acute changes in lung func- as a food additive at 15 ppm. In this (Schaller et al., 1993). It was discovered
tion occurred after 20 minutes of expo- context, the likely inhalation doses of that she demonstrated positive sensi-
sure. 1,8-cineole from a 5-15 minute session tivity testing to laurel, eucalyptus and
In trying to calculate the likely from a vapourizer loaded with euca- pomerance oils, without previous expo-
dosing levels in aromatherapy consider lyptus oil as in our example above is sure history. Perfume allergy has been
as an example that 5 drops/hour of over the recommended daily oral verified by submitting 29 asthma
eucalyptus oil (say 0.25 g) is dispensed intake, assuming a worst-case scenario. patients and 13 normal subjects to 4
from a nebulizor into a room of 64mS To put this in context, however, there bronchial inhalation challenge tests
capacity. This would give a concentra- are figures suggesting that eucalyptus from perfume scented strips (Kumar et
tion of 3.91 mg/m5 if the whole oil is (only) relatively orally toxic al., 1995). It was found that 36, 17 and
amount were vapourized instantly. (NIOSH, 1975) compared with other 8% of severe, moderate and mild
Note that there is a difference between routes of administration. asthma patients respectively had exac-
concentration and dose. In our In conclusion there are some erbations of symptoms and obstruction
example above, we will assume the 1,8- widely scattered data on inhalation of airways.
cineole content of eucalyptus oil to be toxicity, but little in the way of Millqvist followed this in 1996 in a
SO%, and we have a 5-minute inhala- Maximum Exposure Limit (MEL), study where nine patients with respira-
tion session, Even assuming 100% of Optimum Exposure Standard (OES) tory symptoms after non-specific irri-

the aerially dispersed oil is actually or Threshold Limit Value (TLV) data tant stimuli were subjected to perfume
breathed in and absorbed by the lungs, for essential oils set out in a compre- provocation or placebo, with and
20.8 mg of eucalyptus oil would be hensive manner. There is also some without a carbon filter mask (nose

