The Chemistry of Essential Oils

THE CHEMISTRY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
AND ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES

UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME
THE CHEMISTRY OF ESSENTIAL OILS

AND
ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES
BY
ERNEST J. PARRY, B.Sc. (LOND.), F.I.C., F.C.S.
Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged
VOLUME I.
i MONOGRAPHS ON ESSENTIAL OILS
i
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VOLUME II.
THE CHEMISTRY OF
ESSENTIAL OILS
AND
ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES
BY
ERNEST J. PARRY, B.Sc. (LOND.), F.I.C., F.C.S.

OF GRAY'S INN, BARRISTER-AT-LAW
AUTHOR OF "FOOD AND DRUGS," "THE CHEMISTRY OF PIGMENTS," ETC.
FOURTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED
VOLUME II.
(i) THE ESSENTIAL OIL AND ITS ODOUR
(2) CONSTITUENTS OF ESSENTIAL OILS, SYNTHETIC
PERFUMES AND ISOLATED AROMATICS
(3) THE ANALYSIS OF ESSENTIAL OILS
LONDON
SCOTT, GREENWOOD AND SON
8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, E.G. 4
1922
[All rights reserved]
NEW YORK
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
EIGHT WARREN STREET
NOTE
First Edition (Demy 8vo) 1899
Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged (Demy 8vo) 1908
Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged'to Two Volumes (Royal
8vo), of which this is Volume IT.1 June, 1919
Fourth Edition (Vol. II.), Revised and Enlarged . . . February/, 1922
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.
IN bringing the second volume of this work up to date, I have

to express my thanks to Mr. T. H. Durrans, M.Sc., F.I.C., of
Messrs. Boake, Eoberts & Co.'s Research Laboratories for con-
tributing the chapter on the Relationship of Odour to Chemical
Constitution, a subject to which Mr. Durrans has devoted con-
siderable attention. I have also to thank Mr. Maurice Salamon,
B.Sc., and Mr. C. T. Bennett, B.Sc., F.I.C., for reading and
revising the chapter on the Analysis of Essential Oils.
ERNEST J. PARRY.
56x GREAT DOVER STREET,
LONDON, S.E. 1, January, 1922.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.
CHAPTER I.
THE ESSENTIAL OIL IN THE PLANT.
PAGES
Cultivation and Structure of the Plant—Experiments on Plants—Secretion of
Essential Oil—Glucose—The Linalol, Geraniol, Thujol and Menthol
groups and their Composition—Esterification 1-24
CHAPTER II.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ODOUR AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
Strength of Odour—Theory of Odour—Alcohols—Sesquiterpenes—Esters—
Ketones—Phenols and Phenolic Compounds—Aldehydes—Chemical Re-
actions that produce Odours 25-37
CHAPTER III.
THE CONSTITUENTS OF ESSENTIAL OILS.
Hydrocarbons; Heptane—1?erpenes—Pinene and its Compounds—Campene—
Fenchene — Thujene — Dipentene — Phellandrene—Terpinene—-Cantha-
rene. Sesquiterpenes: Bisabolene—Cadinene. Alcohols: Methyl Alcohol
Ethyl Alcohol—Higher Aliphatic Alcohols—-Geraniol—Closed Chain
Alcohols. Terpene Alcohols : Terpineol—Pinenol. Esters : Benzyl Esters.
Aldehydes : Aliphatic Aldehydes—Benzaldehyde—Vanillin—Heliotropin.
Ketones : A cetone—lonone — Santenone — Carvone—Camphor. Phenols
and Phenolic Compounds: Cresol Compounds—Thymol. Oxides and
Lactones : Coumarin—Eucalyptol. Nitrogen Compounds : Nitrobenzene
—Artificial Musk. Sulphur Compounds : Butyl Isothiocyanate—Vinyl
Sulphide. Acids : Formic Acid—Acetic Acid—Butyric Acid—Benzoic
Acid 38-298
CHAPTER IV.
THE ANALYSIS OF ESSENTIAL OILS.
Specific Gravity. Optical Methods : Refraction—Polarimetry. Melting and
Solidifying Points—Boiling Point and Distillation—Determination of
Esters—Tables for the Calculation of Esters and Alcohols—Determination
of Alcohols—Tables—Separate Determination of Citronellol in Presence
of Geraniol—Determination of Aldehydes and Ketones—Miscellaneous
Processes—Determination of Phenols—Detection of Chlorine—Deter-
mination of Hydrocarbons—Hydrogen—Number of Essential Oils—
Detection o f some Common Adulterants . . . . . . . 299-357
359-365
vii
CHAPTEE I.
THE ESSENTIAL OIL IN THE PLANT.
AN absolutely scientific definition of the term essential cr volatile oils is
hardly possible, but for all practical purposes they may be defined as
odoriferous bodies of an oily nature obtained almost exclusively from
vegetable sources, generally liquid (sometimes semi-solid or solid) at
ordinary temperatures, and volatile without decomposition. This defini-
tion must be accepted within the ordinary limitations which are laid
down by the common acceptation of the words, which will make them-
selves apparent in the sequel, and show that no more restricted definition
is either advantageous or possible. Many essential oils, for example,
are partially decomposed when distilled by themselves, and some even
when steam distilled.
The volatile oils occur in the most varied parts of the plant anatomy,
in some cases being found throughout the various organs, in others
being restricted to one special portion of the plant. Thus in the conifers,
of which the pine is a type, much volatile oil is found in most parts of
the tree; whereas in the rose, the oil is confined to the flower ; in the
cinnamon, to the hark and the leaves, with a little in the root; in the
orange family, chiefly to the flowers and the peel of the fruit; and in the
nutmeg, to the fruit. The functions of these bodies in the plant economy
are by no means well understood. Whilst it is easy to understand that
a fragrant odour in the unfertilised flower may be of great value in
attracting the insects with the fecundating pollen, this can have no
bearing on the occurrence of odorous bodies in, say, the bark or internal
tissues, except in so far as the presence of essential oil in one part of the
plant is incidental to, and necessary for, its development, and .transference
to the spot at which it can exercise its real functions. There may also
be a certain protective value in the essential oils, especially against the
attacks of insects. At present one is compelled to class the majority of
the essential oils as, in general, belonging to the by-products of the
metabolic processes of cell life, such as are many of the alkaloids,,
colouring matters, and tannins; with, possibly, in certain cases, ex-
cretionary functions. Some are undoubtedly the results of, pathological
processes. The structures of the plant which carry the secreted oils-
occur in the fibro-vascular as well as in the fundamental tissues. De-
pendent on their mode of origin, the receptacles may be either closed
cells containing nothing other than the matter secreted, or they may be
vascular structures which have their origin in the gradual absorption of
adjacent cell walls, and the consequent fusion of numerous cells into
one vessel; or, again, they may be intercellular spaces, large cavities
formed in two distinct ways, (1) by the decomposition of a number of
adjacent cells, leaving a cavity in their place, whose origin is thus lysigen-
ous, (2) by the separation of adjacent cell walls without injury to the
VOL. II. 1
2 THE CHEMISTKY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
cells themselves, thus leaving a space for the secretion, whose origin is
schizogenous. Sometimes the oils contain a non-volatile resin in solution,
forming an oleoresin. For example, isolated cells containing an oleoresin
are found in some of the Laurinese, Zingiberacese, and Coniferae, and
intercellular spaces (the so-called glands) in some of the Umbelliferae
and Coniferae.
There are, of course, numerous other functions which the essential oils
possess, but in regard to which any views must necessarily be of a highly
speculative nature. For example, Tyndall has suggested that, especially
where secretion (or excretion) takes place near the surface of an organ,
B
D
FIG. 1.
In the above diagram A represents an oil cavity below the upper surface of the leaf
of Diclamnus Fraxinella ( x 820). B represents the same in an early stage, and
shows the mother cells of the cavity before their absorption (lysigenousj. C is
an early and D a later stage of the formation of a resin passage in the young
stem of the Ivy (Hedera Helix) ( x 800). In both cases g shows the separating
cell (schizogenous).
the essential oil has a function which regulates the rate of transpiration.
Moisture which is saturated With essential oil has a different heat con-
ductivity from that of moisture alone, so that a plant which gives off
much perfume may be protected, during the day, from too great trans-
piration, and, during the night, from too great reduction of temperature.
The high rate of consumption of essential oil during fecundation points,
too, to a distinct nutritive value, possibly due to easy assimilation owing
to its chemical constitution, of the essential oil.
The study of the essential oils in situ have hitherto been compara-
tively restricted, and although much work has been done on a few oils,
the results obtained, valuable as they are, must be regarded as of a pre-
THE ESSENTIAL OIL IN THE PLANT 3
liminary nature, indicating possibilities of great interest as research
develops.
From a purely practical point of view, the principal problem which
requires solution—and which is gradually becoming more understood—
is the determination of the external conditions which will enable the
grower and distiller to produce the best results, both qualitatively and
quantitatively, in regard to any given essential oil.
This problem involves consideration as to the effect of external con-
ditions such as light, heat, moisture, altitude, manuring and other
cultural matters, and as is obvious, such considerations may, and do, vary
greatly with different plants. Such considerations are to some extent
within the scope of the knowledge and skill of the well-trained farmer
and the careful distiller. But there are other considerations of a much
more abstruse character to be taken into account, and here only the
chemist can undertake the necessary investigations. The questions which
present themselves for solution are, broadly, some such as the following:—
Where and in what form does the essential oil have its origin ?
What alterations does it undergo during the life history of the plant ?
How does it find its way from one part of the plant to another ? How
can external conditions be controlled so as to vary the character of the
essential oil at the will of the cultivator ?
These, and similar questions are all-important, if the production of
essential oils is to be placed on a really scientific basis.
The questions raised in the foregoing paragraphs will be examined
briefly, and in principle only, as the detailed 'account of many of the
researches which apply to one plant only, would be outside the scope of
this work.
At the outset, attention may be drawn to the fact that the greater
part of our knowledge of the development of the essential oil in the plant
tissue is due to the painstaking researches of Charabot and his pupils.
And a very considerable amount of the information included in this
chapter is acknowledged to this source.
From the practical point of view, the principal variation of environ-
ment which is definitely under the control of the cultivator, is, of course,
the alteration in the composition of the soil, which is brought about
by scientific manuring. The analysis of fruits and vegetables will give
the ordinary agriculturist much information as to the necessary mineral
ingredients to be added to the soil; but in the case of essential oils,
the conditions are entirely different. The various parts of the plant
tissue are affected in different ways by the same mineral salts, and suc-
cessful development of the fruit or any other given part of the plant may
have little or no relationship with the quantity or quality of essential oil
produced. So that it is only by actual distillations of the plant, or
portion of the plant, coupled with an exhaustive examination of the
essential oil, that informative results can be obtained.
The principles underlying this question are, mutatis mutandis, identical
for all cases, so that as a typical illustration the case of the peppermint
plant may be selected, as this has been worked on by several independent
investigators very exhaustively.
Charabot and Hubert 1 carried out an elaborate series of experiments
on a field containing 29 rows of peppermint plants, each about 5 yards
in length. The normal soil of-the field had the following composition :—
1
Boure-Bertrand Fils, Bulletin, April, 1902, 5.
4 THE CHEMISTEY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
Pebbles 250 per mille.
Fine soil, dry 750 „
Nitrogen (parts per 1000 in the dry fine soil) . . 1-44 ,,
Lime (expressed as GaO per 1000 in the dry fine soil) 309-45 ,,
Phosphoric acid (expressed as P2O5 per 1000 in the
dry fine soil) 2-82
Potash (expressed as K2O per 1000 in the dry fine
soil) 1-74
A number of the plants were watered with a solution of 500 grams
of sodium chloride in 20 litres of water, and a number with a similar
quantity of sodium nitrate. These salts were administered on 23 May,
and the following observations were made on the dates specified, on the
essential oils obtained under the usual conditions, from the plants
normally cultivated, and then treated with the salts above mentioned:—
Plants Cut on 24 July.
Normal. Sodium Chloride. Sodium Nitrate.
Optical rotation . . . . - 3° 38' 0° - 0° 10'

Menthyl esters . . . . 12'0 per cent. 12*8 per cent. 12*3 per cent.
Total menthol . . . . 38-2 38-2 36-7
Menthone . . . . . 8*2 ,, 4*0 „ 6-0
Plants Cut on 20 August (Green Parts only).
Menthyl esters . . . . j 33'3 per cent. I 39-6 per cent. 39 2 per cent.
Plants Cut on 16 September (after Fall of Petals).
Optical rotation . . . . - 5° 30' - 12° 18' - 2° 30'
Menthyl esters . . . . 2 7 * 0 per cent. 30-1 per cent. 28-9 per cent.
Total menthol . . . . 47 '0 „ 48-1 45-8
Menthone . . . . . 2'5 ,, I'l 2'5
The oil distilled from plants normally cultivated, which were cut on
18 July, that is six days before the earliest of the above experiments,
gave the following results :—
Optical rotation - 3° 30'
Menthyl esters . . . . . . . . 8*8 p e r cent.
Total menthol 41-1 „ ,,
Menthone 4*0 ,, ,,
The facts established by these experiments are that both sodium
chloride and sodium nitrate favour esterification but impede the forma-
tion of menthone.
These facts, however, cannot be correctly studied without taking
into account a considerable amount of collateral matter. For example,
whilst the actual percentage of esters in the essential oils is increased
by the use of sodium chloride, this salt has an inhibiting action on the
vegetation generally, so that the actual weight of methyl esters per
acre is less than when no sodium chloride is used, whilst the reverse is
true when sodium nitrate is used.
A very elaborate investigation on the subject has recently been
carried out by Gustav Hosier.1
J
Pharm. Post, 1912, i. 2.
THE ESSENTIAL OIL IN THE PLANT
Eight different cultivations were carried out under the following
conditions :—
1. Without any manure.
2. With farmyard manure.
3. With sodium nitrate.
4. With sodium nitrate and farmyard manure.
5. With sodium nitrate and calcium superphosphate.
6. With sodium nitrate, calcium superphosphate, and farmyard
manure.
7. With sodium nitrate, calcium superphosphate, and potash salts.
8. With sodium nitrate, calcium superphosphate, potash salts, and
farmyard manure.
The following are the details of yield of plants and essential oil, with
the market values of the product, all being calculated on the same basis :—
Per Hectare.
Dried Plants in Weig

Kilos. Per Cent., Oil. KU™ °U " Value.
1 1300 0-77 10-01 500

2 2000 0-88 16-40 820
3 1860 0 74 18-76 938
4 2820 0-81 1 22-84 1142
5 1940 0-73 14-16 708
6 2320 0*84 ' 19-94 974
7 2200 0-72 15-84 792
8 3140 0-95 j 29-83 1491
The essential oils, distilled from the plants cut in September had the
following characters :—
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Per cent, on dry

herb 0-87 0-93 0-83 0-91 0-83 0-95 0-83 1-08 I
Specific gravity 0-9088 0-9092 0-9105 0-9090 0-9100 0-9087 0-9111 0-9099
Optical rotation -29-67° - 29-22° -60-25° - 30-44° -31-78° - 30-41° -32-05° - 30-25°
Acid number . 0-77 0-51 0-78 0-46 6-58 0-50 0-52 0-37
Ester „ 37-47 33-49 41-13 43-32 44-14 32-28 45-52 36-75
Menthyl esters . 10-73 9-33 11-74 12-07 12-30 9-27 12-58 10-24
Ester number of
acetylated oil 196-05 187-75 197-04 195-24 189-36 194-07 192-70 197-65
Free menthol . 50-13 48-59 48-82 47-76 45-89 30-93 46-08 50-97
Total 60-86 57-92 60-56 59-83 57-69 60-20 58-66 61-21
Menthone . 3-52 6-11 0-89 2-94 4-01 1-37 3-75 2-14
It will be noted that the experiments with sodium nitrate confir m the
results of Charabot and Hebert, both as regards the increase in menthyl
esters and the decrease in menthone in the essential oil.
The influence of sunlight on vegetable growth, and the results of
etiolation are, of course, well known to botanical students. There is no
room for doubt that the production and evolution of the odour-bearing
constituents of a plant are in direct relationship with the chlorophyll
and its functions, and that therefore the iquestion of sunlight has a very
great effect on the character of the essential oil.
In the case of sweet basil, Ocimum basilicum, Charabot and Heêrt 1
have examined the essential oils distilled from plants which had been
cultivated in full light and from those kept shaded from the light. Jn
the former case the oil contained 57*3 per cent, of estragol and 42*7 per
cent, of terpene compounds, whilst in the case of the shaded plants the
estragol had. risen to»74'2 per cent, and the terpene compounds fell to
25*8 per cent.
A more elaborate investigation on the influence of light was carried
out in the case of peppermint plants.2 The plants were put out at the
commencement of May, 1903, and on 10 May a certain art a of the field was
completely protected from the sun's rays. Many of the plants so shaded
died, and in no case did flowering take place. The essential oils were
distilled on 6 August, the control plants being deprived of their flowers,
so as to make them strictly comparable with the shaded plants. The
yield of essential qil was 0*629 per cent, on the dried normal plants but
only 0*32 per cent, on the shaded plants. The essential oil of the normal
plants contained 18*1 per cent, of menthyl esters a<* against 17*3 per
cent, in the oil from the shaded plants. The flowers of the normal plants
were distilled separately and yielded 1*815 per cent, on the dried material.
It is therefore clear that the restriction of light considerably reduces the
proportion of essential oil contained in the plant. This point will become
more obvious when the importance of the leaf and its contained chloro-
phyll is examined.
The effect of altitude on the composition of essential oils has, per-
haps, been somewhat exaggerated, since in reality the factors concerned
are in the main the sum of the effects of moisture and light, with some
slight influence of temperature and rarification of the atmosphere.
Gastin Bonnier, in his published works, has shown that the effect of
moisture and drought has an equally important effect on plants with that
of sunlight and shade. Little experimental work has been carried out in
regard to the effect of moisture during cultivation on the essential oils,
but there seems no reason to doubt that it is very considerable. As an
example one may quote the case of the essential oil distilled from the
plants of Lavandula vera. When this plant is grown at comparatively
high altitudes in the South-East of France and on the Italian frontier it
yields an essential oil which contains from 25 to 55 per cent, of linalyl
acetate and no cineol. If the same plants grown in England are
distilled, the essential oil contains from 6 to 11 per cent, of linalyl acetate,
and an appreciable amount of cineol. There are,r no doubt, many causes
which contribute to this great difference betw een the essential oils
distilled from lavender plants grown in different districts, but there
appears to be little doubt that the comparative moisture of the soil
in England, and the dryness of the mountainous, regions of France tin
which the lavender plant flourishes, are the dominating factor. Indeed,
Charabot has examined an oil distilled from French plants cultivated
near Paris and found it to contain only 10*2 per cent, of esters, thus
approximating in character to English lavender oil.
The above considerations indicate the great importance of experi-
mental studies on the influence of externally controlled conditions, in
1
2
Charabot and Hebert, 2,1905, xxxiii. 584.
Roure-Bertrand Fils, Bulletin, April, 1904, 9.
regard to individual plants, with a view to obtaining from them the
greatest amount of essential oil which shall have the characters which
are particularly required. It is probable that there is a good deal of
unpublished work in this direction, which has been undertaken, but
which has been kept secret from commercial motives.
There are many cases in which the action of parasites produces
great changes in the anatomical structure of the plant, which changes
are usually reflected in the character of the essential oils. Molliard has
made a careful examination of the effect of the parasite Eriophyes
mentha on the peppermint plant. The presence of this parasite causes
a practically complete suppression of flowers, the branches which,
normally terminated by inflorescences, become luxurious in growth with
innumerable branching, but without flowers. Distinct changes in the
nervation are also observable, and various other structural changes aie
to be noticed, all of which profoundly modify the general character
of the plant. The essential oil from these sterile peppermint plants is
more abundant than in the case of normal plants, but it contains only
traces of menthone, and much more of the menthol is in the combined
form, as esters. Further, the mixture of esterifying acids is richer in
the case of the normal oil, in valerianic acid, than in the case of the oil
from the sterile plants.
The essential oil may be secreted in numerous organs, such as cells,
hairs, vessels, etc., and may rest stored in the place of secretion; or
may be secreted from the cells in which it is produced into organs ex-
ternal to the cells. As pointed out previously, the canals or vessels in
which essential oils are formed to a considerable extent are usually
termed schizogenous or lysigenous, according to their mode of origin.
Many such vessels are schizogenous in the inception, but are enlarged
by a later absorption of cell walls. They are then known as schizolysi-
genous. The mechanism of the actual secretion is b» no means well
understood, and most views on the subject must be regarded as within
the realms of undemonstrated theories. An ingenious explanation ot the
process of secretion has been advanced by Tschirch.1 He considers that
the external portions of the membranes of the cells which border on the
vessel become mucilaginous, and form the first products of the trans-
formation of the cell substance into the essential oil, which then appears
in the vessel in the form of tiny drops of oil. This conversion into
mucilaginous matter proceeds rapidly until the fully developed vessel is
completely surrounded by the secreting cells, whose membranes, on the
side bordering on the vessel, is jellified in tis external portion forming a
mucilaginous layer—the outer layer of which Tschirch terms the resino-
genous layer (Resinogeneschicht).. This resinogenous layer is separated
from the cavity of the vessel by a cuticle common to all the cells form-
ing the walls.
The essential oil is formed throughout the rednogenous layer,
whence it passes into the vessel, the minute particles uniting to form
small oil drops. According to Tschirch, the essential oil is first produced
in the inner portions of the resinogenous layer, and has not diffused
through the actual cell membrane as essential oil, but in ths form of an
intermediate product, the actual genesis of the oil as such being in the
resinogenous layer.
1
Published works, pa&sim.
There is, however, a considerable weight of opinion that the essential
oil passes through membrane of the cell iri which it is secreted. There
is, so far as the author can see, no substantial evidence of the existence
of Tschirch's resinogenous layer, and there is no doubt that the theo-
retical need for its existence as assumed by Tschirch is based on a mis-
conception. Tschirch claims that it is not probable that resins and
essential oils can diffuse through membranes saturated with water. But
he leaves out of consideration the fact that all essential oils are slightly
soluble in water, and that diffusion in very dilute aqueous solution is
obviously possible and even very probable. On the whole, there does
not appear to be much theoretical reason for, nor experimental evidence
of, the existence of the resinogenous layer.
An interesting contribution to this question has recently been made
by O. Tunmami l entitled " Contribution to the knowledge of the cuticu-
lar glands," some volatile oils owing their existence to these glands.
The author discusses the formation of secretions, and concludes that
there is a correspondence between the formation of secretions in the
vegetable kingdom and the same process in the glandular tissues of the
human skin, that is to say, the sebaceous glands and gland surfaces.
The secreted matter is only found outside the glandular cells, as it is
divided from the plasma of the cells by a wall of cellulose which is
always visible. The first investigator who suggested the resin-secreting
layer was Tschirch, who gave, as above stated, to this part of the mem-
brane the name of "resinogenous layer". The determination of this
layer in the glands of the skin is easier when the material worked upon
has been soaked for one or two months in concentrated aqueous solution
of acetate of copper, which hardens it. If fresh material is employed,
the modus operandi, according to Tunmann, should be as follows:
Delicate horizontal cuts should be made, so that the glands may be in-
spected from above, or in diagonal section. Next add an aqueous solu-
tion of chloral hydrate (10, 20, 30, or 40 per cent.). If the layer should
not yet be visible the strength of the solution should be increased by
degrees until the major part of the resin has been dissolved. Now
exert with the finger a gentle pressure upon the side of the covering
glass. This will burst the cuticle and push it aside, while the resin-
ogenous layer will be placed either upon the top of the cells, or, separ-
ated from the latter, at the side of the gland-head. It is not necessary
that all the resin should be dissolved. Staining with diluted tincture of
alkanet will show the residual resin, leaving the resinogenous layer un-
coloured.
By the aid of the processes described Tunmann claims to have
discovered the resinogenous layer in all the plants examined by him.
In the course of his investigations he was able to determine various
typical forms of the layer. These he divides into three principal types :
the rod-type (Viola Fraxinus, Alnus}, the vacuola-type (Salvia.Hyssopus),
and the mesh or grille-type (Rhododendron, Azalea).
The cuticle of the glands of the skin is partly enlarged by stretching,
partly by subsequent development. Its principal purpose is unquestion-
ably to prevent a too rapid exudation or loss of the secretions. In the
case of all the persistent glands of the Labiatce, Pelargonic&, Composite,
etc., all of which possess a strong cuticle, a continuous volatilisation of
1
Berichte dentsch. pharm. Ges., 18 (1908), 491: from SchimmePs Report.
essential oil takes place throughout the whole life of the plant. In the
course of this process the chemical composition of the essential oil must
of course undergo some modification, but it does not reach a demon-
strable process of resinification, because new volatile portions are con-
tinuously being formed. Only in autumn, when the period of growth is
reaching its end, this formation of volatile constituents ceases, and the
remainder of the oil resinifies. Thus it is that autumnal leaves are
found to contain in lieu of the usual, almost colourless, highly refractory
essential oil, a dark yellow, partly crystalline, partly amorphous, some-
what sparingly soluble lump of resin.
Generally speaking, the view has been accepted that vegetable
secretions are decomposition products formed in the course of the
metabolism, but Tschirch considers that these secretions are built up to
serve quite definite and various biological objects, and in this view he is
supported by Tunmann.
In some cases, the formation of essential oil in the plant begins
at a very early stage, in fact, before the gland has attained its full
development.
In opposition to Charabot, Tunmann considers that the constant
change in the chemical composition of vegetable essential oils during the
progress of the development of the plant, is chiefly due to the continuous
evaporation of the more volatile parts. He agrees with Charabot in
deducing, from pharmaco-physiological considerations, that plants in
flower cannot yield so valuable an oil as can the young spring leaves.
The solubility of essential oils in water, or in aqueous solutions of
other substances is obviously a question of considerable importance in
reference to the transference of the oil from one portion of the plant to
another, as will be seen in the sequel. From a laboratory point of
view, the question has been thoroughly investigated in a number of
cases by Umney and Bunker.1 The following table indicates the results
obtained by these observers, the methods adopted by them being (1) the
determination of the difference between the refractive index of the dry
oil and that of the oil saturated with water, and (2) the determination of
the difference between the specific gravity of the dry oil and that of the
oil saturated with water :—
J
P. and E.O.B. 1912, 101.
I. 11. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X.
S. G. S. G. Ref. Ind. Ref. Ind. Per Cent. Per Cent.

Essential Watered Watered Dif- Per Cent.
Dried Oil Oil Difference. Dried Oil Oil ference. Water from Water from Water Actually
Oil. at 15° C. at 25° C. S. G. Ref. Ind. Added.
at 15° C. at 25° C.
TYP I.
Nutmeg \. •9018 •9018 nil 1-4795 1-4795 nil nil nil nil w
tei
Juniper •8734 •8734 nil 1-4785 1-4785 nil nil nil nil
Lemon •8576 •8576 nil 1-4729 1-4729 nil nil nil nil o
Orange
TYPE II.
. •8539 •8539 nil 1-4715 1-4715 nil nil nil nil
i
Santal •9756 •9760 •0004 1-5038 1-5035 •0003 1-7 per cent. 0-17 per cent. 0*44 per cent.
Savin . . . . •9139 •9140 •0001 1-4735 1-4732 •0003 0-12 0-23 0-23
Citronella . •9034 •9034 nil 1-4770 1-4769 •0001 nil 0-07 0-31 „
Geranium (Turkish) . •8886 •8898 •0012 1-4723 1-4715 •ooos ' 1-22 per cent. 0-64 0-82 Hi
O
TYPE III.
Lemon-grass . . •8820 •8823 -0003 1-4824 1-4823 •0001 0-28 per cent. 0*07 per cent. 0'21 per cent.
Cassia 1-0702 1-0694 - -0003 1-6003 1-5999 •0004 1-07 0-14 0-54
Citronella (Java) •8935 •8937 •0002 1-4660 1-4659 •0001 0-21 0-08 0-36 02
QQ
TYPE IV.
Cinnamon leaf . 1-0533 1-0531 - -0002 1-5315 1-5814 •0001 0-35 per cent. 0'05 L er cent. 0-28 per cent.
Clove . . . . 10509 1-0508 - -0001 1-5300 1-5295 •0005 0-18 0-24 0-41
Thyme •9144 •9150 •0006 1-4913 1-4810 •0003 0-78 0-22 0-40
TYPE V.
Bergamot . •8831 •8835 •0001 1-4634 1-4631 •0003 0*09 per cent. 0-26 per cent. 0-24 per cent.
Geranium (Bourbon) . •9132 •9133 •0001 1-4639 1-4638 •0001 0-12 0-03 0-55
TYPE VI.
Eucalyptus (Glob.) •9204 •9209 •0005 1-4602 1-4600 •0002 0-68 per cent. 0-17 per cent. 0*20 per cent.
TYPE VII.
Caraway •9135 •9135 nil 1-4847 1-4847 nil nil nil 0*13 per cent.
A second series of experiments was carried out to determine the
amount of wafer which the same oils were capable of dissolving. These
results are embodied in the following table :—
Eef. It.d. Ref. Tnd.

Essential Oil. at 25° C. at 25° C. of Difference. PerCent. 1 part in
of Water
of " Steamed" Water.
Dried Oil. (approximately).
Oil.
TYPE I.
Nutmeg . 1-4795 1-4795 nil —
—
Juniper . 1-4800 1-4800 nil — —
Lemon . 1-4729 1-4729 nil —
Orange . —
1-4715 1-4715 nil — —
TYPE II.
Santal . 1-5040 1-5037 •0003 0-17 °/0 590
Savin 1-4737 1-4733 •0004 0-30 „ 330
Citronella 1-4800 1-4794 •0006 0-44 „ 230
Geranium (Turkish) 1-4726 1-4712 •0014 1-13 „ 90
TYPE III.
Lemon-grass . 1-4830 1-4824 •0006 0-45 °/0 220
Cassia 1-6017 1-6005 •0012 0-41 „ 220
Citronella (Java) 1-4666 1-4657 •0009 0-75 „ 130
TYPE IV.
Cinnamon leaf 1-5325 1-5316 •0009 0-42 % 220
Clove 1-5305 1-5295 •0010 0-47 „ 210
Thyme . 1-4917 1-4911 •0006 0-41 „ 220
TYPE V.
Bergamot 1-4635 1-4631 •0004 0-34 °/0 300
Geranium (Bourbon) 1-4654 1-4648 •0006 0-49 „ 200
TYPE VI.
Eucalyptus (Glob.) . 1-4604 1-4602 •0002 0-16 °/0 620
TYPE VII.
Caraway . 1-4847 1-4847 nil — "
The oils consisting mainly of terpenes do not appear to dissolve

water, nor to be soluble in water, or at all events, to any appreciable
extent.
It must, however, be remembered that we are here dealing with pure
water only, whereas in the plant economy we are dealing with solutions
of organic substances, in which essential oils would almost certainly be
dissolved more easily than in pure water.
As has been mentioned above, essential oils occur in the most varied
parts of the plant anatomy, and in many cases in almost every part of
a given plant, whilst in many others the essential oil is restricted to one
or two parts of the plant only.
Charabot and Laloue have especially studied the evolution and
transference of the essential oil throughout the whole of the plant, and
their results form the basis of our knowledge on the subject.
A plant which yielded particularly instructive results on the general
question is Ocimum basilicum. The investigations were carried out at
a number of stages ,of the plant's growth, the four principal of which
were as follows :—
1. 4 July, before flowering. There was a considerable preponderance
of leaves which were found to be distinctly richer in odorous consti-
tuents than the stems, the essential oil being present as such in the
young leaves.
2. 21 July, at the commencement of flowering. The stems now
preponderated, and the green parts of the plant showed a smaller per-
centage of essential oil, whilst the young flowers already contained a
larger proportion of essential oil.
3. 26 August, with flowering well advanced. The leaves and flowers
were both considerably more numerous than in the preceding stage, and
it was found that the percentage of essential oil diminished very sensibly
in the green parts of the plants, whilst the flower was fulfilling its
functions. The percentage of oil diminished during fecundation in the
flowers, but not so considerably as in the green parts of the plant. It
is therefore during the period immediately preceding fecundation that
the essential oil accumulates most, and during fecundation that it is
used up.
4. 15 September, the seed having matured. An increase in the
percentage of essential oil in the green plants since the last stage was
noted and a diminution in the inflorescences.
The essential oil is therefore formed at an early period of the plant's
life, and accumulates most actively towards the commencement of repro-
duction. Before flowering, the accumulation reaches its maximum and
the diminution sets in as reproductive processes proceed, and the transfer
of the oil from the green plant to the inflorescences slows down, and
when fecundation is accomplished the essential oil, less on the whole,
again increases in the green parts and diminishes in the inflorescences.
It appears obvious, therefore, that the essential oil, manufactured in the
green parts of the plant, is transferred together with the soluble carbo-
hydrates to the flower, probably not as nutriment, and, fecundation ac-
complished, it returns, at all events in part, to the green parts of the
plant. The mechanism of this return may possibly be explained by the
desiccation of the inflorescence after fecundation, with a consequent
increase of osmotic pressure, so that some of the dissolved matter is driven
out. Throughout all the stages dealt with no essential oil was detected
in the roots.
As another example of the experiments, Artemisia absinthium may
be selected. The four stages of special interest were as follows :—
1. 26 September, 1904, long before flowering time. The roots did
not contain any essential oil. The leaves contained considerably more
than the stems—about eleven times as much.
2. 10 July, 1905, commencement of flowering. The roots were now
found to be richer in essential oil than the stefns. In all the organs the
proportion had increased, and in the leaves it had doubled.
3. 4 August, 1905, flowering advanced. The accumulation of es-
sential oil in the roots was still more marked. (This fact does not
appear to hold good for any annual plants : Artemisia is a perennial,
The proportion of essential oil sensibly diminishes in the stems, in the
leaves, and especially in the inflorescences, and in the whole plant. The
most active formation of essential oil is, therefore, in the early part of
the plant's life up to the commencement of flowering.
4. 2 September, 1905, the flowering completed. The percentage of
essential oil in the roots has increased still further; a slight increase has
taken place in the stems; no alteration is noticed in the leaves, and a
diminution has taken place in the inflorescence.
The general conclusions drawn by Charabot and Laloue as the
result of these and a number of similar experiments are as follows:—l
" The odorous compound first appears in the green organs of the plant
whilst still young. It continues to be formed and to accumulate up
till the commencement of flowering, but the process becomes slower
as flowering advances. The essential oil passes from the leaves to the
stems and thence to the inflorescence, obeying the ordinary laws of
diffusion. Part of it, entering into solution, passes into the stem by
osmosis. Arriving here, and finding the medium already saturated with
similar products, precipitation takes place, the remaining soluble portion
continuing to diffuse, entering the organs where it is consumed, especially
the inflorescence. Whilst fecundation is taking place a certain amount
of the essential oil is consumed in the inflorescence. It is possible, and
even probable, that at the same time the green organs are producing
further quantities of essential oil, but all that can be said with certainty
is that a net loss in essential oil occurs when the flower accomplishes its
sexual function. This leads to the practical conclusion that such perfume-
yielding plants should be gathered for distillation just before the fecunda-
tion takes place. This act accomplished, the odorous principles appear
to redescend into the stem and other organs of the flower, a movement
probably brought about by the desiccation of the flower which follows
fecundation, with a resulting increase in the osmotic pressure.''
If these assumptions of Charabot and Laloue be correct—and they
are borne out by much experimental evidence, after laborious research—
the theory of Tschirch and his pupils, which depends on quite opposite
assumptions, is clearly unacceptable. According to Charabot and Laloue,
the essential oil circulates in the plant in aqueous solution and can
traverse the plant from organ to organ in this form, and wherever
meeting already saturated media, is precipitated, and the points at
which such precipitation occurs are known as secreting organs. This
being true, the assumption of a resinogenous layer, based on the hy-
pothesis of the non-solubility of essential oils in water—and in solutions
of organic matter—becomes unnecessary and improbable.
Most essential oils appear to be evolved directly in the form of
terpenic or non-terpenic compounds separable from the plant tissues in
the same form as they exist therein. A considerable number, however,
are evolved in the form of complex compounds known as glucosides, in
which the essential oil complex is present, but wherein the essential oil
itself does not exist in the free state.
The glucosides are compounds, which, under the influence of hydrolytic
agents are decomposed into glucose or an allied aldose or ketose, and one
or more other bodies, which, in the cases under consideration, form con-
stituents of essential oils. The hydrolytic agents which bring about these
changes are soluble ferments, such as diastases, enzymes and similar
1
Le Par/tint Chez la Plante, 233.
bodies, or, where the hydrolysis is produced artifically, dilute acids or
alkalis.
The ferments able to decompose particular glucosides are usually
found in the plants containing the glucosides, separated from the latter
by being enclosed in special cells which do not contain the glucoside,
so that the two substances must be brought into contact, in the presence
of water, by mechanical means, such as crushing, etc.
Two principal cases of such decomposition are known.
Firstly, there are those cases where the hydrolysis takes place within
the plant itself during the life of the plant, so that the essential oil is
actually a product, in the free state, of the metabolic processes of the
living plant; and secondly, there are those cases where the glucoside is
not decomposed except by artificial processes, independent of the life of
the plant.
The former case is of particular interest and importance as bearing
on the proper method for the extraction of the perfume. Typical
instances are those of jasmin and tuberose, which have been carefully
investigated by Hesse. This chemist showed that the essential oil of
jasmin, which resides in the flower alone, does not, when extracted with
a volatile solvent, contain either methyl anthranilate or indole, whereas
when the flowers are allowed to macerate in fat by the enfleurage pro-
cess, and the pomade so obtained extracted, the essential oil does contain
both methyl anthranilate and indole; and further, the yield of essential
oil obtained by the latter process is at least five times as great as that
obtained by extracting the flowers with a volatile solvent. The following
considerations arise here. If the detached flowers are treated with a
volatile solvent, the living tissues are at once killed, and the actual
amount of oil present in the flowers is obtained in the condition in which
it exists when they were picked immediately before extraction. But if
the detached flowers are macerated in cold fat, the living tissues are not
destroyed and the flower continues to live for a certain time. Since a
reat increase in the quantity of the oil is obtained if, for example, the
f owers are exposed to the fat for twenty-four hours, and since new com-
pounds, namely, methyl anthranilate and indole now appear in the oil, it is
obvious that much oil and the new compounds are elaborated in the flower
during its life after being detached from the plant, quite independently of
the chlorophyll-containing organs. There is little reason to doubt that
this is the result of a glucosidal decomposition in the flower, the glucoside
existing therein at the time of gathering, and steadily decomposing into
the essential oil and a sugar so long as the flower is alive, but not when
it is killed, as, for example, by the action of a volatile solvent. Hesse
has established the same principle in the case of the tuberose, the flowers
of which yield about twelve times as much essential oil when exposed to
enfleurage as they do when extracted with a volatile solvent. Further,
the oil obtained by enfleurage contains far more methyl anthranilate than
the oil obtained by extraction with a volatile solvent, and also contains
methyl salicylate.
In the case of most plants where the essential oil is due to a glucosidal
decomposition, the products are of a non-terpenic character, but this is
not invariably the case.
In many plants the glucoside is decomposed durmg the life of the
plant in a manner different from that just described. The conditions are
not understood, but in the case of such flowers as the jasmin and tuberose
it appears that only a partial decomposition of the glucoside takes place,
until the removal of the decomposition products (e.g. by enfleurage) when
more glucoside is decomposed. In most plants, however, the decomposi-
tion is complete, all the essential oil possible is formed, and can be
obtained by any of the usual processes without being further increased
by more glucosidal decomposition.
One case in which the essential oil does not exist at any stage of the
plant's life in the free condition, until the ferment and the glucoside have
been brought into contact by artificial means, will suffice to illustrate this
type of production of essential oils in the plant. The essential oil of
bitter almonds does not exist as such in the kernels, which have no odour
such as we ascribe to bitter almonds. The glucoside which gives rise to
the essential oil is a body known as amygdalin, of the formula C20H27NOn.
This body crystallises in orthorhombic prisms with three molecules of
water of crystallisation, which are driven off at 110° to 120°. Under the
action of the ferment, emulsin (which is rarely, if ever, in contact with
the amygdalin in the plant tissues) in 'the presence of water, amygda-
lin splits up into glucose, hydrocyanic acid, and benzaldehyde, the char-
acteristic odour-bearer of essential oil of bitter almonds. The reaction
(which probably occurs in two stages which need not be discussed here)
is as follows :—
C20H27NOn + 2H2O = 2C6H12O6 + C6H . CHO + HNC. •
Amygdalin. Glucose. Benzaldehyde.
The above illustration is typical of the method of formation of a large
number of essential oils, which need not be discussed here in detail.
The actual genesis of the odoriferous compounds in the living plant
has been studied, as indicated above, principally by Charabot and his
colleagues, Laloue and Hebert, but interesting work in the same direc-
tion has been carried out by Blondel and by Mesnard.
There are three conditions to consider in regard to the physiological
activity of the living cell: (1) where the product—the essential oil in the
present case—pre-exists in the tissues generally and the function of the
phytoblast of the cell is limited to isolating the product at the desired
moment. This may be regarded as an excretion; (2) where the product
has its origin in the cell itself by means of combination and reaction of
other bodies transported from other parts of the plant tissue, and (3)
where the product is completely built up in the cell, without it being
supplied with the materials for the synthesis by transport from other
parts of the tissues. These may be regarded as cases of secretion.
Numerous theories have been advanced to explain the origin of es-
sential oils in the plant, but the evidence in favour of most of them is in
no case at all conclusive, and the question must still be regarded as un-
settled.
Fliickiger and Tschirch originally suggested that the essential oil was
elaborated at the expense of the starch, or possibly even of the cellulose,
the intermediate products of which were transported through the tissues
to the locality of elimination, undergoing gradual alteration until the
final product of transformation was the essential oil. Mesnard regarded
the chlorophyll as the parent substance of the essential oils, and Tschirch
more recently suggested the tannin as the more probable substance to
give rise to essential oils and resins.
One thing is certain, and that is that the chlorophyll-containing
parenchyma is, generally speaking, the seat of formation of the essential
oils. The physiological activity of the phytoblast of the cell can be
demonstrated experimentally, and Blondel has illustrated it in the case
of the rose. He took the red rose General Jaqueminot, as one having
a well-marked odour, and placed two blooms from the same branch, of
equal size and development, in vases of water under two bell jars. Into
one of the jars a few drops of chloroform on a sponge were introduced.
At the end of half an hour the bell jar was lifted, and the weak odour of
the rose was found to have given place to an intense odour of the flower.
The odour of the rose kept without chloroform was feeble, exactly as at the
commencement of the experiment. A similar experiment was carried
out with the tea rose Gloire de Dijon. In this case the odour of the
flower treated with chloroform entirely altered, and was quite disagree-
able, with no resemblance to that of the rose itself. In the former case
the action of a minute amount of chloroform acts as an irritant, and the
stimulus causes a greatly increased secretion of essential oil, whilst in
the latter case the functions of the secreting cells were actually changed
and a different odorous substance was evolved. With a larger dose of
chloroform the contents of the cells are killed and no further exhalation
of perfume is noted.
The actual course of the evolution of the essential oil has been par-
ticularly studied by Charabot and Laloue in plants, the principal con-
stituents of whose oils belong to four different groups, namely :—
1. Compounds of the linalol group.
2. „ ,, geraniol ,,
3. ,, „ thujol
4. ,, „ menthol ,,
Linalol is a tertiary alcohol of the formula C10H18O, which, with its
acetic ester (and traces of other esters) forms the basis of the perfumeôf
bergamot and lavender oils. By dehydration linalol is converted into
terpenes of which the principal are limonene and dipentene, and by
esterification into its acetic ester. The examination of the essential oil
at different periods of the development of the bergamot fruit has led
Charabot and Laloue to the following conclusions.1 As the fruit matures
the essential oil undergoes the following modifications :—
1. The amount of free acids decreases.
2. The richness in linalyl acetate increases.
3. The proportion of fiee linalol and even of total linalol decreases to
a very sensible extent.
4. The quantity of the terpenes increases, without the ratio between
the amounts of the two hydrocarbons limonene and dipentene being
altered.
The fact that the amount of total linalol decreases whilst the rich-
ness in linalyl acetate increases, proves that linalol appears in the plant
at an earlier period than its acetic ester. Further, the free acetic acid
acting on the linalol esterifies a portion of it, whilst another portion of
this terpene alcohol is dehydrated, with the production of limonene and
dipentene, which are the usual resultants of linalol in presence of certain
dehydrating agents. This view is corroborated by the fact that the
quantity of the mixed terpenes increases during the esterification,
without the slightest variation being observed in the ratio between the
1
Roure-Berbrand Fils, Bulletin, March, 1900, 12.
amounts of the two terpenes, which shows that their formation is simul-
taneous and is the result of one and the same reaction.
The practical conclusion to be drawn from this is as follows: Oil of
bergamot having a value which increases according to the richness in
ester, it will be profitable to gather the harvest at the period at which the
fruit is fully ripe.
The same compound, linalol, is the parent substance of oil of lavender.
The study of the progressive development of this oil in the plant tissues
was carried out on three samples wrhich were distill c d at intervals of a
fortnight, the first from flowers in the budding stage, the second from the
fully flowering plants, and the third from the plants with the flowers
faded. The essential oils thus obtained had the following characters :—-
Oil from the Plants with —
Buds. Flowers. Faded Flowers.
Specific gravity at 15° C. . 0-8849 0-8854 0-8821

Optical rotation . . . . - 6° 32' - 6° 48' - 6° 50'
Acidity, as acetic acid per litre
of water collected during distil-
lation 0-5241 gm. 0-4716 gm. 0-3846 gm.
Ester per cent 36-6 40-4 39-75
Free linalol per cent. . 21-0 16-7 18-9
Total „ „ 49-8 48-4 50-3
Hence, the acidity decreases in the course of vegetation; the pro-

portion of free linalol and the proportion of total linalol also decrease in
the essence up to the time when the flowers are fully opened, whilst the
proportion of ester increases; then, when the flower fades, the essential
oil becomes richer in linalol, whilst, on the other hand, its ester-content
decreases.
Thus as in the case of oil of bergamot, esterification is accompanied
by a decrease in. the total proportion of linalol and in the proportion of
free acid. These facts prove that, here also, the esters originate by the
direct action of the acids on the alcohols. Under these conditions,
as the plant develops, part of the linalol is esterified whilst another
portion is dehydrated. So that not only does the proportion of free
alcohol, but also that of the total alcohol decrease. But as the esterifica-
tion process is completed, which happens when the flower commences to<
fade, the total alcohols increase at a fairly rapid rate.
The progressive development of the geraniol compounds in essential
oils has been principally studied in the case of oil of geranium.
The typical plant which was selected for investigation in the case
of the geraniol compounds was the ordinary geranium. The principal
alcohol present in this oil is geraniol, C10H18O, and this is accompanied
by a smaller amount of citronellol, C10H20O. A ketone, menthone, is also
present. •
An oil was distilled from the green plants on 18 July, and a second
sample from the still green plants on 21 August. These two samples had
the following characters :—
VOL. II.
Product Collected-
Oil 18 July. On 21 August.
Density at 15° C. . 0-897 0-899