inhaled, 16.6 mg of which is 1,8- data concerning individual essential oil clamped). The conclusion was that
cineole. The actual dose would only be components such as u-pinene, but not hyper-reactivity of the respiratory tract
a small proportion of that. for a toxic compound like thujone. could be produced by perfume, and
Pharmokinetic studies on Thus, we have to search out data case that a carbon filter had no effect. The
prolonged inhalation are not too by case, and taking thujone as an mechanism was independent of the
common. Relevant to our example, it example, the National Occupational olfactory nerve, but perhaps operated
via a trigeminal reflex of the respira- terms would represent a low toxicity ally increase when oils are consumed
tory tract or by the eyes. It was shown body-burden. Tisserand and Balacs regularly.
that for perfumes at least, subchronic have stated, however, that because
inhalation of complex fragrance giving a massage involves physical General Remarks
mixtures did not constitute a risk even effort, the aromatherapist may absorb Glossing over possible gastric irritation
when inhaled under repeated and more essential oil than the client. effects from oral dosing of essential
exaggerated exposure levels We are left assuming that, oils, as they pass through the digestive
(Fukayama et al., 1999). although essential oil doses from tract, solubilization with bile acids
Attempts have also been made to inhalation in conventional occurs, and proportion of ingested
quantitate the inhalation dose of aromatherapy procedures (massage, essential oil will be absorbed and trans-
applied perfumes (Pybus and Sell, nebulizers) may be small, where higher ported to the liver. Here phase 1 P-450
1999). They tried to estimate the exposure levels are regularly employed reactions take place and some conver-
inhalation dose where 0.2 ml of 10% there might be a small risk of accumu- sion to alcohols or carboxylic acids
fragrance in ethanol was applied lation of essential oil components, occurs. Conjugation with glycine for
behind the ear. Assuming that the which may lead to chronic toxicity. This carboxylic acid containing metabolites,
fragrance could be detected at 1 could be of concern where neurotoxic or glucuronic acid for metabolites with
metre’s distance, then 0.02 ml oils are regularly used; however, this is alcohol groupings is common, and
fragrance volatizing immediately into pretty unlikely in normal practice. A elimination may occur via the bile or
8 m3 of air would give a concentration more realistic risk scenario concerns urine.
of 2.5 mg/m3. Since the perfume might the airborne levels of essential oils that
be detectable for several hours, obvi- are present in the aromatherapist’s LDso Issues
ously the concentration will be much workplace being sufficient to cause To decide our tolerance of oils and
lower than this. The authors’ remark allergic inhalation reactions in suscep- chemicals we have to rely on testing
that if perfumes were toxic at this level, tible clients. These individuals may be procedures. The determinations of
they would be classified as chemical identified as often having a predisposi- LD,, values are one of the major
warfare agents. As a comparison, tion to atopic skin conditions, having factors in deciding the acute toxicity of
camphor has a long term OES level of respiratory problems such as asthma or substances including essential oils.
12 mg/ms (Reynolds, 1993). respiratory allergy, or having a history Data exist for different doses that are
In an aromatherapy context, we of perfume sensitivity. administered to matched pairs of
are taking a scenario where 5-25 ml of animals (rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, mice
massage oil would be used in a whole- etc.). The dose that kills 50% of the
body application, at a maximum level Adaptation animals is the LD50 value, and is calcu-
of 2.5% essential oil concentration. Koala bears thrive on a diet of euca- lated on body weight of the animal and
Using the maximum 25 ml, this would lyptus leaves and branches. Their diges- expressed as mg/kg. Data are often
give us a total of 0.625 g of essential oil tive metabolic processes have presum- available for oral, dermal and intraperi-
applied to the body. If the oil were all ably evolved to tolerate and safely toneal methods of administration.
suddenly volatized at once into 8 ms of metabolize the large amounts of essen- Determinations of LD50 values
air, a concentration of 78.1 mg/litre tial oil that they consume daily. This is seemingly vary from source to source,
would be achieved. Clearly this does a simple example of adaptation. A but we can construct a table of relative
not happen as we would be choking graphic illustration of this effect toxicity’s that would range from less
and our eyes would be streaming at this concerns the oral administration of than 1 g/kg to over 5 g/kg (e.g. boldo
level. In practice, say the skin absorbed myrtle essential oil to rats. Its toxicity oil from Peumus boldus at 0.3 mg/kg at
25% of the essential oil, and if 5% of was reduced considerably by adaptive one end of the scale, to say rose oil at
this oil evaporated in the first minute, liver stimulation induced by 3 weeks over 5 g/kg at the other). Some of the
again using the same air volume, the pretreatment feeding of myrtle oil in oils with LD,, values of less than 1 g/kg
concentration would be a more reason- the daily diet (Uehleke, 1979). This are not recommended for use in
able 2.93 mg/litre, at that point in does not always happen and depending perfumery by IFRA. These include
time. The actual concentration would on the nature of the oils and the mustard oil, boldo, chenopodium, and
be much lower in reality, and in relative species involved etc., toxicity can actu- calamus oils. Similarly, the same oils are
not recommended for use in pinocamphone in rats for the first time Key points to remember about LDsOs:
aromatherapy. but also indicated untoward effects They are not absolute biological
Assumptions are made when occurring at levels well below (6.4% of) constants (for example estimates
interpreting animal data to the human the lethal dose. This is possibly the will vary from lab to lab).
situation, i.e. more toxic/ less toxic. reason behind Tisserand and Balacs’s The LDso value alone is insuffi-
The differences in metabolism between statement that thujone containing oils cient for comparisons of relative
species are quantitative rather than such as armoise (Artemisia hcrrbealba) toxicity.
qualitative, but this may mean different and wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) Dose-response curves and
metabolic routes are favoured in one should not be used in aromatherapy. degrees of slope, for example can
species over another. It would be more Presumably the same remarks should furnish more information. This
appropriate, therefore, given sufficient apply to hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) , may, in turn, provide information
resources, to choose a particular which appears even more toxic from on the mechanism.
animal model for a particular essential the above data (Miller, 1981). Other indexes are also useful.
oil. In the absence of appropriate An evaluation of 109 pediatric The ratio of the pharmacologi-
modelling, we start to draw conclusions poisoning accidents involving euca- cally effective dose to the LDsO
on the relative toxicity of the material lyptus oil in Australia (Day et al., 1997) gives the therapeutic index value;
from poisoning records, i.e. by estima- revealed that 74% gained access via a the larger the ratio the greater
tion of the (fatal) dose received, or home vapourizer unit, often placed at the safety factor.
better by clinical measurement of ground level, and in most instances
substrates in target organs. In this between 5 and 10 ml was consumed. In Oral dosing
manner we are sometimes able to fact eucalyptus oil is much more toxic Many practicing aromatherapists will
derive the relative toxicity of animals to by the oral route than by any other i.e. find themselves unable to legally
humans and derive a ratio. oral-child TDLo=218 mg/kg; oral-man prescribe essential oils for oral intake
LDLo is often seen quoted in toxi- TDLo= 375 mg/kg (NIOSH, 1975). within the country/state in which they
cological data. It is the lowest dose of Potential countermeasures proposed operate, unless they are appropriately
material introduced by any route over a by Day et al. included discontinuing medically qualified. In any case, oils
given period of time reported to have use of eucalyptus oil as a therapeutic should be carefully administered in the
caused death. Lo is frequently used agent, improving child resistant correct manner, as intake of concen-
where the number of subjects is low. closures and discouraging vapourizer trated and volatile substances into the
TDLo is the lowest dose of material use for respiratory infections in chil- mouth should not be embarked upon
resulting in a toxic death. dren. casually. Oils should generally be
If aromatherapy had widely administered in minute amounts and
promoted the use of pennyroyal oil by appropriate dilution. A suitable
In an old but important paper, hyssop instead of eucalyptus as an acceptable vehicle for this can be difficult to find
oil was found to be more toxic than mucolytic, we would be looking at far because of the poor water solubility of
sage oil (Millet et al., 1981) working on more serious misadventure conse- most oils. Sometimes one or two drops
diet-induced convulsions in rats. The quences in this one example alone. I of oil can be dissolved in strong sugar
dose at which cortical events became would suggest, therefore, there is a syrup, and then quickly stirred into a
sub-clinical was 0.08 g/kg for hyssop; global social responsibility here. Either full tumbler of water, and the oil will
0.3 g/kg for sage; i.e. 0.8 g dose for the universal promotion of childproof stay ‘dissolved’. Other factors to take
10 kg child for hyssop oil if closures on bottles and equipment has into account are the toxicity of the oils
animal/human child toxicity were to be more effective, or aromatherapy (many oils should never be taken
similar. Convulsions occurred at 0.13 as a profession, needs to discourage the orally, e.g. hyssop, wormwood, winter-
g/kg for hyssop and 0.5 g/kg for sage use of hazardous essential oils. With green etc.), the possibility of interac-
oil that became lethal above 1.25 g/kg numerous reported accidents with tion with medications and whether the
for hyssop and 3.25 g/kg for sage. essential oils now documented globally, treatment is appropriate (during preg-
Interestingly, repeated daily injection potential hazard is now equating with nancy, for example). In conclusion, my
of a subclinical dose revealed a cumu- unacceptable risk in the minds of many message is that unless you are very clear
lative toxic effect. This paper indicated of those who are dealing with the on what you are doing, stay away from
the neurotoxicity of thujone and consequences of essential oil ingestion. oral prescribing.