Rotatory power in 100 mm. tube . - 10° - 10° 16'
Coefficient of saturation of the acids 43-8 41*0
Esters (calculated as geranyl liglate) 5-8 10-0
Free alcohol (calculated as C10H]8O) 64-0 02-1
Total alcohol 67'8 08-G
It will be seen that (1) the acidity decreases during the maturing
of the plant; (2) as in all the cases previously considered, oil of geranium
becomes richer in esters during vegetation; (3) the proportion of total
alcohol increases slightly and the quantity of free alcohol decreases, but
not to an extent corresponding with the increase of esters, so that in the
course of esterification, which takes place in this case without dehydration,
a small quantity of alcohol is produced.
Practically no menthone was found in either oil, but in the oil ob-
tained from the plant after flowering and complete maturation, an appre-
ciable quantity of menthone was found. It is thus clear that the
menthone is formed, as would be expected, principally during the period
of the greatest respiratory activity.
The thujol group, in reference to these studies, is represented by the
absinthe herb (Artemisia absynthium], which contains a secondary
alcohol thujol, C10H18O, and its esters, and its corresponding ketone,
thujone, C10H10O. The conclusions drawn in this case are as follows:—
From the early stages of vegetation, before the influence of flowering
is seen, an essential oil is present in the chlorophyll-containing organs,
which is already rich in thujol, but which contains very little thujone.
Esterification steadily increases up to the time of flowering, and then
diminishes, and afterwards increases again as new green organs develope.
The amount of thujol diminishes during the evolution of the plant, but
increases again when new green organs are developed. The thujone
gradually increases up till the time of flowering, and then steadily de-
creases owing to consumption in the flowers themselves.
It is therefore probable that the alcohol is formed in the first instance,
which is afterwards esterified to thujyl esters and oxidised to thujone.
The last of these investigations to which reference will be made is
that of the peppermint, as representing the menthol group of compounds.
Four samples of essential oil were examined :—
1. That distilled from young plants not exceeding 50 cm. in height,
the inflorescence having formed, but the buds not having made their ap-
pearance.
2. That distilled from the plant when the buds were commencing to
.appear, but from which the inflorescences were removed.
3. That distilled from the inflorescences so removed.
4. That distilled from the normal plant in full flower.
The oils in question had the following characters:—
i 1. Oil Extracted Oil Extracted after the Formation 4. Oil Extracted

of the Buds.
before the from the
Formation of Flowering
the Buds. Plants.
2. Leaves. 3. Inflorescences.
Specific gravity
at 18° C. . . 0-9025 0-9016 0-9081 0-9200
Optical rotation
at 18° C. in 100
mm. tube - 24° 10' - 26° - 20° 15' - 2° 37'
Ester (calculated)
• as m e n t h y l
acetate) . 3 '7 per cent. 10-3 percent. 7-5 per cent. 10*7 per cent.
Combined men-
thol . 2-9 8-1 „ ! 5-9 „ 8-4
Free menthol 44-3 ,, 422 i 29-9 32-1
Total „ 47-2 5')-3 „ I 35-8 40-5
Menthone . 5-2 4'2 ,, 16'7 10-2
After allowing for the relative weights of the leaves and inflorescences,
the composition of the average oil which would have been yielded by (2)
and (3) if distilled together would have been as follows :—
Esters 9-6 per cent.
Combined menthol 7-6
Free menthol 39-0
Total „ 46-6
Menthone 7-5
It is thus apparent that at the commencement of vegetation of the
peppermint the oil is rich in menthol, but only a small amount is present
in the esterified condition. Menthone only exists in small quantity. As
the green parts of the plant develope, the proportion of esterified menthol
increases, as has been found to be the case with other alcohols. This
esterification, however, only takes place in the leaves, and when the
essential oil extends towards the flowering tops, it becomes poorer in
esters.
The net result is an increase in esters in the total essential oil distilled
from the whole of the plant, owing to the development of the green parts.
The menthone increases during the development of the inflorescences,
whilst the menthol decreases correspondingly. So that the oil obtained
from plants systematically deprived of their inflorescences only contains
a small amount of menthone, but is very rich in free menthol and in
esters. The oil, however, distilled from the flower shoots, even at an
early stage of their development, contains a considerable quantity of
menthone and comparatively small quantities of free menthol and esters.
It is therefore seen that the formation of the esters of menthol takes
place in the green parts of the plant, whilst the menthone originates
more especially in the flowers. This latter point is further corroborated
by the fact that if the peppermint becomes modified by the puncture of
an insect so as to suffer mutilation, the greater part of the menthone
disappears, as well as the flowers.
These observations throw light on the mechanism which governs the
transformation in the plant of the compounds belonging to the menthol
group. This alcohol being produced simultaneously with the green parts
of the plant, is partially esterified in the leaves; the esterification here
again is manifested as a consequence of the disappearance of the chloro-
phyll. Then, when the heads bearing the buds and later the flowers
are formed, a certain quantity of oil accumulates and the menthol, both in
the free and combined state, is there converted into menthone by oxida-
tion.
Investigations of the character detailed above lead to the following
conclusions. The esters are principally formed in the green parts of the
plant by the action of free acids on the alcohols. The latter easily losing
water are, at the same time partially dehydrated without combining with
acids and so give rise to terpenes. Isomerisation is also going on, so
that starting from the compound linalol, we see the following compounds
formed : linalyl acetate by esterification, terpenes by dehydration, and
the isomeric alcohols geraniol and nerol by isomerisation. All three
reactions can be effected artificially in the laboratory, as they are natur-
ally in the plant tissues. The alcohols and their esters are easily con-
verted into aldehydes and ketones, especially when the inflorescence
appears, since it is in these organs that oxygen is fixed to a maximum
extent.
Whatever may be the complex functions of the chlorophyll in the
plant, so far as the essential oils is concerned, there can be no doubt that
it favours the process of dehydration. Gaston Bonnier has shown that
under the influence of a mountain climate the green parts of a plant
undergo considerable modification. The leaves are thicker and of a more
rich green colour, and the assimilatory tissues of the stem are better
suited for the exercise of the chlorophyll functions. The green palissade
tissue is more strongly developed, either by the cells being longer, or be-
cause the number of layers of palissade cells is greater, so that the
chlorophyll bearers are larger and more numerous. Under similar
conditions, plants grown at low altitudes have a lower chlorophyll func-
tion than the same plants grown at high altitudes. Charabot's observa-
tions are supplementary to these, and prove that the more intense the
chlorophyll function, the greater the power of dehydration of the alcohols,
and therefore the greater the ester value of the oil. This has been de-
monstrated clearly in the case of lavender oil, when it is generally true
that the higher the altitude at which the plants are grown, the higher
the ester content. Grown in the neighbourhood of Paris, as before
mentioned, the plants yield an essential oil with so low an ester value
that it approximates to English lavender oil in composition. The in-
fluence of the altitude appears to be due to (1) greater light; (2) drier at-
mosphere, and (3) lower temperature. The first two of these influences
tend to assist esterification, whilst the third acts in a contrary sense, and
may even neutralise the others.
In the esterificatidn of an alcohol, water is always formed, according
to the equation—
EOH + AH = EA + H2O
Alcohol. Acid. Ester. Water.
This action is reversible, so that to maintain the ester value it is ob-
vious that the removal of water is advantageous. As a matter of fact, if
transpiration is increased, or the absorption of moisture by the roots is
diminished, the esterification is more rapid.
In regard to the distribution of the essential oil from one organ of the
plant to another, it has been established that there is a circulation of the
odorous compounds from the green portions of the plant into the flowers,
which may be regarded as the consuming organs, and that the constitu-
ents which travel through the tissues are, as would be expected, the most
soluble present in the oil. He*nce as Charabot, Hebert, and Laloue have
shown,1 it results that this phenomenon of circulation and that which
governs the chemical transformations which modify the composition of
the essential oils, combine their effects when the aldehydes or ketones in
question are relatively soluble constituents. In such a case the essential
oil of the inflorescences will be appreciably richer in aldehydic prin-
ciples than the essential oil of the leaves. This is what was found in
the case of verbena in which the citral is one of the most soluble con-
stituents of the oil, as clearly indicated from the fact that the portion
extracted from the waters of distillation is richer in citral than the por-
tion which is decanted. Thfe essential oil of the inflorescences contains
an appreciably higher proportion of citral than the essential oil extracted
from the green parts of the plants.
If, on the other hand, the aldehydic or ketonic portion of the essential
oil is sparingly soluble, the effects of the phenomenon of circulation on
the composition of the essential oils from the various organs will be the
reverse of those produced by the chemical changes which take place in
the inflorescence, since the principles which are displaced are principally
those which are most soluble. The relative insolubility of such ketones
and aldehydes will tend to make the oil of the leaves richer in these
compounds on account of their restricted power of circulation, and on the
other hand, to make the oil of the inflorescences richer in alcoholic prin-
ciples, whilst the actual formation of these compounds in the inflor-
escence will have the effect of increasing the proportion of aldehydes
or ketones in the inflorescence. The net result depends on which of the
two features predominates.
It has been shown while studying the formation and circulation of
the odorous products in the wormwood, that the ketone thujone is,
contrary to the usual rule for ketones, one of the most insoluble con-
stituents of the oil, and this is why, in spite of the tendency which thujol
possesses to become converted into thujone in the inflorescence by oxi-
dation, the essential oil from the leaves is richer in thujone than the
flower oil. This is due not only to the fact that the insoluble thujone
passes very slowly from the leaves to the flowers, but also to the fact
that the thujone which does so circulate, and also the thujone actually
formed in the flowers, being already a partially oxidised product on the
way to degradation, is the one which is principally consumed by the
flower in the exercise of its life function, namely, the fecundation process.
In the case of peppermint, the nature of the actual chemical transforma-
tions which occur in the green organs has a predominant influence on
the distribution of the odoriferous constituents. This was demonstrated
by distilling 200 kilos of the plant and collecting 200 litres of distilla-
tion water. This water was exhausted by shaking three successive times
with petrolium ether, which on evaporation yielded 35 grams of essential
oil which had been originally dissolved in the water. The oil obtained
by decantation, and that by extraction from the distillation waters gave the
following results on analysis :—
1
Roure-Bertrand Fils, Bulletin, May, 1908, 4.
Essential Oil
Separated by Extracted from

Decantation. the Waters.
Specific gravity at 15° C. 0-9194 0-9140

Soluble in 1 vol., Soluble in 1 vol. ;
becoming opales- separation of
cent on the crystals on the
further addition further addition
of alcohol of alcohol
Rotatory power . . . . . . - 11° 28' - 17° 36'
,, ,, of the acetylated oil - 20° 12' - 35° 28'
Colour . . . . . . . Pale green Reddish -brown
Acid number . . . . . . 0-2 12-8
Saponincation number . . . . 43-9 39-1
Ester number . . . . . . 43-7 26-3
Menthyl acetate . 15 5 per cent. 9'3 per cent.
Combined menthol . . . . . 12-2 7-3
Saponification number of acetylated oil 161-7 198-3
Esters i n acetylated o i l . . . . 57*2 per cent. 70'1 per cent.
Free menthol i n original o i l ... 37-4 56-3
Total „ „ „ . 49-6 63-6
Saponification number of the reduced and
acetylated o i l . . . . . . 188-1 215-9
Saponification number corresponding to the
menthone . . . . . . . 26-4 17-6
Menthone i n original o i l . . . . 7-4 per cent. 4-9 per cent.
Comparing the undissolved essential oil with that which was dis-
solved in the waters, it is seen that the former is richer in esters,
poorer in free menthol and total menthol, and richer in menthone than
the second. In other wrords the relatively sparingly soluble constituents
are esters and menthone, whilst menthol is particularly soluble.
The earlier researches of Charabot have shown that the essential oil of
the flowers is richer in menthone than the essential oil of the leaves. And
it is in spite of a circulation of menthol, a soluble principle, from the
leaf to the inflorescence, that this latter organ contains an essential oil
particularly rich in menthone. It must therefore be that the menthol is
there converted into menthone by oxidation.
The differences in composition between the two essential oils ex-
amined show well, if they be compared with those wrhich exist between
the essential oils of the leaves and the inflorescences, that the distribution
of the odorous principles between the leaf, the organ of production, and
the flower, the organ of consumption, tends to take place according to
their relative solubilities. But this tendency may be inhibited, or on the
other hand, it may be favoured by the chemical metamorphoses which
the substances undergo at any particular point of their passage or at any
particular centre of accumulation. Thus, in the-present case, some of the
least soluble principles, the esters of menthol, are most abundant in the
oil of the leaves, whilst another, menthone, is richest in the oil of an organ
to which there go, by circulation, nevertheless, the most soluble por-
tions. This is because this organ (the flower) constitutes the medium
in which the formation of this insoluble principle is particularly active.
Some highly interesting conclusions as to the relationship of essential
oils to the botanical characters of the plant have been drawn by Baker
THK ESSENTIAL OIL IN THE PLANT
j?ic,. 2.—Types of eucalyptus leaf venations, which indicate the presence of certain
chemical constituents in the oil. (Baker and Smitli.} For explanation see next
page.
24 THE CHEMISTRY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
1
and Smith, as a result of their exhaustive researches on the eucalypts of
Australasia. These investigators have shown that there is a marked
agreement between the chemical constituents of the essential oils of these
trees, and ths venation of the lanceolate leaves of the several species; so
marked, indeed, that in the majority of cases it is possible to state what
the general character of the essential oils is by a careful examination of
the leaf venation. There are three principal types of venation, which
are shown in the accompanying illustration (see previous page).
The first type is representative of those eucalyptus trees whose oils
contain the terpene pinene in marked quantity, cineol either not at all or
only in small amount, and from which phellandrene is absent.
The second type is characteristic of trees yielding oils which contain
pinene3 but are more or less rich in cineol and free from phellandrene.
The third type represents trees in which phellandrene is an impor-
tant constituent.
There appears reason to suppose that with the eucalypts a gradual
deviation from a type has taken place, and that the formation* of
characteristic constituents in these oils has been contemporaneous with
the characteristic alteration or deviation of the venation of their leaves.
That the constituents have been fixed and constant in the oils of the
several eucalypts for a very long period of time is demonstrated by the
fact that whenever a species occurs over a large area of country the
constituents of the oil are practically identical also, only differing in
about the same amount as is to be expected with the oils from trees of
the same species growing together in close proximity to each other.
The venation of the leaves of individual species is comparatively similar
throughout their geographical distribution, and their botanical characters
show also a marked constancy. All this comparative constancy is
probably accounted for by the long period of time" that must have
elapsed before a particular species could have established itself as such
over so extensive a range over which they are found to-day.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
1. Leaf of Eucalyptus corymbosa, Sm.—This venation is indicative of the pre-
sence of pinene in the oil. Note the close parallel lateral veins, the thick mid-rib,
ancf the position of the marginal vein close to the edge of the leaf. The yield of oil
from leaves showing this venation is small, there not being room between the lateral
veins for the formation of many oil glands.
2. Leaf of Eucalyptus Smithii, K. T. B.—This venation is characteristic of
species whose oil consists principally of eucalyptol and pinene. Note the more acute
lateral veins which are wiier apart, thus giving more room for the formation of oil
glands; the yield of oil is thus larger in these species. The marginal vein is further
removed from the edge and is slightly bending to meet the lateral veins.
3. Leaf of Eucalyptus radiata, Sieb.—This venation is characteristic of those
species whose oil consists largely of phellandrene and the peppermint ketone. Note
the still more acute and fewer lateral veins. The marginal vein has also become
so far removed from the e Ige that a second one occurs, and the slight bending, as seen
in 2, has culminated in this group in a series of loops. The spaces for the forma-
tion of oil glands are also practically unrestricted and a large yield of oil is thus
obtainable.
l
Jour. and Proc. Boy. Soc., N.S.W., xxxv. 116, and lieport to British Association,
Section B., Manchester, 1915-
CHAPTEK II.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ODOUR AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

THE connections between chemical constitution, on the one hand, and
-colour or physiological action on the other have been continually studied
for many years, but the allied property of odour has only engaged occa-
sional attention within quite recent times.
The reason for this apparent neglect is not far to seek and lies largely
in the fact that no adequate means have yet been devised for measuring
and classifying odours.
The most noteworthy attempts to remedy this defect are those of
Zwaardemaker, C. van Dam,1 and Fournie,2 but for details of the
•" olfactometers " devised by them the original papers should be consulted.
These instruments are of distinct value for the matching of perfumes but
they all suffer from a fundamental defect inasmuch as they make no
allowance for the relative vapour pressures of the substances under ex-
amination.
The strength of an odour, up to a certain point, will depend upon the
amount of substance which reaches the nostrils; it is therefore necessary
that this factor should be taken into account when comparing odours.
In the ordinary manner of smelling we have to deal with a mixture of
the vapour of the substance and air. The maximum amount of sub-
stance which can thus be conveyed depends on the vapour pressure of
the substance and this in turn depends on the temperature, being greater
when hot and lesser when cold. In order therefore to make any com-
parisons of a fundamental nature the vapour pressure factor must be
allowed for.
It is the almost universal practice to record the nature and strength
of an odour at the particular temperature which may obtain at the time
of examination. Substances at their temperatures of boiling have a
common vapour pressure equal to that of the atmosphere, but it is clearly
impossible to smell a substance in such a condition, whereas, if we could
go to the other extreme, the absolute zero, it is probable that no vapour
would exist as such and for this reason alone, apart from any physio-
logical one, no odour would be discernible.
To operate at a fixed definite vapour pressure is also an obvious
impossibility, since this would involve a large range of temperature suffi-
cient to caus3 physiological complications.
H. Erdmann 3 considers that the volatility of a perfume does not
depend on its vapour tension alone but also on its specific solubility in
the air. This he deduced from the fact that certain bodies lose, more or
less completely, their odours in liquid air, but that on shaking the
mixtures the odours become strongly apparent. He argues therefore that
1 2
Jour. Chem. Soc., A. 3i. 1917, 606. P. and E.O.R., 1917, viii. 278.
Jour. Prakt. Chem., 1900, 225.
(25)
the perfumes dissolved in the liquid air evaporate with it in spite of the
fact that the temperature is in the region of — 190° C.
This is a doubtful conclusion since if temperature-vapour tension
curves for volatile substances be examined it will be seen that at low
temperatures the rate of diminution of the vapour tension falls off
rapidly and hence the-vapour tension at — 190° C. is often not vastly
different from what it is at normal temperature, and hence is not by any
means negligible when we take into account the very small quantity of
substance that needs to be inspired in order for its odour to be percep-
tible.
It has been satisfactorily demonstrated by Henning that the vapours
of odoriferous substances obey the general gas laws, and there is conse-
quently no need to assume any additional factor of the nature of specific
solubility.
A. Durand 1 attributes the sense of smell to " odourant ions". He
found that bodies such as musk and camphor greatly increase the condens-
ing power of dust free air for aqueous vapour and that the more strongly
odorous the air is, the greater becomes that effect, the amount of con-
densation being proportional to the number and the size of the ions in
the air. He considers that it is upon these "odourant ions" that the
sense of smell depends, and that this accounts for the fact that hygro-
metric conditions influence the sense. When air containing the perfume
is inspired, the odourant ions are retained in the olfactory region and
give rise to the sensation of smell.
The fact that the hygrometric state of the air influences the sense of
smell is probably more validly explained by the fact that moist air is
capable of carrying a larger proportion of the vapour of a volatile sub-
stance than is dry air.
It is interesting in this connection to note that Zwaardemaker 2 has
found that dilute aqueous solutions of odorous substances when sprayed
from an earthed sprayer yield a cloud having a positive charge of elec-
tricity. He found that on diluting these solutions to such an extent that
the electrical phenomenon is only just appreciable, the odour is also just
appreciable, but he found that the phenomenon is exhibited by other
substances which are3 inodorous but physiologically active. In a similar
manner Backmann compared the smallest quantities of benzene,
toluene, xylene, cumene, and durene that can be detected by the
olfactory organ. He found that the quantity diminishes as the number
of substituent methyl groups increases, also that the electrical charge
produced by spraying equimolecular aqueous solutions increases from
benzene to xylene and then diminishes.
In spite of the coincidences shown above it is doubtful if there is any
connection between odour and electrical charge. Heller 4 discards the
view that odour is of an electrical nature and criticises very severely an
electronic theory put forward by Tudat.5
Teudt considers that the nasal sensory nerves have electron vibrations
which are increased by resonance when odoriferous substances having cor-
responding intramolecular electron vibrations are inspired with air, and he
concludes that a chemical element can the more readily induce odour in
1
2
Comptes Rendus., 1918, 166, 129.
Jour. Chem. 6'oc., 1917, A. ii. 63 ; 41918, A. ii. 351 ; 1920, A. ii. 74.
*Ibid., 1917, A. i. 498. P. and E.O.R., 1920, 38.
*Ibid.9 1920, 12 ; and Jour. Chem. Soc., 1919, A. i. 607.
ODOUK AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION 27
its compounds in proportion as its electrons are more firmly united to
the atomic nucleus.
While there is little reason seriously to consider Teudt's first con-
ception, yet there is some justification for his second one, because the
osmophoric elements are all grouped together in the periodic table and
are therefore likely to have a fundamental common characteristic.
Of historical interest is Tyndall's observation,1 made so long ago as
1865, that gases with an odour possess the power of absorbing radiant
heat to a marked degree. Grijns 2 in 1919 was not able to detect any
relation between the intensity of the odour and its power of absorbing
radiant heat, and he therefore concluded that the stimulation of the
olfactory apparatus is not effected by the liberation of energy absorbed
from radiant heat.
The actual mechanism or process involved in the operation of smell-
ing is not exactly known. The most important investigation in this
direction is that of Backmann.3 He observed that in order that a sub-
stance may be odorous it must be sufficiently soluble in both water and
in the lipoid fats of the nose cells. The odours of the saturated aliphatic
alcohols first increase as the molecular weight increases and then de-
crease. The lower alcohols are comparatively odourless because of their
low degree of solubility in the lipoid fats, while on the other hand the
highest, members are odourless because of their insolubility in water.
The intermediate alcohols which are soluble in both fats and water have
powerful odours. Backmann used olive oil in his experiments as a sub-
stitute for the lipoid fats.
This explanation is probably applicable to the results recorded by
Passy,4 who found that with the homologous aliphatic acids the strength
of the odour—as measured by the reciprocal of the smallest quantity that
could be perceived—of formic acid is comparatively small, a maximum
is reached with butyric acid and after diminution to the weak oenanthic
acid, another maximum is reached with pelargonic acid, thereafter the
odour diminishes very rapidly.
Backmann's conclusions are of the highest importance and give a
reasonable explanation of many facts concerning the odours of substances,
such as the almost invariable rule that substances of high molecular
weight are odourless; the increase in the strength of the odours of
members of a homologous series to a maximum and subsequent diminu-
tion ; the lack of odour with the sugars and so on. Possibly also the
consistent lack of odour of polyhydroxy alcohols generally and of poly-
carboxylic acids may be satisfactorily explained in a similar manner.
In this connection it is interesting to recall Kremer's experiments.5
By means of a spectroscopic method, Kremer demonstrated that when air
saturated with an odoriferous substance such as pyridine or camphor is
bubbled through a liquid containing a lipoid—such as a suspension of
lecithin of a fatty animal tissue in Ringer's solution—more of the
odoriferous substance is adsorbed than when the saturated air passes
through water only.
It appears from this that some sort of reaction, physical or chemical,
takes place between odoriferous bodies and the lipoid fats of the
l
Heat as a Mode of Motion, London, 1865, 366.
2
Jour. Chem. Soc., A. i. 1919, 423.
:l
J. Physiol. Path, general, 1917, 17, 1; Jour. Chem. Soc., A. i. 1918, 88.
5
*Zeit. Angew. Chem., 1900, 103. Jour. Chem. Soc., A. i. 1917, 607.
olfactory organ. Buzicka x goes so far as to define an odoriferous body
as one which is soluble in the air (i.e. volatile) and which reacts chemically
with substances in the mucous membrane of the nose stimulating the
nose nerves. Haller 2 also considers that the action is undoubtedly of
a chemical nature and that the odoriferous molecule undergoes a change
of some kind.
That odoriferous bodies must undergo a change in the nose follows
from the simple fact that the sensation only lasts for a short while after
the removal of the source of odour. The substances in the mucus
membrane by means of which the odoriferous body is " fixed " are termed
" osmoceptors " by Euzicka.
The well-known phenomenon of smell-fatigue is explained by the
theory that actual chemical reaction takes place between the odoriferous
body and some reacting material in the nose ; thus it can easily be con-
ceived that some sort of addition reaction takes place and that directly
the osmoceptor in the nose becomes saturated no further reaction is
possible and no further odour can be appreciated until fresh osmoceptor
has been formed. Buzicka has suggested that two such osmoceptors
are involved since substances inspired in a concentrated state have
odours different to those perceived in a dilute condition. He suggests
that one osmoceptor reacts more readily than the other and in conse-
quence is the more readily saturated or consumed, this osmoceptor is
responsible for the sensation produced when dilute odours are inspired.
If the odour be concentrated, the first osmoceptor is saturated almost
instantaneously and then the sensation produced is the result of the
reaction between the odoriferous substance and the second osmoceptor.
These conceptions fit in very well with the facts and are probably
not far from the truth.
It seems likely that the sequence of events in the process of smelling
is, after the odoriferous substance has reached the nostrils, first for the
substance to dissolve in the aqueous outer layer, thence passing to the
lipoid fats, wherein an addition reaction takes place, causing a change
of energy which produces a sensation perceptible to the nervous centre.
It will be realised that the strength of an odour may suffer successive
diminutions in the process of smelling. It will be governed firstly, by the
vapour pressure .of the odoriferous body, secondly, by the degree of
solubility of the substance in water, thirdly, to its relative solubility in
the lipoid fats with respect to that in water, and, lastly, to the speed of
the chemical reaction. To a less extent the type of odour is similarly
governed and this may account for the many " shades " of odour that exist.
It is obvious that too much importance must not be placed on the
chemical aspect of the problem, especially as regards the strength of an
odour.
The first publication of importance regarding the relationship3 between
odour and chemical constitution per se, is that of Klimont, who at-
tempted an explanation on the lines of Witt's colour theory.4 Klimont
introduced the term " aromataphore " to designate groups which carry a
pleasant odour with them.
Bupe and Majewski5 renamed such groups "osmophores " and de-
3 2
P. and E.O.R., 1920, 37. Ibid., 39.
'"Die Synthetische und Isolierten Aromatea, Leipzig, 1899-
J 5
-Berichte, 1876, 522 and 1888, 325. Ibid., 1897, 2444, and 1900, 3401.
fined them as groups which confer a characteristic odour; such groups
are:—
—OH ; —0— ; —CHO ; —CO . CH 3 ; —OCH 3 ; —NO 2 ; —CN ; — N3.
They stated that the influence of these groups is not easily definable
with exactness and that the presence of other groups may modify pro-
foundly their effect, even so far as entirely to suppress the odour.
Kupe and Majewski attempted to determine by experiment the influence
of the relative positions of osmophores on each other in the same molecule.
In the case of the three methyl tri-azo-benzoates no great difference in
the type of odour exists, only a difference in the strengths, the para com-
pound being the strongest and the ortho the weakest. Of the three
methoxy-acetophenones, as another example, the meta isomer is almost
odourless in comparison with the ortho and para.
Rupe also found that one osmophore can be replaced by another
without greatly altering the type of the odour, thus vanilline, p-mtro-
guaiacol, and _p-cyanoguaiacol all have similar odours but varying in
strength.
Cohn l instanced a similar phenomenon in the similarity of the
odours of, benzaldehyde, nitro-benzene, benzonitrile, azimidobenzene, and
phenyldi-imide. He developed the " osmophore " theory and introduced
the terms " kakosmophore " and " enosmophore " to indicate those groups
which impart an upleasant and a pleasant odour respectively. The
kakosmophore groups are :—
—SH ; —S— ; —NC ; —As—but —CN is enosmophoric.
Cohn also drew attention to the fact that the molecular weight must
not be excessive if the substance is to have an odour, and that it frequently
happens that the addition of more osmophores to an odoriferous molecule
results in odourlessness due to an excessive molecular weight.
Itishould be noticed that the similarity between the osmophore theory
and Witt's chromophore colour theory does not extend much beyond the
initial conception and there seems to be no connection between the odour
and the colour of a body, it is indeed quite the exception for a body to
have both a strong odour and a strong colour. Two prolific sources of
colour, viz. the diazo group and a large molecule have no counterpart as
regards odour, and it is probably only by chance that quinone and
chroman both have pronounced odours and are the sources of colour.
The lack of connection between the two phenomena is, of course, to
be expected since colour is an objective phenomenon whereas odour is
subjective, or, as Kuzicka puts it, colour has a physical and odour a
chemical influence on the human senses.
Cohn points out that position isomerism is of the greatest importance
as regards the odours of isomerides, this is strikingly instanced in the
case of the tri-nitro tertiary butyl xylenes since the only one possessing
the powerful musk odour is that in which the nitro groups are situated
each in the meta position to the two others ; again the ortho-amido-
benzaldehyde has a strong odour but the meta and para isomerides are
odourless.
Cohn concludes that with benzenoid bodies " side chains " only im-
part odour when they occupy the ortho or para positions relatively to
one another, and he further states that the 1 . 3 . 4 positions are the most
1
Die Riechstoffe, 1904-
favourable for the production of odour. Many instances can be quoted in
refutation of these statements. It is, however, an undoubted fact that
the para isomers tend to possess stronger and more pleasant odours than
either the ortho or the meta.
One of the most important publications on this subject, considered
from the chemical side, is that of Gertrude Woker.1 This investigator
drew attention to the importance of multiple bonding. The double bond
is often accompanied by a pleasant, but the triple or acetylenic linkage
generally produces a disagreeable smell ; a multiplicity of double bond
can produce an effect equivalent to a triple bond.
Inasmuch as the terms pleasant and disagreeable are merely relative,
these statements are not capable of being accurately examined, but with-
out doubt there is a strong tendency for multiple bonding to produce a
strengthening of the odours.
Woker attributes this fact to an internal tension or strain caused by
the multiple bonding and the consequent increase in the volatility of the
body. Thus by loading one and the same carbon atom in a molecule
with the same or similar groups each having the same " polarity," — as in
the case of tertiary compounds —great intramolecular repelling forces are
set up, and this results in the well-known camphor type of odour which
almost invariably accompanies compounds with tertiary carbon atoms.
A group of opposite " sign " operates against the other three and has a
great influence, thus — COOH will greatly weaken the effect of three
methyl groups.
Woker attempts to apply this strain theory to ring compounds, and
considers that the five carbon atom ring produces less strongly odoured
substances than any other and points out that, according to Baeyer's
strain theory, the five carbon ring has the least internal tension. It is
very doubtful if this contention is correct, since the penta-methylenes do
not seem to be less strongly odoured than other polymethylene ring
compounds.2
Woker points out that the closing of a chain compound to form a ring
compound does not affect the odour much, thus the aliphatic terpineol
of W. H. Perkin, Jr.,3 2*3 di-methyl 5 hexenol 2 has a very similar
odour to a-terpineol, their respective formulae being : —
CH, C . CH3
V /\
CH CH, CH
CH8 CH,
r i
CH, CH,
\ / \/
CH CH
I I
C . OH C . OH
2*3 di-methyl 5 hexenol 2. a-Terpineol.

If the closing of the chain involves the disappearance of double bonds
l
2
Jour. Phys. Chem., 1906,
x. 455
:;
Cf. P. and E.O.R., May,
1919, 115, 123.
Schimmel's Report, April, 1907, 113.
ODOUE AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION - - 31
the odour also diminishes, thus formaldehyde polymerises to the odour-
less trioxymethylene.
O
CH CH9
3CH2=0 -, I
CH,
Woker has apparently overlooked the classic example of the icon-
version of pseudo-ionone to ionone.
CMe
/ \
CH2 CH—CH=CH— CO.CH 3 -*
CH., CMe2 Pseudo-ionone.
\ S
CH
CMe,
/ \
CH, CH—CH= CH— CO . CH3
CH2
r CMe
i a-Ionone.
\ /
CH
'This transformation involves both the closing of the ring and the
disappearance of a double bond, and the result is an enormous strength-
ening of the odour. ^
Woker considers the cases of elements other than carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen, and shows that if the last be replaced by sulphur the odour
becomes more marked and less pleasant ; also that nitrogen when function-
ing as a trivalent element, frequently imparts a characteristic ammoni-
acal odour ; if it be bound to another atom by two bonds the odour is
intensified and deteriorates in quality. Phosphorous likewise frequently
imparts a disgusting odour to its compounds, and the odour of hydrogen
phosphide becomes progressively more penetrating when its hydrogen
utoms are successively replaced by alkyl, phenyl, or tolyl radicles, the
tertiary phosphines causing positive pain when smelt, but this last fact
is probably due to the reaction which takes place between tertiary phos-
phines and water in the nose.
Arsenic, antimony, and bismuth all impart unpleasant odours to their
compounds, and Woker points out a highly important fact that it is only
when the total valency of these elements is not employed that these
odours are produced.
Woker points out the apparent anomaly presented by uric acid.
NH— CO
I I
CO C— NH X
II )CO
NH— C— NH/
Uric acid is odourless in spite of three carbonyl groups, four trivalent
nitrogen atoms and a double bond, and that it is similarly colourless in
spite of four chromophores. Measurements of its refractive and disper-
sive properties indicate that it is a saturated body which suggests that
molecular attraction exists between the various groups.
The explanation of the odourlessness of this acid probably rests on
physical grounds. It is extremely insoluble in water and in oils, and is
practically non-volatile.
In 1909 Mehrling and Welde1 investigated experimentally the cause
of the " violet" odour of the ionones.
They formulated the rule that:—
" The aldehydes of cyclogeraniolene (or A° 1 * 3 • 3 tri-methyl cyclo-
hexene) form with acetone, bodies having a violet odour, so long as the
aldehyde group is next to the methyl or to the di-methyl group or to both,,
and the intensity of the violet odour increases with the number of alde-
hyde groups in the neighbourhood of the methyl. The odour of the
acetone condensation product disappears when the aldehyde group is-
removed from the neighbourhood of the methyl."
Thus in the case of the four cyclocitrals:—
CMe2 CMe, CMe2 CMe2
/\ . /\ /\ / \
CH2 C.CHO CH, CH.CHO CH2 CH. CHO CH CH. CHO
CH 2 CMe CH2 CMe CH CHMe CH CHMe
/ \ -/ \ / \ /
H2 CH CH CH2
their acetone condensation products all have an odour of violets, being
respectively /3-ionone ; a-ionone ; a-irone; and /3-irone.
Mehrling and Welde first determined if hydro-aromatic ring alde-
hydes in general gave violet like odours when condensed with acetone, and
it was found that in the case of the four following aldehydes only the
first yields a body having a violet odour:—
CHMe CH2 CH.C 3 H 7 CH
CH2 CH . CHO CH, CH . CHO CH., CH CH., C . CHO
I I " I |* I I fCMe2li
CH CHMe CH CHMe CH2 C.CHO CH, CH
CH CH CHMe CMe
the other yielding bodies having odours of fenchone and camphor.
They concluded, therefore, that in order to obtain the violet odour
the side chain must be connected to a cyclogeraniolene ring, e.g.:—
CHMe CHMe
//\ / \
CH CH CH2 CH.CHO
| | or | | etc.
CH2 CMe2 CH CHMe
\ /
CH
1
Annalen, 366, 119.
In order to determine if any other condition is necessary they con-
densed acetone with the following isomers of the cyclocitrals : —
CMe2 CMe2 CMe2
X \CH / \
CH CH 2 GH 2 2 CHO . C CH 2
CHO . C CHMe CH CHMe CH CHMe

\ /
\/
CH CHO CH2
and so obtained isomers of the ionones and irones.
The first of these cyclocitrals yielded an almost odourless product, but
the two others gave violet odoured bodies, hence they concluded that the
violet odour is only obtained when the side chain — CH= CH . CO . CH3
is next to a methyl group in the cyclogeraniolene ring.
To the conditions enunciated by Mehrling and Welde might be added
that the side chain must be unsaturated since di-hydroionone only has a
faint odour, and also that the violet odour is occasiopally present with
bodies of quite different structure from the ionones, for instance A' 2 '2*4
tri-methyl-tetra-hydro-benzaldehyde.
They next determined if the property of forming this violet odour
rests in the grouping — CMe2 — C(CHO) — CMe — such as occurs in the
cyclocitral ring, but it was found that the simplest aldehyde with
this grouping, viz. iso-propyl butyl aldehyde, CHMe2 . CH(CHO)CH2Me
when condensed with acetone yields a body having only a floral and not
a violet odour.
Austerweil and Cochin l in 1910 published the results of an experi-
mental investigation into the chemical nature of bodies having a rose
odour. The citronellol molecule was modified by the introduction of
various groups, but it was found that no very profound change results
when one or two methyl groups are introduced by substituting the
hydrogens attached to the carbon atom adjacent to the hydroxyl group.
Thus, citronellol,2 CMe2=CH . CH2 . CH2 . CHMe . CH2 . CH2 . OH, has a
rose like odour ; 1 methyl citronellol,
CMe2-CH . CH2 . CH2 . CHMe . CH2 . CHMeOH,
has the same odour but more pronounced, and suggestive of tea roses.
2 Di-methyl-citronellol, CMe2=CH . CH2 . CH2 . CHMe . CH2CMe2OH,
has the rose odour but is also slightly camphoracious (as is to be expected
with a tertiary alcohol) ; 1 ethyl citronellol has a very fine odour of roses
and 2 di-ethyl-citronellol is like the di-methyl compound but the rose
odour is more pronounced ; 1 phenyl citronellol is very strong.
They concluded that the rose odour accompanies the alcoholic group
whether primary, secondary, or tertiary, that is to say is represented by
the group —CH2CRBOH, where R is either a hydrogen atom or am
alkyl or aryl group. Semmler 3 had previously noticed that the rose-
odour is only evinced with an eight carbon atom chain in combination
with the group — CH2 . CRR . OH, thus di-methyl-heptenol,
CMe2= CH— CH2—CH2 . CMe2 . OH,
1
Comptes Rendus, 150, 1693.
8
There is some doubt concerning the formulae quoted here, but the conclusions
we no* vitiated thereby.
3
Die Aetherischen Oele, Vol. I, 249 250.
VOL. II. 3
has a fruity but not a rose odour. It should be noted, however, that
saturated alcohols with eight and nine carbon atom chains such as octyl
and nonyl alcohols do not have a rose odour, and it seems as if the pre-
sence of a double bond is also necessary for a distinct rose odour to exist.
Similar results with geraniol were published in the following year.1
It was found that 1 methyl geraniol,
CMe2 =CH . CH 2 . CH 2 . CMe= CH . CHMeOH,
has a pronounced odour of geraniums, 1 ethyl and 2 di-ethyl-geraniol
are more like the original alcohol. Au^terweil and Cochin concluded
that the more the group —GEE . OH increases in importance the less
the influence of the neighbouring double bond since 1 phenyl geraniol has
a geranium odour strongly reminiscent of roses ; further that the odour
changes from the rose to the geranium type on the introduction of a
second double bond.
W. H. Perkin, Jr., and his collaborators during the course of an ex-
tended investigation into the synthesis of the terpenes recorded some
interesting facts. It was found that A 3 ' 8/9 ^j-menthadiene has an even
more pronounced lemon odour than A r8/1 '_?>menthadiene (dipentene)
CMe CMe
CJdL., OH, (_yjLl2 CH
CH2 CH CH2 CH,

\S \/
C CH
<! A
CH, CH,
A 3 ' 8 /' > p-menthaciiene. Dipentene.
and the conclusion was drawn that the lemon odour was independent of
the position of the double bond. On removing the double bond from
the ring there results A 8/9 j>-menthene and the lemon odour disappears,
;giving place to a faint parsley odour; similarly A* jo-menthene which
has one double bond in the ring and none in the side chain also only
Jhave a faint odour. It follows that both double bonds are necessary for
the lemon odour to be manifest.
The methyl group, para to the isopropyl, modifies, but is not essential
for, the production of the lemon odour since A 3%/89 nor-menthadiene is
very like lemons in odour.
CH2
X\
CH, CH,
r CHi "
CH2
C
C
CH, CH,
J
Cowiptes itettdws, 151, 440.
ODOUR AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION 35
It should also be noted that the lemon odour is not confined to the
para isomers, as it is even more pronounced in several of the ortho and
meta bodies, although generally modified.
Perkin pointed out that open chain compounds, which are analogous
in structure to a terpene, show a certain similarity in behaviour ; thus
the addition of an ethyl group to 2-methyl 1'5-hexadiene by converting it
into 2-methyl 3-ethyl 1'5-hexadiene changes the unpleasant acrid odour
into a pleasant one reminding of lemon and peppermint.
CH2 =CH— CH2 CH2 =CH— CH2
\ \
CH 2 .CMe=dL> -> CH— CMe-CH,
9
2-methyl 1'5-hexadiene. 2-methyl 3-ethyl l*5-hexadiene.
Turning again to the theoretical aspect. Electrical theories have been
advanced by Teudt,1 Aronsohn, Zwaardemaker, and others, but little
attention need be paid to these.
Durrans 2 in 1919 attempted to develop a theory based on the ex-
amination of the odours of substances considered class by class, and
expressed the opinion that, from a chemical point of view, odour is caused
primarily by the presence of unsatisfied or residual affinity, but that the
possession or otherwise of an odour by a body depends on physiological
and physical as well as chemical properties. This theory, which is
named the " Eesidual Affinity Theory of Odour," demands that if a sub-
stance has an odour, it must answer to the following requirements : —
1. It must possess free or residual affinity.
2. It must be sufficiently soluble in both the water and the lipoid fats
of the nose.
3. It must be volatile in order that it can reach the nostrils.
If a body be what we term odourless, its odourlessness may be due to
its failure to satisfy any one or more of these demands.
The second of the premises of the residual affinity theory has already
been dealt with here, the third is obvious, it remains therefore only to
consider the first.
The " Residual Affinity Odour Theory " can have both a qualitative
and a quantitative conception since the nature, distribution, and amount
of affinity may vary from substance to substance. It is well known that
bodies of similar type and construction frequently have similar odours.
This fact was drawn attention to by Parry 3 who instanced the various
types of odoriferous alcohols : —
1. The fruity odours of the higher fatty alcohols.
2. The soft rose-like and similar odours of the di-olefinic alcohols of
the geraniol type.
3. The soft heavier odours of the cyclo substituted aliphatic alcohols
such as benzyl and phenyl-ethyl alcohols.
4. The sharp (camphoraceous ?) alcohols of the terpene alcohols of
the borneol type.
5. The heavy '" oriental " odours of the sesquiterpene alcohols.
6. The phenolic odours.
!P. and E.O.R., Jan. 1920, 12; Feb. 1920, 38.
2 Ibid., 21 May, 1919, and Dec. 1920, 391.
*Ibid.t May, 1916, 129.
As other instances of typical " class " odours might be quoted :—

Para substituted phenol ethers . Aniseed
Ring substituted dihydroxy benzenes Quinone
Cyclohexane alcohols Menthol
Menthenols . Terpineol
Menthadienes Lemons
Ketenes Piercing
Aldehydrates . Intense lemon
Acetals . Soft ethereal
1-2-di-ketones Quinone.
Very many other examples might be quoted, but these suffice to show
that each of the classes of substances quoted has some common inherent
characteristic quite apart from questions of volatility, solubility, or
physiological action.
Durrans attributes this concurrence to the unsatisfied or residual
affinity of the molecules, the residual affinity of each molecule being com-
parable with that of other molecules of the same type, any variation of
odour between the substances of cne type or between the types being due to
variations in the residual affinity either in kind, quantity, or distribution.
This theory takes account of the view that the sensation of odour is
the result of a chemical reaction in the nose, since in order for a body to
be able to enter into chemical reaction the possession of residual affinity
is probably a sine qua raw, but it should be noted that the converse does
not hold.
It is easy to conceive that a class of similar bodies possessing similar
residual affinities would react with the osmoceptors of the nose in similar
manners and in consequence produce similar odours.
It is not easy exactly to determine the amount or distribution of the
residual affinity of a molecule, but certain examples afford satisfactory
ground for surmise.
Consider the benzene molecule. When not overpowered by other
osmophores, it generally imparts a typical " aromatic " odour, but directly
the nature of the ring—with all the possibilities of its six "fourth affini-
ties "—is upset by the introduction of two or more hydrogen atoms which
are themselves non-osmophoric, an entirely different but still character-
istic class odour results. A large change in the residual affinity of the
molecule has been accompanied by a large change of odour.
Mere substitution of hydrogen, by a weak osmophore methyl, for in-
stance, does not produce any striking change of odour; this corresponds
with the fact that the affinities of the benzene ling are only slightly in-
terfered with in this case. It should also be noted that the hydrobenzenes
no longer possess the chemical properties of benzene, being more like
aliphatic bodies. This fact is again in accordance with the idea that
odour is the result of a chemical reaction in the nose.
Another interesting example to examine is that of the ketenes. These
bodies of extremely piercing odour have the general formula KK'C=CO,
and they give ample evidence of unsatisfied affinity, polymerising with
exceptional rapidity, combining easily with water and alcohols and con-
densing with other substances in many ways. If the double bond of the
ketenes be hydrogenated there result the corresponding ketones, which
are much milder in odour, much less reactive, and which show much
less evidence of unsatisfied affinity.
Unsaturated bodies, generally, have stronger odours than the corre-
sponding saturated compounds and are known to possess more residual
ODOUR AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION 37
affinity than the latter, and to be more reactive chemically. Thus for
example the very pungent dipropargyl or l*5-hexadiine, which is very
reactive chemically, corresponds to the stable and nearly odourless
saturated hexane; other pairs which might similarly be enlarged upon
are allyl and w-propyl alcohols ; carbon suboxide and propylene glycol;
crotonic aldehyde and n-butylaldehyde, and so on.
The effect of a particular element on the odour of its compound seems
also to lend support to the "residual affinity" theory, for it is only the
elements which possess residual affinity in certain of their compounds,
which function as osmophores. Oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorous,
halogens, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, etc., whose valencies vary under
certain conditions are powerfully osmophoric whereas carbon, hydrogen,
and many others which have a constant valency are practically non-
osmophoric, and it is very instructive to note that the element is osmo-
phoric when it is not employing its full number of valencies and therefore
has free affinity.
By far the larger number of elements are non-osmophoric because
they or their compounds fail to satisfy one or more of the three essential
conditions of the residual affinity theory. Thus the majority of salts
cannot have an appreciable odour because of two reasons—non-volatility
and non-solubility in the lipoid fats, also in many cases the chance of
the existence of free, residual affinity is remote. These defects are not
necessarily inherent in the atom itself but may be due to its manner of
combination ; thus arsenic, when functioning as a metal, does not yield
odoriferous compounds, for example, arsenious chloride, in spite of its
high volatility, is odourless. But when it is part of a radical, it fre-
quently gives rise to bodies of great pungency such as cacodyl As 2 Me 4 ;
the fact that cacodyl readily takes fire in air is good evidence that it
possesses unsatisfied affinity.
The osmophoric elements are all closely associated in the periodic
table and are therefore likely to have a fundamental common character-
istic and the property of varying valence is one of their common charac-
teristics, whereas it seldom occurs with the non-osmophoric elements.
If in an odoriferous body the atoms with which the possibility of free
affinity exists be replaced by others where such possibility does not exist
the odour is removed. Thus cacodyl would yield the odourless ethane ;
methyl iodide would give methane; ethyl hydro-selenide would yield
ethane, and so on.
It seems evident therefore that the unsatisfied affinity of an odori-
ferous body plays a fundamental part in the production of its odour by
reason of one or more chemical reactions taking place in the olfactory
organ; the reactions must necessarily be complicated and rapid. They
are at present entirely unknown and problematical, but no very great
progress in the knowledge of this subject* is likely to be made until the
chemical properties of the osmoceptors have been determined.
CHAPTER III.
THE following groups of compounds will be described in the present
chapter : —
1. Hydrocarbons.
2. Sesquiterpenes.
3. Alcohols.
4. Esters.
5. Aldehydes.
6. Ketones.
7. Phenols and phenolic compounds.
8. Oxides and lactones.
9. Nitrogen compounds.
10. Sulphur
11. Free acids.
1. HYDROCARBONS,
HEPTANE.
The aliphatic hydrocarbon heptane, C7H16, has recently been dis-
covered as a constituent of the oil obtained by the distillation of the
resinous exudation of Pinus Sabiniana, Pinus Jeffreyi, and a few other
essential oils. It is a highly volatile liquid of specific gravity 0-688 and
boils at 98° to 99°. It has, probably, the lowest specific gravity of all
liquids found naturally in essential oils.
STYROLENE.
Styrolene, C8H8, also known as styrol, is phenyl-ethylene, of the con-
stitution.
CH
HO- .CH
C . CH : CH2
It is a very aromatic oil, useful in some bouquets, and is found
naturally in storax and other balsamic substances. It is prepared by
various methods, amongst them being the heating of cinnamic acid with
lime to 200°. It is a colourless, highly refractive liquid having the
following characters : —
Specific gravity ....... 4 . . 0-9074
Refractive index ......... 1-5403
Boiling-point ......... 140° to 145°
(38)
THE CONSTITUENTS OF ESSENTIAL OILS 89
It yields two sets of halogen derivatives, the a-derivatives—for example,
bromostyrolene, C6H5CH: CHBr—and the /^-derivatives, such as
C6H6CBr: CH2. The ^-products are useless in perfumery, but the a-
products are highly odorous bodies, possessing a powerful odour of
hyacinths, a-chlorostyrolene is obtained by the action of caustic alkali
on dichlorethyl-benzene. a-bromostyrolene is obtained by boiling di-
brom-hydrocinnamic acid with water, o-chlorostyrolene boils at 199°,
and a-bromostyrolene melts at 7C and boils at 220°.
Styrolene yields a dibromide, C6H5 CHBr. CH9Br, melting at 74°
to 74-5°.
DIPHENYL-METHANE.
This hydrocarbon, C 6 H 5 . CH 2 . C6H5, is a synthetic body, with an odour
which is in the main that of geranium leaves, but which also has a sug-
gestion of oranges. It has lately come into considerable vogue, together
with the corresponding body, diphenyl-oxide, as the basis of artificial
geranium oil. It can be prepared by treating benzyl chloride and benzene
with zinc-dust; or from methylene chloride, benzene, and aluminium
chloride ; or by the reduction of benzophenone with zinc-dust. It is a
crystalline body melting at 26*5°, and boils at 261°.
TERPENES.
The terpenes proper are mostly volatile liquids—rarely solids—all
having the formula C10H16; they form the principal portion, from a
quantitative point of view, of an enormous number of essential oils, but
rarely have any great odour value. They are easily decomposable, es-
pecially under the influence of air, moisture, and light, and it is the
decomposition of the terpenes in an essential oil, due to age or faulty
storage, which is the most frequent cause of the oil spoiling. Since most
terpenes boil within a comparatively narrow range, it is somewhat
difficult to separate them in a state of purity. Even when converted
into crystalline compounds from which the terpene is regenerated, there is
a possibility of molecular rearrangement, so that the regenerated terpene
may be different from the original. Hence the fact that numerous
terpenes have been described from time to time, which are in reality im-
pure forms of a well-known terpene with traces of some other body.
This is especially true of pinene which has been described under
numerous other names. The ease with which molecular rearrangement
takes place in many terpenes, renders evidence of constitution based on
analytical reactions of these bodies of doubtful value, and it is only in the
case of those terpenes which have been synthesised that their constitution
can be regarded as definitely settled.
The type substance upon which the nomenclature of the terpenes is
based is hexahydro-p-cymene, which is termed j}-menthane, the carbon
atoms being numbered as shown in the following formula:—
/CH2—CH2x
/ 2 a \
4N
CH3—CH/ ^ >CH—CH
X « * o /
X3H.,—CH.,/
Following'the usual rules of chemical nomenclature, the examples below
are readily understood:—
X/V^-1-J. . V_^J.J.ij\. s\Jl
CH 3 . Of " >CH—CH/
\CB8. CH,/ XJI
containing one double linking, is A ^-menthene.
i
PTT . r^TT r TT
<
v^n o_ri9v s,\jrL. y
- \CH-Cf "
CH,.CH,/ \CH,
or limonene, containing two double Unkings, is A l 8(9)-^-menthadiene.
2
CH 3 .C/ ' \CH.C(OH)/
\CH 2 . CH,/ \CH,
or terpineol is A ^jj-menthenol (8), the (8) referring to the ol, or hydroxy
group.
The abbreviated nomenclature of the compounds of the ortho and meta-
series follows the same rules. For example :—
CHgv g
>C(OH) — CH — CH
CH/ /* » \
10
CH,.«
7 x
CH,—CH,
is A 3 -o-menthenol 8.
8 'CH,
CH = C — Cf
^CH3
s ^ 10
CH 3 . CH/ l
\6 5/
CH,—CH,
2 8
A - .(°)-w-menthadiene.
PlNENE.
There are four distinct terpenes known under this name, namely,
a-pinene, /3-pinene, 8-pinene, and isopinene. It must be emphasised, how-
ever, that they are all of different constitution, and the customary nomen-
clature is ill-chosen, as they should be known by entirely different names.
Pinene in one form or another has been described under numerous
names, such as terebenthene, australene, eucalyptene, laurene, olibene, and
massoyene, all of which are more or less impure forms of a-pinene or
/ft-pinene.
a-pinene is the most commonly occurring terpene found in nature,
and, according to most modern views, has the following formula :—
CH,
A
CH
«-pinene is an optically active terpene, which occurs both in the dextro-
rotatory and the laevo-rotatory forms, but is not found in the inactive
form, except as a mixture in unequal quantities of the two active forms,
with a varying specinc rotation.
It is obtained from American turpentine as dextro-a-pinene, or from
French turpentine as laevo-a-pinene. It is also obtained in a very pure
form as dextro-a-pinene from Greek oil of turpentine. Optically inactive
a-pinene can be obtained by regeneration from the nitrosochloride. The
purest specimens of a-pinene yet obtained have the following char-
acters :—
Dextro-a-Pinene. Laevo-a-Pinene.
Boiling-point . . . . 155° to 156° 155° to 156°
Specinc gravity at 15° 0*864 0-865
Refractive index at 20° 1-4656
Specinc rotation + 48-4° - 48-6°
Optically inactive a-pinene can be obtained by heating a-pinene
nitrosochloride with aniline.1 It has the following characters:—
Boiling-point 155° to 156°
Specific gravity 0-862
Refractive index 1-46553
Optical rotation + 0°
Wallach2 has also obtained laevo-a-pinene by heating nopinol-acetic
acid in a current of hydrogen.
a-pinene forms a number of well-defined crystalline compounds,
several of which serve for its identification. Of these one of the best
known is the nitrosochloride. This body was discovered by W. A.
Tilden, who prepared it in the following manner: the pinene is dis-
solved in two to three times its volume of petroleum ether, cooled to 0°,
and an 8 per cent, solution of nitrosyl chloride in equal volumes of
petroleum ether and chloroform added with constant stirring, care being
taken that the temperature is kept as near 0° as possible. When the
reaction is over alcohol is added, and the crystalline precipitate is
separated, washed with alcohol, and dried at 50°. The melting-point of
the compound is usually given as 103°, but by careful crystallisation from
a chloroform solution it can be raised to 115°. It is possible that the true
melting-point is about 109°, and that higher figures may be due to decom-
position into nitroso-pinene. Tilden stated that only very small yields of
the nitrosochloride, which is optically inactive, could be obtained from
1 2
Wallach, AnnaUn, 252, 132; 258, 343. Ibid., 368, 1.
a-pinene with a high optical rotation: the lower the optical rotation of
the pinene used, the higher is the yield of nitrosochloride obtained. The
formula for pinene-nitrosochloride has been assumed to be C10H16NOCly
but Baeyer showed it to be a bi-molecular compound of the formula
(C10H16NOC1)2, and always consists of equal quantities of the nitroso-
chlorides of the two optically active forms of a-pinene. Hence its optical
inactivity. Where the pinene, from which it is derived, is highly
optically active, that is, contains much excess of one of the optically
active forms, the nitrosochloride of that active form is the result of the
reaction. This body, however, is very unstable and tends to become
inverted to optical inactivity, but during the inversion so much heat is-
liberated that the bulk of the nitrosochloride is decomposed. This,
then, is the explanation of the fact that the yield of nitrosochloride is in
inverse ratio to the optical activity of the a-pinene.
In the preparation of the nitrosochloride, Wallach proposed to use
pinene in glacial acetic acid and amyl nitrite. Ehestadt has recently
proposed the following method, which is very simple and yields excellent
results : The pinene (or oil of turpentine) is diluted with its own volume
of ether, the solution cooled with ice, and the gas generated by dropping
a saturated solution of sodium nitrite into concentrated hydrochloric
acid passed through the solution. Fine crystals of pinene-nitrosochloride
soon commence to separate out. Schimmel & Co. obtained the following
yields of nitrosochloride by the methods quoted :—
Rotation of Per Cent. (Tilden). Per Cent. (Wallach). Per Cent. (Ehesttidt).
Pinene.
+ 11° 10' 10 per cent. 30-31-4 per cent. 37'5 per cent.
+ 40° 23' 4 4-6
- 33° 42' 9-11 10
+ 0° 20 22
Nitroso-pinene is obtained from pinene-nitrosochloride by the action of

alcoholic potash,
C10H16NOC1 + KOH = C10H15NO + KC1 + H2O.
Nitroso-pinene may be prepared for identification purposes as follows:
To a solution of 12 grams of sodium in 30 c.c. of 90 per cent, alcohol,
100 grams of pinene-nitrosochloride are added. The mixture is boiled
on a water-bath, under a reflux condenser, until the reaction is complete.
Water is added, the • clear solution filtered from insoluble impurities,
and the filtrate poured into excess of acetic acid. The nitroso-pinene
separates as an oil which solidifies to a yellowish mass in a few days.
This is broken up, washed with water, and dried on a porous plate. It
can be recrystallised from acetic ether, when it is obtained in the pure
condition, and then melts at 132°.
Pinene-nitrosochloride forms a series of compounds with various
bases, such as propylamine, amylamine, benzylamine, etc., known as
pinene-nitrolamines. If two molecules of benzylamine in alcoholic
solution be allowed to act on one molecule of pinene-nitrosochloride,
pinene nitrol-benzylamine separates on the addition of water, and on
recrystallisation from a mixture of ether and alcohol, forms beautiful
rhombic crystals melting at 122° to 123°. Dextro-a-pmene and laevo-a-
pinene yield the same optically inactive nitrolamines. The corresponding
nitrol-piperidine melts at 118° to 119°. Wallach considers the formula
for the nitrolamines to be—
/NO
°»H'<NHB
whilst Baeyer considers them to be bi-molecular and to have the
formula —
NHK EHN,
An important compound for the identification of pinene is the hydro-

chloride C10H16HC1, a body once known as artificial camphor, on account
of its odour being very similar to that of natural camphor. This body
is obtained by saturating well-cooled perfectly dry pinene with dry
hydrochloric acid gas. If the reagent is moist or the temperature be
allowed to rise, the terpene molecule suffers rearrangement and some
dipentene dihydrochloride is formed. Pinene hydrochloride is a volatile
substance, having a camphor-like odour, and melts at 127°. The optical
properties of pinene hydrochloride are peculiar. Wallach states that the
hydrochloride from laevo-pinene is laevo-rotatory, whilst that from dextro-
pinene is optically inactive. Long,1 however, has shown that this is
not correct, and in this has recently been fully confirmed by Tsakalotos
and Papaconstanfinou.2 The laevo-rotatory hydrochloride prepared by
Wallach had a specific rotation - 3O7°, and the last-named chemists
have prepared numerous samples from dextro-pmene, whose specific
rotation varied only between +33° and + 33*4°.
Pinene hydrobromide, C10H16HBr, is prepared in a manner similar
to that described for the hydrochloride. It melts at 80° and has a specific
rotation of about + 30° or - 30°, according to the rotation of the pinene
from which it is prepared.
Sometimes, on account of the difficulty in preparing the nitroso-
chloride from a highly active a-pinene, it is necessary to examine the
oxidation products before it is possible to come definitely to a conclusion
as to the presence or absence of the hydrocarbon. Pinene yields numer-
ous acids as the result of oxidising processes, so that the method of
preparing the product to be examined must be rigidly adhered to if
useful results are to be obtained. The terpene is transformed into
pinonic acid, Cj0Hlt5O3, in the following manner : A solution of 233
grams of potassium permanganate in 2000 c.c. of water is placed in a
flask, and an emulsion of 100 grams of the hydrocarbon in 600 c.c. of
water is gradually added in small portions. The mixture is kept cool
by means of a current of cold water, and shaken continuously. The
oxidation products are then treated as follows : The liquid is filtered
from manganese oxide, and evaporated to about 1000 c.c., saturated
with carbon dioxide, and the neutral and unaltered compounds removed
by extracti )n with ether in the usual manner. The crude pinonic acid
is separated from its potassium salt by sulphuric acid and is then ex-
tracted with ether. If /3-pinene be present, nopinic acid will be present
1
2
Jour.Amer. Cliem. Soc., 21, 637.
Jour, de Pharm. et de Chim., 1916, 97.
amongst the oxidation products. This forms a highly insoluble sodium
salt, and is removed in this form.
There appear-to be either several isomerides of pinonic acid, or such
closely related oxidation products as to render the purification of the
acid a matter of great difficulty. The characters of the dextro- and laevo-
rotatory forms of this acid have, however, been settled by the researches
of Barbier and Grignard * and Schimmel & Co.2
By oxidation of d- and Z-pinene of high rotatory power, Barbier and
Grignard obtained the optically active forms of pinonic acid. Z-pinene
from French turpentine oil (boiling-point 155° to 157°, a D - 37'2°; 157° to
160°, aD - 32'3°) was oxidised with permanganate. From the product
of oxidation, which (after elimination of the volatile acids and of nopinic
acid) boiled at 189° to 195° under 18 mm. pressure, Z-pinonic acid separ-
ated out in long crystalline needles, which, after recrystallisation from
a mixture of ether and petroleum ether, melted at 67° to 69°. The
acid was easily soluble in water and ether, fairly soluble in chloro-
form, and almost insoluble in petroleum ether. Its specific rotation is
[a]D - 9O5° in chloroform solution. Oximation produced two oximes ;
one, laevo-rotatory, melting-point 128°; and the other, dextro-rotatory,
melting-point 189° to 191°.
14°
rZ-pinene from myrtle oil (boiling-point 155° to 158°; d—^ 0-8635 ;
nD 1-46977; [a]D + 39'4°) yielded upon oxidation a mixture of racemic
and ^-pinonic acids. The latter melted at 67° to 68° and showed the
same properties as the acid described above, except as regards its specific
rotatory power, which was found to be [a]D -f- 89'0°. By mixing the two
active pinonic acids the inactive form, melting-point 104°, was obtained.
Oximation produced the two oximes corresponding to the above. A pre-
paration obtained by Tiemann from a-dihydroxy-dihydrocampholenic
acid by means of distillation, and described as Z-pinonic acid (melting-
point 98° to 99°; oxime melting-point 147°) possibly represents, accord-
ing to Barbier and Grignard, a stereo-isomeric acid.
Schimmel & Co. have published the following method, based on the
oxidation of a-pinene to pinonic acid, and /?-pinene to nopinic acid, for
the identification of pinene in mixtures, such as, for example, with
limonene in the case of lemon oil: Five c.c. of the oil or fraction of the
oil containing pinene is shaken with 12 grams of powdered potassium
permanganate, 2'5 c.c. of sodium hydroxide, and 700 c.c. of iced water for
about three hours. The mixture is then saturated with carbonic acid gas
and distilled with steam to remove any unoxidised products. After filtration
the liquid is evaporated in a current of carbon dioxide to about 200 c.c.
and repeatedly extracted with chloroform to remove impurities. Gradu-
ally, on further evaporation, a crystalline incrustation appears, which is
principally the highly insoluble sodium salt of nopinic acid, the oxidation
product of ^-pinene. This is separated by means of a suction filter and
treated with dilute sulphuric acid, when nopinic acid, C10H16O3, readily
separates out in crystals which melt at 125°. If nopinic acid be oxidised
by passing a current of steam through water in which the acid and lead
peroxide are suspended, the ketone, nopinone C9H14O, is produced. This
substance is a liquid ketone of unmistakable odour, forming a semicarba-
zone melting at 188'5°. The oxidation products of a-pinene remain in
1
Comptes rendus, 147 (1908), 597. -Report, April, 1909, 120.
the mother liquor after filtering off the sodium nopinate. At present,
however, no satisfactory method has been devised for separating this,
unless it be present in a comparatively large amount, when its semicarba-
zone can be prepared, which melts at 204°.
The hydration product of a-pinene is particularly interesting. If
pinene be allowed to remain in contact with dilute mineral acid for some
time, at ordinary temperature, terpin hydrate, C10H18(OH)2 + H2O, is
formed. The best method for the preparation of this body is as follows :
A mixture of 8 parts of pinene, 2 parts of alcohol, and 2 parts of nitric
acid, of specific gravity 1/250, is placed in a flat evaporating basin. After
standing for several days the liquid is poured off from the crystalline crust
which is formed, and neutralised with alkali, when a second crop of
crystals is obtained. The successful preparation of this compound depends
largely on the temperature of the atmosphere, and the best yield is
obtained during the cooler part of the year. Terpin hydrate, which also
results from the oxidation of limonene and dipentene, under suitable con-
ditions, crystallises from alcohol in transparent, well-defined monoclinic
prisms, soluble in 200 parts of cold water and in 22 parts of boiling water.
It melts at 116° to 117°. When distilled, or dried over sulphuric acid,
anhydrous terpin is formed. This body, C10H18(OH)2, ii.elts at 104C to
105°, and probably has the constitution indicated below, which suggests
that it is the hydrated compound of cineol or eucalyptol:—
PTT /^TT
U±la O±la
COH
COH
CH
J L
3 " 2^J VJ L L
- - 3
Terpin. Cineol.
It is convenient to here mention the hydrocarbon verbenene, C10H14,
on account of its relationship with pinene. It results from the action of
acetic anhydride on verbenol, thet alcohol corresponding with the ketone,
verbenone. So produced it is laevo-rotatory. The dextro-rotatory and
racemic varieties are also known.1 The sesquiterpenes have the following
characters when regenerated from their respective dibromides :—
^-Verbenene. rf-Verbenene.
Specific gravity 0-8866 0-8867
Specific rotation - 100-61° + 100*71°
Refractive index — 1-1980
They yield beautifully crystalline dibromides melting at 70° to 72° and
having a specific rotation ± 298°. The racemic dibromide melts at
50° to 52°.
1
Berichte, 1921, 54, 887; Annalen, 1913, i., 495.
/-Verbenene is reduced by sodium and alcohol to dihydroverbenene,

which is so closely related to pinene that it has been named 8-pinene.
This body has the following characters :—
Boiling-point . . . . . . 158° t o 159° a t 7 6 2 m m .
Specific gravity . . . . . . 0-865
Specific rotation + 36-52°
It yields ordinary pinene hydrochloride when treated in the usual
manner with hydrogen chloride. Verbenene and 8-pinene have the fol-
lowing constitutions:—
C . CH, CH . CH3
\
HC \ CH
S
C(CH,),
H,C H2C
\ CH
V
CH
8-Pinene.
/3-pinene, which is also known as nopinene, is found associated with
a-pinene in turpentine oil, and in numerous other terpene-containing
essential oils. The properties of yS-pinene, in as pure a state as it has
been obtained, are as follows :—
NATURAL /^-PINENE (FROM HYSSOP OIL).
Specinc gravity , 0-865
The artificially obtained terpin, prepared as described below, has the
(1) (2)
Boiling-point 162° to 163° 162° to 163°
Specific gravity 0-S66 0-8675
Refractive index ' 1-47^4 1-4749
Optical rotation - 22° 20' - 22 J 5'
/2-pinene has the following constitution :—
CH,
C
(CH<)
H9C CH,
CH
Wallachl has prepared this terpene artificially in the following manner:
The starting-point for the preparation of the hydrocarbon was the ketone
mopinone, which is the oxidation product of nopinic acid, which itself
results from the oxidation of /3-pinene or nopinene. By treating no-
pinone with bromacetic acid in the presence of zinc-dust, the ethyl ester
of nopinolacetic acid was obtained. This body, on dehydration by means
of acetic anhydride yields, together with other products, /2-pinene, which
has the characters given above,
/3-pinene does not yield a nitrosochloride. By treatment with dry
hydrochloric acid it yields a mixture of bornyl chloride and dipentene
dihydrochloride. The terpene is best identified by oxidation to nopinic
acid, as described under a-pinene, or, when existing in more than very
small quantity by the following method of procedure :—
Three parts of the oil or fraction containing much /2-pinene are well
shaken with a solution of 7 parts of potassium permanganate in 90 parts
of water, with 1-5 parts of caustic soda. When reaction is complete, the
product is steam distilled, and the residue, after removal of unaltered
products, filtered from the manganese oxide. The filtrate is reduced to
30 parts by evaporation, and the nopinate of sodium separated by cool-
ing the liquid. Excess of dilute sulphuric acid is added, and the nopinic
acid so released is extracted by benzene, from which it crystallises in
fine needles melting at 125° to 127°. The identification can be completed
by the further oxidatiorj of the nopinic acid to the ketone nopinone. Ten
grams of the nopinate of sodium are dissolved in 100 c.c. of boiling water,
and a solution of 3 grams of potassium permanganate in 75 c.c. of water
is added, and then 2 grams of sulphuric acid in 20 c.c. of water. The
ketone is obtained from the reaction mass by distillation with steam. It
yields a semicarbazone melting at 188° to 189°.
Varon 2 considers that a-pinene and /2-pinene exist in the following
approximate proportions in French, American, and German turpentine
oils:—
French Oil
Rotation [a]- Per Cent.
a-pinene - 39-5° <3
/3-pinene . . . - 19 8° 37
American Oil.
Rotation [a]j Per Cent.
a pinene . . . . . . . . . + 24° 73
j8-pinene - 19-8° 27
German Oil.
Rotation [a],- Per Cent.
a-pinene + 7-5° 7i
0-pinene - 18*3° ^8
Isopinene is a name which has been applied to at least two terpenes.
Of these the earliest so-named is that isolated by Aschan 3 by decompos-
ing the liquid chlorides obtained in the process of preparing pinene
hydrochloride, by the action of bases. He thus obtained a hydrocarbon
which he termed pinolene, C10H1(3, boiling at 145° to 146°. By converting
pinolene into its hydrochloride, and then removing the hydrochloric acid
by means of aniline, he prepared a terpene, which he termed isopinene,
1 2
Annalen, 245, 251. s
Comptes rendus, 149 (1909), 997.
Berichte, 40 (1907), 2250.
boiling at about 156°. Both terpenes yielded a hydrochloride melting
at 36° to 37°, which appear to be identical.
Further investigations showed that the two hydrochlorides are
identical in all respects. Moreover, pinolene is not a single body, but
a mixture of at least two hydrocarbons which the author has called a-and
/3-pinolenes. The separation of the two isomerides may be effected by
the action of potassium permanganate at 60° to 80° C.: a-pinolene is
completely destroyed, whilst the /3-isomeride persists.
fi-pinolene has the following characters :—
Boiling-point 14-2° to 144°
Optical rotation . + 0° 28'
Refractive index . 1-4477
Its molecular refraction is 42*37, appearing to indicate a trrcyclic
compound, whilst the value calculated for a tricyclic body C10H16 is
41-83.
/3-pinolene, when saturated in ethereal solution with dry hydrogen
chloride, at 15° C., yields a very readily liquifiable hydrochloride, melting
at 25° to 26° C., which does not appear to be identical with the hydro-
chloride obtained from crude pinolene. Aniline converts it into pure
The isopinene used in subsequent researches was obtained by frac-
tionating the pinolene boiling at 144° to 145° C., a mixture of the a- and
/?-isomeride, then treating it with hydrogen chloride and removing this
acid by means of aniline. The hydrocarbon obtained was purified by
oxidation with permanganate in acetone solution. It possesses the follow-
ing constants:—
orv°
Specific gravity . . . . . . . 0-8677 at
Optical rotation + 2° 30'
When purified by conversion into its hydrochloride and regenerated
by means of aniline, its properties were practically unaltered, as follows :—
Boiling-point 154-5° to 155'5°
20°
Specific gravity 0- 658 at -V_
Optical rotation . . . . . . . . + 2-61°
Refractive index . . . . . . . . 1-47025
According to Aschan the formula for isopinene is—
CH
C. CH.,
C(CH3)2
CH
CH
which is the formula proposed by Wallach for fenchene. The relationship
of this body to Wallach's fenchene is still a matter of uncertainty, and

requires further investigation (see vide under Fenchene, p. 55).
Zelinsky,1 apparently overlooking Aschan's isopinene, has improperly
appropriated the same name to a quite different terpene.
He prepared this in the following manner:—
U-pinene (boiling-point 155° to 155-5°; d ^ 0'8587; [a]D - 43-81°;
wD200 1*4652) in absolute ethereal solution was allowed to react with
palladium black. After a few hours hydrogen was passed into the liquid
at ordinary temperature, giving rise to a terpene possessing the following
20°
constants : boiling-point 158-5° to 159'5° d ~ 0-8573 ; [a]D - 38'09° ;
w020o 1*4641. It does not form a crystalline hydrochioride or nitroso-
chloride. Zelinsky assumes that a-pinene first absorbs hydrogen, with
the formation of hydropinene, and that wopinene results from the latter,
according to the following formulae : —
C.CH, CH . CH C . CH
EC/
CH9 CH9
X
CH CH
a-Pinene. Hydropinene. Isopinene.
The behaviour of a-pinene towards palladium black is very different
when it is exposed for a period of four weeks to the action of hydrogen
under very low pressure. In this case it yields hydropinene (boiling
on°
point 167-5° to 168°; d -^ 0-8567; [a]D - 19-84°; ?zD200 1-4605).
FlRPENE.
Firpene is a terpene, which may be a chemical individual, but which

may be an impure terpene not yet definitely characterised. It was
isolated from the turpentine of the " Western fir," by Frankforter and
Frary,2 who found it to have the following physical characters:—
Boiling-point . 152° to 153-5°
Specific gravity 0-8598 at 2Q°-
Eefractive index 1-47299
Specific rotation - 47-2°
It yields a crystalline hydrochioride melting at 130° to 131°. This com-
pound is much more easily volatilised than pinene hydrochioride. With
chlorine it yields a dichlor-firpene hydrochioride, whilst pinene yields no
similar compound. It also yields a crystalline hydrobromide melting at
102°. No crystalline nitrosochloride has been prepared. The melting
1 2
Berichte, 44 (19J1), 2782. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1906, xxviii. 1461.
VOL II. 4
points of the halogen compounds are barely sufficient to prove that they
are not mixtures of pinene and other hydrochlorides, and it is well
recognised that the nitrosochloride is extremely difficult to prepare when
the pinene is of high optical activity. Hence further evidence is neces-
sary before firpene can be regarded as a terpene of established individu-
ality.
CAMPHENE.
Camphene is the only well-recognised terpene which occurs in nature
in the solid condition. It occurs, like pinene, in both optically active
forms. The constitution of this terpene has been a matter of consider-
able difference of opinion, and the constitution assigned to it by Semmler
based on its similarity to bornylene was thought by many to be finally
accepted. Kecent researches, however, have clearly established that the
formula assigned to it by Wagner is the correct one.
Wagner's formula is as follows :—
CH,
C
/\
H
1
\
CH,
c \iCH
\
The synthetic evidence in favour of this formula is now quite indis-
putable.1
Camphene has the following characters :—
Melting-point . . 50° to 52°
Boiling-point . 159° „ 161°
Specific rotation 104° (sed quayre]
Refractive index 1-4550 at 50°
Specific gravity 0-8555 „ 40°
Camphene is extremely difficult to separate in the solid condition from
essential oils, and it may therefore be taken for granted that natural
camphene is rarely prepared in the pure condition. The figure given
above for the specific rotation is for a sample artificially prepared from
pinene hydrochloride.
Camphene is prepared artificially by the isomerisation of pinene with
sulphuric acid or by the withdrawal of HC1 from pinene monohydro-
chloride, or by the action of heat in the presence of acetic anhydride on
bornylamine, C10H17NH2, which causes the withdrawal of ammonia and
leaves camphene, as follows :—
C1(1H17NH2 :C10H10
1
Lipp, Berichte, 47 (1914), 891; Komppa, Berichte, ibid., 934; Haworth and
King, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1914,
It is best prepared, however, by converting the alcohol, borneol, into
hornyl chloride. The bornyl chloride is carefully dried and then gently
warmed with an equal weight of aniline. The mixture is then heated to
the boiling-point of aniline when the reaction, which is suddenly violent,
is quickly completed. The reaction mass is neutralised by hydrochloric
acid and distilled over in a current of steam. Camphene is rapidly
condensed and solidifies to a crystalline mass.
Camphene is not very stable at high temperatures, and when kept at
250° decomposes to a considerable extent, yielding other terpenes.
The identification of camphene is best carried out by its conversion
into isoborneol under the influence of acetic acid in the presence of
sulphuric acid. In order to effect this conversion, 100 grams of the
fraction containing the terpene in substantial quantity are mixed with
250 grams of glacial acetic acid and 10 grams of 50 per cent, sulphuric
acid. Tne mixture is heated for two to three hours on a water-bath to
a temperature of 50° to 60°. At first the liquid separates into two layers,
but soon becomes homogeneous and takes on a pale red colour. Excess
of water is added, and the oil which is precipitated, and which contains the
isoborneol in the form of its acetate, is well washed with water repeatedly.
It is then saponified by heating with alcoholic potash solution on a water-
bath. The liquid is then evaporated and extracted with water, and the
residue recrystallised from petroleum ether.
The isoborneol so formed melts at 212°, but the determination must
be carried out in a sealed tube, as the melting-point is very dose to the
temperature of sublimation. It is, however, very rarely that the
isoborneol so prepared is free from impurities, and the melting-point will
often be found to be as low as 203° to 205°. It is therefore necessary to
prepare derivatives of the isoborneol in order to identify it with certainty.
The compound with bromal melts at 71° to 72°. Other compounds will be
found mentioned under "isoborneol". By dehydration by means of
zinc chloride, isoborneol is easily converted into camphene, melting at
about 49° to 50°.
A number of characteristic derivatives of camphene have been pre-
pared of which the following are the most important.
Camphene hydrochloride, C10H16HC1, is prepared by passing dry
hydrochloric acid into an alcoholic solution of camphene. When re-
crystallised from an alcoholic solution containing excess of hydrochloric
acid, it melts at 155° (or possibly a few degrees lower). Melting-points
from 149° to 165° have been recorded for this compound, but the products
examined were probably not in a state of purity.
It is possible, however, that camphene hydrochloride is not a uniform
body, but that some of the terpene suffers some rearrangement in the
molecule by the action of hydrochloric acid, and that the hydrochloride
consists of a mixture of a-camphene hydrochloride and /3-camphene
hydrochloride; there is, however, no evidence to suggest that camphene
itself is a mixture of two terpenes, so that the two camphenes are not
known to exist. Aschan1 obtained an alcohol, camphene hydrate, by
acting on camphene hydrochloride with milk of lime, a reagent which
does not produce molecular rearrangement in the terpene nucleus.
In the same way bornyl and zsobornyl chlorides react with milk of
lime. But, whereas bornyl chloride gives an almost quantitative yield of
1
Annalen, 383 (1911), 1.
camphene hydrate, isobornyl chloride yields camphene with traces of
camphene hydrate. Camphene hydrochloride yields about equal quan-
tities of camphene and camphene hydrate so that Aschan assumes it to
be a mixture of two hydrochlorides, a- and /3-camphene hydrochloride,
of which the a-modification when treated with alkalis yields camphene
hydrate, while the /^-modification yields camphene. Assuming this view
to be correct, bornyl chloride would consist chiefly of a-, and isobornyl
chloride, chiefly of ^-camphene hydrochloride.
Aschan has not succeeded in separating a- and /2-camphene hydro-
chloride.
Camphene hydrobromide, C]0H16HBr, forms well-defined crystals
melting at 133°, and the hydriodide melts at about 50°.
Monobromcamphene, C10H15Br, is prepared by treating a solution of
camphene in four times its weight of alcohol and four times its weight of
ether, with the equivalent of two atoms of bromine. Monobromcam-
phene is also produced by treating camphene hydrochloride with bromine
and distilling the product with quinoline. It has, according to Jiinger
and Klages,1 the following characters :—
Specific gravity 1-265 at 15°
Refractive index 1-5260 ,, 15°
Molecular refraction 52*3u
Camphene dibromide, C10H16Br.,, is obtained by bromination, and
subsequent purification from the monobromcamphene formed. It
crystallises from alcohol in colourless prisms, melting at 90°. It is best
formed by slowly adding bromine to a solution of camphene in petroleum
ether, the mixture being cooled to - 10°.
Camphene forms a well-defined nitrite, and a nitroso-nitrite, when
treated in the following manner: A well-cooled solution of camphene in
petroleum ether is mixed with a saturated solution of sodium nitrite, and
dilute acetic acid is added. The mixture is well stirred, being kept cool
all the time. Camphene nitrosonitrite, C10H16N3O5, separates and on
recrystallisation forms crystals which decompose at about 149°. The
petroleum ether solution, which has been filtered off from this compound,
is shaken with a concentrated solution of potassium hydroxide, which
removes camphene nitrosite, C10H1(5N2O3, in the form of its potassium
salt. When this is decomposed with acids it yields the free nitrosite.
This compound is a greenish oil, with a pleasant odour, easily decompos-
ing when heated to 50°.
After having separated the nitrosonitrite and the nitrosite, the residual
solution in petroleum ether is evaporated. There then separates cam-
phene nitrite, C10H15NO2, in fine needles which melt at 66°, and boil at
147° at a pressure of 12 mm.
The oxidation products of camphene are of considerable interest,
but as they vary very considerably according to the exact method of
oxidation employed, they are not of very great use in the characterisa-
tion of the terpene.
When pinene hydrodide is heated with 40 per cent, alcoholic potash
at 170° for four hours, a mixture of camphene and a second hydrocarbon
is produced. This body, C10H16, melts at 97*5° to 98° and has been
termed bornylene by its discoverer, Wagner.2 It is closely related to
2
* Berichte, 29, 544, Ibid., 33, 2121.
camphene, and Wagner proposed to term camphene zsobornylene. It
is quite certain that the two bodies are different in constitution, since
bornylene on reduction by the method of Sabatier and Senderens yields
dihydrobornylene, identical with camphane, whilst camphene yields
dihydrocamphene which is not identical with camphane. Both cam-
phene and bornylene yield camphenanic and isocamphenanic acid on
oxidation, so that they are obviously closely related.
According to Buchner and Weigand,1 bornylene has the constitution—
FENCHENE.
This terpene is not found in nature, or if so, only to a very minute
extent, possibly being present in traces in turpentine and in oil of
Eucalyptus globulus. It may be prepared by reducing the ketone,
fenchone C10H160, to its alcohol, fenchyl alcohol, C10H17OH, from which
the elements of water can be separated by means of potassium bisulphate
at a high temperature, when fenchene, C10H16, results. It is, however,
certain that the terpene so obtained is a mixture of probably two chemical
and several stereo-chemical isomers. According to Wallach 2 fenchene
thus prepared is a liquid boiling at 155° to 156°, of specific gravity 0'867
and refractive index 1-4690 at 20°. According to Gardner and Cockburn
its boiling-point is 150° to 152°, its 3specific gravity 0*8667 at 18°, and its
optical rotation - 6*46°. Wallach found that when Z-fenchyl alcohol
prepared from ^-fenchone is treated with phosphorus pentachloride, it
yields two fenchyl chlorides, and these in turn yield two fenchenes, one
laevo- and the other dextro-icot>a>t>ory. They are both derived from dextro-
fenchene, and Wallach designated them D-deotfro-fenchene and ~D-laevo-
fenchene.
The corresponding hydrocarbons obtained from Z-fenchone were
termed by Wallach L-d-fenchene and L-Z-fenchene, the capital letter
being used to indicate the rotation of the parent fenchone, and the small
letter that of the terpene.
A terpene yielding isofenchyl alcohol on hydration, which Wallach
considers to be one of the fenchenes, was artificially prepared by convert-
ing nopinone into a hydroxy ester by means of bromoacetic ester and
zinc-dust. The hydroxy ester is dehydrated by potassium bisulphate,
and so yields an unsaturated ester, which on saponification yields an acid
from which the terpene results by distillation. This fenchene has the
following characters:—
iBerlchte, 46, 2103. * Annalen, (263), 149 ; (302), 376.
*Ibid. (302), 371; (315), 273.
Specific gravity 0'863
Optical rotation -f 15-93°
Boiling-point 158°
By using d-fenchone a D-Z-fenchene was prepared, having an optical
rotation — 32°, and yielding a dibromide melting at 87° to 88°.
Up to this point no evidence was forthcoming that any one off the
fenchenes prepared was pure, as1 the optical rotation of nearly every speci-
men was different. Wallach has, however, more recently prepared
fenchene by treating fenchyl-amine with nitrous acid. The resulting
terpenes were separated by fractional distillation into two main portions,
one of which had the following characters:—
Refractive index '. 1-4724 „ 19°
This is the purest D-Z-fenchene prepared, and it yielded a dibromide
C10Hl6Br2, melting at 87° to 88°. Wallach considers that D-Z-fenchene
has the following constitution :—
CH
H .c/
.o^ \CH, \JJ—La
C(CH3)2
C : CH2
CH
2
Bertram and Helle some years ago prepared a fenchene, which they
termed isofenchene, by splitting off water from isofenchyl alcohol. L-fZ-
fenchene prepared from Z-fenchone in a similar manner was found to
have an optical rotation -f 29°.
By treating D-Z-fenchene with ozone, a portion of it is converted into
D-d-fenchene.
Komppa and Koschier3 now propose a revision of the nomenclature
of the fenchene terpenes, Wallach's D-fenchens being termed a-fenchene,
D-Z-fenchene becoming Z-a-fenchene, and D-d-fanchene becoming d-a-
fenchene. The fenchene obtained by Bertram and Helle's method, by
dehydrating fenchyl alcohol with potassium bisulphate, is now termed
/3-fenchene. This nomenclature is certainly preferable as it contains no
suggestion that the two bodies are identical in chemical constitution, nor
is there any particular evidence that D-Z-fenchene and L-Z-fenchene are
not the same actual terpene, and equally so in the case of D-d-fenchene
and L-d-fenchene.
Accepting the later nomenclature, /2-fenchene can be prepared almost
free from the a- variety by heating fenchyl alcohol with KHSO4. After
repeated fractionation over sodium, /3-fenchene has the following char-
acters :—
1
Annalen (362), 174.3 *Jour. prakt. Chem. 61 (1900), 303.
Chem. Zentr. (1917), i. 407.
„ rotation -f 10*7°
On oxidation it yields hydroxyfenchenic acid melting at 138° to 139°.
The derivatives of fenchene are not in most cases crystalline, but the
optically active a-fenchenes form a dibromide, C10H10Br9, which crystal-
lises well, and melts at 87° to 88°. The racemic form melts at 62°.
By hydration with acetic and sulphuric acids, isofenchyl alcohol is
formed, and this can be oxidised to isofenchone.
The following are the characters of various derivatives of the active
and the racemic forms :—
Melting points of
Active Compound. Racemic Compound.
Fenchene dibromide . . . 8 7 ° t o 8^° 62°
Urethane of isofenchyl alcohol . 100° „ 107° 94°
Isofenchone semicarbazone . . 221° „ 222° 223° to 224°
oxiine . . . 82° 133°
Monobrom-isofenchone . . . 56° to 57° 46° to 47°
Isofencho-camphoric acid . . 158° ,, 15J° 174° ,, 175°
Fenchene is more resistant to the action of nitric acid than other ter-
penes, and may be regarded as of particularly stable constitution.
On page 49 the possible relationships of isopinene and fenchene were
mentioned. Komppa and Boschier1 have prepared a fenchene from
a-fencho-camphorone, which they had previously prepared synthetically.
The complete synthesis of this fenchene has, therefore, been achieved,
a-fencho-camphorone is converted by magnesium methyl iodide into the
corresponding alcohol, which is dehydrated by distillation at atmospheric
pressure, yielding a-fenchene having the following characters:—
9QO
Specific gravity at ^ 0-866

Refractive index 1*47045
Molecular refraction 43*93
It yields a hydrochloride melting at 35° to 37°, which when treated
with aniline regenerates the same hydrocarbon, which is identical in all
respects with isopinene. The admixture of this fenchene hydrochloride
with that prepared from isopinene causes no depression of the melting-
point, and Komppa regards the identity of inactive a-fenchene and iso-
pinene as established. He assigns the following constitution to a-fenchene
(isopinene):—
CH
H2
C(CH8)2
C . CH,
CH
1
Ann. Acad. Sci. Fennicae, 1916, [A], 10, iii. 3-15; Journ. Ctem. Soc., 1917
Abst., i. 466.
The latest contribution to the chemistry of this abstruse subject is
contained in papers by Komppa and Roschier,1 and by Boschier.2 They
have obtained a fenchene by treating methyl-/2-fenchocamphorol with
potassium bisulphate, which is the inactive form of /2-fenchene, mixed
with a small amount of a terpene they term y-fenchene. ^-fenchene
(identical with D-rf-fenchene of Wallach), and y-fenchene have the fol-
lowing constitutions :—
CH CH
CH9 CH.,
JC : CH., H9C . CH,
CH CH
j8-Fenchene. 7-Fenchene.
Several other synthetic fenchenes are also described.
SABINENE.
This terpene occurs principally in oil of savin, but has also been found
in marjoram, cardamom, sho-gyu and a few other essential oils. It is
obtained from the fraction of oil of savin which boils below 195°, which
amounts to about 30 per cent, of the oil. It has probably not been iso-
lated in a state of absolute purity, but its characters are approximately
as follows :—
By systematic fractionation of a large quantity of sabinene obtained
from oil of savin, Schimmel & Co. separated the crude terpene into the
following fractions :—
Per Cent. Boiling-point. Specific Gravity. Rotation
20 162° to 163° 0-8481 + 59° 30'

49 163° „ 164° 0-8480 + 63° 50'
31 164° '„ 165° 0-8482 + 68° 54'
By the action of hydrochloric acid gas on sabinene dissolved in acetic

acid, terpinene dihydrochloride is produced, melting at 52°. If no trace
of moisture is present the monohydrochloride alone is yielded.
By oxidising sabinene with ice-cold solution of potassium permanga-
nate, sabinene glycol, C10H16(OH)2, results. This body melts at 54°, and,
together with the above-described hydrochloride serves for the characteri-
l
Ann. Acad. Sci. Fennicae, 1917, [A], 15, x. 1-15.
2
Ibid:, 1919 [A], 10, i. 1.
sation of the terpene. During the oxidation there is also formed sabi-
nenic acid, C10H16O3, an oxyacid which crystallises from water and melts
at 57°. If this acid be oxidised with peroxide of lead, sabinene ketone,
C9H140, is formed, which is quite characteristic of the terpene. It has
Boiling-point . . . 213°
Specific gravity 0*945
Specific rotation . . . . . . . . . - 18°
To prepare sabinenic acid for the identification of the terpene, Wallach1

operates as follows : 10 grams of the crude terpene are mixed with the
theoretical amount of potassium permanganate in water at ice tempera-
ture. The oxide of manganese is filtered off, the liquid rendered acid and
extracted with ether, and the ethereal solution shaken with caustic soda
solution. The sodium salt is very sparingly soluble, and is precipitated,
collected, and decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid and purified by a
further solution in ether. It must be well dried in a desiccator before
its melting-point is determined. Sabinene has the following constitu-
tion :—
C : CH.,
CH,
C : CH(CH3)2
Sabinene appears to be fairly closely related to thujene (tanacetene),
since both a-thujene and /5-thujene yield the same body, thujane C10H18,
as does oabinene when reduced by hydrogen in the presence of platinum
black.
Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the relationships of
sabinene to terpinene, and the conversion of sabinene into terpinene
hydrochloride is to be explained by a molecular rearrangement, and can-
not be said to be evidence of relationship/2
By treating sabinene with formic acid at reduced temperatures
Semmler has obtained an alcohol of the formula C10H18O which has the
Boiling-point at 11 mm 93° to 96°
Specific gravity at 20° 0*926
Optical rotation . . . . . . . . . +14°
This alcohol is probably identical with the alcohol " origanol " dis-
covered by Wallach in marjoram oil and termed by him terpineol.
l
Annalen, 357(1907), 78.
d., 350 (1906), 162 ; Bcrichte, 39 (1906), 4416, and 40 (1907), 2959.
THUJENE.
Thujene has not been isolated from any essential oil, and the numer-
ous terpenes described under this name are in all probability non-uniform
bodies.
The body originally known under this name was prepared by the
dry distillation of thujylamine or isothujylamine hydrochloride, and is
identical with Semmler's tanacetene.1
Tschugaeff prepared thujene by distilling thujyl xanthogenate.2 This
body had the following characters :—
Specific gravity 0-8275 at AQ
4
Boiling-point . 151° to 152-5°
According to its discoverer, this body is the true .terpene of the
thujone series, and he prefers to call Semmler's thujene or tanacetene,
isothujene, as being the true terpene of the isothujone series.
By the dry distillation of trimethyl - thujylammonium hydroxide,
Tschugaeff obtained a thujene quite similar to the above, but of consider-
ably higher optical rotation. He therefore considers that two stereoisomers
may result from different methods of preparation from thujone.
A hydrocarbon was also prepared by Kondakoff, to which he gave the
name thujene, which may have been a crude mixture of the two stereo-
isomers. The characters of these bodies are summarised in the following
table:—
Boilmg- point. Specific Gravity. Rotation. Refractive

Index.
Semmler's Thujene —
60° to 63° (14 mm.) 0-8508 at 15° 1-47600
Wallach's Thujene —
170° to 172° (760 mm.) 0-8360 „ 15° 1-47145
Tschugaeff's Thujene —
151° to 152-5° (670 mm.) 0-8275 „ 15° 1-45042
Kondakoff's Hydrocarbon—
1. 147° to 150° 8-8258 18° + 48° 32' 1-44929
2. 150° „ 151-5° 0-8260 18° + 40° 15' 1-45001
3. 151-5° to 152-5° 0-8279 17° + 28° 12' 1-44999
4. 152-5° „ 156° 0-8286 17° + 12° V 1-44909
5. 156° to 168° 0-8286 17° + 3° 33' 1-45259
Kondakoff and Skworzow3 have recently rein'vestigated the subject

and are of the opinion that all the thujenes so described are mixtures and
not uniform bodies. They consider that the lower boiling fractions pre-
pared from thujyl xanthogenate consist of two stereoisomers, and the
higher boiling fractions to consist of isothujene with some terpinene.
They do not consider that any pure thujene has been prepared, but
dextro-thujene in as great a state of purity as they have been able to
prepare it has the following characters : —
Specific gravity . 0-822
1
Berichte, 25, 3345. ., 33, 3118. *Chem. Zentral., 1910, ii. 467.
THE CONSTITUENTS |OF ESSENTIAL OILS 59
Isothujene dihydrochloridei isl stated to have the following char-
acters :—
Boiling-point 121-5° to 122-5° at 16 mm.
Specific gravity at 20° 1-0697
When this is treated with sodium acetate in alcoholic solution, it
yields a hydrocarbon (isothujene ?) having the following characters :—
It is obvious that the chemistry of the thujene isomers requires further
investigation.
The following formula has been suggested for thujene, which is in
accord with its obvious relationship with sabinene :—
C . CH3
HC/ VJH
\v
xCH,
C . CH(CH3)2
DlPENTENE AND LlMONENE.
Dipentene is the racemic form of the optically active ^-limonene

and Z-limonene, terpenes which are found to a very large extent in
essential oils. Since an equal mixture of d-iimonene and Z-limonene is
dipentene, it is obvious that whenever optically active limonene is found
with a rotation below the maximum, it must contain dipentene. Mix-
tures of equal quantities of a compound of the optically active limonenes
are identical with the corresponding compound prepared from dipenten^
It is therefore obvious that the nomenclature is unfortunate and dipentene
should be termed ^-limonene.
Limonene occurs freely in nature, forming the greater part of oils
of lemon and orange, and found to a large extent in caraway, dill,
bergamot, and many other essential oils.
It has frequently been stated that dipentene has a higher boil ing-point
than its optically active components, but this is not so, any observation
in this direction being undoubtedly due to the presence of minute traces
of impurities.
The following are the characters of the most highly purified speci-
mens of limonene which have been prepared :—
e£-limonene. Z-lirnoiiene.
Specific gravity 0-850 0*8472
Optical rotation +105° - 105°
Refractive index 1-4750 1-4746
A specimen obtained by the reduction of limonene tetrabromide by
Godlewski and Koshanowitsch1 had a specific rotation + 125° 36' which
is practically equal to an observed rotation of + 106° 30', thus confirming
the purity of the specimens prepared by fractional distillation.
For the identification of limonene, one of the most useful compounds
is the crystalline tetrabromide, C10H16Br4. This body is best prepared as
follows : the fraction of the oil containing much limonene is mixed with
four times its volume of glacial acetic acid, and the mixture cooled in
ice. Bromine is then added, drop by drop, so long as it becomes de-
colorised at once. The mixture is then allowed to stand until crystals
separate. These are filtered off, pressed between porous paper, and re-
crystallised from acetic ether. Limonene tetrabromide melts at 104-5°
and is optically active, its specific rotation being + 73'3°. The inactive,
or dipentene, tetrabromide melts at 124° to 125°. In the preparation of the
tetrabromide traces of moisture are advisable, as the use of absolutely
anhydrous material renders the compound very difficult to crystallise.
When the limonene to be identified is of high optical rotation, that is,
of a high degree of purity in one of its optical forms, the tetrabromide is
easy to identify; but in the presence of much dipentene, it is necessary
to recrystallise the compound repeatedly before a pure limonene tetra-
bromide is obtained.
Both limonenes yield nitrosochlorides, C10H1(.NOC1, each of which
can be separated into two modifications. There are thus four limonene
nitrosochlorides : they are known as the a- and /?- varieties of the dextro-
and Zam>-rotatory forms of the terpenes. The a- and /3- forms, however,
yield the same carvoxime on treatment with alcoholic potash.
Here, as in every other case, the only difference between the derivatives
of the two limonenes is that they are equally active optically in the
opposite directions, and differ in the usual way in crystalline form. The
nitrosochlorides, on boiling with alcoholic potash, yield nitroso-limonenes,
C10H15NO. These are identical with the two carvoximes, and their con-
stitution is probably C10H14 . NOH. They both melt at 72° The car-
voxime prepared from d0#£ro-limonene-nitrosochloride is Zaeô-rotatory,
whilst that from Zaô-limonene-nitrosochloride is dextro-rotatory.
Tilden and Leech have prepared nitrosocyanides of limonene by the
action of potassium cyanide on the nitroso compounds. The table on
opposite page gives the melting-points and optical rotation of the prin-
cipal of these and other limonene compounds.
For the preparation and separation of the limonene nitrosochlorides
the following method should be employed :—
Five parts of the terpene, 7 of amyl nitrite, and 12 of glacial
acetic acid are mixed and cooled with ice and salt, and a mixture of
6 parts of hydrochloric acid and 6 parts of glacial acetic acid added in
small quantities at a time. Five parts of alcohol are then added and the
mixture allowed to stand in a freezing mixture for a itime. A mass of
crystals separates, which consists of the crude nitrosochlorides. This is
filtered off and washed with alcohol. When perfectly dry 100 grams of
the crystals are digested with 200 c.c. of chloroform for a few moments and
at once filtered. The chloroform dissolves a-nitrosochloride, which is
precipitated by the addition of excess of methyl alcohol. The crude
compound is filtered off, dried and digested with anhydrous ether for
l
Chem. Zentral., 1899, i. 1241.
fifteen minutes, the ethereal solution filtered off and the ether allowed
to evaporate spontaneously. The a-nitrosochloride separates in large
crystals, which are again dissolved in ether and methyl alcohol added in
small quantity. The solvent is now allowed to evaporate slowly, when
the pure compound crystallises out. It melts at 103° to 104°.
Dextro- Inactive Specific Specific