THE INTERN.4TIONAL .lO”RNAL OF AROMATHERAPY 2000 wol(Dnos QD

Dermal Toxicity Additional evidence that bioavail- smaller, more volatile components
Dermal LDso (Limit test rabbit) is ability was proportional to the method evaporate more quickly from the skin
concerned with mortality following of application was provided by Weyers surface. Some aromatherapy writers
apphcahon of a toxin to the skin as in 1989. Application under occlusion who have been quick to dismiss the
opposed to oral dosing. The ability to has been shown to alter the perme- skin absorption route as being of little
penetrate the skin and the metabolic ation kinetics because: significance in terms of physiological
changes that occur in the skin vary a loss of volatiles through evapora- effects. However coumarin, present in
from substance to substance. For tion is reduced cassia and other oils is rapidly absorbed
example, coumarin is rapidly absorbed ?? skin hydration increases to 46% (human unoccluded), p-
by the skin and passes through the 0 skin temperature increases. phenylethanol 64% (rat unoccluded),
barrier unchanged (Yourick, 1997), All these factors may increase the benzyl acetate 12% (human unoc-
but some esters may be totally modi- absorption of the applied substance. eluded) and cinnamaldehyde to 24%
fied. We now realise that LDsO values (human unoccluded)
tell us more about systemic toxicity Thus we have the following important In more detail, some components
than anything else. There are worries factors in skin absorption: will accumulate to form a cutaneous
that data from rabbit skin LD,, tests degree of skin hydration reservoir pool (Hewitt, 1993) in the
may give a distorted view when applied skin temperature lipid-rich stratum corneum. Others
to the human situation, due to the application vehicle components permeate deeper into the
greater apparent permeability of rabbit idiosyncratic factors skin to be biotransformed by the P-450
skin to a variety of chemicals. Curiously, lipophilicity of materials enzyme systems in the dermis and
dermal LDso studies, however flawed, volatility of the materials epidermis. Eventually, this mixture of
must be potentially of great interest to molecular volume of individual biotransformed and unchanged mole-
aromatherapists, because they are components cules will reach the systemic circulation
closely allied to what is carried out in time of contact via the dermal microvasculature. The
aromatherapy massage practice. Yet dose and concentration applied cutaneous reservoir model of a pool of
they have been omitted from ‘Essential (relationship between applied applied substances, which are slowly
Oil Safety’ (Tisserand and Balacs, dose and absorption is compound released into the systemic circulation is
1995), and results obtained elsewhere and species specific) an important concept as it allows for
have been described as not relevant to surface area and region applied continued systemic exposure after
human exposure (Schnaubelt, 1986). to dermal application has ceased.
However, we do know that the skin as a occlusion/ non occlusion of skin
target organ is capable of being surface
damaged. Phototoxicity is one degree of skin barrier, compro- One of the original RIFM tests was the
example; other oils that are dermal mised by skin disease/ physical determination of the potential for skin
toxins include wormseed, bitter damage etc. sensitization. The 1966 Kligman
almond and wintergreen oils. age of skin human maximization test (Kligman,
Permeation of substances number of hair follicles and their 1966) was used as a screening method
through the skin (specifically across the thickness etc. using petrolatum as a solvent. The
stratum corneum) is a diffusion- skin metabolism of components. word ‘potential’ is important: this is a
controlled process where absorption of For the mixture of substances predictive test and does not indicate
individual substances is related to present in an oil, many small lipophilic hazard. The word maximization refers
lipophilicity (represented by the parti- materials may quickly permeate the to a maximum level of exposure to
tion coefficient for an octanol/ water skin and eventually pass into the identify even weak sensitizers that
mixture) and molecular weight. The receptor fluid and on to the systemic might have been previously missed in
effect of one substance on another circulation. Smaller amounts more former procedures. Ten times the
must also be taken into account, i.e. for polar components with high molecular maximum use levels of the substance in
coumarin absorption it was found that weights may penetrate much slower, consumer products was used in order
the uptake was greater from an oil-in- perhaps infinitely slowly, resulting in to give a safety margin and to account
water emulsion than from an ethanolic the “fractional absorption” of essential for the fact that only 25 volunteers were
solution. oil components. Counter to this, used in the test, and also to compen-
sate for the fact that the material was This procedure was said to give better restricted materials freely.
applied under semi-occlusion. In a predictions of eventual performance in After being first absorbed into the
modification (Magnussan, 1969), HRIPT tests than other tests. An epidermis, the hapten is either metab-
guinea pigs replaced humans when external review tells a different story, olized by cutaneous enzymes or other
finding volunteers became problem- however, of poor result compatibility processes to form a reactive metabolite,
atic. A number of problems with the between RIFM’s maximization data and or often may be chemically modified
test subsequently came to light: the Draize HRIPT test (Marzulli and through the reaction of ultra-violet

0 Irritants were often been misiden- Maibach, 1980). light, or remains unchanged. Haptens
tified as sensitizers. Sensitization results (for example are often electrophilic and can bind

?? Common vehicles (carriers) on MSDS sheets) are given in mg or covalently with -NH2 groups and -SH
could be sensitizers. other appropriate unit/ duration groups on dermal proteins. The modi-

?? Inter-laboratory variability was period of exposure, i.e. 500 mg/24 fied protein, when presented to the
very high. hour. Skin reaction result tests are immune system, reacts with antigen

0 Private sector information on the expressed as: presenting cells in the dermis. An
subject remains unpublished. 0 MLD: (“mild”) well defined inflammatory response is subsequently

0 There was little distinction erythema and slight oedema stimulated.

between mild and severe sensi- 0 MOD: (“moderate”) moderate to Attempts have been made to
tizers. severe erythema and slight define sensitization potential from
Further, epicutaneous testing has oedema structure, and at an elementary level
suffered from the use of impure mate- 0 SEV: (“severe”) severe to slight we can classify haptens from their func-
rials and many substances classed as escher form and severe oedema. tional groups: this listing include epox-
sensitizers may have been wrongly The protocols of Bueler and the ides, and may partly explain why
described on the basis of impurities maximization test are recommended in oxidized bitter orange and turpentine
they contained. Mixtures of European Union and the Organisation oils have an associated sensitizing
compounds can lead to increased or for Economic Co-operation and potential. Oxidation of d-limonene,
decreased reactivity. Development (OECD) guidelines, but present at up to 96% in bitter orange
In 1985 the RIFM switched to the variable results are still encountered. oil, leads to the formation of cis- and
modified Draize procedure (Human The Mouse Local Lymph Node Assay tram-limonene oxides, and limonene
Repeat Injury Patch Test, HRIPT). (LLNA) (Kimber and Basketter, 1992) hydroperoxide, carve01 ancl I-carvone
Volunteers were treated with 24hour depends on measuring cell growth in amongst others, all of which except
patch test on Mondays, Wednesdays lymph nodes draining the dermal site carve01 have been found to be sensi-
and Fridays over a S-week period to which the potential sensitizer has tizing.
followed by a 2-week rest, then a 24 been applied. This test gives good inter-
hour challenge under total occlusion. laboratory correlation, although may
In fact the original Draize procedure be less sensitive than the maximization Banned IFRA:
used ten applications, but for conven- test and can still yield false positive Costus root oil, absolute and
ience three applications for 3 weeks has results. It has had full international concrete, elecampane oil, Thea
more often been used. RIFM relies on validation and gives data on relative sinesisabsolute, verbena oil, fig
this human screening for final decision sensitizing abilities of different leaf absolute.
on sensitivity potential. It is important substances. Restricted by IFRA:
to note this latter fact as there is confu- Cinnamon bark oil Sri Lanka,
sion in the aromatherapy community cassia oil, oakmoss extracts,
on this point. Some writers have erro- Low-molecular-weight allergens, called treemoss extracts, fennel oil,
neously maintained that these tests are haptens, are present in a number of Opoponax derivatives, Peru
not carried out on humans, and have, essential oils; these can be removed by balsam, Styrax, verbena absolute,
therefore, dismissed RIFM data as irrel- physical treatment rendering the oils Pinaceae derivatives. Oakmoss