Compounds. and Laevo- Melting- De.xtro- Laevo-
Melting- point. Rotatiou.
point. Rotatiou.
Limoneoe . . . . + 125° - 125°

a-nitrosochloride . 103° to 104° 103° to 104° + 313-4° - 314-8°
j8-nitrosochloride . 100° — + 240-3° - 242-2°
a-nitrosocyanide . 90° to 91° 81° + 152-7° - 152-2°
Benzoyl-a-nitrosocyanide 108° 96° + 126-3° - 127-2°
j3-nitrosocyanide . 140° to 141° 159° to 160° - 31-6° + 30-6°
Benzoyl-0-nitrosocyanide 121° 98° - 108-2° + 108-7°
o-amide . . . . 138° 155° + 174-9° - 174°
Benzoyl-o-amide . 152° 150° + 241-7° - 242°
a-carboxylic acid . 97° 116° + 102-9° - 103-9°
Dihydro-carvoxime 88-5° 115° + 9-46° - 9-25°
Tetrabromide 104° 125° to 126° + 73-3° - 76-4°
Carvoxime . . . . 72° 93° - 39*3° + 39-7°
Monohydrochlori 1 e — - 40° + 39-5°
Nitrobenzylamine . 92° —
110° -f 163-8° - 163-6°
The portion of the mixture of crude nitrosochlorides which was not

dissolved by chloroform consists of crude /3-nitrosochloride. This is
dissolved by shaking with ten times its weight of chloroform. The
solution is then filtered and methyl alcohol added and the precipitate
filtered off, washed with ether, and dried. The dried compound is dis-
solved in ether and on evaporation of the solvent pure /5-nitrosochloride
separates. This body melts at 100°.
According to Wallach the nitrosochlorides are physical isomerides of
the formula : —
Very characteristic derivatives are obtained by the action of organic

bases on the limonene nitrosochlorides. If d-a-limonene nitrosochloride
be so treated, two nitrolamines are obtained, a-nitrolamine (dextro-rota-
tory), and /2-nitrolamine (laevo-rotatory). If d-/3-limonene nitrosochloride
be treated in the same manner, exactly the same reaction products are
obtained. If, on the other hand Z-a-nitrosochloride or Z-/3-nitrosochloride
be treated in the same manner, a mixture of a-nitrolamine (laevo-
rotatory) and /3-nitrolamine (dextro-rotatory) is obtained.
The anilides and piperidides are the most characteristic of these com-
pounds. They are prepared by similar methods, of which that for the
piperidides is as follows : 20 grams of purified a-limonene nitroso-
chloride are mixed with 20 grams of piperidine and 60 grams of alcohol,
and gently warmed with frequent shaking. When the solution is clear,
the warm liquid is poured into an evaporating dish and a small amount
of water added. On cooling, crystals of the sparingly soluble impure
/?-base separate. These are filtered off, and water added to the filtrate
62 THE CHBMISTEY OP ESSENTIAL OILS
which precipates the more soluble a-base. The crude a-compound is
dissolved in acetic acid, filtered, and precipitated by aftimonia. It is
thrown out as an oil, which afterwards solidifies, and is then dissolved in
a little petroleum ether, which leaves traces of the /^-compound undis-
solved, and the a-base separates on evaporation of the petroleum ether,
and is recrystallised from alcohol. The crude /^-compound is dried,
digested with cold petroleum ether, which dissolves any a-base present,
and the undissolved portion recrystallised from warm petroleum ether
with the addition of a little methyl alcohol.
a-limonene nitrol-piperdide forms orthorhombic crystals melting at
93° to 94°, whilst /Mimonene piperidide melts at 110° to 111°.
The nitroanilid.es are very characteristic crystalline compounds of
limonene. These have the constitution —
1015
\NHC6H5
To prepare them, 20 grams of pure a-limonene, nitrosochloride are
powdered and warmed with 20 c.c. of aniline and 30 c.c. of alcohol, under
a reflux condenser. The mixture is heated with constant shaking, and
after violent reaction is over the mass is allowed to cool, and when cold,
excess of concentrated hydrochloric acid is added. The resulting crystals
are filtered off and washed with ether-alcohol. They consist of the
hydrochloric acid salt of a-limonene nitrolanilide, and on treatment with
ammonia the free base is liberated. When recrystallised from alcohol it
melts at 112° to 113°. The filtrate from the hydrochloric acid salt of the
a-base is poured into a large volume of water containing free ammonia.
The /3-anilide gradually becomes solid and is dissolved in three times its
weight of warm benzene in order to remove traces of aniline. The
yS-anilide separates from this solution and forms fine needles melting
at 153°.
Limonene forms a monohydrochloride, which is a liquid, and which
exists in both optically active modifications. By the action of moist
hydrochloric acid on the acetic or alcoholic solution of limonene, no
optically active dihydrochloride is formed, the terpene becoming inactive
and dipentene dihydrochloride, C10H162HC1, results. This body is pre-
pared when limonene is mixed with half its volume of glacial acetic acid,
and a current of hydrochloric acid gas is passed over (not into) the well-
cooled liquid, with frequent shaking. The resulting mass is pressed on a
porous plate, dissolved in alcohol, and precipitated with water. It melts
sharply at 50°.
Forster and van Gelderen 1 have prepared a characteristic nitro-
derivative of dipentene by treating dipentene nitrosochloride with sodium
azide. , The resulting body, C10H15(NOH)N3, dipentene nitroso-azide,
melts at 72° to 73°. The corresponding active limonene derivatives melt
at 52° to 53°.
Dipentene, the inactive form of limonene, not only occurs naturally
in essential oils, but results by the action of heat on several other ter-
penes, and to a considerable extent by the action of sulphuric acid on
pinene.
Pure dipentene may be prepared by boiling 1 part of pure dipentene
dihydrochloride with 1 part of anhydrous sodium acetate and 2 parts
1
Proc. Chem. Soc., 27 (1911), 195.
of glacial acetic acid for half an hour under a reflux condenser. The
dipeptene is distilled with steam and then heated with caustic potash and
finally redistilled.
The weight of chemical evidence is strongly in favour of dipentene,
being actually i'-limonene, that is, merely the racemic form of the active
limonenes. Semmler has suggested, however, that a slight difference
may exist between the constitutions of these terpenes. •
He suggested a nomenclature for the terpenes by which those com-
pounds which contain a double linkage between the nucleus and the side
chain should be called pseudo-compounds, whilst the compounds with
the double linkage in the nucleus should be the ortho-compounds. He
suggested the following formulae : —
CH, CH,
I II- *
c c
JCH, H
CH CH
CHo
Ortko-limonene. Pseudo-limonene.
Semmler then suggested that ortho-limonene might be ordinary limo-
nene, and that dipentene had the pseudo-formula, and that both these com-
pounds would yield identical halogen derivatives with the breaking of
the double linkage. He subsequently modified his view to some extent
and considered that terpinene was represented by the pseudo-limonene
formula.
There seems no room for doubt that the above formula for " ortho-
limonene " is the correct formula for limonene, and the classical synthesis
of dipentene by W. H. Perkin, Jun., and his colleagues has proved beyond
doubt that it is the correct formula for dipentene or ^-limonene.
These researches on the synthesis of the terpenes were commenced in
1900, and has been carried on with considerable success and conspicuous
ability ever since. It was considered necessary to synthesise terpineol,
and so establish the formula which analytic reactions supported. The
first necessary step was to synthetically prepare the l-methyl-A'-cyclo-
hexene-4-carboxylic acid,1 of the formula—
/,CH . CH2X
CMef >CH. C09H
\CH 2 . CH/
and as this acid was at that time unknown, the first problem was to dis*
cover some means by which its synthesis could be accomplished.
The acid was prepared in considerable quantities by the following
rather complicated series of reactions.2 When ethyl /2-iodopropionate
and the sodium derivative of ethyl cyanacetate are allowed to interact in
1
W. H. Perkin, Lecture to tJie Pharmaceut'ical Society, May, 1912. .
2
Jour. Chem. Soc., 85 (1904), 416 and 654.
molecular proportions at the ordinary temperature, a reaction takes place

which results in the formation of ethyl y-cyanopentane-aye-tricarboxylate
and regeneration of half of the ethyl cyanoacetate : —
2C02Et .,CHNa . ON + 2ICH2 . CH2 . CO2Et =
CO 2 Et.C(CN)(CH 2 .CH 2 .C0 2 Et) 2 + CO 2 Et.CH 2 .CN + 2NaI.
This cyano-ester is hydrolysed by boiling with concentrated hydro-
chloric acid with the formation of pentane-ay€-tricarboxylic acid, CO2H .CH
(CH2 . CH2 . CO2H)2 and i when the sodium salt of this acid is heated with
acetic anhydride and distilled, decomposition takes place with the forma-
tion of 8-ketohexahydrobenzoic acid or cyclohexanone-4-carboxylic acid —
CO2H . CH2 . CH2X
>CH . CO.H =
C02H . CH2 . CH/
,CH2 . CH2N^
CO( >CH . CO2H + CO., + H2O
X
CH2 . CH/
The next step was to convert cyclohexanone-4-carboxylic acid into
l-methyl-cyclohexanol-4-carboxylic acid, and this is readily accomplished
by heating the ester of the ketonic acid with magnesium methyl iodide in
the usual manner —
OH.CMe<X >CH.CO 2 H
CH2 . CH/
If the hydroxy-acid is heated with hydrobromic acid, it is converted
into l-methyl-l-bromocyclohexane-4-carboxylic acid, and this is decom-
posed by boiling with sodium carbonate with loss of hydrogen bromide
and with formation of 1-methyl-A' cyclohexene-4-carboxylic acid —
x,V>--L_L . OH^v
CM< )CH . C09H

^CH,
The last step was to convert the unsaturated acid into its ester and to
act on this with an ethereal solution of magnesium methyl iodide, when
an almost quantitative yield of an oil was obtained which, on examina-
tion, proved to be terpineol—
,CH—CH2,
MeCf >CH . CMe,. OH
X
CH 2 .CH/
the change being simply the conversion of the —CO 2 Et group into the
group —CMe 2 . OH.
In order that there might be no doubt as to the identity of the syn-
thetical product, it was converted into the nitrosochloride, C10H18O, NOC1
(melting-point 122°), and phenylurethane, C10Hj7O . CO . NH . C6H5 (melt-
ing-point 113°), and these were compared with specimens made from
ordinary terpineol, with the result that the preparations obtained from the
two sources were found to be absolutely identical.
The next step was to convert the synthetic terpineol into dipentene,
which was readily accomplished by heating with potassium hydrogen
sulphate, when water was eliminated and dipentene formed—
MeC^ ^CH . G{
\r<TT n~u /
\j±4-2 • v^-n.2
\r<TT
-^3
Dipentene.
The dipentene produced in this way was converted into the tetra-
bromide, C10H16Br4 (melting-point 125°), the dihydrochloride, C]0H16, 2HC1
(melting-point 48° to 50°), and the nitrosochloride, Ci0H16, NOC1 (melting-
point 106°), and these derivatives were compared with the corresponding
specimens obtained from ordinary dipentene, with which they ^were found
to be identical in all respects.
Attempts to prepare the active limonenes were unsuccessful, as during
the reactions, even when the various acids and the terpineol were separated
into their active components, racemisation takes place^during the dehydra-
tion and the most active product obtained had a rotation of - 5°, so that
it consisted essentially of dipentene, with a very small amount of laevo-
limonene.
CARVESTRENE AND SYLVESTRENE.
Sylvestrene is a well-recognised terpene, which is found in various
turpentine and pine oils, but only in its dextro-rotatory form. Carvestrene
is merely the optically inactive variety of sylvestrene, and is another
instance of unfortunate nomenclature: it should be properly called
t-sylvestrene.
There appear to exist two very closely allied terpenes, which have so
similar constitutions and characters that it is almost impossible, if not
quite so, to separate them when existing together naturally. The syn-
thetically prepared sylvestrene is, of course a distinct individual, the con-
stitution of which will be dealt with directly.
To prepare natural sylvestrene, the fraction of Swedish oil of turpen-
tine boiling between 175° to 180° is diluted writh an equal volume of ether
which has been previously saturated with hydrochloric acid gas. The
mixture is allowed to stand for two or three days, the ether distilled off,
and the residue is left in a very cold place for some months, when syl-
vestrene dihydrochloride is obtained. This body, C10H162HC1, when re-
crystallised from alcohol melts at 72° and has an optical rotation [a]D =
+ 22°. If this body be distilled with aniline it yields sylvestrene, which
has the following characters :—
Refractive index 1-4757 to 1-4779
Optical rotation + 60° „ + 80°
This body, so isolated is probably a mixture of the two isomerides, the
optical rotation varying with the relative proportions of the two bodies..
The two isomers have the following constitutions :—
C—CH3 C—CH,
H0C CH—CK BLC CH—C/

CH0
Sylvestrene. Isosylvestrene.
They are therefore meta-menthadienes.
VOL. II, 5
Sylvestrene yields the following characteristic reaction. If a drop of
concentrated sulphuric acid be added to a solution of one drop of syl-
vestrene in acetic anhydride, a deep blue coloration results. No other
terpene appears to give this reaction.
Sylvestrene is a very stable terpene, but on heating to 250° it is par-
tially polymerised. In addition to the dihydrochloride mentioned above,
it yields the following characteristic compounds : —
The dihydrobromide, C10H1(52HBr, is obtained in a similar way to the
dihydrochloride. It melts at 72° and has a specific rotatory power
+ 17-9°.
The dihydriodide C10H102HI is prepared in a similar manner, and
melts at 66° to 67°.
Sylvestrene tetrabromide, C10H10Br4, is prepared when pure Sylvestrene,
regenerated from itstlihydrochloride and dissolved in acetic acid, is heated
with bromine until a permanent yellow colour is produced. Water is
added to the reaction product, but not sufficient to precipitate the bromide,
and the vessel allowed to stand in a cold place. The bromide separates
and can be purified by recrystallisation from alcohol. It forms mono-
symmetric crystals melting at 135° to 136°, and having a specific rota-
tion + 73-7°.
Sylvestrene nitrosochloride, C10H1(5 . NOC1, is prepared from pure
Sylvestrene, regenerated from the dihydrochloride in the following
manner : Four volumes of the terpene are dissolved in six of amyl
nitrite and five volumes of strong hydrochloric acid are added, with con-
stant shaking. The heavy oil which separates is shaken with a little
ethyl alcohol, when it solidifies, and can be purified by dissolving it in
chloroform and precipitating it with petroleum ether. It is finally re-
crystallised from methyl alcohol, when it melts at 106° to 107°.
When the last-described body is warmed with benzylamine, in alcoholic
solution, Sylvestrene nitrol -benzylamine
. CH2C6H5
is formed. This, when recrystallised from methyl alcohol, forms well-
defined crystals melting at 71° to 72° and having a specific rotation
+ 185-6°.
Carvestrene, or i-sylvestrene, was first prepared by Baeyer l from
carvone, the ketone characteristic of oil of caraway. This body, when
reduced with sodium and alcohol yields dihydrocarveol, which, on oxida-
tion is converted into dihydrocarvone. The formulae of these three bodies
are as follows : —
,CO . CH,,v
CMe/ " )CH . CMe : CH,
VJH.CH/
Carvone.
X CH(OH) . CH 2V
CHMe( >CH . CMe : CH.,
\CH 2 - CH/
Dihydrocarveol.
1
Berichte, 27, 3485.
/CO—CH, x
CHMe( >CH.CMe:CH 9
X
CH 2 . CH/
Dihydrocarvone.
Hydrobromic acid converts dihydrocarvone into a hydrobromide,
C10H17OBr, which, when treated with cold alcoholic potash, readily loses
hydrogen bromide. Instead, however, of the unsaturated substance,
.dihydrocarvone, being regenerated as the result of this decomposition,
a remarkable formation of a cyclopropane ring takes place and carone is
produced—
/CO—CH 2 x
CHMe( >CH . CBrMe2
\CH 2 . CH/
Hydrobrorniie of dihydrocarvone.
/CO CHX
CHMe< I >CMe,
\CH 2 . CH 2 . CH/
Carone.
Carone is then converted into its oxime, which is reduced by sodium
and alcohol, and yields carylamine, C10H17NH2, which has the following
constitution :—
/ Vy JL-1-^^.1 -l_J-2 I . VVXILx
CHMe<X >CMe2
CH2 . CH2 . CH/
Carylamine is decomposed when its solution in dilute acids is evapor-
ated, during which process the dimethylci/cZopropane ring suffers dis-
ruption and the unsaturated isomeric base, vestrylamine,
/CH(NH2) . CH . CMe : CH2
CHMe<X |
CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2
is formed. The hydrochloride of vestrylamine is readily decomposed on
distillation, with elimination of ammonium chloride and formation of
cwvestrene.
The properties of carvestrene or t-sylvestrene are as follows :—
Boiling-point .......... 178°
Dihydro3hloride melting-point ...... 52'5°
Dihydrobromide „ ....... 48° to 50°
The constitution of carvestrene has been determined, subject to the
limitation above referred to as to the constitution of isocarvestrene, by the
masterly synthesis achieved by W. H Perkin, Jr., and his colleagues.
The starting-point of this synthesis wras m-hydroxy-benzoic acid, which
was reduced by sodium and alcohol to cyclohexanol-3-carboxylic acid,
of the formula —
CH2
CH.COOH
By oxidation with chromic acid, this is converted into cyclohexanone-
3-carboxylic acid, in which the —CH . OH— group is converted into
the —CO— group. This is converted into its ethyl ester and treated
with magnesium methyl iodide, and the product, on hydrolysis, yields
l-methyl-cyclohexane-l-ol-3-carboxylic acid, which is converted byhydro-
bromic acid into 1-bromo-l - methyl - cyclohexane - 3 - carboxylic acid.
When this is digested with pyridine, hydrobromic acid is eliminated and
yields l-methyl-A'-cyelohexane-3-carboxylic acid of the formula—
CH CH. COOH
/r— \
C(CH,)f >CH2
CH2
The ethyl ester of this acid was treated with magnesium methyl
iodide, and thus yielded dihydrocarvestrenol—
CH CH . C(CH3)2OH
>CH2
X
c'H2 OHQ
which on dehydration with potassium bisulphate yields carvestrene.
A further synthesis of carvestrene has been effected by Perkin and
Fisher.1
It is probable that the carvestrene so synthesised is in reality a
mixture of the two bodies described above as carvestrene and isocar-
vestrene.
The active variety of the terpene ^-sylvestrene has been prepared
synthetically by preparing the methyl-cyclohexane-carboxylic acid de-
scribed above, and recrystallising its brucine salt. The acid contains a
small quantity of the A6 acid, although the A1 variety predominates.
The A6 acid was resolved by the brucine crystallisations, and an acid of
rotation + 90° obtained. The synthetic process was then proceeded
with, and the resulting terpene was found to be d-sylvestrene, having a
rotation of 4- 66°.
PHELLANDRENE.
Two isomeric terpenes are known under the name of phellandrene.
Before the distinction between the two bodies was recognised, phellan-
drene had been discovered and reported in a number of essential oils,
so that in many cases it is impossible at present to decide which isomer
is that actually present in a given oil. The two terpenes—still another
case of the absurd nomenclature which has been retained for so many
of the terpenes—are known as a-phellandrene and /?-phellandrene. The
constitutions of the two hydrocarbons are probably as follows :—
1
Jour. Chem. Soc., 93 (1908), 1876.
C.CH, C:CH 2
H2C CH
CH H2C CH
CH. C3H7 CH . (C3H7)
o-Phellandrene. £-Phellandrene.
These terpenes have been exhaustively studied by Wallach,1 who

particularly examined phellandrenes from the following sources :—
1. Z-phellandrene from eucalyptus oil.
2. d-phellandrene from elemi oil.
3. d-phellandrene from bitter fennel oil.
4. d-phellandrene from water fennel oil.
He found that the d-phellandrene from elemi and bitter fennel oils
were identical, and that Z-phellandrene from eucalyptus oil is the laevo-
rotatory variety of the same terpene. To these he assigned the names
d-a-phellandrene and Z-a-phellandrene. The d-phellandrene from water
fennel oil differs from these and is named d-/?-phellandrene. The follow-
ing are the characters of the purest specimens of natural phellandrene
yet obtained:—
d-a-phellandrene. rf-j8-phellandrene. /- a- phellandrene .
Specific gravity 0-844 at 19° 0-852 at 20° 0-848 at 15°

Refractive index 1-4732 1-4788 1-4769
Boiling-point . 61° at 11 mm. 50° to 52° at 5 mm.
175° „ 760 mm. 174° at 760 mm.
Optical rotation + 40° 40' + 14° 45' to + 18° 30' - 84° 10'
All varieties of phellandrene are somewhat unstable and are easily

susceptible of isomerisation.
All varieties readily yield a nitrite of the formula C10H16N2O3, which
is prepared in the following manner, and is a most useful compound for
characterising these terpenes. A solution of 5 grams of sodium nitrite
in 8 c.c. of water is added to a solution of 5 c.c. of the fraction of the
oil containing much phellandrene in 10 c.c. of petroleum ether, and 5 c.c.
of glacial acetic acid is slowly added to the mixture with constant
stirring. The resulting crystals are filtered, washed with water and
methyl alcohol, and purified by dissolving in chloroform and precipitating
with methyl alcohol. The final purification is effected by triturating
the crystals with a cold mixture of methyl alcohol and ether, and re-
crystallising several times from acetic ether. The phellandrene nitrite
so obtained is not a homogeneous substance, but a mixture of two physical
isomerides, which is true for both a- and /^-phellandrene. These physical
isomerides are known as the a- and /^-varieties, so that the following
very confused nomenclature arises, the specific rotation and melting
points of the six known modifications being given :—
J
Annalen, 324 (1902), 269, and 336 (1904), 9.
Specific Melting-
Rotation, point.
Dextro-a-phellandrene a-nitrite . . - 138-4° 112° to 113°
Laevo-a-phellandrene a-nitrite + 135-9° 112° „ 113°
Dextro-a-phellandrene /8-nitrite + 45-9° 105°
Laevo-a-phellandrene ^-nitrite . -40-8° 1C5°
Dextro-j8-phellandrene a-nitrite 159-3° 102°
Dextro-j8-phellandrene ^-nitrite + 0° 97° to 98°
As laevo-^-phellandrene has not yet been isolated, the corresponding

two nitrites have not, of course, been prepared.
The separation of the physical isomerides is effected in the following
manner: the mixed nitrites are dissolved in acetone and precipitated by
the addition of water, the mixture being cooled to 0°. This process is
repeated several times, when eventually the more soluble or /2-nitrite is
separated from the less soluble or a-variety.
yS-phellandrene, which was originally obtained from water fennel
oil, is also found in the essential oil of Bupleurum fruticosum.1 Fran-
cesconi and Sernagiotto have prepared from it the corresponding physically
isomeric nitrosochlorides. They find that the yield of nitrosochlorides
prepared in the same way as pinene nitrosochloride (q*v.), is greater as
the optical rotation of the terpene is lower. Through a series of re-
crystallisations, the two isomers were separated, and found to have the
Specific Melting-
Rotation, point.
/8-phellandrene-a-nitrosochloride . . . - 175° 101° t o 102°
/8-phellandrene-8-nitrosochloride . . . - 285° 100°
No crystalline nitrosochlorides have, so far, been prepared from a-phel-

landrene.
If a-phellandrene be oxidised by potassium permanganate, the princi-
pal body resulting is a-oxy-/?-isopropyl glutaric acid. If /2-phellandrene
be oxidised, closely related acids result, but if a 1 per cent, solution of
permanganate be used and the oxidation effected very carefully in the
cold, with the terpene always in excess, a glycol, C10H16(OH)2, results,
which when dehydrated with dilute sulphuric acid yields tetrahydro-
cuminic aldehyde.
This aldehyde is identical with the naturally occurring phellandral,
an aldehyde found in oil of water fennel. If the nitrosochloride of /?-
phellandrene be decomposed by acetic acid, dehydrocuminic aldehyde and
carvacrol result.
The phellandrene nitrites are converted, by heating with strong
hydrochloric acid at 40°, into mono- and di-chlorthymo-quinone.
If the a-phellandrene nitrite be heated with an alcoholic solution of
potash, it is converted into nitrophellandrene, C10H15(NO2). This body is
converted by reduction with sodium and alcohol into tetrahydrocarvone,
or by less energetic reduction with zinc and acetic acid, into carvotan-
acetone. The relationship between these bodies is shown by the follow-
ing formulae:—
2
Gazz. Chim. Ital., 46 (1916), 119.
CH CH3 CH, CHQ
C C C
HNO,
H,C CH H2C CHNO H.7C CH
CH—CH(CH3), CH—CH(CH3)2 CH—CH(CH8)2 CH—CH(CH3)2
Carvotanacetone. Nitro- a-Phellandrene- a-Phellandrene.
a-phellandrene. nitrite.
Wallachl has prepared a-phellandrene synthetically from sabinenic acid
by oxidising it to sabina ketone with potassium permanganate. This
ketone was converted into its semicarbazone, and the latter compound
treated with dilute sulphuric acid, when sabina ketone is not regenerated,
but an isomer, which was found to be isopropyl-hexenone. By the
interaction of this body with methyl-magnesium iodide, loss of water
occurs with a simultaneous conversion into a-phellandrene, which appears
to be a mixture of the dextro- and laevo- varieties. This synthetically
prepared a-phellandrene has the following characters :—
Melting-point of nitrite 113°
Clover2 has isolated a terpene from elemi oil, which he claims to be pure
a-phellandrene, and which has an optical rotation of + 129*8°.
TEKPINENE.
The chemistry of the hydrocarbons known under this name is in a
very unsettled condition. There are at least three well-defined terpenes
known by this name, a-terpinene, /3-terpinene, and y-terpinene, which
have the following constitutions :—
CH., CH., CH<>
C C
H2C H2C R,C
HCk /CH., , / 2
C C C
CH(CH3)2 CH(CH8), CH(CH3)2
a-Terpinene. j8-Terpinene. 7-Terpinene.
Apparently only a-terpinene and y-terpinene have been found occurring
naturally in essential oils. All the terpinenes are formed artificially from
other terpinenes, or from geraniol, cineol, terpin hydrate, linalol, dihydro-
carveol, and numerous other compounds.
In 1908-1909 F. W. Semmler 3 made a critical study of the question
of the characters of the terpinenes with a view to clearing up some of the
]
Annalen, 359, 265. - Amer. Chem. Journal, 39, 613.
*Berichte, 41 (1908), 4474 ; 42 (1909), 522.
72 THE CHEMIST.KY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
contradictory statements which had been published in regard to them.
By acting on carvenone with phosphorus pentachloride and reducing the
carvenene chloride formed, he obtained a hydrocarbon which he termed
carvenene, which by its method of production should be a dihydrocymene,
and is considered by Semmler to be a-terpinene, possibly mixed with
some of the other modifications. By boiling carvenene for two hours
with alcoholic sulphuric acid, he inverted it to isocarvenene, which
Semmler considers to be /2-terpinene. Wallach, however, does not con-
sider that these bodies are identical with the a-terpinene and /2-terpinene
above mentioned. Semmler's two terpinenes (carvenenes) have the follow-
ing characters:—
Carvenene Lsocarvenene
(a-terpinene). (j9-terpinene).
Specific gravity at 20° . . . 0-844 0*845
Boiling-point . . . . 180° a t 7 3 5 m m . —
„ . . . . 61° to 63° at 10 mm. 59° to 62°
Refractive index . . . . 1-4910 ' 1*4800
Auwers l has paid considerable attention to the terpinene question,
and especially in regard to the tact that the molecular refraction of the
terpinenes shows considerable variation according to the method of pre-
paration, and often appears to indicate that the terpinenes are excep-
tions to Briihl's laws of refraction. He came to the conclusion that the
terpinenes are usually mixtures of more than one modification, together
with a certain amount of a hydrocarbon of the formula :—
GH3
CH
CH,
Im (CH3)2
Auwers considers that terpinene produced from terpin hydrate is
a mixture in which a-terpinene cannot be regarded as the characteristic
constituent. From the terpinene hydrochloride, the a-terpinene-content
cannot be expected to exceed 50 per cent, in the most favourable case.
For obtaining a-terpinene which, although not pure, is of a comparatively
high percentage, Auwers regards the method from carvone via dihydro-
carveol as the best. Semmler regards carvenene as a particularly pure
a-terpinene, but Auwers does not agree with this, because in its preparation
the action of nascent hydrochloric acid produces conditions which afford
no guarantee of a uniform final product. Carvenene does not appear to
be identical with a-terpinene from o-cresol which Auwers prepared by
acting on o-cresol with chloroform and alkali, thus producing methyl-
dichloromethyl-keto-dihydrobenzene. This body was converted into its
higher homologues by the action of magnesium alkyl iodide, and the
resulting bodies were isomerised by concentrated sulphuric acid, and the
^Bericlite, 42 (1909),. 2404, 2424.
isomers, on treatment with alcoholic potash yield the corresponding
hydrocarbons. By using magnesium propyl iodide, he obtained A1 y
menthadiene, i.e. a-terpinene. Auwers and his pupils have also prepared
a-terpinene synthetically by other methods, and find it to have the follow-
ing characters:—
Boiling-point 65° to 66° at 13'5 mm.
19°
Specific gravity at -0- 0-8353
Henderson and Sutherlandl have prepared a hydrocarbon synthetic-
ally which is possibly a modification of terpinene. They reduced thymo-
hydroquinone, thus obtaining menthane-2-5-diol, which was heated for
half an hour with twice its weight of sulphate of potash under a reflux
condenser, and so yielded a terpene boiling at 179°, of specific gravity
about 0-840 and refractive index 1-4779.
It may be accepted that a-terpinene has characters falling within the
following limits:—
Specific gravity 0*842 to 0-846 at 20°
Refractive index about 1-4720 to 1-4800
A specimen of y-terpinene obtained by Schimmel & Co. from coriander
oil, and probably consisting of a mixture of the a- and y-varieties, had the
The most characteristic derivative for the identification of a-
terpinene is the nitrosite, C10H16N2O3, which melts at 155°. It is pre-
s pared as follows: 2 to 3 grams of the product to be identified are
dissolved in an equal volume of petroleum ether, and an aqueous solution
of 2 to 3 grams of sodium nitrite added. Glacial acetic acid is then
added gradually with constant stirring, the vessel being immersed in
warm water for a few moments and then allowed to stand in a cool place.
Terpinene nitrosite separates, usually in a few hours, but always in two
days. The crystals are filtered off, washed with water, and then with
cold alcohol, and dried on a porous plate. The crystals can be puri-
fied by recrystallisation from hot alcohol, and melt sharply at 155°.
With piperidine, it yields a nitrolpiperidine melting at 153° to 154°, and
with benzylamine a nitrolbenzylamine melting at 137°. These two
compounds are prepared in the same manner as the corresponding
pinene derivatives (q.v.).
It is probable that y-terpinene has not been isolated in a state of
purity, but it can be recognised, by yielding erythritol melting at 236° to
237°, on oxidation with potassium permanganate. In order to obtain
this, 140 grams of the product to be identified are shaken for several
hours with 280 grams of caustic potash and 660 grams of potassium per-
manganate, 8 litres of water, and 8 kilos of ice. The erythritol resulting
is recrystallised from 25 per cent, alcohol, when it melts at 236° to 237°.
y-terpinene does not yield a crystalline nitrosite.
l
Jour. Chan. Soc., 97 (1910), 1616.
TERPINOLENE.
This terpene is very rarely met with in nature, but is formed by the
dehydration of various alcohols, such as terpineol and linalol. It has
been identified in the essential oil of Manila elemi.
The constitution of terpinolene is probably as follows :—
CH;i
H,C
H,Cv >CH,
This terpene wras discovered by Wallach,1 and was prepared by heat-

ing turpentine oil with alcoholic sulphuric acid. It is also yielded in
satisfactory quantity by dehydrating terpineol by means of oxalic acid.
Melted terpineol (melting-point 35°) is added very gradually to a boiling
saturated solution of oxalic acid, through which a current of steam is
passed. About 1 gram of terpineol should be added, drop by drop, pel-
minute, so that dehydration is complete, and the resulting terpinolene
is at once removed by the current of steam before it is isomerised to any
extent.
Semmler 2 has succeeded in preparing pure terpinolene by the reduc-
tion of terpinolene tetrabromide by means of zinc-dust in alcoholic
medium (not in presence of acetic acid, as in that case a mixture of hydro-
carbons is obtained). The constants of the pure hydrocarbon are :—
Refractive index . 1-484°
Boiling-point at 10 mm. 67° to 08°
,, ,, ,, 760 mm. 183° ,, 185°
Optical rotation . + 0"
Terpinolene therefore appears to be, of all the monocyclic terpenes r
the one which possesses the highest specific gravity and the highest boil-
ing-point.
For the identification of terpinolene, its tetrabromide is the most
characteristic compound. This body is prepared by adding gradually four
atoms of bromine to a solution of the terpene in glacial acetic acid,
maintained at a low temperature. Terpinolene tetrabromide, C]0H1(;Br4,
melts at 116° to 117°, when recrystallised from alcohol.
ORIGANENE.
This terpene has been isolated from the oil of Oriyanwm kirtum by
Pickles.^ It is an oil possessing a distinct odour of lemons, and has the
Boiling-point . . . . . . . 160 t o 164 a t 7 5 0 m m .
Optical rotation . . . . . . + 1 50'
l
Aniialeu, 227, 283 ; 230, 262. « Uerickte, 42, 4644.
-Jour. Ghein. Soc., 93 (1908), 862.
It is possible that this slight optical rotation may be due to traces of
impurities.
Origanene yields a crystalline nitrosochloride, melting at 91° to 94°,
and a nitrolpiperidine melting at 198°. These derivatives are prepared
in the same manner as the corresponding compounds of pinene (q.i'.).
Pickles has suggested that origanene has the constitution which
Wallach has assigned to a-terpinene, but there is not sufficient experi
mental evidence to support this suggestion.
CRITHMENE.
Francesconi and Sernagiotto1 have isolated a terpene from the
essential oil of Crithmum maritimum distilled from plants grown in
Sardinia.
It has the following characters : —
Boiling-point ......... 178° to 180°
Specific gravity . ........ 0-8658
Refractive index . . . . . . . . . 1'4S06
Crithmene yields an a-nitrosochloride, crystallising in laminae, and
melting at 101° to 102°, and a ^-nitrosochloride, C10H16ONC1, forming
quadratic plates and melting at 103° to 104°. Both are devoid of optical
activity. The nitrosite melts at 89° to 90° and the nitrosate at 104° to
105°. A tetrabromide is formed, C10H1gBr4, but could not be obtained in
the crystalline condition. The isomeric nitrolpiperides, prepared from
the nitrosochlorides, melt in both instances at 138°. The benzylamine
compound melts at 103° to 104°. If the nitrosochloride be hydrolysed by
means of alcoholic alkali and the resulting products distilled in a current
of steam, a solid body, forming minute crystals melting at 131°, is left
behind. It contains nitrogen. Crithmene yields a dihydrochloride,
C10H16(HClj2, melting at 52°, and apparently identical with that of
terpinene. The constitution of crithmene is probably that of a A1>7~4'8
joara-menthadiene, as follows : —
C:CH 2
H2C/\CH2
C : C(CH3)2
CARENE.
This terpene has been isolated by Simonsen 2 from Indian turpentine
oil, from Pinus longifolia. It is identical with the terpene previously
described by Eobinson 3 as a terpene yielding sylvestrene hydrochloride
when treated with hydrogen chloride. Its characters are as follows : —
30°
Specific gravity at —5 ....... 0*8586
oO
Eefractive index at 30° ....... 1-4690
Optical rotation ......... + 7 -69°
Boiling point at 705 inm ........ 168° to 169°
„ ,, 200 ,, ....... 123° „ 124°
1 2
All. R. Acad. Line. (1913),
:i
231, 312. Jour. Chem. Soc., 1920, 570.
Proc. Chem. Soc., 1911, 27, 247.
Dextro-carene is a colourless oil with a sweet odour. Its nitrosate,
C10H1(.O3N2, melts at 141-5°.
On treatment in ethereal solution with hydrogen chloride, it yields
a mixture of sylvestrene and dipentene hydrochlorides. Its constitution
is probably represented by one of the two following formulae :—
CH3 CH3
I
c c
I
HC CH2 H2C CH
I I I !
H2C CH H2C CH
CH—C(CH3)2 CH-—C(CH3)2
DACRYDENE.
Baker and Smithl have isolated a terpene from the essential oil of the
leaves of Dacrydrium Franklini (the huon pine of Tasmania) which
Optical rotation . +12-3°
It forms a nitrosochloride melting sharply, but with decomposition,
at 120° to 121°. It has been named dacrydene.
In addition to the above-described terpenes proper, there are a few
other hydrocarbons which may be conveniently dealt with here. These
are salvene, the so-called olefinic terpenes, myrcene and ocimene, the
terpene homologues, cantharene,santene, and a hydrocarbon of the formula
C11H18 found in sandal wood oil, and the diterpene phyllocladene.
SALVENE.
Salvene is a hydrocarbon of the formula C10H18 found in oil of sage2.
by Seyler. It has the following approximate characters —-
Its constitution is as follows :—
C . CH(CH3)2
CH . CH3
1
The Pines of Australia, 397 (1st edition). *Ber;chte, 35 (L902>, 550.
MYRCENE.
Myrcene is a compound of the formula C10H16 which has been found
in a number of essential oils, such as bay oil, West Indian lemon-grass
oil, the oil of Lippia citriodora, etc., etc. It has sufficient resemblance to
the terpenes proper to have been classified as an " olefinic" terpene, its
constitution being that of an open chain, and not a ring compound.
Myrcene has one of the two following constitutions :—
CH,v
>C : CH . CH 0 . CH 9 . C(CH2). CH : CH2
CH/
or
CH.
. CH 2 . CH 2 . CH2 . C(CH2) . CH : CH2
CH/'
Myrcene can be obtained, according to Power and Kleber,1 from oil
of bay in the following manner: The oil is first shaken with a 5 per
cent, solution of caustic soda to remove phenols, and is then fractionally
distilled in vacuo. Eventually, by repeated fractionation a colourless
liquid results, which distils at 67° to 68° at 20 mm. pressure, and is
practically pure myrcene.
Myrcene has the following characters :—
Eefractive index 1-4700 at 19°
Boiling-point 167°
,, ,, at 20 mm. 67° to 63°
By reduction with sodium alcohol, myrcene yields dihydromyrcene,
C^H^, a liquid, which yields a tetrabromide melting at 88°, which is a
useful compound for the identification of myrcene. The olefinic terpene
ocimene (q.v.) yields the same body on reduction, so that dihydromyrcene
and dihydro-ocimene are identical. By acting upon linalol with sodium
alcohol, a hydrocarbon of the formula C10H18 is formed by abstraction of
the oxygen, which is also identical with dihydromyrcene, although it has
been named linalolene. It yields the characteristic tetrabromide melting
at 88°. The physical characters of the dihydromyrcenes prepared from
these various sources are as follows :—2
Linalolene Dihy dro my rcene Dihydromyrcene Dihydro-ocimene Dihydromyrcene

(Seinmler). (Enk .aar). (Schimmel & Co.).
B.-p. 165° to 163° 171-5° to 173-5° 166° to 168° 166° to 168° 168°
8p.gr. 0-7882 (20°) 0-7802 (? °) 0-7852 (15°) 0-7750 (15°) 0-7824 (15°)
Befr. 1-455 (20°) 1-4501 1-4514 (17°) 1-4507 (17°) 1-45251 (15°1
The preparation of dihydromyrcene tetrabromide is often attended by

difficulties. The method recommended by Enklaar, and recently also
adopted by Semmler, of dissolving the hydrocarbon in glacial acetic acid,
has not stood the test of practice, because according to Schimmel & Co.
. Rund., New York, 1895, 13.
'2 Schimmel & Co., Report, Oct. 1911, 129.
it generally gives rise to oily bromides. Hydrobromic acid appears to
be evolved as soon as the bromine is added to the glacial acetic acid
solution. The reaction is accomplished more quickly and effectively by
dissolving the hydrocarbon in a mixture of 1 part by volume of amyl
alcohol and 2 parts by volume of ether. Soon after the addition of
the calculated quantity of bromine the tetrabromide separates out.
If myrcene be heated with glacial acetic acid to 40° for three to four
hours, with the addition of a little sulphuric acid, hydration takes place, and
an alcohol, which is termed myrcenol is formed. This body is an oil, of
specific gravity 0'9032, refractive index 1*4806 at 15°, and boiling-point
99° at 10 mm. pressure. It yields a phenylurethane melting at 68°.
Myrcenol probably has the constitution : —
C : CH . CH2 . CH., . C(CH3)(OH) . CH : CH,

CH
or
C . CH., . CH., . CH, . C(CH3)(OH) . CH : CH,
GH.f
The resemblance of myrcene to the terpenes proper may possibly be
connected with the fact that, like geraniol and linalol, they show a marked
tendency towards closing the open chain into a six carbon ring. For
example, when dihydromyrcene C10H18 is treated with acetic and sul-
phuric acids, an alcohol is formed, together with the isomeric hydrocarbon,
C10H1S, where a six carbon ring has been formed, and which is termed
cyclo-dihydromyrcene. This body is an odorous oil having the following
characters : —
Boiling-point ......... 169° to 172°
Specific gravity ........ 0-828 at 20°
Refractive index ........ 1-4620 ,, 20°
Molecular refraction ........ 45° to 63°
Myrcene is easily polymerised, and it is probable that this fact
accounts for the decrease in solubility of essential oils which contain
myrcene, when they have been kept for any length of time.
Koschelew 1 has recently prepared a closely related olefinic terpene,
which he has termed /3-myrcene, by treating isoprene in a sealed tube to
80° to 90° for five days. This body has the constitution : —
,CR
CH, : CH . C(CH3) : CH . CH., . C
It is a colourless oil having an odour very similar to that of myrcene,

and boiling at 63° at 20 mm.
OCIMENE.
This body is very closely related to myrcene, and has been found in
the oil of basil distilled in Java. It has the following constitution : —
CH3 . C(CH3) : CH . CH2 . CH : C(CH3) . CH : CH2
Its characters are as follows : —
]
Chem. Zentral. (1916), i. 1068, 1136.
Boiling point 172° at 750 mm.
73° to 74° at 20 min.
As stated above it yields dihydromyrcene (dihydro-ocimene) when
reduced by sodium alcohol. On hydration by means of acetic and sul-
phuric acids it yields an alcohol, ocimenol, which has the following char-
acters :—
Specific g r a v i t y . . . . 0-901
Boiling-point . . . . 97° at 10 mm.
Melting-point of phenylurethane 72°
By heat, ocimerie is converted into allo-ocimene, which is probably
a stereoisomeric compound.
CANTHARENE.
l
Haworth has described a lower homologue of the terpenes which he
obtained by the dehydration of the alcohol cantharenol. Cantharene,
C8H12, was first prepared by Piccard during his classical work on can-
tharidine, and it so closely resembled the terpenes in character that
Piccard regarded it as the first artificially prepared terpene. The close
relationship of these bodies, which are dihydroxylenes, to the terpenes,
made it of interest to carry out a careful examination of them, and with
this object in view a general method has been devised for the preparation
of pure hydrocarbons of this group. If methyl-cyclo-hexenone is treated
with magnesium methyl iodide the alcohol cantharenol is obtained, which
is the " terpineol " of the group. The dehydration of the alcohol leads to
the formation of the corresponding hydrocarbon, which, chemically, is
1:2 dimethyl A 2 • 6 cyclohexadiene. This body boils at 135*5,° and
20°
has a specific gravity 0-852 at -j-0-, and refractive index 1*4895; and ap-
pears to agree in all its characters with Placard's cantharene. It has a
high refractive index, and gives similar colour reactions, and yields ortho-
toluic acid on oxidation,. There are, of course, three isomeric dihydroxy-
lenes, and the other two were also prepared, and have the following
characters:—
Dihvdro- Dihydro- Dihydro-

o-xylene. ///-xylene. 7>-xylene.
Boiling-point . . . . 135-5° 135° 135° to 138°

20°
Specific gravity —^ 0-8521 0-8373 0-830
Refractive index . . . . 1-4895 1-4856 1-4797
Molecular refraction . 36-62 37-01 36-94
SANTENE.
This hydrocarbon, also known as nor-camphene, is an immediate
lower homologue of the terpenes, of the formula C9H14. It was dis-
l
Jour. Chem. Soc., 1913,1242 ; P. and E.O.R., 1913, 254.
covered in oil of sandalwood by Mtiller.1 It is also present in Siberian
pine-needle oil, and in several other pine oils.
According to Semmler 2 it has the constitution :—
CH
H 3 C.C
CH,
H3C . G! CH.,
CH
This constitution is confirmed by the conversion of camphenylone
into santene by Komppa and Hintikka.3
Santene has also been examined by Aschan.4 The following are the
characters of the purest specimens which have been isolated from
sandalwood and Siberian t)ine oils : —
I
; Sandalwood.
Siberian Pine.
Semmler. Aschan
Boiling-point . 131° to 33° (9 mm.) 140° 140°

Specific gravity . 1 0-863 (20°) 0-8708 (15°) 0-8698 (15°)
Refractive index . i 1-46658 (20°) 1-4688 (17-5°) 1-4696 (19° >
Rotation . . ; +0° + 0° + 0°
Santene forms a nitrosochloride, prepared in the usual manner, melt-

ing at 109° to 110°, and a nitrosite melting at 125°. It also forms a
hydrochloride melting at 80° to 81°. By hydration with sulphuric and
acetic acids it yields an alcohol C9H15OH, which is termed santenol
(isosantenol, nor-borneol). This body melts at 97° to 98° and boils at
195° to 196°.
Kondakow 5 has carried out an investigation on the haloid derivatives
of santene, and finds that mixtures of liquid and solid hydrochlorides and
hydrobromides are usually obtained so that the haloid derivatives are
unsatisfactory for identification purposes.
Santenyl acetate, C9H15. OOC . CH8, is a liquid of specific gravity
0-9859 at 20°, refractive index 1-45929, and boils at 85° to 89° at 8 mm.
HYDROCARBONS CnH18, FROM SANDALWOOD OIL.