evant. Materials are initially screened, non-sensitising. However, the aroma products have come under a
however, using Buerler’s guinea pig industry has not adopted this practice temporary restriction to a
sensitization test (1965) where mate- to any great extent commercially in concentration 0.1% in the final
rials are applied under total occlusion. order to use the IFRA banned or product until new methods of
 extraction can produced mate- vascular permeability, accompanied by menthol (e.g. cornmint, peppermint)
rials that are not (so) sensitizing. eventual migration of polymorphonu- and aldehydes (e.g. cassia). In general,
clear leucocytes to the area. Dermatitis the following oils have been found to
Pinaceue derivatives including oils of the can follow without prior sensitization. be strongly irritant: horseradish,
Pinus and Abies genera should only be Those with fair skin are more easily irri- mustard, garlic and massoia. A larger
used when the level of peroxides is kept tated, but the irritant reaction can also number of essential oils have a
to the lowest practical level, preferably be shown to decline with increasing moderate irritant risk, including the
by adding anti-oxidants at the time of age, and to increase with increasing essential oils of savory and thyme.
production. They should in any case temperature, such that irritant Many perfume companies self-impose a
only be used when the level of perox- dermatitis may only occur in some indi- final O-0.576 skin concentration limit
ides is less than 10 mmol/l determined viduals in summer. The irritant must on phenolic oils in fragrances.
by the Essential Oils Association (EOA) exceed a certain threshold to produce
method. a reaction, but the dose-response curve
Quenching is a phenomenon is less acute for allergens. Based around Sunlight is responsible for a number of
where the sensitization properties of the original 1944 Draize test, the FDA cutaneous pathologies including
fragrant substances may be quenched report of the procedure uses albino phototoxicity and skin cancer.
when other compounds are present, rabbits clipped free of hair. A Phototoxicity itself is a light-related irri-
e.g. cinnamic aldehyde is quenched by minimum of six animals is used in tation that is due to the percutanous
an equivalent amount of eugenol. abraded and intact skin tests. Materials penetration of a light activated chem-
Studies of even simple mixes of are introduced under a square surgical ical (the phototoxic agent) followed by
fragrance chemicals have shown non- gauze (skin or eyes) and the entire skin exposure to light of the appro-
predictive sensitization behaviour. It is trunk of the animal is wrapped up in an priate intensity and wavelength. It does
presumptuous, therefore, to predict impervious material for 24 hours to not involve the immune system. In
the likely sensitizing potential of a keep the patch in place and to prevent more simple terms, it is can be
complex mix of hundreds of compo- the easy evaporation of the volatile regarded as accelerated tanning of the
nents, as is the case with an essential substance. After 24 hours the patch is skin by a chemical ultra-violet absorber.
oil, based on the inclusion of one or removed to predict irritation potential. The carrier or solvent in which the
more chemicals with known sensitivity The test often failed to distin- material is dissolved strongly affects the
problems. guish between marginal and low-grade percutanous penetration and chemical
In Japan, Nakayama (19741984) irritants. In the Philipis modification, release. Testing is, therefore, carried
embarked on a screening program to cumulative low-grade irritants are out with carriers likely to release the
identify the contact allergens in tested with a cumulative irritancy test, phototoxic agent effectively, such as
cosmetics. The findings have been the application time of which may be ethanol.
widely discussed and the essential oils up to 21 days. The test gives good Furanocoumarins (also called
considered to be sensitizing include results for single application testing psoralens) in expressed citrus oils and
jasmine, patchouli, geranium, cananga because strong and moderate irritants certain other oils, like rue, are perhaps
and ylang ylang, sandalwood, and are easily recognized. Other animals the most investigated phototoxins (e.g.
costus amongst others. By omitting besides rabbits have been tried, but bergaptene). The time following chem-
these substances in perfume formula- good comparisons between human and ical exposure and the intensity of the
tions, cosmetics could be produced rabbit test results have made a major light exposure are also variables.
with a built-in allergen-control system. change unlikely. Alternatives to animal Animals produce maximum responses
It will be interesting to see if IFRA even- testing are likely to become a European to phototoxins after a few minutes; in
tually validate these findings. Union requirement soon. A validation humans 1 hour is usually optimal,
study is being conducted on eye irrita- fading away to zero response at 24
tion which converts results from in- hours. Human testing is usually carried
An irritant is an agent that can cause vitro tests to in viva standards via a out on areas on the back or arm. As the
cell damage if applied in sufficient number of prediction model algo- phototoxic response is common to
concentration and for a long enough rithms. most persons, only small testing panels
period. Immunological processes are Irritation effects may be encoun- are employed. The body test site, the
not involved, and basically the chem- tered with neat undiluted essential oils treatment protocol, test concentration,
ical insult releases histamine from mast containing components such as application frequency and the time and
cells producing erythma and increased eugenol (e.g. clove bud, pimento), duration of chemical/ light exposure
affect the response. compound 6methylcoumarin is a well- hepatic failure to young children.
An important original finding was known example here.
that following a screening of 161 raw
materials used in fragrances, 21 gave a It is probable that essential oil metabo-
phototoxic response; 20 of these were Many oils have a direct action on the lites cross the placenta due to the inti-
from the Rutuceue (citrus oils) or the central nervous system (CNS) such as mate (but not direct) contact between
Apiaceue botanical families (Forbes et hyssop, camphor, cedarleaf, tansy, etc., maternal and embryonic or foetal
al., 1977). For cosmetic safety profes- and the worrying element here is irre- blood. Lipophilic substances can
sionals, this leaves a very large number versible damage of over-exposure as migrate by passive diffusion between
of cosmetic ingredients to test, so that spontaneous self-repair is not generally these two circulations and reach equiv-
even at this stage the overall potential possible. With the same perception of alent levels in foetal blood. If these
and frequency of the phototoxic possible CNS damage in mind, The No substances are biotransformed into
response is still unclear. Observable Adverse Effect Level polar compounds, they can accumulate
We can rank phototoxic oils in (NOFAL) was used by RIFM for consid- in the foetus. In addition, the high
common aromatherapy use. Fig leaf ering the possible neurotoxic effects of water:lipid ratio in the foetus, the lower
absolute and verbena oil are “banned the synthetic perfumery musk chem- amount of available plasma protein for
IFRA” and these products are not ical 6-acetyl-7-ethyl-1,1,4,4tetramethyl- binding foreign compounds, and the
recommended for aromatherapy use. tetralin. The material was subsequently reduced rate of glomerular filtration
Tagete, bergamot oil expressed, lime “banned IFRA”. are all factors, amongst others, which
oil expressed and angelica root oil are This minimum level concept at mitigate against toxin clearance in
all phototoxic and should not be used which there are “no observable effects” neonates. We, therefore, do not know
at concentrations greater than recom- is generally used in setting exposure the consequences of direct exposure to
mended by IFRA. In my opinion, rue limits such as Acceptable Daily Intake many substances during pregnancy and
oil and tagete oil should not be used at (ADI) for chemicals used as food addi- oral, vaginal and rectal administration
all in this situation. Bitter orange oil, tives, or Threshold Limit Values for of essential oils should be avoided.
lemon oil expressed and grapefruit oil chemicals used in an industrial
expressed are less phototoxic and IFRA context. Usually a built-in safety factor Teratogens
guidelines reflect this. Distillation or of xl00 applies, to account for differ- A teratogen is a substance that inter-
chemical treatments are available ence between species, and to account feres with the normal development of
options to bring the furanocoumarin for idiosyncratic metabolism and other either the embryo or foetus in utero,
concentration down to very low levels factors. Where these figures are avail- giving rise to abnormalities in the
(often below 0.05% for distilled berg- able, this would seem to be a very neonate. Teratogens that have been
amot oil). useful concept to apply to the positively identified amongst the essen-
aromatherapy situation with regard to tial oils have included the embryotoxic
neurotoxic/ toxic compounds in essen- Savin oil fromJuni@rus satina (Pages et
Bergamot oil is carcinogenic in the tial oils, such as 01- and B-thujones, al., 1989) and Spanish lavender from
presence of ultra-violet (UV) light rather than rely on computations based Sulviu luvunduluefoliu oil (Fournier et
when applied to mouse skin, but when on LDBO values. Children are especially al., 1993). Here the offending
applied with a sunscreen the carcino- vulnerable from CNS effects. substance appears to be sabinyl acetate,
genic effect disappears. Little data are I am concerned about those which may occur up to 24% in Spanish
available in the public domain for oils aromatherapy authors who proclaim lavender oil. Sabina oil is “banned
other than bergamot at present. the “no risk” scenario in using poten- IFRA” and its sale in the UK is contrary

tially neurotoxic oils such as hyssop, to The Medicines (Retail Sale or

armoise and, to some extent, sage oils. Supply of Herbal Remedies) Order
Photoallergy is similar to allergy but Also of concern are the herbals in 1977. Spanish lavender oil is not simi-

involves the binding of a protein with a circulation that mention the use of larly restricted.

metabolite which has penetrated the pennyroyal as an abortifacient with no To my thinking the responsible
skin and been transformed by UV light. mention of inevitable cellular injury, or attitude is to discourage the use of

Many photoallergens are also contact recommend pennyroyal tea with no essential oils completely during the

allergens. The former fragrance mention of the potential of fulminant first few months of pregnancy. Critics
of this policy have said that the amount P_asarone

of dietary essential oil intake (in Calamus oil is (severely) restricted by

A mutagen is a substance that may
flavourings) outweighs intake from the IFRA. Triploid and tetroid varieties
cause inheritable defects arising from
aromatherapy practice. I might think of Acorns calamus contain B-asarone,
their action on mammalian germ cells.
that dietary intake of essential oils was which damages human lymphocytes,
Tumour formation may result from
undesirable under these circumstances has mutagenic effects on bacteria, and
their action on somatic cells via cellular
anyway, but in any case, current has demonstrable carcinogenic activity
disruption. Many mutagens are
aromatherapy practice uses oils that are in rats. Although diploid varieties are
carcinogens, but not all carcinogens claimed to have little or no R-asarone
not used in flavourings and involves
are mutagens. content, calamus oil should not be used
different routes of absorption. It has
A mutation is defined as any heri-
always to be considered that the in aromatherapy.
table change in generic material. In-
greatest number of mitoses take place
vitro testing methods for mutagens
in the foetus, and exposure to Citral
include examining the action of the This is known to be a powerful contact
substances which might possibly act as
substance on chromosomal DNA and allergen and occurs in Backhousia citri-
mutagens should particularly be
bacterial testing for gene mutation odora, lemongrass, Litsea cububa and
avoided in the first trimester of preg-
(e.g. Ames test). The problem with melissa oils. Restricted by the IFRA, it
nancy.
using the Ames test to predict potential should be used with a quencher, e.g.
carcinogens is that the mutagens iden- lemongrass SO%, citrus terpenes 20%.
tified in the Ames test are not neces-
A carcinogen is a chemical that may
sarily carcinogens, and some carcino- Methyl chavicol
give rise to tumour production, which
gens are not mutagenic. Interpretation This occurs as a major component in
is an unrestrained malignant prolifera-
of data in this whole area is frequently tropical basil and tarragon oils. Methyl
tion of a somatic cell, resulting in a
both complex and controversial. chavicol (estragole) has been shown to
progressively growing mass of
produce hepatocellular carcinomas in
abnormal tissue.
mice (Drinkwater et al., 1976), but
At the simplest level carcinogenic
investigations of the genotoxicity of two
testing might involve adding substances
basil oils and one tarragon oil demon-
to rodent diets over a period of time, at
Safrole-containing oils strated that whilst tarragon was geno-
the end of which they are killed and
These cannot be legally used in many toxic, the basil oils were not (Tateo,
examined for tumors etc. This in-vivo
countries. Sassafras oil is controlled (as 1989). The author here concluded that
approach still accounts for a consider-
Safrole) under the Controlled Drugs methyl chavicol was not the only factor
able proportion of pharmacological
(Scheduled Substances Used in in considering the genotoxic effects in
testing at least (for screening new
Manufacture) (Irma-Community basil oil, and in another study highly
drugs, etc.). Ethical demands have
Trade) Regulations 1993 in conformity purified methyl chavicol was found free
driven the wider use of in-vitro alterna-
with subsequent European Directives from mutagenic effects to Salmonella
tives to animal tests. Unfortunately, the
3677/90 as amended by Council TlOO, whereas 96% was positive to
standard of information given by in-
Regulation 900/92 as a Category 1 Salmonella strains in the Ames test
vitro testing falls below that offered by substance. It is controlled together with (Sekizawa, 1982). There are not
in-vivo tests. Quantitative Structure- a number of other substances, as it is a enough data to predict the carcino-
Activity Relationship (QSAR) model- pre-cursor to the illicit manufacture of genic effects of methyl chavicol in basil
ling - which relates the magnitude of psychotropic and narcotic drugs (espe- oil reliably, but when considering expo-
one particular property of a series of cially in this case Ecstasy), as part of a sure of the oil to children, caution is
related chemicals to one or more other worldwide effort to restrict unautho- advised. Tarragon and high methyl
physiochemical or structural parame- rized movement of these substances. chavicol type basil oils are important
ters of the chemicals in question - is Licenses are required to engage in the contributors to the top notes in men’s
helping to complement in&o testing. import/ export of these substances, fragrances.
It is hoped that this approach will even- and end-user declarations have to be
tually get to a stage that will be filled in annually. As a hazard, safrole is Geraniol
accepted by regulatory authorities. categorised as a Category 2 carcinogen. This is a sensitizer and consistently
causes problems as a component ot Reports have indicated that the (for example from pennyroyal oil), and
perfumes and cosmetics. Geraniol substance is hepatotoxic, but it would contributes to the toxicity of this
occurs in many oils including appear that the damaging effect on the substance.
palmarosa, geranium, and rose. It is liver of large oral doses might involve
not currently restricted by the IFRA the depletion of glutathione, needed in Anethole
(Nakayama et al., 1974). one of several detoxification steps. This Trans-anethole occurs in high amounts
depletion leads to the overwhelming of in aniseed oil, where levels may exceed
Flung ylang oil the liver by excess pulegone and
95%. There has been much debate
A 5-year worldwide study of cosmetics centrilobar necrosis of the hepatocytes
about the toxicity of anethole. Much of
reactions shows frequent allergic reac- occurs.
this is to be centered around its
tion to this material (Nakayama et al., The food regulations in the EC
commercial purity. The cis-form is
1974.) limit the amount of pulegone in food
much more toxic, and can form in
flavourings to 0.025 g/kg food (The
aging, especially in the presence of
Methyl eugenol Flavourings in Food Regulations
light. Anethole is the principle
This component is genotoxic. It occurs Statutory Instrument no. 1971, 1992).
in a few oils as a major component It is probably important that the flavouring agent in Pernod and Ouzo,