Schimmel & Co.6 have isolated a hydrocarbon of the formula C n H ia
from sandalwood oil. This body is completely saturated and is un-
affected by potassium permanganate at ordinary temperatures.
Semmler7 in the course of his researches on the constitution of the
l
Archiv.d Pharm. 238 (1900), 36<x
2
Berichte, 40 (1907), -465, 4594, 4844; 41 (1908), 121, 385.
4
3 Bull. Soc. Chim. [4], 21, 13.
5
Ibid., 4918.
Jour Russ.phys. Chem. Ges., 43 (1911), 1107.
fi
Report, October, 1910, 121.
7
Berichte, 40 (1907), 1124 ; 43 (1910), 1722.
santalols, obtained from triq/c/oeksantalic acid, by splitting off carbon
dioxide gas, a hydrocarbon which he termed nor-tricT/ctoeksantalane. The
most recent investigations of Semmler have shown that tricT/c/oeksantalic
acid posseses twelve carbon atoms, from which it would seem that the
correct formula of nor-tricT/cZoeksantalane is C11H18, and Semmler's.
analyses agree with this view.
The following are the characters of the two hydrocarbons :—
Hydrocarbon from Nor-tric?/cZoeksantalaiie
Sandalwood Oil. (according to Semmler).
Boiling-point . . . 183° 183-5°
Specific gravity at 20° . 0-9092 0-885
Rotation . . . . - 2 3 ° 55' -11°
Refractive index . . 1-4786 1-46856
Molecular refraction. . 46'74 47-15.
It is probable that the tricyclic hydrocarbon from sandalwood oil is
identical with, or at least closely allied to, Semmler's nor-tric^/doeksanta-
lane.
PHYLLOCLADENE.
Baker and Smith have isolated from the essential oil of the leaves
of Phyllocladvis Rhomboidalis a diterpene, which they have named
phyllocladene It has the formula C20H32, and melts at 95°. It is,
dextro-rotatory, its specific rotation being + 16*06°.
2. SESQUITERPENES,
The sesquiterpenes are compounds of the formula C15H24, which are
of higher specific gravity, boiling point, and refractive index than the
terpenes. They are of complicated constitution, and are less well under-
stood in this respect than the terpenes, although modern research is
gradually elucidating many of the problems connected with this inter-
esting group of compounds. Apart from the so-called aliphatic sesquiter-
penes, which appear to bear the same relationships to the sesquiterpenes
proper as do the aliphatic terpenes to the true terpenes, the sesquiterpenes
are classified according to the number of closed rings existing in the mole-
' cule, which, where the constitution is not clearly understood, may be
deduced from the molecular refraction of the compound. The following
figures generally hold good :—
Molecular Refraction Specific Gravity-
Calculated.
Monocyclic 67'76 0-875 to 0-890
Bicyclic 66-15 0'900 „ 0-920-
Tricyclic . . . . . . 64-45 0'930 ,, 0-94O
BlSABOLENE.
This sesquiterpene is a monocyclic compound, first isolated from the

essential oil of Bisabol myrrh by Tucholka.1 It was found in oil of limes,
and described by Burgess under the name limene. It occurs in several
other essential oils. When separated by fractional distillation from
lemon oil, Gildemeister and Miiller 2 found it to have the following
characters:—
1
Arch. der. Pharm., 235 (1897), 292.
'2 Schimmel, Bericht, October, 1909, 50.
VOL. II. 6
Optical rotation . , - 41° 31'
When prepared by regeneration from the trihydrochloride, the sesqui-
terpene is inactive, a pure specimen having the following characters:—
Optical rotation . . . . . . . . 0°
If a current of hydrochloric acid gas be passed through an ice-cold solu-
tion of the sesquiterpene dissolved in ether a crystalline trihydrochloride
is obtained, which melts at 79° to 80°, and has the formula C15H24 . 3HC1.
ZINGIBERENE.
This sesquiterpene
1
was isolated from oil of ginger by Von Soden
and Kojahn and has been examined by them and by Schreiner and
Kremers.2 It is obtained by fractional distillation under reduced pressure
and is a colourless and nearly odourless oil. Its characters are as
follows:—
Boiling-point 270° (with decomposition)
at 32 mm. 160° to 161°
14 mm. 134°
Specific rotation -73° (approximate).
Zingiberene forms a dihydrochloride, C15H24, 2HC1, when its solution
in an equal volume of glacial acetic acid is saturated at 0° with dry
hydrochloric acid gas. It crystallises from hot alcohol in fine white
needles melting at 168° to 169°.
The nitrosochloride, C15H24 . NOC1, prepared in the usual manner, is a
\vhite powder melting with decomposition at 96° to 97°.
The nitrosite, C15H24N2O3, is formed when zingiberene is dissolved
in ten times its volume of petroleum ether, the solution well cooled and
treated with a solution of sodium nitrite, and acetic acid added. It
crystallises from hot methyl alcohol, and melts at 97° to 98°.
Zingiberene also forms a nitrosate, CJ15H24 . N2O4, when the sesquiter-
pene dissolved in an equal volume of glacial acetic acid, is cooled to 0°,
and ethyl nitrite, and then nitric acid added. The nitrosate is dissolved
in acetic ether and precipitated with alcohol. It forms a yellow powder,
melting with decomposition at 86°.
When the dihydrochloride above mentioned is produced, it is probable
that molecular rearrangement takes place and that the compound is really
the dihydrochloride of a bicyclic iso-zingiberene. According to Semmler
and Becker 3 when zingiberene is treated with acetic and sulphuric acids,
it is converted into iso-zingiberene. This sesquiterpene has the following
characters:—
Boiling-point at 7 mm. • . . . . . . 118°
Specific gravity 0-911* at 20°
rotation - 51° 36'
]
Pharm. Zeit., 45, 414. '2Pharm. Arch., 4, 141, 161.
*Berichte94& (1912), 1814.
Zingiberene and wo-zingiberene probably have the following con-

stitutions :—
CH CH2
H,C/\H>CH
OH.,
H2C. AH"
H 3 C.CH CH CH, CH,
Zingibereue. Iso-zingiberene.
CADINENE.
Cadinene owes its name to its occurrence in considerable quantity
in oil of cade—which, of course, is not a true essential oil, but the pro-
duct of destructive distillation. It is found in numerous essential oils,
including those of patchouli, savin, galbanum, camphor, cedar wood,
West Indian santal, juniper, and many others. Cadinene is best pre-
pared as follows:—
The fraction of oil of cade boiling at 260° to 280° is converted into
cadinene dihydrochloride by saturating its solution in dry ether with dry
hydrochloric acid gas. The hydrochloride is separated, dried, and
jrecrystallised, and the hydrochloric acid removed by heating it with
aniline or with sodium acetate in glacial acetic acid. The liberated
•cadinene is rectified in a current of steam. Cadinene from oil of cade
is highly laevo-rotatory, the dextro-rotatory variety being obtained from
Atlas cedar oil and West Indian sandal wood oil.
The purest specimens of cadinene prepared have the following char-
acters :—
Optical rotation , -105° 30'
Lepeschkine1 prefers the use of sodium ethylate for the regeneration
of the sesquiterpene, and gives the following figures for pure cadinene
.so produced:—
Optical rotation - 111°
Boiling-point . 271° to 272°
Cadinene yields a beautiful colour reaction when a few drops are
dissolved in chloroform and shaken with a few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid. The liquid turns dark green, passing to blue and be-
coming red on warming. If acetic acid be used instead of sulphuric
acid, the blue colour is more marked.
Cadinene forms a well - defined crystalline dihydrochloride,
C15H24 . 2HC1. In order to prepare it most successfully the fraction of
oil of cade boiling between 260° and 280°, as mentioned above, is dis-
solved in twice its volume of dry ether, and saturated with dry hydro-
chloric acid gas. The mixture is allowed to stand for several days and
1
Jour. Soc. phys. chim. Russ., 40, 698.
a portion of the ether is distilled off. On further evaporation, the
dihydrochloride crystallises out. The crystals are separated, washed
with a little alcohol, and recrystallissd from ethyl acetate. Cadinene
dihydrochloride melts at 117° to 118° and has a specific rotation (in
5 per cent, chloroform solution) — 37°.
Cadinene dihydrobromide, C J 5 H 2 4 . 2HBr, is obtained by shaking cad-
ine dissolved in acetic acid with fuming hydrobromic acid. It forms
white needles melting at 124° to 125°, and having a specific rotation
- 36*13°. The dihydriodide, C15H24 . 2HI, prepared in a similar manner,
melts at 105° to 106° and has a specific rotation - 48°.
Cadinsne nitrosochloride, C15H24NOC1, is prepared by mixing a
solution of cadinene in glacial acetic acid, kept in ice, with ethyl nitrite,
and then adding a saturated solution of hydrochloric acid gas in acetic
acid. It forms crystals melting, with decomposition, at 93° to 94°. The
nitrosate, C15H24 . N2O4, is prepared by treating a well-cooled mixture of
the sesquiterpene dissolved in glacial acatic acid, and ethyl nitrite, with
a mixture of nitric acid and acetic acid. This compound melts with
decomposition at 105° to 110°.
Cadinene is a bicyclic sesquiterpene, whose constitution is not
definitely understood.
CAKYOPHYLLENE.
Caryophyllene, as isolated from essential oils, and as usually described
in literature is, without the slightest doubt, a mixture of at least two,
if not three distinct chemical individuals.
This sesquiterpene, or mixture of sesquiterpenes, is found to a con-
siderable extent in nature, especially in clove oil, pimento oil, pepper oil,
cinnamon oil, bstel oil, copaiba oil, and numerous other essential oils. As
isolated from these oils the sesquiterpene has the following characters :—
Specific gravity 0-905 „ 0-910
Optical rotation rro go
Deussen and Lewinsohnl were the first chemists to show con-
clusively that at least two sesquiterpenes are present in this body. By
repeated fractional distillation they separated it into two bodies having the
following characters, suggesting that the former might be an optically
inactive sesquiterpene, slightly contaminated with the optically active
variety:—
Boiling-pMnt (16 mm.) , 132° to 13 i° C. Boiling-point (17 mm.) 128° to 128-5°
Specific gravity at 20° , 0-90346 Specific gravity at 17° 0-91034
- 4-67° [a]1D . . . . - 23-57°
1-43973 no ' 1-49899
The former of these bodies gave a yield of 20 per cent, of a nitroso-
chloride and 8*2 per cent, of a blue nitrosite. The second gives only a
very small quantity of nitrosochloride and only 0*5 per cent, of nitrosite.
Deussen termed the inactive caryophyllene, as further experiments
showed it to be, a-caryophyllene, and the laevo-rotatory compound, /?-
caryophyllene. A third body was obtained, which yielded no blue nitrosite
at all, to which Deussen assigned the name y-caryophyllene. This body
1
Annalen, 356, 1; 359, 245.
was obtained by heating the alcoholic solution of /?-caryophyllene nitrosite.
It is identical with the body previously known as isocaryophyllene, and
Optical rotation - 22-22°
Semmler and Mayer l have taken up the study of this complicated

question, and have agreed with Deussen in the main, but have further
complicated the question by introducing fresh nomenclature of a scarcely
scientific character. They consider, as Deussen proved, that crude caryo-
phyllene consists of three distinct chemical individuals: (1) the inactive
a-caryophyllene isolated by Deussen, which is probably identical with the
sesquiterpene from oil of hops described as humulene; (2) terj>caryo-
phyllene, so called because Semmler considers it to be in some degree
related to terpinolene, and (3) ^'w-caryophyllene, so called on account of
its believed relationship in some remote manner to limonene. The follow-
ing formulae have been suggested for the last named two modifications :—
C—CH. CH,
CH,
CH., CH,
T0rp-caryophyllene.
CH,
HC<
jLi?M-caryophyllene.
T0rp-caryophyllene and Zm-caryophyllene can be converted the one

into the other by the preparation of their nitrosites or their nitroso-
chlorides, and subsequent regeneration of the sesquiterpene. They also
both yield the same hydrochloride, melting at 69°.
Schimmel & Co.2 showed that by treating caryophyllene hydro-
chloride melting at 69° (68° to 70°) with sodium ethylate, an unsaturated
tricyclic sesquiterpene resulted. This body has the following characters :—
1 2
Berichte, 44, 3657. Report, October, 1910, 180.
86 THE CHBMISTEY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
If milk of lime be used as the regenerating reagent, a different sesqui-
terpene results, which has the following characters :—
Refra3tive index 1-49941
Semmler and Mayer l agree that the reagent used and the conditions
of temperature, etc., govern the character of the sesquiterpene, or mixture
of sesquiterpenes which result. By using sodium methylate very cau-
tiously, they obtained a caryophyllene having the following characters :—
Boiling-point at 12 mm 121° to 122-5°
Specific gravity at . 0 . 0-8996
Optical rotation +19°
So that by suitable procedure it is possible to regenerate dextro-
caryophyllene from the crystalline hydrochloride.
By using pyridine to split off the hydrochloric acid, Semmler and
Mayer obtained a caryophyllene substantially identical with that obtained
by Schimmel, but of optical rotation - 57°, indicating that Schimmel's.
body was a mixture of the two compounds. Semmler and Mayer give
the following formulae for the caryophyllenes indicated by the above,
together with that of the hydrochloride, to indicate the transpositions,
which occur:—
CH9 CH CH2 CH
H
/\" /\ /CH3 /\ H
H2C C C< H9C C : C
[ | CH2|\CH3 <--> "| | CH2| \CH,
C \j | CH9 \j\j\ \j\\j CH9
II NX
r^TT /ITT TT (^/\rlTT /^TT
\\//^TT
2 W±12UJLJL -tj-3^ O±lgO±lgO±l
(1) Bicyclic regenerated caryophyllene. ^^^ Dihydrochloride.
tS
CH2 CH CH, CH
HC C ,/
CI^\
H2 \CH,
C C I CtL, C G CH2
H3C CH2CH3CH LLS.
(2) Tricyclic caryophyllene. ^3) The caryophyllene which yields a
blue nitrosite.
Formula (1) would thus indicate the natural dextro-caryophyllene
of clove stems; formula (2) indicates the highly laevo-rotatory caryo-
phyllene resulting from regeneration by means of pyridine, and (3) may
represent the a-caryophyllene of Deussen.
l
Berichte, 43(1910), 3451.
If these assumptions be correct, there must be at least four natural
sesquiterpenes of the caryophyllene character, namely, those represented
by formulae (1) and (3), and the terp-caryophyllene and Zzm-caryo-
phyllene of Semmler. The most characteristic derivatives of the
caryophyllenes are the following :—
Caryophyllene dihydrochloride, Cj5H24.2HCl, may be obtained by
saturating a quite dry ethereal solution of the sesquiterpene with dry
hydrochloric acid gas, and exposing the mixture to very intense cold. It
Caryophyllenic alcohol, Clf,H26O, is the easiest crystalline derivative to
obtain for purposes of identification. The fraction of the oil containing
caryophyllene is heated for a considerable time on the water-bath, using
25 grams with a mixture of 20 grams of strong sulphuric acid, 40 grams
of water, and 1000 c.c. of glacial acetic acid. When the reaction is com-
plete, the mixture is steam-distilled. At first acetic acid and a mobile
oil pass over, and then a much less volatile product, which solidifies on
cooling. This is collected and purified by crystallisation from alcohol.
It is caryophyllenic alcohol, and melts at 94° to 96°. It forms a phenyl-
urethane melting at 136° to 137°. On treatment with dehydrating agents
this alcohol yields not any modification of caryophyllene above described,
but a sesquiterpene which is known as clovene, but which is probably just
as accurately described as an isomeric caryophyllene as any of the other
sesquiterpenes in question. It is, however, described below under a
separate heading in order to be in conformity with the current, although
unsatisfactory, nomenclature.
Caryophyllene nitrosochloride, (C15H24)2N2O9C12, is obtained when a
mixture of the sesquiterpene, alcohol, ethyl acetate, and ethyl nitrite is
cooled in a freezing mixture, and then treated with a saturated solution
of hydrochloric acid in alcohol. The reaction mass is allowed to stand
on ice for an hour and is then exposed to sunlight. Thus prepared it
melts at about 158° to 163°, and can be separated into two compounds,
one being that of a-caryophyllene and the other that of /^-caryophyllene
Deussen's sesquiterpenes of natural caryophyllene from clove oil), a-
caryophyllene nitrosochloride melts at 177°, and ^-caryophyllene nitroso-
chloride at 159°. They can be separated by fractional crystallisation.
The corresponding a-nitrolbenzylamine melts at 126° to 128°, and the /?-
nitrolbenzylamine at 172° to 173°. The bimolecular formula given above
is probable but not certain.
Nitroso-caryophyllene, C15H2gNO, is prepared by splitting off hydro-
chloric acid from the corresponding nitrosochloride, by means of sodium
methylate. a-Nitrosocaryophyllene melts at 116° and is optically in-
active (as is the a-nitrosochloride), and /3-nitrosocaryophyllene melts at
120° to 121° and has a specific rotation + 61-77° (as against - 98'07° for
the /?-nitrosochloride).
Caryophyllene nitrosite is an interesting compound. It has the
formula C15H24N2O3, and was first produced by Schreiner and Kremers.1
It is formed by treating a mixture of equal volumes of the sesquiter-
pene and petroleum ether with a concentrated solution of sodium nitrite
and glacial acetic acid. It crystallises in fine blue needles; when re-
crystallised from alcohol it melts at 115° and has a specific rotation
+ 103°.
1
Pharm. Archives, 2 (1899), 283.
By treating this blue nitrosite, which Deussen calls /?-caryophyllene
nitrosite, with alcoholic potash at 0°, it is converted to a colourless isomer,
melting at 139°, which Deussen terms /:?-caryophyllene isonitrosite. By
treatment with boiling petroleum ether decomposition takes place and a
compound melting at 159° is formed, of formula not yet established, and
a nitro-compound of the formula C15H22N2O4, melting at 13O5°.
From the mother liquors of the preparation of the nitrosite from
caryophyllene, a sesquiterpene is obtained, which may be the product of
inversion by acids, or may be naturally present. It has the following
characters :—
This body has been termed by Deussen isocaryophyllene. It yields
two nitrosochlorides, a-isocaryophyllene nitrosochloride melting at 122°,
and /2-isocaryophyllene nitrosochloride melting at 146°.
A study of the oxidation products and nitroso-derivatives of caryophyl-
lene, leads Deussen to consider that this sesquiterpene is a naphthalene
derivative of the formula—
CH
OH,
CH,
\/CH\ x
c c
c CH,
CH, CH,
The above considerations indicate the complex nature of the hydrocarbons
known as caryophyllene. For practical purposes, however, the compounds
indicated are obtained of practically definite melting-points, and, in spite
of the complicated isomerism existing amongst most of them, are useful
for identification of the sesquiterpene or mixture of sesquiterpenes, occur-
ring naturally and known as "caryophyllene".
HUMULENE.
Humulene is the name .assigned by Chapman l to the sesquiterpene
which he isolated from essential oil of hops'. Its characters are as
follows:—
It is probably optically inactive, The following derivatives of humulene
were prepared :—
1
Journ. Chem. Soc., 67 (1P95), 54. 7^0.
Humulene nitrosochloride, C15H24NOC1, melts at 164° to 165°, and
yields a nitrolpiperidine, C15H24NO . N . C5H10, melting at 153°, and a
nitrolbenzylamine, C15H24NO . N . C7H7, melting at 136°.
Humulene nitrosate, C15H24N2O4, melts at 162° to 163°.
Humulene nitrosite, C15H24N2O3, was obtained in two modifications,
one forming blue crystals melting at 120°, and the other colourless melt-
ing at 166° to1 168°.
Deussen considers that the nitrosate above described is identical
•with that of a-caryophyllene, and that the nitrosochloride is identical
with that of the same sesquiterpene. He therefore considers that
ihumulene is, at all events iin greater part, actually a-caryophyllene.
The similarity between humulene and caryophyllene had not escaped
•Chapman's notice at the time that he isolated humulene, but as he was
tunable to prepare a hydrate, which is one of the easiest of the caryo-
phyllene derivatives to obtain in a pure state, he concluded that the
•sesquiterpene was not identical with caryophyllene. Eecent work by
Semmler does not tend to establish the identity of the two sesquiterpenes,
and unless and until further evidence to the contrary is forthcoming,
humulene may be regarded as a definite chemical individual.
SELINENE*
Selinene is a bicyclic sesquiterpene occurring in essential oil of celery.
Its presence was first indicated by Ciamician and Silber2 who announced
the isolation of a sesquiterpene boiling at 262° to 269°, but no charac-
teristic derivatives were prepared. Schimmel & Co.3 examined this
sesquiterpene to which they assigned the name selinene. They prepared
a solid dihydrochloride melting at 72° to 74° and having a specific rota-
tion + 18°. The pure sesquiterpene, regenerated from the dihydrochloride
by means of sodium ethylate had the following characters :—
Eefractive index . 1-50483
Molecular refraction 65-82
The most recent work, however, on the sesquiterpene is that of

Semmler and Eisse.4 From the crude selinene, prepared by fractional
distillation, they prepared the crystalline dihydrochloride, C15H24 . 2HC1,
melting at 72° to 74°, by passing a mixture of 1 part of dry hydro-
chloric acid gas with 3 parts of air, into the sesquiterpene dissolved in
ether. This compound on digestion at very gentle heat, with a solution
of caustic potash in methyl alcohol, yields selinene, which the authors
Conclude is a doubly unsaturated bicyclic compound. The characters of
.the selinene thus obtained are as follows :—
By reducing selinene with sodium alcohol, tetrahydroselinene was

1 2
Jour, prakt. Chim. [2], 83, 483. Berichte, 30, 496.
4
J Report, April, 1910, 32. Berichte, 45, 3301; 46, 599.
obtained, of the formula C15H28. This body has the following char-
acters :—
In a second specimen prepared the optical rotation was -f 7°.

Selinol, an alcohol of the formula C15H26O, was prepared from the
dihydrochloride by shaking it for thwrty-six hours at a temperature of 95°
with milk of lime. It is a yellow oil, boiling at 155° to 163°. This
alcohol yields dihydroselinol, C15H28O, when reduced by hydrogen in the
presence of finely divided platinum. This body melts, after crystallisation
from diluted acetic acid, at 86° to 87°.
They have also carried out the oxidation of selinene by means of
ozone and potassium permanganate and have thus been able to establish
that the regenerated selinene is not absolutely identical with the natural
selinene. They are the first to record the existence of a hemi-cyclic-
sesquiterpene; this compound is termed pseudo-(/3)-selinene. By passing
a current of ozone into a solution of natural selinene (pseudo-(/3)-selinene)^
in acetic acid, there is obtained a diketone, C13H20O2, which is purified by
treatment with permanganate in acetone solution. Its properties are as-
follows:—
Its disemicarbazone, C15H26N0O2, melts at 228° C. with decomposition..

The diketone regenerated by the action of oxalic acid on the disemicar-
bazone has the following properties :—
Specific gravity 1O566 at 20°
Optical rotation . . . . . . . . + 15°
The principal oxidation product of the selinene regenerated fronl the

dihydrochloride is a diketocarboxylic acid, of the formula C14H2404,
melting at 226°.
Semmler deduces from these results that natural selinene is composed
of a mixture containing principally the hemicyclic pseudo-(/2)-selinene,
together with a small quantity of ortho-(a)-selinene. By passing through,
the dihydrochloride it is possible to convert the pseudo-(/3)-selinene into
the ortho-(a)-selinene or regenerated selinene, which contains only a
small proportion of the fi form. Both yield the same solid dihydro-
chloride. Selinene affords a typical example of the possibility of the
displacement of the double bond from the side chain into the nucleus.
The following structural formulae represent, according to Semmler,,
the constitutions of the two forms of selinene and illustrate how they
both yield the same dihydrochloride and the same tetrahydroselinene.
Selinene is still another case of unhappy nomenclature. The natural
body is first known as selinene. The regenerated sesquiterpene is termed
ortho-a-selinene, and because the natural, originally named selinene does*
not agree with the artificial body, it is now called " pseudo-Beliuene "..
CH,
CH2
Pseudo-(j8)-selinene Ortho-(a)-selinene
hemi-cyclic (natural). selinene).-
CH
CH3
Tetrahydroselinene.
CH C09H
CH, CO
CH,
Diketone. Diketomon-ocarbo-
xylic acid.
THE CHEMISTEY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
THE SANTALENES.
Two distinct sesquiterpenes exist in the essential oil of Santalum
album, known as a-santalene and yS-santaleme. /3-santalene is probably
a bicyclic and a-santalene a tricyclic sesquiterpene. These sesquiter-
penes were discovered by Guerbet.1 From the method of their prepara-
tion it is doubtful whether they have been obtained in a state of purity,
so that the characters assigned to them must be accepted with some
reserve, and as probably being only approximate.
a-santalene has, according to Semmler, the following characters :—
„ „ 760mm. 253° „ 254°
Optical rotation . - 15°
/3-santalene has, according to Semmler, the following characters :—
,, ,, „ 760 mm. 261° „ 262°
a-santalene, according to Schimmel & Co., has the following char-
acters :—
Boiling-point at 7 mm. . 118°
„ „ „ 753 mm. . 252°
Specific gravity at 15°. . 0-9132
Refractive index at 15° . 1-49205
Optical rotation . . . - 3° 34'
whilst Schimmel's values for /3-santalene are as follows :—
Specific gravity at 20° . 0-894
Optical rotation . - 41° 3'
/2-santalene has been synthesised by Semmler and Jonas by heating
-Z-a-phellandrene and isoprene in a sealed tube.
No crystalline hydrochlorides could be obtained from either santalene.
a-Santalene forms a liquid dihydrochloride of optical rotation + 6°, when
dry hydrochloric acid is passed through its ethereal solution. It also
forms a crystalline nitrosochloride melting with decomposition at 122°,
and a nitrol-piperidide melting at 108° to 109°. /2-santalene forms
-corresponding compounds, the dihydrochloride having a rotatory power
+ 8°. It forms, however, two isomeric nitrosochlorides, C15H24NOC1.
They may be separated by fractional crystallisation from alcohol. One
melts at 106°, the other at 152°. The corresponding nitrol-piperidides
melt at 105° and 101° respectively.
By the dehydration of the isomeric santalols contained in sandalwood
oil, Guerbet obtained two sesquiterpenes, which he designates a-isosantalene
and /3-isosantalene, according to the santalol from which they are re-
spectively obtained. He assigns to them the following characters :—
Boiling-point Optical Rotation.
a-isosantalene 255° to 256° + 0-2°
£-isosantalene 259° „ 260° + 6-1°
1
Compt. Rend., 130 (1900), 417, 1324.
ATRACTYLENE.
Gadamer and Amenomiya l have prepared a well-defined sesquiterpene
which they term atractylene, by dehydrating atractylol, a crystalline
sesquiterpene alcohol separated from the oil of Atractylis ovata. It is
an oil with an odour of cedar wood, and is probably bicyclic. It poly-
merises on keeping and has the following characters :—
BoiliDg-point at 10 mm 125° to 126°
It yields a liquid dihydrochloride, from which, by the action of
aniline, hydrochloric acid is split off. The regenerated sesquiterpene,,
however, differs in character from atractylene.
GUAIENE.
By dehydrating guaiol, the sesquiterpene alcohol present in guaiac
wood oil, Wallach and Tuttle 2 obtained a bicyclic sesquiterpene which
they called guaiene. It has been obtained by different methods by other
observers from guaiol, and its characters are recorded as follows :—
Specific gravity about 0-910 at 20°
Refractive index „ 1*5010
Optical rotation from - 40-35° to - 66-11°
Boiling-point 124° to 128° (at 9 to 13 mm.).
No crystalline derivatives have been prepared.
CAPARRAPENE.
3
Tapia has prepared this bicyclic sesquiterpene by distilling capar-
rapiol,the sesquiterpene alcohol present in caparrapi oil, with phosphoric
anhydride. It is a colourless oil having the following characters :—
Specific gravity . 0-902 at 16°
Specific rotation . - 2-21°
Its glacial acetic acid solution gives a rose-violet coloration on the-
addition of a few drops of sulphuric acid.
CYPRESSENE.
Odell4 has isolated from the wood of Taxodium distichum (the so-
called southern cypress) a sesquiterpene which he terms cypressene. It
„ „ 778 mm 295° „ 300°
It yields, on oxidation with nitric acid, an acid having the odour of
isovaleric acid. It is probably trycyclic.
1 2
Arch, der Pharm., 241 (1903), 33. 4
Annalen, 279 (1894), 396.
*Bull. Soc. Chim., 19 (iii.), 638. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 33, 755..
GURJUNENE.
1
Deussen and Philipp have separated the sesquiterpene fraction of
gurjun balsam oil into two distinct sesquiterpenes which they term
a-gurjunene and /3-gurjunene. The former is a tricyclic and the latter
a bicyclic compound. By repeated fractionation they obtained a-gur-
junene, boiling at about 119° at 12 mm., and which had an optical rota-
tion of not less than - 61°. They found /2-gurjunene to boil at 123° at2
12 mm., and to be slightly dextro-rotatory. Semmler and Spornitz
Tiave, however, prepared /2-gurjunene in a state of purity. By oxidising
"the mixed sesquiterpenesin acetone solution with potassium permanganate
the a-sesquiterpene is readily oxidised, whilst /3-gurjunene is attacked
•only with difficulty. The latter was obtained in a state of purity and
had the following characters :—
Boiling-poiDt 113-5° to 114° at 7 mm.
Optical rotation more than + 19°
<
When reduced by spongy platinum it yields dihydro-/2-gurjunene,
O15H26, having the following characters :—
Boiling-point 115° to 117° at 7 mm.
Semmler considers /?-gurjunene to resemble the tricyclic sesquiterpene,
•cedrene, so that it is doubtful whether it is bicyclic or tricyclic.
According to Deussen, both a- and /3-gurjunene yield, on oxidation, a
ketone C15H24O, which yields a semicarbazone melting at 234°, and has
Optical rotation + 120° to + 130°
Refractive index . . . . . . 1-5303
When rectified gurjun balsam oil, that is, a mixture of a- and /?-gur-
junene, is saturated in ethereal solution with hydrochloric acid gas, and
the mixture is left standing for two days at room temperature, and the
hydrochloric acid abstracted by heating with sodium acetate, the re-
generated sesquiterpene appears to be a bicyclic compound having the
Boiling-point 129-5° to 132° at 12 mm.
Refractive i n d e x . . . . . . . 1-5057
Deussen and Philipp term this sesquiterpene isogurjunene.
Semmler and Jakubowick 3 have isolated a tricyclic gurjunene from
the oil having the following characters :—
Optical rotation + 74*5°
Refractive index , 1-50275
l 2 s
Annaleny 374 (1910), 105. Berichte, 47 (1914), 1029. Ibid., 1141.
COPAENE.
Semmler and Stenzell have isolated a sesquiterpene which they term

«jopaene, from African copaiba oil. It is probably a tricyclic compound.
Its physical characters are as follows :—
„ rotation - 13° 35'
Befractive index 1-48943
It does not yield a solid nitrosochloride, nor a nitrosite, but it yields
& crystalline hydrochloride, melting at 117° to 118°, which is identical
with cadinene hydrochloride. Semmler considers copaene to have the
iormula—
C-CH(CH3).2 CH
x^\ / \\
HC^
/ \\/ / v\
\\rTT
CH \ JCH-^
rw
^n. \\i'/-( /-ITT
2 /\ ~\j . \_/ji..
\ /\ X '
CH(CH3) CH,
Copaene.
It yields on reduction dihydrocopaene, a compound boiling at 118° to
121° at 12 mm. By oxidation by ozone or by permanganate of potas-
sium it yields a ketonic acid of the formula C15H24O3, which forms a
isemicarbazone melting at 221°. These derivatives characterise copaene
AS a new sesquiterpene. Its characters, however, have only been very
alightly investigated at present.
SESQUICAMPHENE.
Semmler and Eosenberg2 have identified a new sesquiterpene in the
iligher boiling fractions of camphor, oil, to which they have given the
name sesquicamphene. This compound has the following characters :—
Refractive index . . . . . . . . . 1-50058
It is a doubly unsaturated bicyclic sesquiterpene from which no
•crystalline derivatives have, so far, been prepared.
CEDKENE.
Cedrene is the naturally occurring sesquiterpene of cedar wood oil
«of which it forms the principal constituent. It is a tricyclic compound
Jiaving the following characters :—
1 2
Berichte, 47 11914), 2555. Ibid., 46 (1913), 768.
„ 760 mm 262° ,, 263°
The above figures are for the purest specimen of natural cedrene which
has been prepared.
Semmler and Hoffmann l have examined this sesquiterpene in con-
siderable detail. It was dissolved in acetone and oxidised with potassium
permanganate, and the indifferent products thus obtained were separated
by fractional distillation. Cedrene glycol, C15H26O2, was obtained to the
extent of 12 to 15 per cent. ; it crystallises from acetone in prisms, melt-
ing at 160°.
In addition to the glycol, a compound, C15H24O2, was formed, which
Semmler and Hoffman regard as a keto aldehyde, or a diketone, of
specific gravity 1*055.
When cedrene was oxidised with permanganate, there were chiefly
formed products of an acid nature, from which a cedrene keto acid,
C15H24O3, was isolated, which boiled at 215° to 222° (11 mm. press.).
Its semicarbazone melts at 245° and its oxime at 60°.
When cedrene is oxidised by chromic acid, in acetic acid solution,
a mixture of two ketones is obtained, of which the principal is a body to
which the name cedrone has been assigned. Cedrone has the following
characters:—
Boiling-point at 9 mm 147° to 150-5°
Specific gravity 1-0110° at 12-5°
It is a yellowish liquid having a strong odour of cedar wood, and forms
a semicarbazone, melting at 242° to 243°.
By the reduction of cedrone by means of sodium and alcohol, there
is formed dihydro-isocedrol, C15H26O, boiling at 148° to 151° C. under a
pressure of 9*5 mm. When cedrene is heated at 180° to 210° C. with
hydriodic acid and red phosphorus, and the product formed is reduced
by sodium and alcohol, a body C15H26 is obtained, which Semmler de-
scribes by the name dihydro-cedrene. It boils at 116° to 122° C. under
12 mm. pressure; its specific gravity is O9052 at 15° C.
Although the constitution of cedrene is not understood, Semmler and
Hoffmann consider that the following complexes are present in the
various bodies described :—
C C C C
C CH C CHOH C COOH C CO
C—CH3 C(OH) . CH3 CO—CH3 C—CH3
I II III IV
in cedrene (I), cedrene-glycol (II), the ketonic acid (III), and cedrone (IV).
Semmler and Eisse2 have studied the oxidation of cedrene by means
of ozone. They obtained the keto-acid, C15H24O3, which on further oxida-
tion either by means of bromine or nitric acid yields a dicarboxylic acid,
1 2
Berichte, 40 (1907), 3511. Ibid., 45 (1912), 355.
C14H2204, melting at 182'5. The formation of this cedrene-dicarboxylic
acid serves for the detection of cedrene in essential oils. It is sufficient
if the fraction to be examined be oxidised by permanganate or ozone, and
the acid obtained (boiling-point at 10 mm. - 200° to 220° C.) be then
oxidised further, either by an alkaline solution of bromine or by nitric
acid. Even very small proportions of cedrene have definitely led to the
obtaining of this acid melting at 182'5° C.
Semmler and Mayer 1 have isolated from the oil of cedar wood an
alcohol, pseudocedrol. There also exists in the oil a sesquiterpene
alcohol, cedrol. The latter, on dehydration yields cedrene, which is-
probably identical with, or very closely allied to, natural cedrene, whilst,
pseudocedrol yields a mixture, when heated in a sealed tube, of cedrene
and dihydrocedrene. Dihydrocedrene is a colourless oil having the
Specific gravity at 20° 0'907
By reducing natural cedrene with hydrogen in the presence of spongy
platinum, a dihydrocedrene is obtained which has the following char-

Specific gravity at 20 0 9201
No crystalline halogen derivatives of cedrene have been prepared, only
liquid compounds being obtained when the sesquiterpene is treated by
the usual processes.
CLOVENE.
When caryophyllene alcohol is dehydrated by means of zinc chloride
or phosphorus pentoxide, a hydrocarbon results, which does not appear
to be identical with any of the sesquiterpenes described under the name
caryophyllene. It has therefore been named " clovene ". Clovene has
Molecular refraction . . . . . . . . 64'77
VETIVENE.
A sesquiterpene was isolated from oil of vetivert by Genvresse and
Langlois,2 and was named by them vetivene. This body, or mixture of
bodies, has, more recently, been examined by Semmler, Bisse, and
Schroeter.3 There is no evidence, however, that the sesquiterpenes de-
scribed as vetivene were obtained in a state of purity. From a German
distilled oil they prepared a tricyclic "vetivene" and a bicyclic vetivene,
having the following characters :—
1 2
Berichte, 45 (1912), 1384. Comptes rend., 135, 1059.
3
Berichte, 45, 2347
VOL. II. 7
Tricyclic Bicyclic
Vetivene. Vetivene.
Boiling-point at 16 mm. . . . 123° to U0° 137° to 140°
Specific gravity at 20° . . . . 0-9355 0-9321
Optical rotation - 12° 16' - 10° 12'
The sesquiterpenes obtained from an oil distilled in Bourbon had the

A. B.
Boiling point at 9 mm. . . . 124° to 127° 128° to 132°
Specific gravity at 20° . . . . 0-9299 0-9322
Optical rotation - 2° - 12° 36'
The former is considered to contain mostly tricyclic vetivene, and the

latter bicyclic vetivene. The great differences in the characters of these
sesquiterpenes are strong evidence of their impurity, and the above
characters must be accepted with considerable reserve.
Two isomeric alcohols, known as vetivenol, also exist in the oil.
By treatment with phosphorus pentachloride this mixture of
alcohols is converted into a chloride, or mixture of chlorides, which
on reduction yields an artificial vetivene, having the following char-
acters :—
In another experiment the resulting sesquiterpene, after treatment

with permanganate of potassium, had a dextro-rotation, + 6° 12'.
SUGININE.
The wood of Cryptomeria japonica, a Japanese cedar tree, yields an
oil which contains a sesquiterpene to which the name suginene has been
assigned. It has the following characters :—
„ rotation . . . - 10° 34'
It yields a liquid hydrobromide of specific gravity 0'988 and specific
rotation - 11° 15'.
SESQUICITRONELLENE.
Semmler and Spornitz l have isolated a sesquiterpene from Java
citronella oil, which they have named sesquicitronellene. It has the
•Optical rotation + 0° 36'
, 4025.
CALAMENE.
l
Semmler and Spornitz have isolated a sesquiterpene from the oil of
Acorus calamus, which they have termed calamene. This body has the
Boiling-point at 10-5 mm 123° to 126°
20°
Specific gravity at . 0-9224
iy
HEBABOLENE.
This body is apparently a tricyclic sesquiterpene. It was isolated
from essential oil of Herabol myrrh by Von Friedrichs,'2 who found it to
have the following characters :—
Boiling-point at 16 mm. . 130° to 136°
Specific gravity at 20° . . 0'943
Optical rotation . . -14° 12'
Refractive index . . . 1*5125
Molecular refraction . . 64-98
It yields a dihydrochloride melting at 98° to 99°.
ABOMADENDBENE.
Baker and Smith 3 have isolated from a number of eucalyptus oils,
* sesquiterpene to which they have given the name aromadendrene.
This compound was separated from the oil of eucalyptus nova-angelica
in the dextrorotatory form, and from the oil of eucalyptus bailey ana
in the laevorotatory form. The two specimens had the following
characters:—
1. 2.
Specific gravity . . . . 0-9222 0-924
„ ,, at 10 mm. 124° to 125° 123° to 125°
Optical rotation + 4-7° - 3-7°
Refractive index at 20° 1-4964 1-4964.
It yields a characteristic reaction with bromine. If a few drops are
.dissolved in 3 c.c. of glacial acetic acid and a little bromine vapour
allowed to pass down the tube, a fine crimson colour forms which
rapidly extends to the whole of the liquid and soon changes to violet and
then to indigo blue; with phosphoric acid, the acetic acid solution gives
a rose madder colour at the junction of the liquids, and when the liquids
are mixed, the colour changes to crimson and then slowly to violet.
Baker and Smith consider that the sesquiterpene contains one double
linkage. Semmler considers that it is a mixture of at least two bodies,
one a bicyclic and the other a tricyclic sesquiterpene.
LlBBOCEDBENE.
A sesquiterpene has been isolated from the oil of the leaves and twigs
of the Californian incense cedar tree, Li!,rocedrus decurrens, which has
been named librocedrene. it has the following characters :—
2
*Berichte, 46 (1913), 3700. Arch, der Pharm., 245 (1907), 208.
B
A Research on the Eucalypts, 2nd edition, 416.
Boiling-point . 270° (approximate)
Optical rotation + 6-4°
FERULENE.
Semmler, Jones, and Koenisch1 have isolated a sesquiterpene from
the oil of Peucedanum ammoniaciim, which they have termed ferulene.
This substance has the following characters :—
Boiling point at 10 mm. 126° to 128°
Optical rotation . + 6°
It is possible that it is not an individual compound, but a mixture of
two bodies.
COSTENE AND ISOCOSTENE.
Semmler and Feldstein 2 have isolated three isomeric sesquiterpenes

from the oil of costus root. These have been named a-costene, /2-costene,
and isocostene. They have the following characters:—
a-costene. #-costene. Isocostene.
Boiling-point 122° to 126° at 12 mm. 144° to 149° at 19 mm. 130° to 135° at 12 mm.
Specific gravity . 0-9014 at 21° 0-8728 at 22° 0-906 at 21°
Optical rotation . - 12° + 6° 4- 31°
i
ELEMENE.
Elemene is a monocyclic sesquiterpene resulting from the reduction
of elemol, the sesquiterpene alcohol present in Manila elemi oil.3 It has.
It is possibly a mixture of more than one sesquiterpene.
OPOPONAX SESQUITERPENE.
The fraction of opoponax oil boiling at 135° to 137° in vacuo contains
a sesquiterpene, which has been examined by Schimmel & Co.4 On
fractionation at ordinary pressure, it boiled at about 260° to 270°, and in
this impure condition was dissolved in ether and saturated with hydro-
chloric acid gas. The crystalline hydrochloride which resulted melted
at 80°, and was optically inactive. It has the composition C15H24. 3HC1.
The sesquiterpene is apparently one containing three double linkages.
When regenerated from the hydrochloride by boiling with sodium acetate
in glacial acetic acid, it has the following characters:—
1 2
Berichte, 50, 1823. Ibid., 47(1914), 2687.
3 4
Ibid., 49 (1916), 794. Report, October, 1904,
Optical rotation . . . . . . . . +0°
PATCHOULENE.
This sesquiterpene has not been found naturally. It is formed by the
dehydration of the so-called patchouli camphor, a sesquiterpene alcohol,
C16H260, found in oil of patchouli. It has the following characters:—
Von Soden and Eojahn l have isolated two sesquiterpenes from
patchouli oil, which have the following characters :—
1. 2.
Specific gravity 0-9335 0*930
Optical rotation -58° 45' +0° 45'
MAALI SESQUITERPENE.
Schimmel & Co. 2 have isolated a sesquiterpene alcohol from Samoan
resin, known as Maali resin, and by dehydrating it by means of formic
acid have obtained a sesquiterpene which has not been named other
than as Maali sesquiterpene. It has the following characters :—
Refractive index . . . ' 1-52252
Boiling-point 271°
ClTEONELLA SESQUITERPENE.
Ceylon citronella oil contains an olefinic sesquiterpene having the

Optical rotation +1° 28'
Boiling-point . . . . . . . 280°, with decomposition
No crystalline derivatives have been prepared.
CANNABIS SESQUITERPENE.
A sesquiterpene has been isolated from the essential oil of Cannabis
Indica. This may fairly be considered a definite body, as it has been
isolated by many different observers and described by them at different
times. Valenta3 first mentions it. Vignolo 4 describes it as a mobile
liquid boiling at 256°, of specific gravity *897 at 15°, and slightly laevo-
rotatory. Wood, Spivey, and Easterfield5 give the boiling-point as 258°
to 259°, the specific gravity as '898 at 18°, and the rotation as - 8*6°.
1 2
Berichte, 37 (1904), 3353. Report, November, 1908, 137.
3 4
5
Gazzetta, 1880, 540. Ibid, 1895, HO.
Jour. Chem. Soc., 1896, 543.
The name cannibene may be applied to this hydrocarbon. Personne first
gave this name to what is now known to be an impure compound obtained
from the oil.
GONOSTYLENE.
This sesquiterpene is obtained by the dehydration of the sesquiterpene

alcohol gonostylol. It has the following characters :—
„ rotation + 40° (in alcohol)
Molecular refraction . . . . . . . 66*7
EUDESMENE.
Eudesmene is a sesquiterpene obtained by the dehydration of eudesmol,

the sesquiterpene alcohol found by Baker and Smith in several species of
eucalyptus oil. It has the following characters :—
„ rotation +49°
It forms a dihydrochloride melting at 79° to 80°. The sesquiterpene re-
generated from the dihydrochloride has slightly different characters, so
that a molecular rearrangement is probable; and the regenerated " eudes-
mene" may contain another sesquiterpene. Its characters are as
follows:—
,, rotation -f 54° 6'
On reduction it yields tetrahydro-eudesmene, C15H30, having the follow-
ing characters :—
„ rotation 4-10° 12'
CHINESE PINE SESQUITERPENE.

The essential oil from the oleo-resin of Chinese turpentine l (botanical
origin unknown) contains a tricyclic sesquiterpene, having the following
characters:—
It forms a monohydrochloride melting at 58° to 59°.
1
Jour. Chem. Ind. Tokyo, 23, 45.
LONGIFOLENE.
Longifolene in its dextrorotatory form is a sesquiterpene isolated by

Simonsen1 from Indian turpentine oil from Pinus longifolia. It is a
colourless viscous liquid having the following characters :—
„ „ 36 mm 150° to 151°
30°
Specific gravity at —0 0-9284
It yields a crystalline hydrochloride melting at 59° to 60°; a hydro-
bromide melting at 69° to 70°, and a hydriodide melting at 71°.
AZULENE.
This hydrocarbon is not a sesquiterpene, but may be conveniently
dealt with here. It has been thoroughly investigated by Sherndal.2 In
many essential oils, especially those containing sesquiterpenes, a blue
coloration is observed, which becomes concentrated in the higher boiling
fractions. This is especially marked in oil of chamomiles. The body
responsible for this blue colour was separated by taking advantage of
its ready solubility in mineral acids. A very blue fraction wras shaken
out with one-fifth of its weight of 63 per cent, sulphuric acid. After
standing the acid layer was separated, diluted with water, and shaken
with petroleum ether until no more colour was extracted. The dark
blue petroleum was then extracted with phosphoric acid, 85 per cent.
The acid extract, diluted with water, was shaken with ether. On
evaporating the solvent, azulene was left. It was further purified by
steam distillation, and, finally, by distilling in vacuo. It is a viscid
liquid, with a weak phenolic odour, suggestive of thymol. It is a hydro-
carbon, having the formula C15H18. Its specific gravity is 0*9738 at 25°.
Under normal pressure the boiling-point is 295° to 300° C. with decom-
position ; under 25 mm. pressure azulene distils between 185° and 195° C.,
leaving a brown residue.
When azulene is heated with sulphuric acid and acetic anhydride a
sulphonic acid, soluble in water, is formed. This acid forms a fine violet
sodium salt. This sodium salt is not very stable ; when kept for three
months it decomposes into a mixture of oil and resin. Its aqueous solu-
tion gives blue precipitates with calcium and barium salts.
Sherndal considers the formation of a crystalline picrate, melting
at 122°, the best method of identifying azulene. On reduction azulene
yields a dihydro-sesquiterpene, C15H20, and in Sherndal's opinion, it is
closely related to a-gurjunene in constitution.
APLOTAXENE.
3
Semmler and Feldstein have isolated from the oil of costus root a
hydrocarbon of the formula C17H28, to which they have given the name
aplotaxene. Its characters are approximately as follows :—
1
Jour. Chem. Soc. 1920, 570.
2
Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 37 (1915), 167, 1537.
3
Berichte, 47 (1914), 2687.
Refi active index 1-4830
Optical rotation ±0°
Its low specific gravity indicates that it is an open-chain compound, and

from its easy reduction by sodium and alcohol, into dihydroaplotaxene,
C17H30, and by hydrogen and platinum black into normal heptadecane
CI7H20, it is evident that aplotaxene is a tetraolefinic normal chain hydro-
carbon.
3. ALCOHOLS.
Bodies of an alcholic nature play a very important part in both
natural and synthetic perfumery. They are found to a very large ex-
tent in essential oils, both in the free state and also in the form of esters.
Some that have not so far been recognised as constituents of essential
oils, have been found to be so highly odorous, and so useful as perfume
materials, that they are prepared artificially, and enter largely into the
composition of the synthetic perfumes which to-day are indispensable to
the manufacturer of perfumes. It is obvious that those alcohols which
are soluble in water, such as methyl and ethyl alcohols, although they
may be original constituents of some essential oils, are removed by the
ordinary distillation processes, so that they do not, in fact, appear in the
êssential oil as found in commerce.
The higher homologues of the methane series of alcohols are found,
•sometimes in the merest traces only, in certain essential oils, but their
value in perfumery has been so well established that a number of them
are now manufactured as " synthetics ".
The alcohols of the geraniol series and those of the closed-chain series
are practically insoluble in water, and, where they occur as natural
constituents of essential oils, are present in the distilled oil.
E. Emmet Eeid l describes a method of separating alcohols from
a mixture which may contain primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols.
It consists in esterifying with phthalic anhydride, and converting the
acid ester into the sodium salt, which reacts with ^-nitrobenzyl bromide,
forming an ester which serves for identification. Primary alcohols com-
bine with phthalic anhydride below 100°, whilst secondary react rapidly
only above 120°. An excess of the alcohol is heated for one hour with
1 gram of phthalic anhydride (a sealed tube being used for the lower
alcohols), and the product is transferred to a separating funnel contain-
ing 10 c.c. of water. About 15 c.c. of ether and 5 c.c. of normal solution
of caustic soda are added, and the whole shaken for five minutes. The
water is drawn off and the ether solution washed with a little water. The
water solution is again extracted with ether. The aqueous solution is
evaporated to dryness, and the sodium salt is transferred to a 100 c.c.
flask with 5 c.c. of water and 10 c.c. of 95 per cent, alcohol. To this is
added 1 gram of j?-nitrobenzyl bromide, and,the mixture is boiled for one
hour on a steam bath under a reflux condenser. The product is then
obtained by evaporation of the liquid, and recrystallised from 63 per cent,
alcohol. The following are the results obtained :—
1
Jour. Amcr. Ghent. Soc. (1917), 1249 ; Krogh, P. and O.E.R.
Melting-point of No of c.c. of
Alcohol. ^-nitrobenzyl Strength oi Alcohol Required
Phthalate. Alcohol Solvent. for about 1 *3
Grams.
Degrees. Per Cent.