(Huon pine and Melaleuca bracteata) aromatherapy profession is not seen to but there are no current restrictions on

and in a number of essential oils as a be out of step with regulations imposed its use in beverages. Other substances

minor component, e.g. nutmeg, in other sectors. Co-incidentally such as photoanethol may be respon-

Russian tarragon, rose oils, ylang ylang Tisserand and Balacs (1995) indicate sible for the alleged toxicity of anet-
and laurel leaf. Investigations have that the oil should not be used in hole. It would seem prudent in the
confirmed genotoxicity and carcino- aromatherapy, especially in pregnancy. absence of further data to only use
genicity in rats (Chan et al., 1992)), fresh oils, with caution, and to restrict
probably due to strong DNA-binding Sandalwood oil
intakes for children.
reactions. Many perfume companies A 5-year worldwide study of cosmetic
impose in-house restrictions on the use reactions showed that sandalwood
Methyl salicylate
of this material in perfume formula- caused frequent allergic reactions. This
Methyl salicylate occurs at up to 98% in
tions, and will be pressurizing profes- may be related to the J3-santalol
wintergreen and sweet birch oils, the
sional bodies for a position statement. content, which is thought to be a sensi-
former being commercially obtainable
Owing to the risk, it is suggested that tiser (Nakayama et al., 1974).
from countries such as China. Most oils
aromatherapists should not use high
on the market are actually synthetic
methyl eugenol containing oils. Menthofuran
methyl salicylate. Methyl salicylate is
This component is hepatotoxic. Newer
used as a counter-irritant in many over-
Eugenol legislation limits its concentration in
the-counter preparations. Its use in
This is a component of clove and chewing-gum, where is occurs as a
topical rubefacients for the relief of
cinnamon leaf oils and causes frequent component of mint oils. It has previ-
muscle pain by their action in
allergic reactions when used as an ously been found to be hepatotoxic
producing a feeling of relief and
ingredient of fragrance formulations. and lung-toxic, and occurs in water
‘glowing-skin’ has been estimated at
There is no current IFRA restriction mint and in many other wild mints, and
generating &7 million in UK sales
(Loveless et al., 1996). formerly in Japanese peppermint oil.
alone. There is some evidence that
Western consumers have never cared
much for the taste of high mentho- absorption from the intestines is
R-(+)-Pulegone
This component is hepatotoxic. It is a fur-an-containing peppermint oils, and erratic, and hence we get a range of

major constituent of both European this characteristic has been successfully toxicity estimations and variability in

and American pennyroyal oil and curtailed in many commercial strains fatalities and effects. The lethal dose

buchu oil and is also present in of peppermint oil, so that mentho- for a 70 kg man has been estimated at

spearmint, catnip, peppermint and furan occurs at much lower levels. between 5 and 30 ml (Gleason et al.,

cornmint oils. The acute oral LD,, for Menthofuran is also a metabolite of 1969). NIOSH (1975) recorded a

pennyroyal oil in rats is 0.5 g/kg. pulegone detoxification in the liver human oral LDLo value of 170 mg/kg
 (LD,, oral-rat for methyl salicylate is (1978) Estimation of Toxic Hazard - a
887 mg/kg). It has been noted tha! Decision Tree Approach. Food anzL
It can be very difficult for aromathera
children under 5 years are especial11 Chemical Toxicology 16: 255-276.
susceptible to salicylate poisoning, am pists to decide about the safety o
?? Ford, R.A. (1990) Metabolic and
can quickly exhibit physiological symp particular oils, especially where there i:
kinetic criteria for assessment of repro.
tams associated conflicting advice. It is as well to bc
with advanced ductive hazard. In Volans, G.F., Sis J.
poisoning (Pribble et al., 1988). The aware of what the problems are, ant
Sullivan, F.M. and Turner, P. (eds) Basic
substance directly interferes with exercise caution if you decide to use
Science in Toxicology. NY: Tylor and
glucose metabolism, and exhibits CNS these oils. It is always an idea to debate
Francis.
toxicity. “personal professional use” and posi
?? Falk, A.A., et al. (1990) Uptake,
There are a large number of tive and negative lists of oils with fellow
distribution and elimination of a-
studies on skin absorption of methyl therapists.
pinene in man after exposure by
salicylate from skin (e.g. Brown and Although many procedura;
inhalation. Scandinavian Journal of Work
Scott, 1934; Levine, 1984). Absorption aspects of safe working practices are
and Environmental Health 16: 372-378.
through the skin is much more rapid based on common sense, safety date
?? Fukayama, M.Y., et al. Subchronic
that intestinal absorption and metabo- must in the first instance be derived
inhalation studies of complex
lism seems to occur mainly in the liver. from an authoritative source. Some 01
Fragrance mixtures in rats and
Evidence suggests that blood salicylate these sources have been outlined in the
hamsters Toxicology Letters 20: 111 (l-2)
levels are highest at 20-30 minutes after above text, and it is hoped that you may
175-187.
application. Collins et al. (1984) did be able to find others for yourselves.
?? Gleason, et al. (1969): Clinical toxi-
some interesting work on topical Armed with this data, safe working poli-
cology of acute poisoning 3rd Edition.
absorption of “Deep-Heat” (an aerosol cies and procedures can then be
?? Hewitt, P.G., et al. (1993) Cutaneous
preparation for relief of rheumatic constructed. As we learn more about
retopical application of 4,4’-methylene
pain) that includes methyl and ethyl toxicology and its health implications
-his-(Bcloroaniline) and 4,4’-methyl;
salicylate in its formulation. After a we are able to modify our views on
znedianiline to rat and human skin in
one-shot 500 microlitre spray on the hazard and risk accordingly.
Vitro. Prediction of percutaneous penetra-
forearm, erythma production was
tion: methods, measurements and modeling.
correlated with salicylate concentration
Brown and Scott. (1934) Journal 01 Zardiffi STS.
and blood salicylate levels reached a ??