Methyl 105 63 9
Ethyl . 80 63 9
Propyl . 53 63 27
Isopropyl 74 63 30
Allyl . 61-5 71 17
N-butyl 62 76 40
N-octyl 41 70 30
Benzyl 83 76 28
"Ehenylethyl 84-3 76 21
Borneol 100 80 20
Isoborneol 87 — —
Isobutyl, isoamyl, and cinnamic alcohols, menthol and geraniol gave

j)-nitrobenzyl phthalates which were oily liquids and could not be
crystallised.
METHYL ALCOHOL.
This alcohol, the lowest of the paraffin series, is found in the dis-
tillation waters of a number of essential oils, being soluble in all pro-
portions in water. It does not therefore form a constituent of essential
oils in the form in which they are found in commerce. In the form of
esters, methyl alcohol is found as a constituent of a number of essential
oils, such as, for example, oil of wintergreen, which consists almost en-
tirely of methyl salicylate. Methyl alcohol, CH3OH, is a liquid of specific
gravity 0'810, boiling at 64°.
ETHYL ALCOHOL.
Ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH, is also a natural constituent of a number
of essential oils, but being, like methyl alcohol, soluble in water in
all proportions, it is washed away in the distillation waters. It is an
inflammable liquid of specific gravity 0'794, and boiling at 78°.
ISOBUTYL ALCOHOL.
This alcohol, of the formula (CH3)2CH . CH2OH, is found in the
free state in the distillation water of the oil of Eucalyptus Amygdalina.
It boils at 108*5°, and has a specific gravity 0*8003. It yields a phenyl-
urethane melting at 80°.
ISOAMYL ALCOHOL.
Isoamyl alcohol, (CH3)2. CH . CH2CH2OH, has been found in the free
state in various eucalyptus oils, and also in geranium, lavender, and
peppermint oils. It boils at 131° and yields a phenyl-urethane, melting
at 53°.
HEXYL ALCOHOLS.
Normal hexyl alcohol, CH 3 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH2OH, is found,
principally in the form of esters, in a few essential oils, especially the oil
of Heracleum giganteum. It is a liquid of specific gravity 0*824, and'
boils at 157°.
An isohexyl alcohol, (C2H5) (CH3) . CH . CH2 . CH2 . OH (methyl-ethyl -
propyl alcohol), is found in the form of esters in Roman chamomile oil.
This body is an oil of specific gravity O829, optical rotation [a]D =
+ 8-2°, and boiling at 154°.
HEPTYL ALCOHOL.
One of the heptyl alcohols, methyl-amyl carbinol, of the formula
CH
)>CHOH, has been isolated from oil of cloves. It has a
CH3(CH2)/
specific gravity 0*8244, and boils at 157° to 158°. On oxidation by
chromic acid, it yields methyl-amyl-ketone, which gives a semicarbazone,
melting at 122° to 123°.
ETHYL- AMYL CARBINOL.
Ethyl-amyl carbinol, ^>CHOH, one of the isomeric octyi'

CH3(CH2)4/
alcohols, has been found as a constituent of Japanese peppermint oil.
It has been prepared synthetically by Pickard and Kenyon 1 by passing
the vapour of a mixture of 145 grams of normal caproic acid and 180
grams of propionic acid through a tube charged with thorium oxide
heated to 400°. By this means they obtained 124 grams of ethyl-amyl-
ketone. This was reduced in a solution of moist ether with sodium, and
the carbinol resulted. It has the following characters : —
20°
Specific gravity at -^ ....... 0-8247
»» »» » 16 mm. 76°
Optical rotation . + 6-79°
Melting-point of phthalate 66° to 68°
Boiling-point of the ketone 165° „ 166°
Melting-point of semicarbazone 112°
HIGHER ALIPHATIC ALCOHOLS.

The higher aliphatic alcohols, from octyl alcohol upwards, have-
recently been introduced as perfume materials with considerable success.
Only one or two of them, such as nonyl and undecylenic alcohols, have
so far been detected as natural constituents of essential oils, but other
members of the series are prepared artificially, and are employed in
minute quantities in the preparation of perfumes with characteristic;
fruity bouquets. These alcohols are greatly diminished in perfume value
by traces of impurities. According to H. J. Prins,2 the first interesting
member of the series is octyl alcohol; it has a very sweet, rose-like
odour, and is especially suitable for giving a rose perfume that peculiar
sweet smell which distinguishes a rose from a rose perfume. This-
feature of the aliphatic alcohols diminishes in the series from C8 to 012»
1 2
Jour. Chem. Soc., 103 (1913), 1923. P. and E.O.E., 1917, 68.
Laurinic or duodecylic alcohol has a soft and not very strong but
delicate odour. These alcohols can be used in much greater quantities
than the corresponding aldehydes. The latter are only admissible in a
perfume base to the extent of from 1 to 2 per cent. The alcohols may
be used in quantities up to 5 per cent. Laurinic alcohol is very suitable
as a basis for perfumes of the lily type, owing to its delicate odour ; it
has, moreover, very powerful fixative properties.
Prins (loc. cit.) considers that the melting and boiling-points of these
alcohols are amongst the best criteria of their purity. He gives the
following values for the more important of them :—
Meltiug-poiut. Boiling-point
at 13 mm.
Octyl alcohol . - 22° to - 21° 95°
Nonyl - 11° „ - 10° 102°
Decyl - 10° ,, - 8° 110°
Duodecyl alcohol 13° ,, 15° 142°
Undecylenic ,, - 12° „ - 11° 128°
It is strange that only the normal alcohols amongst the higher

aliphatic alcohols are of any value as perfumes, the iso-alcohols being
useless.
The following are the only members of the series which have, so far,
been utilised as perfume materials :—
Octyl Alcohol.—this is the primary normal alcohol of the formula
CH3(CH2)6CH2OH. It has an odour recalling that of opoponax, and is
useful in the blending of perfumes of this type. It boils at 196° to 197°,
and has a specific gravity 0*8278. It yields octyl aldehyde on oxidation,
whose naphtho-cinchoninic acid compound melts at 234°.
Nonyl Alcohol.—This is the normal alcohol of the formula
CH3(CH2)7CH2OH.
This alcohol has a marked rose odour, resembling that of citronellol,
and has also a suggestion of orange in it. It can be extracted from
orange oil by saponifying the high boiling constituents and extracting
the alcohol in the form of its phthalic acid compound. It has a specific
gravity 0*840, and refractive index 1-43582. It boils at 98° to 101° at
12 mm. It can be identified by its phenyl-urethane, melting at 62° to 64°.
There is a secondary nonyl alcohol, methyl-heptyl carbinol, which exists
in certain essential oils. It is a liquid of specific gravity 0*8273, and
boils at 198° to 200°. It is of little use, however, for perfumery purposes.
Decyl Alcohol.—This alcohol, of the formula CH3(CH2)8CH2OH, is
often considered to be the most useful of this series. It boils at 110° at
13 mm., and melts at - 10°. Its odour is hardly describable, and al-
though very expensive it is used in such small amounts as to render its cost
but small. It is very useful in modifying the bouquet of numerous flower
odours, and has been well described by an American perfumer as ".an
alcohol which the up-to-date manufacturer uses to deceive the copier of
odours".
Undecylic Alcohol.—This alcohol, CH3(CH2)9CH2OH, may be de-
scribed as of the same general characters as decylic alcohol, useful for
the same purpose, but giving a slightly different modification to the
bouquets. It occurs in Algerian Eue oil and in oil of Trawas. It boils
at 231° to 233°.
Undecylenic Alcohol.—This alcohol is an unsaturated 11-carbon
alcohol, and therefore not a homologue of ethyl alcohol. It is, however,
so closely related to the series, and so similar to the two last described,
that its inclusion here is convenient. It boils at 128° at 13 mm. and
melts at - 12°. Its constitution is CH 2 : CH(CH2)8CH2OH. It is being
used to a fairly considerable extent by the more skilful perfumers in the
same way as decyl alcohol.
Duodecylic Alcohol.—This alcohol has the formula CH3(CH2)10CH2OH,
and is used exactly as are the last three described bodies. It is a liquid
boiling at 142° at 13 mm. It 'crystallises at low temperatures, and melts
.at 14°.
The above series of alcohols are exceedingly difficult to manufacture,
hence their expense. The general method of their preparation would
theoretically be by distilling the calcium salts of the corresponding fatty
acid with calcium formate, in vacuo. This would yield the correspond-
ing aldehyde, which on reduction would yield the corresponding alcohol.
In practice, however, many technical difficulties arise, and special pro-
cesses have to be used which are kept carefully as trade secrets.
The next group of alcoholic bodies to be studied are those which,
although open-chainl alcohols, show considerable tendency to easily pass
into closed-chain compounds, so that they occupy a definite position of
their own, midway between the ordinary aliphatic series and the closed-
^chain series. The principal members of this important group are
geraniol, nerol, linalol, and citronellol, together with the so-called ali-
phatic sesquiterpene alcohols, farnesol and nerolidol.
GERANIOL.
Geraniol, C10H17OH, is a constituent of many essential oils, both in
the free state and in the form of esters. It is present to a very large
extent in palmarosa oil, ginger-grass oil, and citronella oil, principally in
the free state, and in geranium oil, to some extent in the free state, but
principally in the form of esters. It is also an important constituent of
otto of rose, and is present in numerous other oils belonging to the most
distantly related groups.
This alcohol is of the highest importance in artificial perfumery, and
is manufactured on a very large scale from either palmarosa or citronella
oil. It can be separated from essential oils containing it by intimately
mixing them with an equal weight of dry powdered calcium chloride,
and keeping the mixture in a desiccator at - 4° for 16 hours. The soft
mass is then rubbed down with dry petroleum ether, and the liquid por-
tion removed by means of a suction filter. The calcium chloride com-
pound of geraniol is then treated with water, which decomposes the
compound, and the oil purified by fractional distillation. The geraniol
comes over between 228° and 230°. In the case of palmarosa oil the
geraniol can be prepared in a state of fair purity by first saponifying the
oil and then fractionally distilling it. It can be prepared in a state of
absolute purity by treating it with sodium and then with dry ether and
phthalic anhydride. The resulting geraniol sodium phthalate is hy-
drolysed by alcoholic potash, and the pure geraniol precipitated by water.
Geraniol is a colourless liquid of sweet odour, recalling that of the
rose, principally, and to a lesser extent the pelargonium. It is an opeji-
^chain alcohol, having one of the two following constitutional formulae :-4-
. CH 2 . CH2CH2C(CH3) : CH . CH2OH
or
\C : CH . CH,. CH,C(CH3): CH . CH,OH
H3C/
Pure geraniol has the following physical characters:—
Specific gravity at 15° 0'880 to 0'883
Optical rotation 0°
Refractive index at 20° 1-4766 to 1-4786
Boiling-point at 760 mm 228° „ 230°
At 10 mm. it boils at 110° to 111°, and at 18 mm. at 121°. This,
alcohol is, of course, an essential constituent of synthetic otto of rose
and all odours of a similar type.
The following are the most satisfactory methods of recognising it..
It yields, as above described, a characteristic compound with calcium
chloride, from which the geraniol may be regenerated and examined as
to its physical characters. It also yields a characteristic diphenylure-
thane, (C(.H5)2N . COOC10H17, melting sharply at 82°. It may be pre-
pared as follows: 1 gram of the oil, 1*5 gram of diphenylcarbamine
chloride and 1-3 gram of pyridine are heated in a water-bath for two
hours. The reaction product is submitted to a current of steam to*
remove unaltered products, and the solid residue recrystallised from
alcohol. If citronellol is present as well as geraniol, it is necessary to
recrystallise several times before the product is pure and melts at 82°.
The naphthyl-urethane is also characteristic and easily prepared. Equi-
molecular proportions of naphthyl-isocyanide and geraniol are allowed
to stand for twelve hours, when the mass will be found to be solid.
Eecrystallised from diluted methyl alcohol, the product melts at 47° to
48°. One of the most characteristic derivatives for identification pur-
poses is geranyl-phthalate of silver. This salt is prepared as follows : 90
grams of phthalic anhydride and 90 c.c. of geraniol are heated in a
water-bath for forty-five minutes; 100 c.c. of boiling water are then
added. The whole is well shaken and the water separated, and the
oil washed five or six times in the same manner. 100 c.c. of water
and 35 c.c. of ammonia are then added. Neutral compounds are then
extracted with ether. After separation of the ether, the liquid is diluted
with 200 c.c. of alcohol, and then 175 c.c. of a normal solution of nitrate
of silver added. A white, crystalline precipitate rapidly settles out.
This is washed with alcohol and then with ether, and then dried in
vacuo. The resulting crystals, recrystallised from a mixture of alcohol
and benzene, melt at 133°. The salt has the formula C6H4(COOC10tl17)
(COOAg).
The identification of geraniol can be confirmed by its conversion
into citral, C10H16O, its aldehyde, which has a very characteristic odour
and yields well-defined crystalline derivatives. Five parts of the alcohol
fraction are shaken with 2'5 parts of chromic acid and four parts of con-
centrated sulphuric acid dissolved in 100 parts of water. The mixture
is warmed in the water-bath for a few minutes, when crude citral
separates on the surface of the liquid. This is purified by steam
distillation and conversion into its sulphonic acid compound in the
usual manner and then yields characteristic crystalline compounds,
which are described under " citral".
Geraniol is converted into the isomeric alcohol, linalol, by heat, and
both alcohols yield the same chloride when treated with dry hydrochloric
acid gas. Dupont and Labaune first prepared this chloride,: which they
considered was linalyl chloride, but Forster and Cardwell have shown
that it is geranyl chloride.
These chemists prepared it by acting upon either geraniol or linalol
with thionyl chloride in the presence of pyridine. It is a colourless
liquid, having the following characters :—
Boiling-point at 14 mm 103°
By heating geranyl chloride with sodium alcoholate geranyl ethyl
ethe^r was obtained. This body, C10H17. O . C2H5, is an oil with a faint
rose odour, having the following characters :—
Specific gravity at 25° 0'8(>4
Boiling-point a t 1 9 m m . . . . . . . . . 115°
Refractive iodex 1-4662
Prileshajeff 2 has prepared the oxide and dioxide of geraniol by direct
oxidation by means of hydrated benzoyl peroxide. By using the
equivalent of 9 grams of active oxygen on 100 grams of geraniol, geraniol
monoxide was formed, which has the following constitution :—
O
CH,— C - CH— CH2— CHo— C =CH— CH9OH

| - - |
CH3 CH3
The yield was 55 per cent. It is a viscous mass with feeble odour,
and having the following characters : —
Boiling-point at 25 mm ........ 157° to 158°
Specific gravity at 16° ....... 0-9610
Refractive index at 16C ....... 1-4681
When heated with ac tic anhydride at 150° C., this oxide yields the
•ester C10H1703(COCH3)3, boiling at 208° C., under 25 mm. pressure.
Geraniol dioxide —
O O
/ \ / \
CH3— C - CH—CH2— CH2—C -- CH— CH2OH
is obtained when 50 grams of geraniol are oxidised by means of 8

grams of active oxygen. The dioxide occurs as a colourless mobile
liquid having the following characters :—
Specific gravity at 16° ..... . . 1-0472
Refractive index at 16° ....... 1-4653
l
Journ. Chem. Soc., iQ3, 1338.
Jour. Soc. Chem. Phys. Buss., 44, 613.
Geraniol, as will be seen below, is the alcohol corresponding to one
of the stereoisomeric forms of citral, nerol being the isomeric alcohol,
corresponding with the other stereoisomeric citral. Semmler l and
Schossberjer have recently succeeded in enolising citral, that is, causing
.a migration of the double linkage towards a CH2 group, and from the
enolic form of citral thus obtained preparing an isomeric alcohol which
he terms isogeraniol.
When citral is heated with acetic anhydride, the migration of the
double bond takes place towards the CH2 group and the acetic ester of
.awo/-citral is formed. This acetate is resinified by all saponifying agents
and therefore does not regenerate citral. By reducing it with sodium
amalgam and methyl alcohol slightly acidified with acetic acid, an
alcohol was obtained which is not identical with geraniol nor with nerol,
and which has therefore been named isogeraniol.
This alcohol possesses a very pleasant odour of roses, and after puri-
fication ha's the following characters :—
The passage from citral to isogeraniol through 0w)Z-citral may be re-
presented by the following formulae :—
C C
Ai /^TT
O±10 CH2
OHC, (HO)HC (HO)H2C \CH,
HC HC ,CH H2C CH
V
CH3 CH3 CH3
Citral. Enolic form I. Isogeraniol I.
or possibly—
, x,
\j
CH9
(HO)HC \CH2 (HO)H2C CH2
and yields
HC H9C •CH2
CH2 CH2
Enolic form II. Isogeraniol II.
1
Berichte, 44, 991.
and probably passing in a primary stage through a body of the con-
stitution : —
C
CH
(HO)HC
CH3
Isogeraniol yields isogeraniol-diphenylurethane, C10H17O . CON(C6H5)2,.
melting at 73° C., free from geranyl- and nerylurethanes. By the saporii-
fication of this derivative isogeraniol is again liberated.
The properties of isogeraniol, geraniol, and nerol are compared
below:—
Geraniol. Nerol. Isogeraniol.
Boiling-point . 104° to 108° C. 111° C. 102° to 103° C.

(8-5 mm. pressure) (llmm. pressure) (9 mm. pressure)
Specific gravity 0-882 at 15° C. 0-881 at 15° C. 0-879 at 20° C.
Melting-point of the di
phenylurethane . 82-5° C. 52° to 53° C. 73° C.
Melting-point of the tetra
bromide 70° to 71° C. 118° to 119° C. oily
The tetrabromide and the phenylurethane of isogeraniol have so far

only been obtained in the oily condition.
NEKOL.
Nerol is an alcohol, isomeric with geraniol, of the formula C10H180.
It was discovered by Hesse and Zeitschel in neroli and petit-grain oils,
by freeing the oil as far as possible from geraniol and then preparing
diphenylurethanes of the residuary mixed alcohols. By fractional
crystallisation from a mixture of methyl alcohol and petroleum ether, the
nerol compound can be obtained in a state of purity, and the alcohol is.
obtained by saponification in the usual manner. Nerol has the following
characters :—
Optical rotation . ± 0°
The diphenylurethane melts at 52° to 53° (that of geraniol melts at 81°)
and the tetrabromide at 118° to 119°. Nerol is a stereoisomer of geraniol,
related to it as shown by the appended formulae, and their corresponding
aldehydes are probably a-citral (= geraniol) and /3-citral (= neral):— L
1
But see also under citral for alternative constitutions.
Geraniol.
CH3 . C . CH.,. CH,. CH : C(CH3),
II
CH,(OH)C . H
a- Citral.
CH 3 . C . CH«,. CH.,. CH : C(CH3),
II
CHO . C . H
Nerol.
CH,. C . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH : C(CH3)2
HC : CH2OH
0-Citral.
CH 3 . C . CH2 . CH., . CH : C(CH3)2
II
HC. CHO
Considerable difference of opinion has been expressed as to the re-

lationships of nerol and geraniol, and Soden and Treff have considered
the isomerism of a structural nature. The question of this isomerism
has, however, been definitely solved by Blumann and Zeitschel,1 who-
have applied the degradation-oxidation method of Tiemann and Semmler '2
to both geraniol and nerol. If the two bodies are stereoisomers, there
should be obtained under identical experimental conditions, from both
compounds, the same products of degradation in the same proportions,,
according to the following diagrammatic equation :—
CH3
CHa
}=CH—CH,—CH2—C =LCH—CH2OH=
OH.,
Geraniol or Nerol.
CH,
CH3
>CO + HO—CO—CH,—CH,—CO + HO—CO—CO—OH
CH,
Acetone. Laevulinic acid. Oxalic acid.
Blumann and Zeitschel have obtained these degradation products in

practically equal amounts from both geraniol and nerol, so that there no
longer exists the slightest doubt as to the constitution of nerol.
The nerol used for these experiments was extracted from the oil of
Helichrysum angustifolium. Its characters were :—
Boiling-point . . . . 225° to 226f
Optical rotation ± 0°
Coeff. of sapon. of the acetylated produc ; 286
Tetrabromide, melting-point . 118° to 119° C:
DiphenyJurethane, melting-point 52° „ 58° C.
1
Berichte, 44, 2590. *Ibid., 28, 2130.
VOL. II.
THE CHEMISTKY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
The geraniol, purified by means of calcium chloride, had the follow-
ing characters :—
Boiling-point . . . . 230°
Tetrabromide, melting-point . 70° to 71° C.
Diphenyluretnane, melting-point . 82° C.
In regard to the crystallisation of these two derivatives of nerol and

geraniol, Blumann and Zeitschel have made a curious observation: one
of the bodies corresponding to one of the modifications of the two
alcohols is readily obtained in the solid state, whilst the other crystallises
with difficulty. Thus, the tetrabromide of nerol solidifies fairly quickly
whilst the tetrabromide of geraniol remains oily for a very long time;
in the case of the diphenylurethanes these conditions are reversed.
However, nerol and geraniol yield on oxidation exactly the same pro-
ducts.
The identity of the two alcohols from a chemical point of view is
shown by the following results, obtained from 25 grams of each of the
two bodies :—
Geraniol. Nerol.
Acetone, identified by its

£>-bromophenylhydrazone m.p. 94° to 95° C. m.p. 94° to 95° C.
Lsevulinic acid, identified by its 18 grams = 54 per cent, 18-5 grams = 55-5 per cent,
of theoretical of theoretical
phenylhydrazone . . . . m.p. 108° C. m.p. 108° C.
A-isonitrosovaleric acid m.p. 95° C. m.p. 95° C.
Lsevulinic acid regenerated m.p. 32° to 33° C. m.p. 28° to 32° C.
Alcohol regenerated . . . . 4-2 grams 4*1 grams.
LlNALOL.
Linalol, C10H18O, is isomeric with geraniol and nerol, but it is

structurally isomeric, and not stereoisomeric, as it is known in both
optical forms. It was first isolated by Morin l from oil of linaloe. The
same body has been isolated from various other essential oils, ancf has
been described under the names licareol, coriandrol, lavendol, etc., all
of which have been found to be more or less impure forms of linalol.
Linalol is found very widely distributed in essential oils. It forms
the principal constituent, in the free state, of oil of linaloe, and the
chief odorous constituent, in the form of esters, in bergamot and lavender
oils. It is also found in ylang-ylang, rose, champaca leaf, cinnamon,
petit-grain, spike, geranium, lemon, spearmint, and numerous .other
essential oils.
Jt is a tertiary open-chain alcohol, probably of the constitution—
: CH . CH 2 . CH 2 . C(CH3)OH . CH : CH,
CH,
l
Ann. Chem. Phys., [5], 25, 427.
although it is possible that the alternative formula—
CH3
^C . CH2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . C(CH3)OH . CH : CH2
CHo
correctly represents its constitution.
Behal l considers that linalol is not an alcohol but an oxide of the
following constitution : —
3
: CH . CH2 . CH"0 . C(CH3) . CH2 . CH2
Linalol is not particularly easy to purify, as it yields practically no

crystalline compounds suitable for purification purposes. The charac-
ters of the various specimens prepared therefore vary, especially in
regard to their optical rotation. The following figures, for example,
have been recorded for linalol with a laevo-rotation :—
From
Lavender Oil. Bergamot Oil. Linaloe Oil. Lime Oil.
Boiling-point . 197° to 199° 197° to 199° 197° to 200° 198° to 199°

Specific gravity 0-8725 0-8720 0-877 0-870
Refractive index 1-4640 1-4629 1-4630 1-4668
Optical rotation - 10° 35' - 16° - 2° - 17° 37'
A specimen from lime oil, however, has been isolated with an optical
rotation - 20° 7', and a specimen of dextro-linalol from orange oil, with
a rotation of + 19° 18'. The characters of pure linalol, therefore, may
be taken approximately as follows :—
Kefractive index 1-4650
Optical rotation + or - 20°
Tiemann 2 prepares linalol in a state of approximate purity by the
following method. The linalol fraction of the essential oil is heated
with sodium, and the liquid heated under reduced pressure so long as
sodium continues to be dissolved. After cooling, the unchanged metallic
sodium is removed and the sodium compound of linalol is suspended
in ether and treated with phthalic anhydride. After standing for several
days, the mixture is shaken with water, which dissolves the linalyl
sodium phthalate, unchanged linalol and terpenes remaining dissolved
in the ether. The aqueous liquid is washed several times with ether,
the solution acidified and again extracted with ether. The resulting
linalyl acid phthalate is hydrolysed by alcoholic potash, and the pure
linalol is extracted with ether.
Optically inactive linalol can be artifically prepared by heating
l
Comptes Rendus., 1919, 168, 945. *Berichte, 29, 901; 31, 837.
geraniol in an autoclave for some time to a temperature of 200°, or it
can be obtained by treating geraniol with hydrochloric acid and treating
the resulting chlorides with alcoholic potash. The conversion of geraniol
into linalol has been very fully studied by Dupont and Labaune, who
give the following results of their work :—l
The geraniol with which they worked was extracted from palmarosa
oil, and purified by means of its phthalic acid ether and finally by means
of calcium chloride. Its characters were as follows :—
Rotation 0°
After reaction with hydrochloric acid, and repeated fractional distil-
lation, a product was obtained which contained 97*3 per cent, of chloride
of the formula C10H17C1. This body had the following characters :—
Boiling-point (6 mm.) 94° to 96° C.
bpecific gravity at 20° 0-9293
Refractive index v 1-4798
Optical rotation Prastically inactive
If the physical properties of this monochlorinated compound be
compared with those of the corresponding chloride from linalol, they
are found to be practically identical with the latter. The identity of the
two bodies derived from distinct chemical individuals is therefore almost
certain.
In order to clear up this question it was important to restore the
alcoholic group, avoiding as far as possible any chance of a molecular
transposition. Since the action of alcoholic potash and of the acetates-
might leave the matter open to criticism from this point of view, the
authors had recourse to an alcoholic solution of silver nitrate. The elim-
ination of the chlorine is instantaneous, it takes place even below 10° C.
50 grams of the chloro derivative are dissolved in 250 grams of 90 per
cent, alcohol; to this solution there is added in the cold a solution of 55
grams of silver nitrate in 50 grams of water and 100 grams of alcohol.
The liquid becomes acid owing to the liberation of nitric acid. After
separating the silver chloride, the liquid is neutralised, the alcohol is.
evaporated on the water-bath and the residue is rectified in vacuo.
With the chloro derivative of linalol the result is extremely sharp.
The whole of the product passes over, under a pressure of 6 mm., at a
temperature of 82° to 86° C., the residue being insignificant. The con-
stants of this body are as follows :—
Boiling-point (760 mm.) 198° to 199° C.
„ (6 mm.) 82° „ 86° C.
,, rotation . + 0-65°
which are approximately those of linalol. It is therefore clear that the

ester is the hydrochloric ester of linalol of the formula—
(CH3)2C : CH . CH 2 . CH 2 . C(CH3)C1. CH : CH2.
The corresponding ester obtained from geraniol was not obtained in
1
Roure-Bertrand Fils, Report, October, 1909, 24.
a perfectly pure state, and on regenerating the alcohol, a small amount of
geraniol was obtained, but the main constituent was pure linalol.
Paolini and Divizia l have succeeded in partially resolving inactive
linalol into its optically active isomers^ but only to the extent of optical
rotations of + 1° 70' and - 1° 60' respectively. Linalol was converted
into its acid phthalate, and an alcoholic solution of this compound was
treated with the equivalent quantity of strychnine. By fractional
crystallisation the laevo-rotatory salt, yielding dextro-rotatory linalol,
separates first, leaving the more soluble dextro-rotatory strychnine salt,
which yielded laevo-rotatory linalol in the mother liquor.
Linalol yields a somewhat remarkable compound, by artificial oxida-
tion which appears also to be formed naturally. This body is termed
linalol monoxide, and has the formula C10HlgO2. It was first found in
oil of linaloe by Schimmel & Co., and it is probably to be explained
by the oxidation of the essential oil on exposure to the air at the surface
of the trunk of the tree. It has been prepared artificially by Prileshajeff2
by oxidising linalol with hydrated benzoyl peroxide. By further oxida-
tion with the same reagent, he obtained linalol dioxide.
Linalol monoxide has the following characters :—
„ „ (at 4 mm.) 63° „ 64°
Molecular refraction . 48-88
The two oxides have the following formulae :-
OH
XX
CH I / \
•C=CH—CH»—CH, ,—C—CH — CCHo
CH,
CH,
Linalol monoxide.
/ \
CH, _C CH—CH2—CH2— COH—CH —CH,
CH,
Linalol dioxide.
By the hydration of dihydromyrcene, Schimmel & Co. obtained di-
hydrolinalol. This body has the constitution—
3
\C : CH . CH 2 CH 2 . C(CH3)OH . CH 2 . CH3
CH/
or possibly the similar constitution related to the alternative formula
for linalol given above. Dihydrolinalol was also prepared by the action
of magnesium methyl-iodide on methyl-heptenone. The only difference
observed between the bodies thus produced was that the latter was less
easy to convert into a phenyl-urethane. This is probably due to the
fact that in the case of dihydrolinalol produced from methyl-heptenone,
1 2
Chem. Zentral., 1915, 1, 603. Jour. Soc. Chim. Phys. Russ., 44, 613.
the isomerism of the original citral is reproduced in the dihydrolinalol,
which may consist of two stereoisomeric forms, whilst in the case of
hydration of dihydromyrcene, no stereoisomerism results. The following
figures are recorded for dihydrolinalol prepared from various sources:—
Molecular Refraction.
Prepared ironi. Boiling-point. î«°- nD
15°
Found. Calculated.
Dihydromyrcene . 92° to 92-5° 0-8570 1-45531 49-47 49-438

(12 to 13 mm.)
Methyl-heptenone from 77° to 78° (7 mm.) 0-8588 1-45641 49-46 49-436
citral (by oxidation) .
Methyl-heptenone from 66° to 66-5° 0-8575 1-45661 49-558 49-438
lemon-grass oil . (4 mm.)
Methyl-heptenone from 67-5° (4 mm.) 0-8590 1-45611 49-424 49-438
citral (by boiling with
solution of carbonate
of potassium)
Linalol may be characterised by the following methods:—

1. By oxidation to citral (q.v.).
2. By converting it into geraniol. This is effected by boiling linalol
with acetic anhydride for two hours and then saponifying the resulting
ester. Pure geraniol can be .obtained by fractionating the regenerated
alcohol, and the geraniol so obtained can be identified by the usual
method.
3. Preparation of the urethane, C6H5. NH . COOC10H17. A mixture
of 2 or 3 grams of the alcohol is mixed with rather more than the
theoretical amount of phenyl-isocyanate, and allowed to stand in a
stoppered flask for a week. It is then mixed with water, and a current
of steam passed through the mixture, in order to remove the unaltered
linalol. The crystalline mass which remains is collected, dried on
a porous plate, and extracted with ether, which dissolves the phenyl-
urethane. The ethereal solution is allowed to evaporate spontaneously
when crystals of the urethane separate, which melt at 65°.
4. Preparation of the naphthyl-urethane. This compound is pre-
pared in a similar method to that just described, using a-naphthyl-
isocyanate. The naphthyl-urethane melts at 53°.
CITRONELLOL.
Citronellol, C10H20O, is an alcohol which was first obtained by Dodge,1
by reducing the aldehyde citronellal, C10H18O, by means of sodium
amalgam and acetic acid. It was then found to be a constituent of rose,
geranium, and other essential oils. The citronellol question has given
rise to a somewhat acrimonious and prolonged controversy, as Barbier
and Bouveault claimed that the body which they termed rhodinol was
a chemical individual differing from citronellol, whilst Tiemann and
Schmidt and other German chemists maintained that rhodinol was
nothing more than a mixture of geraniol and citronellol, and not a
chemical individual at all. The controversy developed, as indicated
in the previous edition of this work (p. 51) on the following lines:—
]
Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1889, xL 463.
Rhodinol was announced by Eckart to be an essential ingredient of
Bulgarian and German rose oils. He regarded it as an unsaturated
open-chain alcohol. Markovnikoff thereupon urged that roseol,
C10H200, was the chief ingredient of rose oil. Bertram, in 1894,
claimed that it was in reality merely geraniol, but in 1896 Tiemann
and Schmidt showed that the alcohols of rose oil consisted of a mixture
of geraniol and citronellol, C10H20O, which latter body, they claimed,
had evidently been mistaken for the so-called " rhodinol" and '* roseol ".
The names geraniol and citronellol therefore appeared to be those
most entitled to remain in chemical literature. Poleck, however, com-
plained that the name geranioi had been substituted for the earlier
rhodinol, overlooking the fact that the old rhodinol was apparently a
mixture. Erdmann further complicated this matter by insisting on
treating geraniol of commerce as a more or less impure body of which
the principal constituent, C10H17OH, is called rhodinol, claiming that
geraniol (pure) and rhodinol are identical, and that the former name
should be expugned from chemical literature.
The last of these bodies announced as being alcoholic constituents
of rose and geranium oils was reuniol, found in various geranium
oils (Keunion, African, and Spanish) by A. Hesse. This had previously
been announced as a probable chemical individual by Barbier, but he
stated that he had not obtained it pure. Erdmann and Huth claimed
that it was more or less pure rhodinol.
Up till about three years ago, there appeared to be little reason to
doubt that rhodinol was in fact an impure form of citronellol, the reduc-
tion product of citronellal being dextro-citronellol, whilst the natural
alcohol, which the French chemists had termed rhodinol was considered
to be laevo-citronellol.
Citronellol was considered to have one of the two following alterna-
tive formulae:—
. CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH(CH3)CH2. CH2OH
CH3'
(1)
or
CH3.
: CH . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH(CH3)CH2CH2OH
CH/
(2)
There seems, however, to-day, to be overwhelming evidence that the

French chemists were correct and that citronellol and rhodinol are two
very similar, but chemically different, compounds, citronellol being re-
presented by the formula (1) and rhodinol by formula (2). Consider-
able evidence of this is to be found in the work of Barbier and Locquin,1
Starting from the acetic esters of ordinary ^-citronellol and rhodinol
from oil of geranium or rose, they attached hydrogen chloride to the
double bond, and obtained the same additive product according to the
equations:—•
1
Comptes Rendus, 157, 1114.
CH 3 . C . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH . CH 2 . CH2OH
CH., CH.^
+ HX = CH3 ."OX . CH 0 . CH.,. CH2 . CH . CH 2 . CH2OH
CH8 " " CH3
Citronellol.
CH 3 . C : CH . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH . CH,,. CH,OH
CH3 " CH3
+ HX = CH 3 . CX . CH.,. CH,,. CH.,. CH . CH,. CH2OH
CH3 ' " CH3
Bhodinol.
The \ authors found that on elimination of the halogen acid from this
compound, rhodinol, and not citronellol, is regenerated, dextro-rhodinol
from dextro-citronellol, and laevo-rhodinol from the laevo-rotatory alcohol
from "oil of \roses»or geranium, the two bodies, in the latter case being
identical.
Further, d-citronellal, the corresponding aldehyde, may be converted
into citronellic acid through its oxime and nitrile. Citronellic acid,
when treated with thionyl chloride in benzene solution, yields a chloride
of a chlorinated acid which is converted by the action of alcohol into
the hydrochloride of ethyl citronellate, or hydrochloride of ethyl rhodinate,
(CH3)2CC1—CH2—CH2—CH2—CH(CH3)—CH2—CO2C2H^
This ester loses hydrogen chloride by the action of sodium acetate
giving ethyl rhodinate which when reduced by sodium and absolute
alcohol yields rhodinol.
\ Citronellal can thus be converted into rhodinol without being first
reduced to citronellol.
A third method of converting citronellol into rhodinol is by hydrating
citronellol by means of 30 per cent, sulphuric acid. This yields the
glycol 3-7-dimethyl octanediol-1-7, of the formula—
(CH3)2. O(OH). CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH(CH3). CH 2 . CHOH
which is dehydrated by boiling with 5 per cent, sulphuric acid, yielding
rhodinol.
I \The three optical varieties of rhodinol have thus been obtained,
namely, laevo-rhodinol, the natural constituent of rose and geranium
oils; dextro-rhodinol by conversion of dextro-citronellol obtained by re-
duction of citronellal, and inactive rhodinol by the reduction of synthetic
ethyl rhodinate.
Further evidence of the difference between rhodinol and citronellol is
forthcoming, in that the former yields on oxidation an aldehyde, rhodinal,
whose oxime does not yield citronellic acid nitrile when treated with
acetic anhydride, nor citronellic acid when the nitrile is treated with
alkalis, wheras citronellal, the aldehyde of citronellol, does yield the
nitrile and citronellic acid.
Harries and Comberg1 have also supplied much evidence, which,
taken with the above-mentioned researches, places the chemical isomerism
of citronellol and rhodinol practically beyond dispute. By ozonisation
experiments decomposition products were obtained, which proved that
natural " citronellal/' obtained from citronella oil, is a mixture of about
1
Annalen, 1915, 410, 1.
40 per cent, of true citronellal and 60 per cent, of rhodinal. It is true
that only one semicarbazone can be obtained by crystallisation, but this
<jan be ozonised, and the ozonide decomposed by boiling water, yielding
two semicarbazones, one of which is a derivative of citronellal, and the
•other of rhodinal. It is obvious therefore that the semicarbazones of
natural " citronellal" is either a very difficultly separable mixture of two
'bodies, or an individual substance in which a shifting of the double bond
occurs by ozonisation.
H. J. Prinsl has now isolated the two isomeric citronellals from Java
•citronella oil (see under citronellal).
The physical characters, therefore, of the bodies which have hitherto
been described as citronellol or rhodinol must therefore be understood to
apply to the respective bodies in as pure a state as their separation has
rendered possible. At all events, it is clear that the two alcohols are
-very similar in their general characters. These characters are approxi-
mately as follows:—
From Eose Oil.
Refractive index , 1-45789
From Geranium Oil.
Boiling-point at 764 mm, 225° to 226°
Eefractive index at 22° 1-45611
'Optical rotation . - 1° 40'
From Citronella Oil.
Boiling-point at 7 inm. 109°
From Barosma Pulchella Oil.
Boiling-point at 5 to 6 mm. 93° to 95°
By Reduction of Citronellal
Specific gravity at 17-5° 0-8565
Refractive index at 17'5° 1-45659
Optical rotation , + 4°
Citronellol can be characterised by conversion into citronellyl-

•phthalate of silver, which is prepared in an exactly similar manner to
the corresponding geranyl compound, and melts at 125° to 126°. It can
also be oxidised in the same manner as geraniol, yielding the aldehyde
citronellal, which can be identified as described later (vide citronellal).
Citronellol and rhodinol have faint but sweet rose odours.
Citronellol occurs so frequently associated with geraniol, and is
absolutely necessary as an ingredient of artificial otto of rose and similar
synthetic perfumes, that it is sometimes a matter of importance to separ-
ate the two bodies quantitatively. This can be done in the following
manner : To a mixture of 100 grams of phosphorus trichloride and 100
grams of ether, 100 grams of the mixed alcohols, dissolved in an equal
amount of ether, are added, so that, by keeping the liquids in a freezing
mixture, the temperature does not rise above 0°. The mixture is then
allowed to stand at the ordinary temperature, and is then several times-
washed with iced water. The oily layer is shaken with dilute soda
solution, and the citronellyl-phosphoric acid is dissolved out, leaving the
geranyl chloride undissolved. The citronellyl-phosphoric acid may be
hydrolised by boiling with alcoholic potash and then distilled in a cur-
rent of steam.
Another separation of a mixture of alcohols is often necessary,
namely, that of geraniol, citronellol, and phenyl-ethyl-alcohol, all of
which occur in admixture in artificial otto of rose. In this case advan-
tage may be taken of the fact that phenyl-ethyl alcohol is easily soluble
in 30 per cent, alcohol, which is not the case with geraniol or citronellol.
For further details on the separation of geraniol and citronellol the
chapter on the analysis of essential oils should be consulted.
MENTHO-CITKONELLOL.
Mentho-citronellol or menthonyl alcohol, C10H20O, is an alcohol of
delicate rose odour, and is synthetically prepared as follows :—
Laevo-menthone is converted into its oxime by means of hydroxylamine,.
This is treated with strong sulphuric acid, and so inverted to isomenthone
oxime. This is treated with phosphorus trichloride in chloroform solu-
tion, when hydrochloric acid is given off, and menthonitrile is formed^
The last named is reduced by sodium into menthonylamine, and the
oxalic acid compound of this is warmed with sodium nitrite solution when,
menthonyl alcohol is formed. This body has the following characters :—
Refractive index . . . . . . . . . 1*4471
METHYL-HEPTENOL.
Methyl-heptenol is an alcohol with a delicate rose odour, of the1
formula C8H16O. It occurs in Mexican and Cayeme linaloe oil, and i&
prepared by reducing methyl-heptenone, and has the following
characters:—
Optical rotation . . . . . . . . - 1° 34'
METHYL-HEPTYLENE CAEBINOL.
Methyl-heptylene carbinol, C9H18O, has been obtained by the reduc-
tion of methyl-heptylene ketone by means of sodium and alcohol. It is.
an oil with an odour recalling those of rose and linaloe, and has the
THE CONSTITUENTS OF ESSENTIAL OILS
BuPLEUKOL.
This alcohol, of the formula C10H20O, occurs in the essential oil

Bupleurum 1fruticosum, from which it was isolated by Francesconi and
Sernagiotto. It was separated by means of its phthalic acid ester, and
is an oil of faint rose odour, having the following characters :—
It yields a phenyl-urethane, melting at 45°. On oxidation it yields an

aldehyde having an odour of lemons, which yields a semicarbazone, melt-
ing at 135°.
Bupleurol is a primary alcohol, which according to the authors must
have one of the three alternative constitutions :—
%3H—CH2—CH.,—CH2—C =CH—CH9OH
CH/ " |
(1) CH3
SX
>CH—CH2—CH2—CH =C—CH2—CH2OH
CH,'
(2) CH
)CH—CH2—CH0—CH9—C—CH2—CH2OH
il
(3) CH2
ANDKOL.
This alcohol, C10H20O, is, like bupleurol, isomeric with citronellol and
rhodinol. It is present in the oil of water fennel (Phellandrium aquaticum),.
and has an odour characteristic of the plant. It has the following char-
acters :—
It yields a phenyl-urethane melting at 42° to 43°.