Pharmacology and Experimental ) Jaeger, W., et al. (1996)

maximum after 20 minutes. In their
Therapeutics 50: 3250. ‘harmokinetic studies of the fragrance
work, blood salicylates appeared to
Chan, V.S.W., et al. (1992) :ompound 1,8-cineol in humans
tifect the prostaglandin system. The ??

Norst-case scenario is that methyl salicy- Comparative induction of unscheduled luring inhalation. Chemical Senses 21:

ate is a CNS poison with acute salicy- DNA synthesis in cultured rat hepato- L77-480.

ate poisoning manifesting in disorien- cytes by allylbenzenes and their l- B Kauppinen, T.P. et al. (1986)

.ation, irritability, hallucinations, hydroxy metabolites. Food and Chemical Respiratory cancers and chemical

impor, coma, etc. Therefore, winter- Toxicology 30(10): 831-836. :xposure in the wood industry: a

;reen oil should not be ingested and ?? Collins, et al. (1984) Annals of the rested case-control study. BritishJournal

should only be used for topical applica- Rheumatic Diseases 43: 411-415. qlndustrial Medicine 43: 8490.

ion and not full body massage. Do not ?? Conway, G.A., et al. (1979). Journal ) Kimber,I., Basketter, D.A. (1992)

rse wintergreen in cases where the of Ethnopharmacology l(3) : 241-246. :he Murine Local Lymph Node Assay:

:lient is receiving anti-coagulant drugs ?? Cooper, S.D., et al. (1995) The iden- Lcommentary on collaborative studies

uch as warfarin. We know there are tification of polar organic compounds .nd new directions. Food and Chemical

rroblems with chronic salicylate inges- found in consumer products and their bxicoligy 30: 165-169.

tion in pregnancy that makes morbid toxicological properties. Journal of 1 Kligman, A.M. (1966) The identifi-
eading (Turner et al., 1975), so preg- Exposure Analysis and Environmental ation of Human Contact Allergens by

tant and lactating women should avoid Epidemiology 5 (1) : 57-75. Iuman Exposure. Journal of
nethyl salicylate/wintergreen. ?? Cramer, G.M., Ford, R.A., Hall, R.L. nvestigative Derm,atology 47: 399.
?? Kowalski, Z. et al. (1962) Medycync ?? Reynolds, J.E.F. (Ed) (1993) The bin/sis/htmlgen?TOXLINE. A

Pr. 13: 69. Extra Pharmacopoeia. The searchable database containing

?? Kumar, P., et al. (1995) Inhalation Pharmaceutical Press: London. 2.1 million toxicity related papers,

challenge effects of perfume scent ?? Schnaulbelt, K. (1986) Aromatherafi 0 Dialog OneSearch

strips in patients with asthma. Annals 0~ Course, 2nd Edn. San Raphel. http://library.dialog.com/prod-

Allergy Asthma and Immunology 75(5) : ?? Schaller, M.M., Korting, H.C. (1993) ucts/datastar/4002-3.html

429433. Allergic airborne contact dermatitis

?? Levine. (1984) Skin absorption. from essential oils used in Safety Literature:

Journal of Analytical Toxicology 8: 239. aromatherapy. Clinical and Experimental N.B. Some of these publications may

241. DermatoloB 20: 143-145. only have small sections that are

0 Loveless, SE et al. (1996) Further ?? Uehleke, H., Brinkschulte-Freitas, directly relevant to aromatherapy.

evaluation of the Local Lymph Node M. (1979) Oral toxicity of an essential Tisserand, R. and Balacs, T.
Assay in the final phase of an interna- oil from myrtle and adaptive liver stim- (1995) Essential Oil Safety- a guide
tional collaborative trial. Toxicology 108: ulation. Toxicology lZ(3): 335-342. for Health Care Professionals.
141-152. 235-244. ?? Tateo, F. (1989) Journal of Essential Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.

0 Millet, Y., et al (1981) Clinical OilResearch 1: 111-118 Gosselin R.E., et al (1976) Clinical
Toxicology 1981 lS(12): 1485-1498. ?? Tisserand, R. and BaIacs, T. (1995) Toxicology of Commercial Products:
?? Millqvist (1996) Placebo controlled Essential Oil Safety- a guide for Health Care Acute Poisoning. 4th Edn.
challenges with perfume in patients Professionals. Edinburgh: Churchill Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

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51(6): 434439. ?? Turner, G., Collins, E. (1975) Fetal E.M., Evans, F.J. (1988) Potters New

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