No aldehyde or ketone has been obtained from it by oxidation. Its
constitution is probably allied to those of citronellol and rhodinol, but,
since it contains an asymmetric carbon atom, as shown by its optical
activity, the three formulae given under bupleurol obviously cannot repre-
sent androl.
1
Gazz. chim. ItaL, 43, 1, 153.
124 THE CHBMISTBY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
UNCINEOL.
l
Baker and Smith have isolated an alcohol of the formula C10H18O
from the " cajuput " oil, distilled from the leaves of Melaleuca uncinala.
The alcohol, which is probably an open-chain compound, forms snow-
white crystals, melting at 72'5°, and having a specific rotation + 36'99°.
FARNESOL-.
Farnesol, C15H26O, is an aliphatic sesquiterpene alcohol, which occurs
in ambrette seed oil, and flower oils of the type of acacia, lime flowers,
mignonette, and lilac flowers.
This alcohol is almost invariably present in those essential oils which
contain aliphatic terpene alcohols, but in most of these it is present in
very small amount, and it is only from ambrette seed oil that any quantity
has been prepared. Ambrette seeds contain about Ol per cent, of this
alcohol, which, when freed from decylic alcohol which is also present,
Boiling-point at 10 mm. 160°
Optical rotation . ±0°
Kefractive index . 1-4881
This alcohol appears to be almost odourless, but when a dilute solu-
tion in alcohol is allowed to evaporate slowly, a very fine lily-of-the-
valley odour is developed, together with the suggestion of cedar-wood oil.
Oxidation of farnesol with chromic acid mixture gives rise to the
aldehyde farnesal, which has the following characters :—
Farnesal forms a semi-carbazone, which crystallises from acetic
ether in fine flakes, which melt at 133° to 135°. This body is parti-
cularly useful for the identification of farnesol.
Farnesol forms an acetate, farnesyl acetate, which is a nearly odour-
less oil, boiling at 169° to 170° at 10 mm.
When dehydrated with potassium hydrogen sulpnate, farnesol yields
a sesquiterpene, which has been named farnesene, and is a colourless
oil having the following characters :—
Kerschbaum2 has carried out a series of experiments in order to
determine the constitution of farnesol.
In order to establish the primary character of farnesol, farnesenic
acid was prepared from farnesal oxime and the corresponding nitrile.
"Saponification of the farnesene-nitrile with caustic soda solution yields
farnesenic acid and acetic acid, and also a ketone which was identified
us a dihydxopseudoionone. The semi-carbazone melts between 95° and
96°. The dihydrops^doionone from farnesene nitrile proved to be
1
Jour. and Proc. Royal Soc., N.S.W., 41 (1907), 196.
*Berlchte,46 (1913), 1732.
identical with the synthetic product which has been obtained from
geranyl chloride and sodium acetic ester. Farnesol wras prepared
synthetically from hydroxydihydrofarnesenic ester which was prepared
from magnesium bromoacetic ester and dihydropsewdoionone. When
heated with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate this ester afforded
farnesenic methylester. Synthetic farnesenic acids boils at 203° at
14 mm.
It is evident from these reactions that farnesol has the constitution
of an aliphatic sesquiterpene alcohol with three double bonds, and that
its formula is—
CH.
C : CH. CH 2 . CH 2 . C : CH . CH,. CH 2 . C : CH . CH.OH
CH. CH CH,
3
Farnesol.
that of dihydYOpseudoionoue being as follows :-
>C : CH . CH 9 . CH 2 . C : CH . CH 0 . CH 9 . CO
CH. CH, CH,
Dihyducopseudoiouone.
The above constitution of farnesol has been confirmed by the oxida-
tion experiments of Harries and Haarmann.1
NEBOLIDOL.
Nerolidol is an aliphatic sesquiterpene alcohol of the formula
C15H2(50, which has bsen isolated from the higher boiling fractions of
orange-flower oil. It has the following characters :—
,, ., .. 760mm. 276° „ 277°
It is an oil with a slight but sweeet odour.
In 1899 Thorns isolated an alcohol from Peru balsam oil, which he
termed peruviol. This body was stated to have powerful antiseptic
properties, but has nob been further investigated until Schirnmel &
Co. took up the subject. The oil after saponification was fractionated,
and after benzyl alcohol had distilled over, a light oil with characteristic
balsamic odour passed over. It boiled at 125° to 127° at 4 mm., and had
a specific gravity 0*8987, optical rotation + 12° 22', and refractive index
1-48982. This body appeared to be identical with Hesse's nerolidol,
whilst in physical and chemical properties it closely resembles peruviol.
The characters of the various preparations were as follows :—
Boiling-point. Specific Rotation. Refractive

Gravity. Index.
Peruviol (Thorns) . 140° (7 mm.) 0-886 + 13° _

Schimmel's body (1) 133° „ 0-882 + 14° —
„ (2) . 127° (4 mm.) 0-899 + 12° 1-4898
Nerolidol (Hesse) . 129° (6 mm.) 0-880 + 14°
,, (Schimmel) 127° (5 mm.) —
0-880 + 13° 1-4802
1
Berichte, 46 (1913), 1737.
It appeared that the impure alcohol isolated from balsam of Peru
was, in fact, identical with nerolidol. When allowed to stand for three
to four weeks with phenyl-isocyanate both alcohols yielded a phenyl-
urethane, melting at 37° to 38°. A mixture of the two bodies suffered no
•depression in melting-point. The alcohols have the formula C15H20O.
The alcohol from balsam of Peru is therefore mixed with a small quantity
of an alcohol of higher specific gravity, the nature of which is still un-
determined. Traces of benzyl alcohol were found in it, but not in
sufficient quantity to account for the differences observed. Oxidation
experiments did not throw any light on the question. It may therefore
be safely assumed that the peruviol of Thorns consisted in the main of
nerolidol, but contaminated with a substance of the same boiling-point
to such an extent that its combustion figures pointed to the formula
C13H2.2O instead of C15H26O.
CLOSED CHAIN ALCOHOLS.
The next series of alcohols to be examined is that in which the
members retain the benzene nucleus in a more or less substituted
condition, as distinguished from those in which the benzene nucleus
has (tbeen so altered as to bring the alcohols within the series known as
the terpene alcohols ". A certain number of these alcohols are found
"in nature, but some of them are prepared synthetically, and, although
not yet found naturally, are exceedingly useful in the preparation of
perfumes.
BENZYL ALCOHOL.
Benzyl alcohol, C 6 H 5 . CH2OH, is the lowest member of the normal
series of aromatic alcohols containing the benzene nucleus. It exists to
a certain extent in the free state, but more often in the form of esters,
principally of acetic, benzoic, and cinnamic acids, in a number of essential
-oils, such as those of jasmin, tuberose, cassie flowers, and ylang-ylang.
It is prepared artificially, for use as a synthetic perfume, by several
•methods, for example, by heating benzyl chloride with oxide of lead to
100°, or by heating benzyl chloride with potassium acetate and saponify-
ing the benzyl acetate so formed, with caustic potash.
Benzyl alcohol is an oil with a slight but very sweet floral odour, and
Boiling-point .' 205° to 207°
Specific gravity . . 1-0435
It is fairly soluble in dilute alcohol, and in about 35 parts of water.
It can therefore be fairly easily separated from less soluble constituents
by shaking with 5 or 10 per cent, alcohol. Apart from its actual per-
fume value, benzyl alcohol is of considerable value to the perfumer, since
it acts as a very valuable fixative, and is, moreover, one of the best-
known solvents for artificial musk.
Benzyl alcohol forms a solid compound with calcium chloride,
and also a phthalic acid compound. The latter is obtained by heating
2 grams of the alcohol with 2 grams of phthalic anhydride and 1 gram
ôf benzene. Caustic soda solution is then added, and the solution washed
•with ether. The benzyl acid phthalate is precipitated by sulphuric acid,
•and can be recrystallised from benzene. It then melts at 106° to 107°.
It also yields a phenyl-urethane, melting at 77° to 78°. Its esters are
•agreeably-smelling liquids, which will be described later.
PHENYL-ETHYL ALCOHOL.
Phenyl-ethyl alcohol, C6H5 . CH2 . CH2OH, is the next highest
'homologue of the benzyl alcohol series. It is found naturally in rose
.-and neroli oils; but as it is very soluble in water, it practically
disappears from the distilled otto of rose and is dissolved in the rose
water. Hence otto of rose with its beautiful perfume does not truly
represent the odour of the rose. By the use of various isolated and
synthetic bodies an artificial otto can be prepared which more closely
resembles the rose odour than does the natural otto itself. But it is
•doubtful whether any really good artificial otto of rose can be prepared
without some natural otto as its basis.
Phenyl-ethyl alcohol, or benzyl carbinol, has been known for many
years, but its powerful rose odour has been entirely overlooked, its dis-
covery having been made by an ordinary research chemist and not a
perfumery expert. Its preparation was described in the Berichte
(9, 373) in 1876, but the product there noted was evidently impure, as
its boiling-point is recorded as 212°. Commercial specimens vary
greatly in both their odour and their keeping properties, some samples
•deteriorating in odour very rapidly. It is, therefore, very important to
•obtain it in a state of the highest purity. It has the following char-
acters :—
Boiling-point . 220° to 222° at 740 mm.
„ 104° at 12 mm.
Optical rotation ±0 °
It yields a diphenyl-urethane, which melts at 99° to 100°, and is very
useful for identification purposes. The phenyl-urethane, melting at 80° is
less useful for this purpose, since its melting-point is almost identical
with those of benzyl and nonyl alcohols. It combines with phthalic
acid to form a phthalic acid ester, melting at 188° to 189°.
Phenyl-ethyl alcohol can be prepared by numerous methods, several
of which are the subject-matter of patents. It may be prepared, for
example, by the conversion of phenyl-bromo-lactic acid into phenyl-
acetaldehyde, and then reducing this body with sodium. Or it may be
prepared by reducing phenyl-acetic esters with sodium and absolute
alcohol in the following manner :—
It is obtained by allowing a solution of one molecule of phenol-acetic
•ester in three to four times its weight of absolute alcohol, to fall in drops
on a quantity of sodium calculated for six atoms. It is then heated for
several hours on an oil-bath, until the sodium has disappeared, if
necessary adding more alcohol. After cooling, water is added, and the
ester which is not attacked is saponified. The alcohol and phenyl-
ethyl alcohol are then distilled off with steam, when the latter is at
once obtained in the pure state.
It is a colourless, heavy oil, with a typical rose and "honey" odour.
It is easily soluble in all organic solvents, and to a considerable extent
in water. It is soluble in 2 volumes of 50 per eent. alcohol, in 18
volumes of 30 per cent, alcohol, and in 60 volumes of water. Its identi-
fication is, therefore, best effected by extracting the mixture of alcohols
in which it occurs, by means of dilute alcohol, which dissolves the phenyl-
ethyl alcohol but not much of the other alcohols.
It is suitable, not only for rose odours, but also for blending with
almost any flower oil. Phenyl-ethyl alcohol forms a solid compound
with chloride of calcium, which is very useful for its purification. On
oxidation it is converted into a mixture of phenyl-acetaldehyde and
phenyl-acetic acid. The last-named body forms an ethyl ester melting
at 28°, which serves for its identification.
There is an isomeric and closely associated alcohol, phenyl-methyl
carbinol, C6H5CH(OH)CH3, known to chemists. This is a liquid of
different odour, but which is not used very much in synthetic perfumery.
It is an oil boiling at 203°, and forms an acetate which is found natur-
ally in essential oil of gardenia. This ester is of use in blending per-
fumes of this type of flower.
PHENYL-PROPYL ALCOHOL.
Phenyl-propyl alcohol, C6H5 . CH 2 . CH2 . CH2 . OH, is the next
highest homologue of phenyl-ethyl alcohol, and is also known as hydro-
cinnamyl alcohol. Like the last described bodies it has been known
for many years, its first preparation being described in the Annalen
(188, 202). It occurs as a cinnamic acid ester in storax, and as an
acetic ester in cassia oil. It is prepared synthetically by the reduction
of cinnamyl alcohol with sodium amalgam and water, or by the reduc-
tion of cinnamic or benzyl acetic esters with sodium and absolute
alcohol. It has the following characters ;—
Boiling point at 12 mni 119°
„ „ 760mm 235°
It can be characterised by its phenyl-urethane, melting at 47° to 48°,
or by oxidising its acetic acid solution by means of chromic acid, when
it yields hydrocinnamic acid, melting at 49°.
It is a colourless, thick oil, with an odour recalling that of cinnamic
alcohol and hyacinths. It is useful in synthetic perfumery in the pre-
paration of bouquets, and it is extremely useful in odours of the type of
hyacinth, narcissus, jonquil, and the like.
There exist three isomers of phenyl-propyl alcohol, all of which have
been prepared and described, and, although not yet introduced into
commerce, may eventually be so. These are as follows; Benzyl-
methyl-carbinol, C6H5 . CH2 . CH(OH)CH3, boiling at 215°; phenyl-
ethyl-carbinol, C 6 H 5 . CH(OH)GH2. CH3, boiling at 221°; and benzyl-
dimethyl-carbinol, C6H5. C(OH)(CH3)2, melting at 21° and boiling at-
225°.
HIGHER HOMOLOGUES OF PHENYL-ETHYL ALCOHOL.
Braun l has shown that alcohols of the type of phenyl-ethyl alcohol,,
containing an aliphatic and an aromatic radicle, can be prepared by the
reduction of nitriles of the general formula X . ON with the corresponding
1
Berichte, 44, 2867.
bases X . CH2NH2. These are then benzoylated and the benzoyl com-
pound heated with phosphorus pentachloride, when the chlorides
X. CH2C1 are formed. These, of course, are directly convertible into the
corresponding alcohols. The following alcohols so prepared are of con-
siderable interest as being homologues of the well-know7n rose alcohol,
phenyl-ethyl alcohol;—
JMta-phenyl-butyl alcohol (boiling-point 140° at 14 mm.).
phenyl-amyl ,, ,, ,, 155° ,, 20 ,,
6-phenyl-hexyl ,, ,, ,, 160° ,,13 ,,
7-phenyl-heptyl „ „ „ 170° to 172° at 15 mm.).
Of these phenyl-amyl alcohol has a pleasant, but somewhat evanescent
lemon-like odour ; phenyl-hexyl alcohol has a very similar odour to this ;
and phenyl-heptyl alcohol has a slight, but extremely agreeable odour
of roses.
CINNAMIC ALCOHOL.
Cinnamic alcohol, C 6 H 5 . CH ; CH . CH2OH, or y-phenyl-allyl alcohol,
is found in the form of esters, principally of either aceiic or cinnamie
acid in storax, balsam of Peru, and in hyacinth and other essential oils.
It may be prepared synthetically by reducing cinnamie aldehyde
diacetate, and saponifying the resulting cinnamyl esters. Cinnamie
alcohol is a crystalline body, although commercial specimens frequently
contain traces of impurities which prevent crystallisation. It has the
Melting-point 33°
Boiling-point 258° at 760 mm.
,, ,, 117° at 5 mm.
Specific gravity at 35° about 1-020
Commercial samples of good quality have a specific gravity between
1-010 and 1-030.
Cinnamic alcohol forms a phenyl-urethane, melting at 90° to 91°, and
a diphenyl-urethane, melting at 97° to 98°. On oxidation it yields cinna-
mie acid, melting at 133°, and by more thorough oxidation, benzoic acid,
melting at 120°.
Cinnamic alcohol has an odour, not very powerful, but exceedingly
delicate, recalling roses and hyacinths, in which types of perfume it is
exceedingly useful. It is fairly soluble in dilute alcohol, and can to some
extent be separated from alcohols of the geraniol type by means of 30
per cent, alcohol.
CuM]Nic ALCOHOL.
/CH2OH
Cuminic alcohol, C6H4<^ , has been found in the essential
\CH(CH3)2
oil of cumin. On oxidation it yields cuminic acid, melting at 112° to 113°.
ANISIC ALCOHOL.
yCH2OH
Anisic alcohol, CGH/ has been isolated from the volatile
\OCH3
VOL. II. 9
constituents of Tahiti vanillas. It boils at 117° to 118° at 5 mm., and
yields a pbenyl-urethane, melting at 93°.
PERILLIC ALCOHOL.
An alcohol of the formula C10H16O was isolated from oil of ginger-
grass by Schimmel & Co.,1 and described by them as dihydrocuminic
alcohol. It has, however, now been shown by Semmler and Zaar 2 not to
have the constitution assigned to it by Schimmel & Co., but to be identical
with the alcohol obtained by reducing perillic aldehyde, C10H14O, the
aldehyde characteristic of the essential oil of Perilla nankinensis.
It was separated from geraniol, which accompanies it in ginger- grass
oil by treatment with concentrated formic acid, which destroys the
geraniol, but does not attack the perillic alcohol. It has the following
characters ; —
Boiling point ....... 119° to 121° at 11 mm.
Specific gravity ....... 0-969 at 20°
Refractive index ....... 1-4996
Specific rotation ....... - 68-5°
Its constitution is closely related to that of limonene, since its
chloride passes at once, on reduction, into this terpene as shown in the
following formulae : —
CH CH CH
H2C/\CH, H2C/\CH2
ILC 'CH H2C
X/"" H2
°\/',CH
C O C
CH2OH CH2C1 CH3
Perillic alcohol. Chloride. Limonene.
By oxidation this alcohol yields perillic aldehyde which forms a
semi-carbazone, melting at 199° to 200°, and perillic acid, melting at
130° to 131°. It also yields a naphthyl-urethane, melting at 146° to
147°.
Terpene Alcohols.
TERPINEOL.
Terpineol, C10H17. OH, is an alcohol of the greatest interest from a
fscientific point of view, and of the highest practical importance from the
perfumer's point of view. Three well-defined modifications of the sub-
stance known as terpineol are recognised, but as their chemical constitu-
tions are different in each case, it is not a question of so close a relationship
.as might be expected from the clumsy and slip-shod nomenclature univer-
1 2
Bericlite, April, 1904, 53 ; October, 1904, 41. Ibid., 44, 460.
sally employed for them. These " terpineols " are known as a-terpineol,
/?-terpineol, and y-terpineol.
Terpineol of commerce is, in the main, a mixture of the isomers, in
which a-terpineol largely predominates.
Terpineol is an alcohol which is used to an enormous extent in
synthetic perfumery, and is the basis of all the perfumes of the type of
lily of the valley, lilac, and similar odours. It blends so well with
numerous other bodies that it is easy to produce a large number of
different odours, all with the main perfume of terpineol. Muguet, for
example, is terpineol with small quantities of modifying substances.
Syringol, lilacine, and artificial gardenia are all based on terpineol.
Geranium oil and heliotropine are,excellent substances to round off this
odour, and on account of its stability it is most useful in soap perfumery,
as neither heat, acids, nor alkalis have any appreciable effect on it.
Ylang-ylang, sandalwood, and rose are also excellent odours to blend
with it.
These alcohols have long been a puzzle to chemists. Terpineol was
first prepared by Tilden by the action of dilute acids on terpin hydrate.
Wallach first prepared it in really good yield, by acting on terpin hydrate
with dilute phosphoric acid. He stated that it was a monatomic alcohol,
boiling at 215° to 218°, and described it as a liquid. Bouchardat and
Tardy prepare! it by the action of very dilute sulphuric acid on terpin
hydrate, and found that it solidified on cooling and then melted at
30° to 32°, easily remaining in a state of superfusion. A closer examin-
ation by Wallach and Baeyer showed that the true melting-point of the
principal terpineol is 35°. A study of the two bodies, the "liquid " and
the "solid" terpineol, and of their oxidation products, has revealed that
ihere are at least twelve definite isomeric terpineols, capable of being
synthesised. The liquid terpineol of commerce consists of a mixture of
At least two of these, those melting at 35° and at 32° to 33°, with either
some trace of impurity, or else a third isomeric liquid form. The ter-
pineols all appear to possess an odour recalling hyacinths, hawthorn,
and lilac. They are, when prepared artificially, optically inactive, but
flemmler has recently prepared optically active terpineols, by replacing
the chlorine in the two limonene monohydrochlorides by the hydroxyl
.group. The resulting terpineol is optically active in the same direction
as the limonene from which it is produced. Baeyer has, in addition,
«ynthesised an isomeric terpineol, melting at 69° to 70°.
Terpineol (that is a-terpineol) has been prepared synthetically by
Perkin and his pupils, his method being described under the synthesis
of limonene.
a-terpineol is a solid compound, melting at 35°. It occurs in the
dextro-rotatory form in numerous essential oils, including those of petit-
grain, neroli, orange, and linaloe; whilst it is found in the laevo-
rotatory condition in camphor oil, certain pine oils, and in Mexican
linaloe oil. It also occurs in the optically inactive variety in cajuput oil.
The artificially prepared a-terpineol, which is a constituent of com-
mercial terpineol, is, of course, inactive.
Synthetic a-terpineol has the following characters:—
Melting-point 35°
at 10 mm. 104° „ 105°
Natural terpineol has an optical rotation of about + 100°.
The average characters of the commercial mixture known as ter-
pineol are as follows :—
Specific gravity 0-933 to 0-941
Boiling-point 217° ,, 220°
Refractive index 1-46CO „ T4840
Optical activity . . . . . . + 0° or slightly active
It is soluble in two volumes of 70 per cent, alcohol.
Messrs. Schimmel & Co. give the following characters for the active
and inactive varieties of a-terpineol:—
Inactive Active
Varieties. Varieties.
Melting-point 35° 37° to 38°
,, of nitrosochloride . . . 112° to 113° 107° ,, 108°
„ „ nitrol-piperidine . . 159° „ 160° 151° „ 152°
,, ,, „ methoethyl-heptanonolide. 64° 46° ,, 47°
a-terpineol has the following constitution :—

GEL GEL
COH
CH
HG CH,
C
CH3
a-terpineol is characterised by being converted into dipentene di-
hydriodide, C10H18I2, melting at 77° to 78°, by being shaken with con-
centrated hydriodic acid.
It yields a well-defined phenyl-urethane, melting at 113°. It requires
considerable care to obtain this compound, which should be prepared
as follows: terpineol mixed with the theoretical amount of phenyl-
isocyanate is left for four days at the ordinary room temperature.
Crystals separate which are diphenyl urea, and are removed by treating
the product with anhydrous ether, in which the diphenyl urea is insol-
uble. If the liquid be very carefully and slowly evaporated fine needles
of terpinyl-phenyl urethane separate. This compound has the formula
Ct.H5. NH . COOC10H17. The corresponding naphthyl-urethane melts at
147° to 148°.
Terpineol nitrosochloride, C10H17OH. NOC1, is, perhaps, the most
suitable derivative to prepare for the identification of terpineol. To a
solution of 15 grams of terpineol in 15 c.c. of glacial acetic acid, 11 c.c.
of ethyl nitrite are added. The mixture is cooled in ice, and 6 c.c. of
hydrochloric acid mixed with 6 c.c. of glacial acetic acid are added drop
by drop, with continual shaking. Care must be taken to avoid a rise in
temperature. When the reaction is complete, water is added to pre-
cipitate the nitrosochloride. The oily liquid soon solidifies and may be
recrystallised from boiling acetic ether or from methyl alcohol. Ter-
pineol nitrosochloride melts at 112° to 113° in the case of the optically
inactive form, or at 107° to 108° in the case of the optically active variety.
As in the case of pinene, the nitrosochloride forms a nitrol-piperidine,
C10H17(OH)NO. N . C5H10, melting at 159° to 160° in the case of opti-
cally inactive terpineol. or at 151° to 152° in the case of the optically
active variety.
/3-terpineol is found with a-terpineol amongst the reaction products
of dilute acids on terpin hydrate, so that it is a constituent of com-
mercial terpineol.
It is, when pure, a crystalline compound melting at 32° to 33°, and
Specific gravity 0-923 (at 15°, supervised)
Boiling-point at 752 mm. . . . 209° to 210°
It*yields the following crystalline derivatives, which are suitable for
its identification: nitrosochloride melting at 103°, nitrol-piperidine melt-
ing at 108°, nitrol-anilide melting at 110°, and phenyl-urethane melting
at 85°.
/^-terpineol has the following constitution :—
H2
°\/COH
CH3
y-terpineol has not been found in nature. It has been prepared by
Baeyerl by the reduction of tribrom—1. 4 . 8—terpene, resulting from
the bromination of dipentene dihydrobromide. It also results from
the action of dilute phosphoric, or oxalic acid, on terpin hydrate.
It forms prisms melting at 69° to 70°. To identify this body it may
be converted into its acetate, which then yields a nitrosochloride in the
usual manner, which melts at 82°.
y-terpineol has the following constitution :—
COH
H2C
C
/
l
Berichte, 27 (1894), 443.
A useful method for the production of terpineol for use in perfumery
on a commercial scale is the following, due to Bertram and Walbaum :—
Two kilograms of acetic acid are mixed with 50 grams of sulphuric
acid and 50 grams of water. Into the mixture, which should not be
allowed to rise above 50°, 1 kilogram of rectified oil of turpentine is
poured, in portions of 200 grams at a time. After cooling and standing,
the liquid is diluted with water and shaken with soda solution. The
product consists of terpinene and terpineol esters, which are separated
by fractional distillation. The esters, on treatment with alcoholic
potash, yield terpineol.
THUJYL ALCOHOL.
Thujyl alcohol, C10H17OH, occurs in the oils of wormwood and thuja
leaves, etc., and also results from the reduction of its ketone, thujone,
by means of sodium. It is identical with the body originally described
by Semmler under the name tanacetyl alcohol.
It has, according to Semmler, the following characters :•—
„ at 13 mm 92'5°
Specific gravity at 20° 0-925 to 0-926
It yields a chloride, thujyl chloride, O^H^Cl, by the action of phos-

phorus pentachloride, which on treatment with aniline yields up HC1,
with the formation of the terpene thujene.
Paolinil has separated from the reduction products of thujone the
acid phthalate of /3-thujyl alcohol, HOOC . C6H4 . COO . C10H17, melting
at 120°, and having a specific rotation + 91'27°. This body yields a
silver salt which melts at 85° to 86°, and a strychnine salt melting at
177° to 178°. On saponifying the phthalate /3-thujyl alcohol results,
which has the following characters :—
Boiling-point 206°
Tschujaeff and Fromm 2 have shown that by the recrystallisation of the

cinchonine salt of the phthalic acid ester, and hydrolysis of the crystal-'
line salt, ^-thujyl alcohol can be obtained of specific rotation 4- 116'9°,
20°
and specific gravity 0'9187 at j^-, thus agreeing with Paolini's results.
The more soluble cinchonine salt remaining in the mother liquors, gave
a laevo-rotatory thujyl alcohol, but the highest rotation obtained was
- 9-12°.
Thujyl alcohol has the constitution :—
1
2
Atti.
R. Accad. dei Lincei, (v.), 20, i. 765.
Berichte, 45 (1912), 1293.
CHQ
.OH
H2C
CH3 CH3
It can be identified by oxidation with chromic acid, when its ketone,

thujone, results. This can then be characterised bj its oxime, melting
at 54°
SABINOL.
Sabinol, C10H15 . OH, is a secondary alcohol, existing in the oils of
savin, cypress and eucalyptus, either in the free state or in the form of
its acetic ester. Somewhat discordant values have been published for
this alcohol, its characters, according to Schimmell and Semmler2 being
as follows:—
Boiling point 210° to 213°
,, „ at 20 mm. 105° „ 107°
Specific gravity at 20° 0-94:32
Paolini and Eebern 3 have, however, prepared sabinol in a pure con-
dition by means of its hydrogen phthalate, in the hope of separating it
into its stereoisomeric forms. The hydrogen phthalate of sabinol which
they prepared, COOH . C6H4 . CO2 . C10H15, crystallised in white silky
needles melting at 95°, and having a specific rotation, in methyl alcohol,
- 14-6°. On hydrolysis, this yielded sabinol having the following char-
acters :—
Boiling-point 208°
Specific rotation + 7° 56'
No isomer appeared to be present in savin oil, since no separation
could be effected by conversion of the hydrogen phthalate into its
strychnine salt, and fractional crystallisation thereof. The strychnine
salt, C3?H40O6N2, melts at 200° to 201°.
Sabinol probably has the constitution :—
Berichte,3 October (1895), 40. '2 Ibid., 33 (1900), 1459.

Atti. R. Accad. del Lincei, 1916 (v.), 25, ii. 377.
136 THE CHEMISTEY OP ESSENTIAL OILS
CH,
II
C
/\
HC/ \CHOH
H.,C' CH.,
CH(CH3)2
On oxidation with permanganate of potassium it yields sabinol-
glycerine, C10H15(OH)3, melting at 152° to 153°, and by further oxidation,
tanacetogene-dicarboxylic acid, C9H14O3, melting at 140°. On reduction
with sodium and amyl alcohol, sabinol yields thujyl alcohol, C10H17OH.
TERPINBNOL.
Terpinenol, C10H18O, is found in the oils of marjoram, cardamoms,
cypress, and nutmeg, as well as in several others to a small extent. It
has the following constitution :—
CH
C
H2C/ ^CH
TT /~1j HTJ
H.C^CH,
C.OH
(CH3)2
It can be obtained artificially by treating sabinene or thujene with
dilute sulphuric acid, when the resulting alcohol is optically inactive.
The natural alcohol, isolated from juniper berry oil, has the following
characters :—
This was probably an impure preparation, and probably Wallach's
preparation J was in a much purer condition. This had the following
characters : —
Kefractive index at 19° 1-4785
Optical rotation . . + 25° 4'
whilst for the inactive variety Wallach gives the following figures :
1
Annalent 356 (1907), 215.
By oxidation with potassium permanganate, terpinenol yields trioxy-
terpane, C10H17(OH)3, melting at 114° to 116°, and by boiling with dilute
sulphuric acid carvenone results. This body yields a semi-carbazone,
melting at 202°.
The above-described compound is known as terpinenol-4 in accord-
ance with recognised nomenclature. A body known as terpinenol- 1
is present to a small extent in the artificially prepared commercial
terpinenol. This body has the following characters : —
Boiling-point ......... 208° to 210°
Specific gravity ......... 0-9265 at 18°
Kefractive index ........ 1-4781
It has been prepared synthetically by Wallach l from isopropyl-
hexenone. It has the constitution : —
CH3
C (OH)
C
CH(CH3)2
TERPINE HYDEATE.
Terpine hydrate, C10H18(OH)1J + H2O, is a crystalline alcohol re-
sulting from the action of dilute mineral acids on either pinene or
limonene. It can be prepared by several different methods, of which
the following is typical : A mixture of 8 parts of oil or turpentine,
:2 parts of alcohol, and 2 parts of nitric acid of specific gravity 1*255
is allowed to stand for several days in a flat basin. After standing for
& few days the mother liquor is poured off from the crystals of terpine
ihydrate, and neutralised with an alkali, after which a second crop of
•crystals is obtained.
Terpine hydrate crystallises in well-defined monoclinic prisms,
melting at 116° to 117°. On distillation, or on exposure to sulphuric
acid, terpine hydrate gives off the water of crystallisation and yields the
anhydrous alcohol terpine. It is probable that terpine exists in the
space isomeric forms, known as c^s-terpine and frrans-terpine. The
product resulting from the dehydration of terpine hydrate is that known
.as ds-terpine. It melts at 39°. Tnms-terpine melts at 64° and is pre-
pared by dissolving dipentene dihydrobromide in 10 times its amount
of glacial acetic acid and gradually adding silver acetate to the ice-cooled
solution. The product is filtered after standing for some time and the
filtrate is neutralised with soda and extracted with ether. The ethereal
solution is treated with alcoholic potash to saponify the acetyl compound
and the reaction product is distilled with steam, to remove hydrocarbons
and terpineol. Transterpine remains in the residue after this treatment.
Terpine has the following constitution : —
1
Annalen, 362 (1908), 280.
CH3
C.OH
CH. C(OH)(CH3)2
PlNOCAKVEOL.
Pinocarveol, C10H16O, is a bicyclic alcohol, which has been found in*

oil of Eucalyptus globulus, and is apparently \identical with the alcohol
obtained by the reduction of nitrosopinene. It can be prepared artificially
in the following manner :—
Seventy grams of pinylamine nitrate are treated with a solution of"
10 grams of sodium nitrite in 100 c.c. of water for some time. The
yellowish oil which separates is distilled with steam, and the distillate is
shaken with an oxalic acid solution in order to remove basic compounds,
and again distilled with steam. Pinocarveol has the following char-
acters :—
,, ,, at 12 mm. 92°
Specific gravity . 0-9745 at 20°
Refractive index l-4%3
Specific rotation - 52° 45'
It forms a phenylurethane which appears to consist of two isomers-
melting at 82° to 84° and at 94° to 95° respectively. The formation of
these two phenylurethanes makes it probable that pinocarveol is itself a.
mixture of two isomeric compounds. On oxidation with chromic acid
pinocarveol yields a compound C10H14O which forms two semi-carbazonesr
melting at 210° and 320° respectively.
Pinocarveol has the following constitution (probably) :—
C : CH,
HO.CH / {CHi \CH
c/
H2C
\\ /
/
/
/CH2
JH
PlNENOL.
This body has been described in detail by Genvresse,1 but its chemical
individuality cannot be regarded as established. Its formula is said to
be C10H15OH and it has the following characters :—
1
Comptes rendus, 130, 918.
„ „ 143° „ 88 mm.
Refractive index 1-4970°
It is prepared by passing nitrous fumes into ice-cold pinene. It
forms an acetate, C10H15O . COCH3, which has a marked lavender odour.
DlHYDKOCARVEOL.
Dihydrocarveol, C10H18O, is a natural constituent of caraway oil, and

is also obtained by the reduction of carvone.
To prepare it artificially, 20 grams of carvone are dissolved in 200 c.c.
of absolute alcohol and 24 grams of sodium are added. Towards the
end of the reaction water is added, and the product is then distilled
with steam.
Dihydrocarveol is an oil of agreeable odour, and haviogvthe following
characters:—
„ ,, „ 7 mm 100° „ 102°
The above values apply to natural dihydrocarveol from caraway oil.
A specimen prepared by the reduction of carvone had a specific gravity
0-927 at 20° and refractive index 1-48168. \ mn«L
Dihydrocarveol is obtained from both optical forms of carvone, \ and
is optically active in the same sense as the original carvone. It has the
following constitution :—
CH . CH
HoC\ /C!:L
(CH 2 ):C.(CH 3 )
On oxidation with chromic acid in acetic acid solution, dihydro-
carveol yields dihydrocarvone, which has a specific gravity 0*928 at 19°,
and refractive index 1-47174. The dihydrocarvone from laevo-dihyd.ro-
carveol is dextro-rotatory, and vice versa. Its oxime melts at 88° to 89°
for the optically active variety, and at 115° to 116° for the optically
inactive form.
Dihydrocarveol yields a phenylurethane, C6H5NH . CO . OC10H17,
melting at- 87° for the optically active variety, and 93° for the optically
inactive form.
TERESANTALOL.
Teresantalol is an alcohol of the formula C10H16O, which was isolated
from sandalwood oil by Schimmel & Co. It has been prepared artifici-
ally by Sem'mler and Bartelt,1 by reducing teresantalic acid with sodium.
l
Berichte (1907), 3321.
It is a solid body melting at 112° to 114°, forming exceedingly fine pris-
matic crystals. It forms a compound with phthalic acid, melting at 140°.
FENCHYL ALCOHOL.
The chemistry of fenchyl alcohol, C10H18O, must be regarded as in a
somewhat unsettled state, as questions of isomerism arise which are as
yet unsolved. It was originally prepared by Wallach by reducing the
ketone fenchone, a natural constituent of several essential oils, by means
of sodium. Later1 he obtained it in fairly large quantities as a by-
product in the preparation of fenchone-carboxylic acid, by passing a
current of CO2 through an ethereal solution of fenchone in the presence
of sodium. Fenchyl alcohol has, so far, been found in one essential oil
only, namely, that of the root wood of Pimis palustris.
Wallach gives the following characters for the laevo-rotatory fenchyl
alcohol:—
Boiling-point 201°
rotation - 10° 35'
Melting-point 45°
The naturally occurring fenchyl alcohol is optically inactive and

melts at 33° to 35°, which agrees with the observations of Wallach, a
mixture of the two optically active forms, each of which melted at 45°,
Pickard, Lewcock and Yates 2 have prepared fenchyl alcohol by the
reduction of ^-fenchone ; they found it to be laevo-rotatory. On con-
version into its hydrogen phthalate and fractionally crystallising the
magnesium and cinchonine salts, they obtained a fraction, which on
saponification yielded Zam)-fenchyl alcohol, having a specific rotation of
— 15*5°, which is probably the correct value for this figure.
Fenchyl alcohol yields a phenylurethane melting at 88° when pre-
pared from the optically inactive alcohol, and at 82-5° when prepared
from the optically active form. It yields fenchone on oxidation, which
can be identified by its crystalline combinations (vide fenchone).
Fenchyl alcohol has, according to Semmler, the following con-
stitution :—
C.CHo
CH(OH)
CH,
JC(CH3)2
Fenchyl alcohol yields an acetate, C10H170 . COCH3, boiling at 87° to

88° at 10 mm., and having a specific gravity O9748, and specific
rotation - 58°.
2
i Annalen (1895), 324. Jour. Chem. Soc., 29 (1913), 127.
According to Schimmel & Co., l if fenchene be treated with a mixture
of acetic and sulphuric acids, it is hydrated with the formation of iso-
fenchyl alcohol, C10H18O. This alcohol is a solid body, crystallising in
needles melting at 61° to 62°. On oxidation it gives rise to a ketone,
C10H1(.0, which is isomeric with fenchone, but which on reduction does
not yield either fenchyl or isofenchyl alcohols, but a third isomeric
alcohol. Isofenchyl alcohol forms a phenylurethane melting at 106° to
107°. The characters of the isomeric alcohols are compared in the
following table:—
Fenchyl Alcohol. Isofenchyl Alcohol.
Melting-point . . . . "45° 61° to 62°
of- phenylurethane
- - . 82° 106° „ 107°
,, hydrogen phthalate 145° 149° ,, 150°
Boiling-point . 91° to 92° (11 mm.) 97° to 98° (13 mm.)
Acetic ester, boiling-point 88° (10 mm.) 98° „ 99° (14 mm.)
Boiling-point of ketone formed 191° to 192° 193° to 194°
Melting-point,, ,, ,, 6° liquid
,, ,, ,, oxime of ketone 164° to 165° 82°
ISOPULEGOL.
Isopulegol, C10H18O, does not appear to exist in essential oils, but it

results from the action of acids on citronellal. The last-named body,
for example, when boiled with acetic anhydride yields isopulegyl acetate,
from which the alcohol is obtained by hydrolysis.
Isopulegol is an oil having an odour resembling that of menthol. Its
characters are as follows : —
Boiling-point ......... 91° at 13 mm.
Specific gravity ........ 0-9154 at 17'5°
Refractive index ........ 1-47292
Its optical rotation has usually been recorded as from - 2° to - 3°,
but recently Pickard, Lewcock, and Yates 2 have prepared /-isopulegol
by fractional crystallisation of the magnesium and cinchonine salts of
the hydrogen phthalate, and found its specific rotation to be - 22 '2°.
Isopulegol has the following constitution : —
CH3
CH
H2c CHOH
CH
(CH,) : C . (CH3)
On oxidation isopulegol yields isopulegone, which can be character-
ised by its oxime, which melts at 121° for the active, and about 140° for
the inactive variety ; or its semi-carbazone, which melts at 172° to 173°
for the active, and 182° to 183° for the inactive variety.
Isopulegyl hydrogen phthalate melts at 106° and has a specific rota-
tion - 18*7°, and its magnesium salt melts at 115°.
1
Report, October, 1898, 49 ; April, 1900, 55 and 60.
2
Jour. Chem. Soc., 29 (1913), 127.
Pulegone, on reduction, yields an alcohol, C10H18O, which is known
as pulegol. It is a viscous liquid, having the odour of terpineol, and
boiling at 215°. Its specific gravity is O912. It is difficult to obtain it
in a state of purity.
Schimmel & Co.1 treated isopulegol with aqueous and alcoholic solu-
tions of alkalis to try and convert isopulegol into pulegol. By the action
of sodium ethylate, instead of pulegol which might have been expected
to be produced, two totally different reactions took place ; on the one
hand there was rupture of the unsaturated side chain with the forma-
tion of methylcyclohexanol; on the other hand there was opening of
the hexagonal nucleus between the carbon atoms 3 and 4, with forma-
tion of citronellol, according to the following scheme :—
CH.
CH, CH
H.,C/\CH, /CH,
H + oc
H,C/\CH2 ^^ H2CX/CH(OH)
<,
,CH(O H) Methylcyclohexanol.
CH -
^\ OH H.,
^ CHg
-LoV^ \JJLJ-2 /
Isopulegol. H3C-CH<^
Citronellol.
It is probable that the isopulegol was first changed to pulegol and
.this to methylcyclohexanol.
MENTHOL.
Menthol, C10H19OH, is the characteristic alcohol of oil of pepper-
mint, from which it separates in fine crystals on cooling. It also results
from the reduction of the corresponding ketone, menthone, C10H180, and
.also of pulegone, C10Hj6O.
Natural menthol is laevo-rotatory. The reduction of both laevo-
menthone and dextro-menthone yields a mixture in which laevo-menthol
jpredominates. The constitution of menthol is as follows :—
CH3
CH
-CHOH
!H
CH(
£(CH3)2.
1
Report, October, 1913, 91.
Its physical characters are as follows :—
Melting-point 43° to 14-5°
Boiling-point at 760° 215° ,, 216°
Specific gravity ~ 0*881
rotation . - 49° to - 50°
Various melting-points have been recorded for menthol, and the
recent work of F. E. Wright l throws some light upon these differences.
Wright describes the crystallisation of menthol in four different forms,
ivhich he terms a, b, c, and d. Three of these appear to bear monotropic
relations to the stable a form. On crystallisation, all forms of menthol
show a pronounced tendency to the development of radial spherulites;
ihese are roughly spherical in shape in the case of crystallisation from
the melt, but noticeably ellipsoidal on inversion of one crystal form into
a second. The four forms are readily distinguishable under the petro-
.graphic microscope. a-menthol shows dextro-rotatory polarisation,
while the melt is laevo-rotatory. In the formation of the different
monotropic forms the initial temperature of crystallisation appears to
be the determinative factor. The a form is stable between zero and its
melting temperature, 42*5° C. The other forms have lower melting
temperatures, namely, 35'5° (6), 33'5° (c), 31-5° (d), all of which invert
finally into the stable a form on standing; the d form may invert first
into the b and then into the a form. At a given temperature the rate of
growth of crystals of a given form from the undercooled melt is constant;
Also the rate of growth on inversion of an unstable form into one more
stable. The refractive index of melted menthol at 25° is approximately
1-458 for sodium light, whilst that of the crystals is greater. The specific
rotation of melted menthol at 15° is — 59*6°, corresponding to a laevo-
xotation of - 0*53° per mm. depth of liquid, whilst the crystals are
dextro-rotatory, the rotatory power of the stable a form being over five times
as great when measured for the D line. The melting-points were ob-
served in polarised light, the crystals being melted between two strips
of thin cover glass; the slide was immersed in a beaker of water placed
on the microscope stage and kept at a definite temperature by means of
a small electric resistance heating coil of fine enamelled constantan wire.
Melted menthol shows undercooling to a pronounced degree, and does
not crystallise within reasonable time until after a temperature of 32° or
lower has been reached. Crystals of the a form grow at an appreciable
rate at 42°. On crystallisation from the melt at the higher temperature
needles are commonly formed; these show a tendency toward radial
arrangement. At lower temperatures radial spherulites are almost in-
variably formed.
Menthol forms an acetate, menthyl acetate, C1()H19O . COCH3, a thick
highly refractive liquid boiling at 224°, and of specific rotation - 114°.
It forms a characteristic benzoic ester, C10H19O . CO . C6H5, melting
at 54°. This is a useful compound for identifying menthol and may be
obtained by heating menthol with the theoretical amount of benzoic
acid, in a sealed tube to 170°; excess of acid is removed by shaking with
a boiling solution of sodium carbonate, and the ester is crystallised from
alcohol. Menthol forms a phenylurethane, melting at 111° to 112°.
Boedtker2 has prepared a number of the homologues of menthol in
1
2
Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 39, 1515, through P. and E.O.R.
Bull. Soc. Chim., iv. 17 (1915), 360.
the following manner : Sodamide was allowed to react with menthone
dissolved in ether. The resulting sodium-menthone was treated with
the various alkyl iodides, with the formation of the corresponding alkyl-
menthones. These were reduced with sodium and yielded the corre-
sponding menthol homologues. The alkyl-menthols so prepared had
Specific
Gravity Refractive
Boiling-point. 18° Rotation. Index.
at yo-.
Methylmenthol 129° to 130° (32 mm.) 0-9124 [a]Doi0 - 2° 26' 1-4692

Methylmenthylacetate . 125° (17 mm.) 0-9313 [a]D,20 - 18° 7' 1-4578
! Ethylmenthol 124° (13 „ ) 0-9246 [a] 000 + 4° 55' 1-4769
Ethylmenthylacetate . 131° to 132° (14 mm.) 0-9366 WD,IO - 6° 6' 1-4636
w-Propylmenthol . 141° „ 145° (27 „ ) 0-9075 MD,OO + 29° I1 1-4675
n-Propylmenthylacetate 152° (30 mm.) 0-9515 WD.,,O - 8° 58/ 1 4741 (19°)
Isoamylmenthol . 150° (23 „ ) 0-8985 WD,0o + 33°44' 1-4661
20°
Benzylmenthol 203° to 205° (24 mm.) d-p- 0-9819 WD,OO ~ 43° 19' 1-5257
Standnikowl has prepared several of the esters of menthol by heat-

ing magnesium iodo-mentholate with the esters of ethyl alcohol. For
example, with ethyl acetate, propionate, and benzoate the corresponding
menthyl esters were obtained. These bodies have the following boiling-
points :—
Menthyl acetate 113° at 19 mm.
,, propionate 122° to 123° at 19 mm.
,, benzoate 191° „ 192° „ 18 „
Menthyl benzoate melts at 54*5° to 55°.
Numerous isomeric menthols have been described, many of which
are certainly not chemical individuals.
When menthone is reduced there is found, in addition to menthol, a
certain amount of isomenthol. This body melts at 78° to 81° and is
slightly dextro-rotatory, its specific rotation being + 2°.
The most reliable work on the isomeric menthols is that of Pickard
and Littlebury.2 Starting from the mixture of alcohols which Brunei 3
had obtained by the reduction of thymol, and which he had described
under the name of thymomenthol, they isolated from it about 60 per
cent, of isomeric menthols, 30 per cent, of menthones, and several other
compounds. They prepared the phthalic acid esters and converted them
into their magnesium and zinc salts, which were then fractionally crys-
tallised.
Two distinct bodies were thus obtained, which, on hydrolysis yielded
the corresponding menthols, of which one is inactive menthol (melting-
point 34° C.; boiling-point, 16 mm., 103° to 105° C.; acid phthalic ester,
melting-point 129° to 131° C.), the other, neomenthol crystallising from
petroleum spirit in prismatic tables melting at 51° C.; boiling-point,
l
Jour. Russ.phys. CJiem. Ges., 47 (1915), 1113.
*Jour.
:J
Chem. Soc., 101, 109.
Comptes rendus, 137, 1288; and Roure-Bertrand Fils, Bulletin.
16 mm., 103° to 105° C.; phenylurethane, melting-point 114° C.; acid
guccinic ester, melting-point 67° to 68° C.; acid phthalic ester, melting-
point 175° to 177° C.
The same menthol and neomenthol have also been obtained by the
reduction of inactive menthone by means of hydrogen, in presence of
nickel at 180° C.
The inactive menthol melting at 34° C. just described is probably
identical with the /?-thymomenthol described by Brunei; the inactive
neomenthol is probably identical with the isomenthol described above.
Natural laevo-menthol is clearly a homogeneous compound. On the
other hand, the inactive menthol melting at 34° C. may be split up, by
passing through the form of the brucine salts of the phthalic ester, into
laevo-menthol (melting-point 42° C.; [a]D - 48*76°) and dextro-menthol
(melting-point 40° C.; [a]D '+ 48*15°). Similarly, the inactive neomen-
thol may be decomposed into dextro-neomenthol ([a]D + 19*69°) and
laevo-neomenthol ([a]D - 19*62°). These active modifications are both
liquids; the former having a boiling-point of 98° at a pressure of 16 mm.
and the latter boiling at 105° at 21 mm. Dextro-neomenthol has been
shown to exist in very small quantity in Japanese peppermint oiL
BORNEOL.
Borneol, C10H17OH, the alcohol corresponding to the ketone camphor,,
occurs naturally, in both optically active modifications ; as dextro-borneol
in the wood of Dryobalanops camphor a (Borneo camphor), and as laevo-
borneol in Blumea balsamifera (Ngai camphor). It also occurs in the
optically inactive modification. It is found in numerous essential oils,
such as those of the pine-needle type, in the form of its acetic ester, and
also in spike, rosemary, and numerous other oils. It forms crystalline
masses, or, when recrystallised from petroleum ether, fine tablets which,
when quite pure, melt at 204°. Its boiling-point is only a few degrees
higher, viz. 212°. According to Bouchardat the melting-point is lower
than that given, but this is undoubtedly due to the fact that his speci-
men of borneol probably contained some impurity. Traces of isoborneol,
strangely, raise the melting-point to 206° to 208°. Borneol can be pre-
pared artificially by reducing its ketone (camphor) with sodium. Fifty
grams of pure camphor are dissolved in 500 c.c. of nearly absolute
alcohol, and treated with 60 grams of sodium. After the reaction is
complete the whole is poured into a large volume of water, and the re-
sulting borneol is collected, washed, pressed, and recrystallised from
petroleum ether. This method of preparation, however, yields a mixture
of borneol and isoborneol. The chemically pure body is best prepared
by the saponification of its acetate. On oxidation, the converse reaction
takes place, with the formation of camphor. Borneol forms a series of
esters with the organic acids, of which bornyl acetate is most frequently
found in nature. This body melts at 29°, and has a specific gravity of
*991 at 15°. It is optically active. In common with a large number of
alcoholic bodies borneol forms a crystalline phenylurethane. This can
be prepared by the interaction of phenylisocyanate and borneol. It
melts at 138°. Bornyl chloride, prepared by the action of phosphorus
pentachloride on borneol, melts at 157°.
Borneol forms crystalline compounds with chloral and bromal, the
former melting at 55° and the latter at 104° to 105°.
VOL. II. 10
146 THE CHEMISTBY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
Bertram and Walbaum give the following as the characters of several
of the borneol esters :—
i
Boiling-point Optical Specific Refractive Index
at 10 mm. Rotation. Gravity. at 15°.
Formate . 90° + 31° 1-013 1-47078

Acetate 98° - 38° 20' 0-991 1-46635
Propioniate 110° + 24° 0-978 1-46435
Butyrate . 121° + 22° 0-966 1-46380
Valerianate 128° to 130° + 20° 0-956 1-46280
It also forms a phthalic acid compound melting at 164°. Pure

borneol has the following characters :—
Melting-point 203° to 204°
Boiling-point 212°
„ rotation (in alcohol) ± 37'6° to 39*5°
Borneol has the following constitution :—
H;
CH,.C.CH,
H,C CH2
CH
1
Henderson and Heilbron recommend the following method for
differentiating between borneol and isoborneol (q*v.). The alcohol is
dissolved in ten to fifteen times its weight of pyridine, and the calculated
amount of âra-nitrobenzoyl chloride added, and the mixture heated on
the water-bath for several hours. The pyridine is removed by extrac-
tion with ice-cold dilute sulphuric acid, and the resulting para-miro-
benzoate of the alcohol, after washing with dilute sulphuric acid again,
is separated, dried, and • recrystallised from alcohol. Bornyl-p-nitro-
benzoate melts at 137°, whilst the corresponding isoborneol derivative
melts at 129°. It is possible that the usually accepted melting-points
of both borneol and isoborneol may require revision, as Henderson and
Heilbron find the borneol regenerated from the crystalline nitrobenzoate
joaelts at 208°, and isoborneol2 obtained in the same way at 217°.
Pickard and Littlebury have carried out a series of investigations
ôn the separation of the optically active borneols and isoborneols, which
is of particular interest, as the method of separation can probably be
âpplied to various other similar bodies. This method depends on the
1
Proc. Chem. Soc., 29 (1913), 381.
'Ibid., 23, 262 ; Jour. Chem. Soc., 91, 1973.
different solubilities of the crystalline compounds of the acid phthalates
of the alcohols, with alkaloids such as cinchonine, or with laevo-menthyl-
amine. The specific rotations which these chemists consider accurate
for borneol are very concordant for the two optical varieties. The values
obtained are:—
Dextro-borneol [a]D = + 37*08° (in alcohol)
Laevo-borneol [a]o = - 37*61° ,, ,,
The corresponding figures for isoborneol are as follows :—
Dextro-isoborneol [a]D = + 34-02° (in alcohol)
Laevo-isoborneol [o]D = - 34*34° „ „
ISOBORNEOL.
Isoborneol, C10H17OH, is an alcohol stereoisomeric with borneol,
which it closely resembles in general characters. It is obtained, together
with borneol, by reducing camphor with sodium, or it may be prepared
by hydrating the terpene camphene by means of acetic and sulphuric
acids. The following 1 is the best method for the preparation of this
alcohol. One hundred grams of camphene are heated with 250 grams
of glacial. acetic acid and 10 grams of 50 per cent, sulphuric acid to 60°
for four hours and the mixture continually shaken. When the reaction
is complete, excess of water is added, and the ester, isobornyl acetate,
separates as an oily mass. Free acid is removed by shaking the oil in
& separator with water until the water is neutral. The ester is then
saponified by boiling with alcoholic potash under a reflux condenser.
The greater part of the alcohol is distilled off, and the residue is poured
into a large quantity of water. Isoborneol is precipitated as a solid mass,
which is filtered off, washed with water, dried on a porous plate and
recrystallised from petroleum ether. Prepared in this manner, isoborneol
melts at 212° (but see Henderson's and Heilbron's results, supra). It is
moreover, so volatile that the determination of its melting-point must be
made in sealed tubes.
Its specific rotation is + 34°.
Isoborneol yields camphor on oxidation, but it yields camphene on
dehydration much more readily than borneol does. If a solution of
isoborneol in benzene be heated with chloride of zinc for an hour, an
almost quantitative yield of camphene is obtained. Pure borneol under
the same conditions is practically unchanged.
Isoborneol forms a phenylurethane, C6H5NH. CO . O . C10H17, melting
at 138° to 139°, which is identical with the melting-point of borneol
phenylurethane.
Isobornyl formate is a liquid of specific gravity 1*017, and boils at
100° at 14 mm.; isobornyl acetate has a specific gravity 0*9905, and
boils at 107° at 13 mm.
The following table exhibits the principal difference between borneol
and isoborneol:—
1
Jour, prakt. Cliem., New Series, 49, 1.
Borneol. Isoborneol.
Crystalline form . . . . — double refraction + double refraction
Melting-point . . . . 204° (208° ?) 212° (217°
Solubility in benzene at 0° Iin7 1 in 3
,, ,, petroleum ether at 0° 1 in 10 to 11 1 in 4 to 4-5
Melting-point of phenylurethane . 138° 138°
„ ,, ,, chloral compound 55° to 56° liquid
„ „ bromal 104° „ 105° 72°
,, ,, ,, acetic ester 29° liquid
With zinc chloride unchanged forms camphene
Specific rotation 37° 34°
PlPEKITOL.
Piperitol is a secondary alcohol, corresponding with the ketone,

piperitone, occurring in several of the so-called peppermint group of
eucalyptus oils.1
It is a liquid of the formula C10H18O, having the following char-
acters :—
Specific gravity a t 2 2 ° . . . 0-923
Optical rotation . . . . - 34-1°
Refractive index at 22° . 1-4760
Its constitution is probably :—
CH . CH
HCl/CHOH
C. C,H7
CAMPHENE HYDKATE.
2
Aschan has recently prepared a new alcohol from camphene, which
is not identical with isoborneol. He obtained it by digesting camphene
monohydrochloride with a solution of calcium hydroxide for about
eighteen hours with continual agitation. The camphene hydrate so
formed is a crystalline compound, highly refractive, and melting at
150° to 151°. It boils at 205°. It differs very markedly from borneol
and isoborneol by yielding camphene on dehydration with the greatest
ease, even when the mildest dehydrating agents are used.
Camphene hydrate is a tertiary alcohol, and a study of its characters
and method of preparation caused Aschan to consider that it is im-
probable that borneol and isoborneol are stereoisomeric, but that they
probably have different constitutional formulae.
MYRTENOL.
Myrtenol, Cj0H16O, is a primary cyclic alcohol, which was isolated
from essential oil of myrtle, in which it 8occurs principally in the form of
its acetic ester, by von Soden and Elze. It is separated from geraniol,
with which it is found, by fractional distillation, and by the crystallisa-
1
Baker and Smith, A Research on the Eucalyptus, 2nd edition, p. 373.
2 3
Berichte, 41, 1092. Chem. Zeit., 29 (1905), 1031.
tionjof its acid phthalate, which melts at 116°. Myrtenol has an odour
of^myrtle, and possesses the following characters :—
,, ,, ,, 9 mm. 102° „ 105°
The above figures are those of Semmler and Bartelt,1 those of
yon Soden and Elze being as follows :—
Boiling-point at 751 mm. 220J to 221°
,, ,, ,, 3-5 mm. 79-5° „ 80°
Optical rotation -f 49° 25'
Myrtenol forms an acetic ester, quantitatively, so that it can be de-
termined by acetylisation.
With phosphorus pentachloride it yields myrtenyl chloride, C10H15C1,
which by reduction with sodium and alcohol yields pinene.
On oxidation with chromic acid in acetic acid solution, myrtenol
yields a corresponding aldehyde, which has been termed myrtenal. This
body has the following characters :—
Formula C10H140
Melting-point of semi-carbazone 230°
., „ .. oxime . 71° to 72°
Myrtenol, according to Semmler and Bartelt, has the following con-
stitution :—
C . CH2OH
CH
SANTELOL.
There exists in East Indian sandalwood oil an alcohol, of the
formula C9H16O, which has been named santelol, or santenone alcohol.
It is closely allied to, and much resembles, the alcohol obtained by the
hydration of the hydrocarbon, santene (q.v.), and is probably stereo-
isomeric with it. There is some difference of opinion as 2to the proper
nomenclature of the two alcohols. According to Charabot, the naturally
occurring alcohol, also obtainable by the reduction of santenone, is
analogous to borneol, and should therefore be termed, if that analogy is
1
Berichte, 40
(1907), 1363.
2
Les Principes Odorants des Vegetaux, p. 100.
to be used in the nomenclature, 7r-nor-borneol, whilst the name ?r-nor-
isoborneol should be reserved for the isosantelol, which results from the
hydra tibn of santene. The two alcohols are probably stereoisomeric,
and the names assigned to them are exactly reversed by Semmler and
Schimmel, who term the alcohol obtained by the hydration of santene,
santelol or 7r-nor-borneol. Both alcohols are probably of the following
constitution : —
CEL
CHOH
HoC
Santelol can be purified by conversion into its phthalic acid ester,

which is liquid, but which forms a silver salt which does not melt even
at 230°.
It is a solid body melting at 58° to 62°, and boiling at 196° to 198°.
7r-Nor-isoborneol, obtained by the hydration of santene, or by boiling
teresantalic acid with formic acid, has the following characters : —
Boiling-point 87° to 88° at C9 mm.
Melting-point 68° to 70
It forms an acetate having the following characters : —
Formula CnH18O.,
Boiling-point 89 to 90-5° at 9 mm.
Molecular refraction 50 '47
The above \ figures are given for the alcohols based on the nomen-
clature advocated by Charabot as mentioned above.
APOPINOL.
Apopinol, C10H18O, is an alcohol, which has been identified in a
Japanese essential oil by Keimaza.1 It yields citral on oxidation, and
it is not certain that it is in fact a chemical individual, being, possibly,
an impure form of linalol.
KESSYL ALCOHOL.
Kessyl alcohol, C14H24O2, has been isolated from Japanese valerian,
or Kesso, oil. It is a solid compound forming fine rhombic crystals and
having the following characters : —
1
Jour. Pharm. Soc., Japan (1903), August.
Melting-point . 85°
„ „ 760 „ 300° „ 302°
It forms an acetic ester, which boils at 178° to 179° at 16 mm., and

has an optical rotation - 70° 6'. Its formula is C14H23O2. OC . CH3.
SANTALOL.
There exist in sandalwood oil (from Santalum album) two isomerie
sesquiterpene alcohols, of the formula C15H24O. They are both primary
unsaturated alcohols, one being bicyclic, the other tricyclic. These two
alcohols are termed a-santalol and /3-santalol.
a-santalol has the following characters :—
„ at 8 mm 155°
Kefractive index 1-4990 at 19°
Specific rotation 4- 1° 6'
The specific gravity, refractive index, and specific rotation given
above are those recorded by Paolini and Divizia1 and are probably ac-
curate since the a-santalol was prepared by regeneration from its strych-
nine phthalate. The values recorded for commercial santalol, prepared
by fractional distillation, are as follows, and are the average values for
the mixed santalols as they occur in sandalwood oil :—
Semmler. v. Sodeu. Schimmel.
Specific gravity . 0'973 at 20° 0-976 to 0'978 0-973 to 0*982
Optical rotation . - 21° - 16° 30' to - 20° - 14° „ - 24°
Refractive index . 1-50974 — 1-5040 „ 1-5090
Schimmel gives the following figures for a-santalol,k but those of
Paolini and Divizia are probably more accurate :—
Optical rotation - 1*2°
/2-santalol has the following characters :—
10 168° „ 169°
Specific rotation . - 42°
These values, except the boiling-point at 760°, are those of Paolini

and Divizia. Schimmel gives the following figures :—
„ ,, 14 ,, 170° „ 171°
Specific gravity 0'986S at 0°
Optical rotation . ' - 56°
According to Paolini and Divizia (loc. tit.}, the two santalols can be
separated in the following manner : They are first separated as far as
possible by careful fractional distillation, and the impure fractions con-
verted in the usual manner into the hydrogen phthalate aad this again
1
Atti. R. Accad. Lincei, 1914 (v.), 28, ii. 226.
into the strychnine salt. By repeated recrystallisation the strychnine
salt can be purified until the melting-point and rotatory power are con-
stant. When this point is reached, saponification yields the pure alcohol.
The strychnine phthalate has the following formula :—
C6H4(CO,. C15H23) (CO 2 H.C 21 H 22 O 2 N 2 ).
By oxidation of the santalols, an aldehyde, or mixture of aldehydes,
is obtained, which has been termed santalal. It has the formula C15H220,
and the following are its physical characters :—
Optical rotation + 13° to H- 14°
Melting-point of oxime . 104° to 105°
„ ,, „ semi-carbazone 230°
\Semmler regards the body nor-tricyclo-ecsantalane, C10H1G, as the
parent substance of all the santalol derivatives. It is obtained by de-
composing the ozonide of santalol in vacuo.
The acetic esters of the two santalols have been prepared, but their
absolute purity has not been substantiated.
a-santalyl acetate boils at 308° to 312°, and /?-santalyl acetate at 316°
to 317°.
The formulae i suggested by Semmler for the two santalols are as
follows : —
CH2 CH
. CH : CH . CH2CH2CH2 . OH
H2C CH.,
CH
a-Santalol.
\CH . CH : CH . CH 2 . CH,. CH 2 . OH
CH,
3-Santalol.
AMYEOL.
The alcohols of the so-called West Indian sandalwood oil, which is
distilled from a species of Amyris, are known under the name of amyrol.
It is, in all probability a mixture of two alcohols of the formulas C15H240
and C15H260. Its characters are as follows :-
151° „ 152° ,, 11 „
Amyrol has been partially separated into its constituents —of which
tlie higher boiling is probably of the formula C15H26O, and has a specific
gravity 0*987, optical rotation -f 36°, and boiling-point 299°. The lower
boiling alcohol appears to have the formula C15H24O, and to be optically
inactive,
CEDROL AND PSEUDOCEDROL.
Cedrol, C15H26O, is a true sesquiterpene alcohol occurring in cedar-
wood oil (Juniper us virginiana) and several allied essential oils.
It is a crystalline substance having the following characters : —
Melting-point ......... 86° to 87°
Boiling-point . ....... 291° „ 294°
„ at 8 mm ........ 157° „ 160°
Specific rotation (in chloroform) ..... + 9° 31'
It yields a phenylurethane if it is heated almost to boiling-point

with phenyl-isocyanate. This compound melts, at 106° to 107°. On de-
hydration with phosphoric acid it yields the sesquiterpene cedrene.
The relationship between cedrene and cedrol is probably as follows : —
C=CH
=C C(OH)— CH2
Cedrene. Cedrol.
x
Bernini er and Mayer have isolated a physical isomer of cedrol from
the same oil, which they have named pseudocedrol. This alcohol was
obtained by systematic fractionation of the oil, and was found to accumu-
late in the traction which distils between 147° and 152° at 9 mm. pressure.
Pseudocedrol is a saturated tertiary alcohol having the following char-
acters : —
Specific gravity at 20° ........ 0-9964
Optical rotation ......... + 21° 30'
When pseudocedrol is heated in a sealed tube at 235° it yields a
mixture of dihydrocedrene, C15H26, and cedrene, C15H24.
According to Semmler and Mayer, cedrol and pseudocedrol are of
the same chemical constitution, the two bodies being physical isomer s.
CEDBENOL.
In addition to cedrol and pseudocedrol, cedarwood oil contains a
third alcohol, of the formula C15H240, which has 2been named cedrenol.
This alcohol was isolated by Semmler and Mayer, who found it to exist
to the extent of about 3 per cent, in the oil. It is a tricyclic unsatur-
ated alcohol, closely related in constitution to the sesquiterpene cedrene,
.as shown by the following formulae : —
J 2
Berichte, 45, 1384. Ibid., 45, 786.
(C12H20) (C12H20)
C=CH C = CH
CH2 GH2—OH
Cedrene. Cedrenol.
Cedrenol has been isolated in a state of purity by means of its phthalic
acid ester. i
It is a viscous, colourless liquid, having the following characters':—
It was, however, probably not quite pure, when obtained in this
manner. It forms an acetic ester, having the following characters :—
When regenerated by saponification of the acetic ester, cedrenol was
found to have the following characters :—
By the action of phosphorus pentachloride, cedrenol yields cedrenyl
chloride, C15H23C1, which, when reduced by sodium and alcohol yields
cedrene.
CADINOL.
Semmler and Jonas l have isolated a sesquiterpene alcohol, C15H260,
from oil of galbanum. It yields a hydrochloride melting at 117° to 118°..
VETIVENOL.
2
Genvresse and Langlois isolated an alcohol of the sesquiterpene
group of the formula C15H94O from oil of vetiver, which they named
vetivenol. This alcohol has been examined by Semmler, Risso, and
Schroeter.3 From the fraction boiling at 260° to 298° at 13 mm. they
obtained an ester of vetivenol, C15H24O, with an acid of th^ formula.
C15H92O2. On hydrolysis the alcohol was obtained, which had the
This alcohol possesses only one double bond, and must be tricyclic.
It is a primary alcohol, yielding a phthalic acid ester. On reduction
1 2
Berichte, 47 (1914), 2068. Comptes rendus, 135, 1059.
" Berichte, 45, 2347.
with hydrogen and spongy platinum, it yields dihydrovetivenol, C15H260,,
' a true sesquiterpene alcohol, having the following characters :—
Dihydrovetivenol forms an acetic ester, whose characters are as
follows:—
Optical rotation + 2^° 48'
There was also obtained from the oil a second alcohol, C15H24Or
which contains two double bonds, and is bicyclic. It is also a primary
alcohol, but its characters have not been ascertained with accuracy.
A mixture of bicyclic and tricyclic vetivenol isolated by means of phthalic
acid had the following characters, from which those of bicyclic vetivenol
may, to some extent, be deduced :—
Boiling-point at 14 mm 168° to 170° .
ZlNGIBEROL.
1
Brooks has isolated from the fraction of oil of ginger boiling at 154°
to 157° at 15 mm. an alcohol which he finds to be a sesquiterpene
alcohol, Cl5H26O, corresponding to the sesquiterpene zingiberene. It has
the fragrant odour of ginger, and probably possesses one of the following
constitutions:—
C(CH3)2OH C(CH3) : CH,
CH,
CH . CH . C(CH3)CH . CH2 H2C CH . CH2. C(CH3)(OH)CH: CH2

CH(CH3) C(CH3)
GUAIOL.
Guaiol, C15H26O, is an odourless sesquiterpene alcohol found in the
essential oil of the wood of Bulnesia Sarmienti, known as guaiac wood
oil.
It is obtained by extracting the wood with ether, and several times
recrystallising the pasty mass so obtained from alcohol.
Guaiol is a tertiary bicyclic alcohol, with one double linkage, having
Melting-point 91°
Boiling-point a t 9 m m . . . . . . . . 147° t o 149°
9O°
Specific gravity — 0-9714
Refractive index . . . . . . . . 1'5100
1
Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 38 (1916), 430.
By acting on guaiol with potassium in alcohol, and adding methyl
iodide, guaiol methyl ether is formed, which has the following char-
.acters:—
OKO
Specific gravity at ±*i 0-9332
„ rotation - 31-8°
Refractive index at 18'5° 1-48963
If guaiol be shaken in aqueous acetone with potassium permangan-
ate a glycerol results, which is the first body of its type known in the
sesquiterpene series. This body, guaiol glycerol, C15H28O2, forms
colourless tablets, melting at 210° to 211°, and is suitable for the identi-
fication of guaiol.
CLOVE SBSQUITEBPENE ALCOHOL.
Semmler and Mayer1 have isolated a sesquiterpene alcohol, C15H260,
from the high boiling fractions of oil of cloves. It was probably not
obtained in an absolutely pure condition, but had the following char-
acters, which must be regarded as approximate only:—
Optical dotation -17°
Refractive index f . . . . 1-5070
It yields a chloride, C15H25C1, of specific gravity 0*990 at 20°. It is
a bicyclic sesquiterpene alcohol, with one double bond.
LEDUM CAMPHOR.
Ledum camphor, C15H260, is a solid sesquiterpene alcohol present
in the essential oil of Ledum palustre. It forms long, colourless needles
Melting-point 104°
Boiling-point 281°
9O°
On dehydration it yields the sesquiterpene ledene, which has scarcely
been investigated.
COSTOL.
Semmler and Feldstein2 have isolated a sesquiterpene alcohol,
C15H24O, from the oil of costus root, to which they have given the name
costol. It was purified by conversion into its acid phthalate, which, on
hydrolysis yields the pure alcohol, having the following characters:—
Refractive index . . . . . . . . 1 -5200
Optical rotation 4- 13°
1
Berichte, 45 (1912), 1390. Ibid., 47 (1914), 26S7.
Costol is a diolefinic bicyclic sesquiterpene alcohol, which, on oxida-
tion by chromic acid in acetic acid yields an aldehyde, C15H22O, which
yields a semi-carbazone, melting at 217° to 218°. This aldehyde, wrlich
is triolefinic has the following characters :—
Optical rotation . . +24°
Costol forms an acetic ester, having a specific gravity 0-9889 at 21°

and optical rotation + 19°.
ELEMOL.
Semmler and' Liao1 have examined the solid body isolated from
Manila elemi oil by Schimmel & Co. This was found to be a sesqui-
terpene alcohol, C]5H26O, which has been named elemol. It was
purified by converting it intov its benzoic acid ester, from which the
alcohol was prepared in a pure state by hydrolysis. It has the following
characters:—
Its benzoic ester has the following characters :—

On reduction elemol yields tetrahydroelemol, C15H300. Elemol is

a monocyclic sesquiterpene alcohol, and on dehydration yields the sesqui-
terpene elemene.
According to Semmler and Liao 2 tetrahydroelemol has the following
characters:—
Melting-point . 35-5°
By treatment with formic acid, it yields tetrahydroelemene. The
constitution of this body, which throws some light on that of elemol, is
probably as follows :—
C—CH(CH3)2
.CH.(C5Hn)
CH(CH3)
1
Berichte, 49 (1916), 794. *Ibid., 50 (1917), 1286.
JUNIPEROL.
1
-Eamsay has isolated a crystalline sesquiterpene alcohol from the
essential oil distilled from the bark of the juniper tree. It forms
optically inactive triclinic crystals, melting at 107°, and having the
formula C15H240.
EUDESMOL.
Eudesmol is a sesquiterpene alcohol, isolated from several species of
eucalyptus oil by Baker and Smith, who 2 regarded it as an oxide of the
formula C10H16O. Semmler and Tobias have, however, shown that it
is a tricyclic, unsaturated alcohol. It has the following characters :—
Boiling point at 10 mm. 156°
,, rotation (in chloroform) + 38° to 43°
Molecular refraction . 67-85.
It forms an acetate, which boils at 165° to 170° at 11 mm. By re-
•duction with hydrogen and spongy platinum, it yields dihydroeudesmol,
an alcohol melting at 82°. On dehydration it yields a sesquiterpene,
eudesmene. Eudesmol appears to have a tendency to liquefy by keeping.
Whether the liquid body is an isomer or not is unsettled.
GLOBULOL.
This sesquiterpene alcohol was discovered by Schimmel & Co. in oil
•of Eucalyptus globulus. It is found in the last fractions of the distillate,
separating out in crystalline condition. On recrystallisation from 70
per cent, alcohol, it was obtained in the form of brilliant, almost odour-
less needles, having the following characters :—
Melting-point . . . 88-5°
Boiling-point at 755 mm. . 283°
Specific rotation . . . - 35° 29' (12 per cent, chloroform solution)
Its formula is C15H26O.
Schimmel & Co.a attempted to acetylise the alcohol by means of acetic
anhydride, but the reaction product only showed 5 per cent, of ester,
which was not submitted to further examination. The bulk of the
alcohol had been converted into a hydrocarbon, with loss of water.
Ninety per cent, formic acid is most suitable for splitting off water.
One hundred grams of the sesquiterpene alcohol were heated to boiling-
point with three times the quantity of formic acid, well shaken, and, after
•cooling, mixed with water. The layer of oil removed from the liquid
was freed from resinous impurities by steam-distillation, and then
fractionated at atmospheric pressure. It was then found to consist of a
mixture of dextro-rotatory and laevo-rotatory hydrocarbons. By repeated
fractional distillation, partly in vacuo, partly at ordinary pressure, it was
possible to separate two isomeric sesquiterpenes, which, after treatment
with aqueous alkali, and distillation over metallic sodium, showed the
following physical constants :—
2
iZeit.f. Kristallogr., 46,3 281. Berichte, 46 (1913), 2026.
Report, April, 1904, 52.
1. 2.
Boiling-point . . . . 247° t o 248° 266°
Optical rotation - 55° 48' + 58° 40'
Semmler and Tobias l consider that eudesmol and globulol are related
in the same manner as \borneol and isoborneol.
PATCHOULI CAMPHOR.
Patchouli camphor, C15H26O, is a solid alcohol found in oil of
patchouli. It is a crystalline body having the following characters:—
Melting-point 56°
Specific rotation . . . . . . . 118° ( i n fused state)
„ „ - 97° 42' (in chloroform)
On dehydration it yields patchoulene, a sesquiterpene which has not
been i investigated.
CUBEB CAMPHOR.
Cubeb camphor, C16H26O, is a sesquiterpene alcohol which is found in
oil of cubebs, especially in old samples of the oil. It is laevo-rotatory,
melts at 68° to 70°, and boils at 248° with decomposition. Nothing is
known of its constitution.
MATICO CAMPHOR.
This sesquiterpene alcohol is found in old samples of Matico leaf oil.
It is a crystalline body, of the formula, C15H26O, melting at 94°, and of
specific rotation — 28*73°, in chloroform solution.
GONOSTYLOL.
This body, Cl5H26O, exists in the oil of Gonystilus Miquelianus. It

Melting point 82°
Specific rotation + 30° (in alcohol)
On dehydration it yields the sesquiterpene, gonostylene.
BETULOL.
Betulol is a sesquiterpene alcohol of the formula C15H24O, found in
oil of birch buds. It can be isolated as a hydrogen phthalate, by warming
a solution of betulol in benzene, with phthalic anhydride. It has. ac-
cording to Soden and Elze, the following characters:—
4 mm. 138° „ 140°
^Berichte, 46(1913), 2030.

It forms an acetic ester boiling at 142° to 144° at 4 mm. pressure, of
specific gravity 0*986.
This alcohol has, however, been quite recently reinvestigated by
Semmler, Jonas, and Eichter.1 They consider that it is a bicyclic sesqui-
terpene alcohol whose characters are as follows:—
Specific gravity at 16° . . . . . 0-9777
Optical rotation - 26*5°
By the action of phosphorus pentachloride it yields betulyl chloride,
a partial molecular rearrangement having apparently taken place, since,
on hydrolysis, it yields a tricyclic betulol which is of particular interest
in that it is the first tricyclic sesquiterpene alcohol of a crystalline char-
acter to be discovered. Its characters are as follows :—
ATKACTYLOL.
Atractylol, C15H26O, is a sesquiterpene alcohol which forms the
principal constituent of the oil of Atractylis ovata. It is a tertiary tri-
cyclic alcohol, having the following characters :—
Melting-point 59°
at 15 mm. 162°
CAPAEKAPIOL.
Caparrapiol, C15H26O, is a sesquiterpene alcohol found in the oil of
Nectandra Caparrapi. It has the following characters :—
GALIPOL.
Galipol is a sesquiterpene alcohol of the formula C15H26O, found in
oil of Angostura. It has the following characters :—
It is a very unstable compound.
MAALI SESQUITERPENE ALCOHOL.
There exists in the essential oil of Maali resin a sesquiterpene
alcohol, C15H26O, corresponding with the sesquiterpene which has al-
ready been described. It has the following characters :—
Melting-point 105°
Boiling-point 260°
Specific rotation + 18° 33'
1
Berichte, 51 (1918), 417.
OPOPONAX SESQUITERPENE ALCOHOL.
A sesquiterpene alcohol, C15H26O, has been extracted by means of
phthalic anhydride from oil of opoponax resin. It distils at 135° to
137° in vacuo (2 imm.), and yields a crystalline phenylurethane. But
as, in spite of repeated crystallisations, it could not be obtained of con-
stant melting-point, it is probable that the substance is a mixture of two
or more alcohols.
4. ESTERS.
It will now be convenient to pass on to that very important group
of compounds, the esters.1 An ester is a combination of an alcohol with
an acid, the combination being associated with the elimination of water.
For example, ordinary ethyl alcohol combines with acetic acid to form
the ester, ethyl acetate, according to the following equation : —
C2H5OH + HOOC . CH3 = C2H5OOC . CH3 + H2O
>-', Alcohol. Acetic Acid. Ethyl Acetate. Water.
The esters play a most important part in the economy of plant life,
and are highly important constituents of numerous essential oils. In-
deed, in many cases they are the dominating constituent, and the oil
may be said to owe its perfume value largely, or in some cases almost
entirely, to the esters it contains.
In dealing with natural perfumes it must be remembered that when
one speaks of, for example, lavender oil containing 35 per cent, of linalyl
acetate, or geranium oil containing 30 per cent, of geranyl tiglate, these
are merely convenient forms of expression, and give a conventional
method of expressing the ester value. For the esters are really merely
calculated from analytical results to a given formula ; whereas, in fact,
in nearly every essential oil containing esters there is a predominating
ester associated with several others in smaller quantities which are im-
possible to separate, and are all expressed in terms of the predominating
ester. The recognition of these subsidiary esters is of the highest im-
portance, since it enables the scientist to prepare the various synthetic
esters and blend them in minute quantities so as to give a long scale of
modified odours. Indeed, the synthetic esters form one of the most
important portions of the price list of the synthetic perfume manu-
facturer. The following are the general methods for the artificial pre-
paration of esters : —
1. By the interaction of the alcohols and acids at an elevated
temperature; the reaction is assisted by the use of some catalytic agent,..
or one which absorbs the water formed, such as dry sodium acetate.
The reaction is rarely complete, however, and may be rendered more
nearly quantitative by 'using the acid anhydride in place of the acid:
itself. The reaction is : —
2R . OH + O = 2E . O . OCE + H2O, when E is an alkyl radicle.
2. By the interaction of the silver salt of the acid with the halogen
derivatives of the alcohol, when the reaction is as follows : —
AgN03 + C.2H6I = C2H6N03 + Agl.
ir
The section on the esters, is, in the main, reproduced from a monograph by the
author in the Perfumery and Essential Oil Record, July, 1913.
VOL. II. 11
3. By acting on the alcohols with acid chlorides, as, for example :—
C2H5OH + C6H5COC1 = C2H5OOC . C6H5 + HC1.
To decide whether an ester is present in a mixture of compounds,
such as a compound synthetic perfume, is a matter of no great difficulty.
A weighed quantity, from 2 to 5 grams, according to the probable amount
of ester present, is dissolved in a very small quantity of alcohol and a
few drops of phenolphthalein solution added. An alcoholic solution of
caustic potash is added drop by drop from a burette until all free acid is
neutralised, as indicated by the liquid assuming an intense red colour.
A measure! quantity of the alcoholic potash solution is then run into the
flask, 25 c.c. of semi-normal alkali usually being sufficient, and an exactly
equal volume run into another flask. The contents of the two flasks
are then boiled for an hour under a reflux condenser, and after an hour
are cooled and the amounts of alkali present determined by means of
semi-normal acid. If the amount of alkali left in the flask containing
the sample is less than that in the " blank " flask, the difference has
been absorbed in saponifying the esters present, breaking them down
into the respective alcohols and acids. So that this consumed alkali is
a measure of the amount of esters present. If an investigation into the
nature of the esters present is necessary, it must be remembered that
after the saponification the alcohol resulting is almost invariably an in-
soluble oil, so that by diluting the reaction mass with water the resulting
alcohol, together with the other compounds of the sample, will float as
an oily layer on the surface of the liquid, and this oily layer must be in-
vestigated in the usual manner. The acid, however, formed by the
decomposition of the ester is usually soluble in the aqueous liquid, which
can be separated from the oil, and the acid distilled off if volatile, or
precipitated as a silver salt if non-volatile.
Some oils consist almost entirely of esters ; for example, those of
<Gaultheria procumbens and Betula lenta contain about 99 per cent, of
methyl salicylate. Bergamot and lavender owe the greater part of their
perfume value to esters of linalol, of which the acetate predominates.
Geranium oil owes its fragrance chiefly to geranyl esters, of which the
tiglate is the chief. On the other hand, oils such as spike lavender,
sandalwood, lemon-grass, and citronella contain but small quantities of
esters, and owe their perfume value to entirely different types of com-
pounds.
ESTERS OF METHYL ALCOHOL.

Methyl alcohol, CH3OH, is the lowest member of the paraffin
alcohols, and although it occurs to a small extent in the free state in a
few essential oils it is not a perfume material at all, and, being very
soluble in water, is entirely washed out of the oil by the distillation
waters. There are, however, a number of highly odorous esters ot
methyl alcohol which are indispensable in synthetic perfumery. These
are as follows :—
Fatty Acid Esters of Methyl Alcohol.—The following esters of methyl
alcohol are commercial products, and all have fruity odours, and are
very suitable for blending with flower oils to impart distinctive secondary
odours to them. They are, generally speaking, very expensive, some
of them costing as much as £12 per lb., but, as only minute quantities
are used, the actual cost is not very material. They may be identified
by the melting-point of the fatty acid yielded on saponification :—
Melting-point of
Fatty Acids.
Methyl caprinate, CH3(CH2)8COoCH« . . 31° to 32°
caprylate, CH3(CH2)6CO2CBU( . 16° „ 17°
heptoate, CH3(CH2)5CO,,CH3 - 10°
laurinate, CH3(CH2)]0Cb2CHn 43° to 44°
nonylate, CH3(CH2)7CCX,CH, " 12° „ 13°
^ Methyl Anisate.—Methyl alcohol forms an ester with anisic acid,

having the formula C6H4(OCH3)(COOCH3). It is a crystalline body
with a fine chervil odour.
Methyl Anthranilate.—This ester is one of extreme importance, and
to it is largely due the possibility of manufacturing artificial neroli oils.
It was discovered as a constituent of neroli oil in 1895 by Walbaum,
and has since been identified in numerous other flower oils, such as
tuberose, ylang-ylang, jasmin, and gardenia. Its value in synthetic per-
fumery is therefore obvious. Its constitution is that of a methyl ester
or ortho-amido-benzoic acid, of the formula here shown :—
CH
1
TTP
HC I r "MTT
^C.NH 2
C . COO . CH,
It is prepared artificially in various ways, most of which depend on the
preliminary synthesis of the acid, which is then converted into its methyl
ester. Anthranilic acid is prepared by the reduction of or£/&0-nitro-benzoic
acid, with tin and hydrochloric acid ; or from phthalimide by treatment
with bromine and caustic potash. The ester is prepared directly from is-
atoicacid (anthranil-carbonic acid), C6H4(CO)(NCO2H), by treatment with
methyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid. Methyl anthranilate is a crystal-
line substance melting at 24° to 25°, whose solutions have a beautiful
blue-violet fluorescence, which is apparent in all oils containing it. It
boils at 132° at 14 mm., and has a specific gravity 1-168. It possesses a
powerful odour similar to that of oil of neroli and similar flower oils,
its identification is easy, since on saponification it yields anthranilic acid,
melting at 144° to 145°. It also yields a picrate, melting.at 104°. It
can be estimated quantitatively by the method proposed by Hesse and
Zeitschel. About 25 to 30 grams of the sample are dissolved in two to
three times its volume of dry ether. It is cooled in a freezing mixture,
and then a mixture of 1 volume of sulphuric acid and 5 volumes of
ether are added slowly, drop by drop, until no further precipitation
takes place. The whole of the methyl anthranilate is thus precipitated
as sulphate. This is collected and washed with ether and weighed, or
it may be titrated with semi-normal potash solution. If p be the weight
of oil employed andw the number of c.c. of semi-normal alkali used, then
the percentage of methyl anthranilate is *
Minute quantities of the ester may be quantitatively determined by
diazotising the ester and observing its colour reaction with either /3-
naphthol or dimethylaniline, against a standard solution of the ester.1
Methyl Benzoate.—This highly odorous ester has the composition
CHgOQC . C6H5. It is present in the oils of ylang-ylang, tuberose, and
cloves, etc., and is also known in commerce as Niobe oil. It is a colour-
less, optically inactive liquid of fragrant odour, and is a necessary con-
stituent of odours of the ylang-ylang type. It is a favourite ingredient
in the perfume known as Peau d'Espagne, and blends well with santal,
musk, geranium, or rose. It can be prepared by passing a current of
dry hydrochloric acid gas into a solution of benzoic acid in methyl
alcohol. The mixture is heated to 100° for several hours, and the re-
sulting ester then precipitated with water. Pure methyl benzoate has
the following characters : It boils at 199° at 760 mm., has a specific
gravity 1*1026, and refractive index 1*5170. It should be free from
chlorine, which may be tested for in the manner described under
benzaldehyde. Methyl benzoate may be characterised by its forming a
crystalline compound with phosphoric acid, which the benzoic esters of
homologous alcohols do not.
Methyl Cinnamate.—This ester, which occurs in various balsamic
products, has the constitution C 6 H 5 . CH : CH . COOCH3. It is an oily
body with a penetrating fruity odour, and is of great value in the pre-
paration of perfumes for such articles as toilet vinegars, smelling salts,
etc. It can be prepared by the condensation of methyl alcohol and
cinnamic acid by means of dry hydrochloric acid in the same way as
methyl benzoate. It forms a low melting crystalline mass having the
Refractive index 1-56816 „ 35°
Boiling-point 256 at 745 mm.
„ 262° to 265° at 760 mm.
Methyl Malonate.—This ester is an artificially prepared body, having
a fruity odour, somewhat similar to the above-described esters of the
fatty acids. It has the formula CH2(CO2CH3)2, and boils at 181°. It
may be prepared by treating potassium cyan-acetate with methyl alcohol
and hydrochloric acid. On saponification with alcoholic potash it yields
malonic acid, which melts at 132°, and serves well for the identification
of the ester.
Methyl Methyl-anthranilate.—This ester is quite similar in all its
characters to methyl anthranilate. It has the constitution—
C6H4(NH . CH3)(CO . OCH3),
that is, one of the hydrogen atoms in the amido group of the anthranilic
acid has been substituted by a methyl group. Its odour and fluorescence
are quite similar to those of methyl anthranilate, and its estimation may
be effected in the manner described for that ester. Its identification is
easy, as it yields methyl-anthranilic acid, melting at 179° on saponifica-
tion. The ester melts at 18*5° to 19*5°, boils at 130° to 131° at 13 mm.,
is optically inactive, and has a specific gravity 1*1238 at 20°, and a re-
fractive index 1*57963.
Methyl Phenyl-acetate. — Phenyl-acetic acid can be prepared by
1
Berichte, 35, 24 (1902); J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1921, 377.
chlorinating toluene, thus converting it into benzyl chloride, which

is then converted into benzyl cyanide, which, on digestion with sul-
phuric acid, yields phenyl-acetic acid or a-toluic acid. This is con-
densed with methyl alcohol, forming the methyl ester of the formula
C6H5. CH 2 . COOCH3. It has a powerful " honey" odour, and is very
useful in scent bases of this type.
Methyl Phenyl-propionate.—Phenyl-propionic acid, also known as
hydrocinnamic acid, forms a methyl ester of the formula
C,H5. CH 2 . CH2COO . CH3.
The acid is obtained by the reduction of cinnamic acid by means of
sodium amalgam. The acid is then esterified by the condensing action
of a mineral acid in methyl alcohol solution. The ester is an oil of very
sweet oiour, and is very useful for flower bouquets.
Methyl Salicylate.—This ester is practically identical with oil of winter-
green or oil of sweet birch, both of which contain about 99 per cent, of
the ester. It is also present in numerous other plants, and its artificial
production is carried out on a very large scale. The artificial ester is
quite suitable for replacing the natural oil, and is used to a very large
extent for flavouring tooth powders, pastes, and washes, being exceed-
ingly popular in America. The ester has the constitution
CtfH4(OH)(COOCH8).
The best method for producing it artificially is to condense salicylic
acid and methyl alcohol by means of sulphuric acid. It is a colourless
oil, optically inactive, and possessing an intense wintergreen odour. It
Specificgravity at 0° . 1-1969
„ ,, 16° 1-1819
Boiling-point 224°
Melting-point - 8° to - 9°
Solubility . 1 in 6 to 8 volumes of 70 per cent, alcohol
ESTERS OF ETHYL ALCOHOL.

Ethyl Acetate.—This ester does not play a very important role in
synthetic perfumery, but its intensely fruity odour, together with the
fact that it is found naturally in the perfume of the magnolia gives it
certain possibilities, if used in very minute quantities. It is an oil of
the formula CH3COO . C2H5. It boils at 76°, and has a specific gravity
0'908. It is easily soluble in the usual organic solvents, and fairly
soluble in water.
Ethyl Anisate.—Very similar to the methyl ester of anisic acid is its
ethyl ester. This is a crystalline compound of the formula
C6H4(OCH3)(COOC2H,,)
with a fine odour of chervil.
Ethyl Anthranilate.—This ester, of the formula
C 6 H 4 . (NH2)(COOC2H6),
is a liquid boiling at 260°. It can be prepared by the action of hydro-
chloric acid and ethyl alcohol on isatoic acid. It has the characteristic
neroli odour possessed by the methyl ester, but is both sweeter and
softer in perfume, and does not discolour so readily as the methyl ester.
Ethyl Benzoate.—This ester has not been found, so far, to occur
naturally in essential oils. It has, however, been prepared by synthetic
processes, for example, by condensing ethyl alcohol with ben zoic acid
by means of dry hydrochloric acid gas. Its odour is very similar to
that of methyl benzoate (q.v.), but not quite so strong. It is an oil of
specific gravity 1*0510, refractive index 1*5055, and boiling-point 213°
at 745 mm. It is soluble in two volumes of 70 per cent, alcohol.
Ethyl Butyrate.—The butyric ester of ethyl alcohol has the formula
CH3(CH2)2COO. C2H5.
It is a liquid boiling at 121°, and has a very fruity odour, very similar
to that of the pine apple.
Ethyl Valeridnate.—This ester, C4H9COOC2H5, is an oil with a pine-
apple odour. Its specific gravity is 0-894, and" boiling-point about 133°.
Ethyl Heptoate.—This ester, which has the formula
CH8(CH2)5COO . C2H5,
is also known as " oenanthylic ether," and is of a fragrant odour, re-
calling that of the secondary constituents of brandy. It is used and
sold as an artificial oil of cognac. It is an oil boiling at 187° to 188°.
Ethyl Caprylate.—This ester is an oil reminding one of the secondary
products of fermentation. It boils with decomposition at 275° to 290°,
and has the formula CH3(CH2)6COOC2H5.
Ethyl Cinnamate.—The cinnamic ester of ethyl alcohol is a natural
constituent of a few essential oils, including camphor oil and storax. It
is formed synthetically by condensing cinnamic acid and ethyl alcohol
by dry hydrochloric acid gas. It has a soft and sweet odour, and is
particularly suitable for blending in soap perfumes. It is an oil at
ordinary temperatures, melting at 12°, and boiling at 271°. Its specific
gravity is 1*0546, and its refractive index 1*5590.
Ethyl Laurinate.—The laurinic ester of ethyl alcohol has also, quite
recently, come into rogue in synthetic perfumery. It is an oil of
peculiar fruity odour, intensely strong, having the constitution
CH3(CH2)10COOC2H5.
It boils at 269°.
Ethyl Malonate.—Ethyl malonate is not a member of the paraffinoid
acid esters, but is sufficiently nearly related to this series to be included
here as a matter of convenience. It is of considerable value in modify-
ing flower odours, having a more or less characteristic apple odour, but
of a much sweeter type than the valerianic ester perfume. It is an oil
of specific gravity 1*068, and boils at 198°.
Ethyl Myristinate.—This is the highest ester of the series that is of
any practical value in perfumery. It is an intensely odorous oil, melt-
ing at 10° to 11° and boiling at 295°. Its constitution is
CH3(CH2)12COOC2H5.
Ethyl Nonylate.—This ester has, during the past year or two, been
recognised as having a most useful odour for modifying flower bouquets.
It is a fruity oil boiling at 227° to 228°, and having the constitution
CH3(CH2)7COOC2H5.
Ethyl Octylate.—This ester is a fruity oil boiling at 207° to 208°. It
has the formula CH3(C . H2)6COOC2H6.
Ethyl Phenyl-acetate.—This ester has the formula
C 6 H f> . CH 2 . COOC2H5.
It is very similar in odour and use to methyl phenyl-acetate.
Ethyl Salicylate.—The ethyl ester of salicylic acid resembles the
lower homologue, methyl salicylate, in its general characters and per-
fume value. It is an oil of specific gravity 1-1372, refractive index
1*52338, and optically inactive. It boils at 234°. It solidifies at low
temperatures, and melts at + 1-3°.
ESTERS OF AMYL ALCOHOL.
Amyl Acetate.—This is, with the exception of amyl formate, which
is not of practical importance, the simplest possible ester of amyl alcohol,
and has the formula CH 3 . COO . C5H11. It is a fruity oil, with a strong
odour resembling that ot the pear, and is known as art ficial oil of pear.
It is prepared on a very large scale by, for example, treating 100 parts
of dry sodium acetate, 100 parts of amyl alcohol, and 130 parts of
sulphuric acid for twelve hours at ordinary temperature, and then dis-
tilling off the ester. It has a specific gravity 0'876, and boils at 138°.
The alcohol in this ester is not normal amyl alcohol, but isoamyl
alcohol.
Amyl Valerianate.—This ester is an oil of strong apple odour, and is
used for the preparation of cider essence. Its formula is C5HU . C5H9O2.
Amyl Benzoate.—This ester has the formula C5Hn. (O2C)(C6H5). It
is one of the best fixatives known, and has a slight but distinct amber
odour. It is prepared by condensing amyl alcohol and ben zoic acid
with dry hydrochloric acid âs.
Amyl Heptylate.—This ester is one of the newest synthetic odours,
and is also one of the very expensive ones. It has the formula
CH3(CH2)r)COOCr)H11, and is an oil of powerful fruity odour. It can
be identified by saponifying it and examining the resulting fatty acid,
which should melt at - 10° and boil at 223°.
Amyl Salicylate.—All the perfumes of the orchid type, and many of
the Trefie variety, have amyl salicylate as one of their most important
bases. The ester is known under the names orchidee, trefle or trefoil,
and artificial orchid essence. It is used to a considerable extent in
artificial perfumery. It is a colourless liquid of the formula
Q,Hn(02C)(OH)(C6H4),
boiling at 276° to 277° at 760 mm., or at 151° to 152° at 15 mm. Its
specific gravity is about 1*052, and its refractive index is about T5055.
It is dextro-rotatory, about + 2°. It is easily identified as on saponifica-
tion it yields the characteristic odour of amyl alcohol, and salicylic acid,
which can easily be identified by the usual reactions and by its melting-
point.
ESTERS OF HIGHER FATTY ALCOHOLS.
Heptyl Heptoate.—This is one of the most recent introductions to
synthetic perfumery and one of the most expensive. It has the formula
CH3(CH2)5OOC . (CH2)5CH3. It has a fine, powerful, fruity odour.
Hexyl Acetate.—Hexyl acetate, CH3(CH2)5OOC . CH3 is an ester
found naturally in the oil of Heraclwim giganteum. It has a fruity
odour, and boils at 169° to 170°. Its specific gravity is 0'890 at 10°.
Hexyl Butyrate.—This ester is also a powerful fruit oil, and boils

at 205°.
Octyl Acetate.—This ester has the formula CH3(CH2)7. OOC . CH3.
It is an oil boiling at 207°, and has a distinct orange odour. Its specific
gravity is 0*885.
Octyl Butyrate.—This occurs naturally in a few essential oils. It is
an oil boiling at 244°. and having a strong, fruity odour. Its formula
is CH3(CH2)7OO . C . (CH2)2,CH3.
Octyl Heptylate.—This is the highest ester of the series that is found
to be useful as a perfume. It has the formula
CH3(CH2)7OOC(CH2)5CH3.
THE GERANYL ESTEKS.

The esters belonging to the geraniol series of alcohols are absolutely
indispensable in the manufacture of artificial perfumes. When it is
remembered that these esters are present in such oils as bergamot, rose,
geranium, lavender, petit-grain, neroli, and numerous other sweet-
smelling essential oils, it will readily be seen how useful they are in
building up similar perfumes artificially.
Geranyl Formate.—The lowest of the fatty acids, formic acid, forms
an ester with geraniol, having the constitution C10H17. OOC . H. It
has not, apparently, been found in nature, but it is manufactured by
allowing anhydrous formic acid to react with geraniol in the presence
of a little mineral acid to act as a condensing agent. It is an ester of
a sweet rose-geranium type, boiling at 113° to 114° at 15 mm. It is
not possible to manufacture it quite pure on a commercial scale, and
the best samples to bs met with contain about 92 per cent, of true ester.
Such samples have a specific gravity between 0*924 and 0*926 at 15°,
are optically inactive, have a refractive index 1*4640 to 1*4660, and are
soluble in 10 volumes of 70 per cent, alcohol. To decide on the quality
of a given sample, these characters should be determined and a saponifica-
tion performed quantitatively. At least 90 per cent, of geranyl formate
should be indicated. The geraniol obtained in the saponification process
should be separated, washed with water, and examined. It should have
the general characters given under the alcohol geraniol above.
Geranyl Acetate.—The acetic ester of geraniol having the formula
C10H17. OOC . CH3 is probably the most largely employed of the series.
It is found naturally in palmarosa oil, lemon-grass oil, sassafras leaf oil,
geranium oil, petit-grain oil, neroli oil, coriander oil, lavender oil, and
numerous others. It is best prepared artificially by the action of acetic
* anhydride on geraniol in the presence of anhydrous sodium acetate,
which assists the reaction materially. Geranyl acetate has an exceed-
ingly sweet odour of great fragrance. Its delicate and distinctive
perfume makes it invaluable for the preparation of the various rose
odours, and it is also very useful in the perfumes of the ylang-ylang
and orange flower type. In its pure state it has the following char-
acters :—
Specific gravity 0*9388 at 0°, or 0*9174 at 15°
Boiling-point at 14'5 mm. . . . 130° to 130'5°
,, „ 760 „ . . . 242° „ 245°
In the manufacture of geranyl acetate on a commercial scale it would

not pay to make it absolutely pure, so that samples as met with in the
ordinary way are not quite pure geranyl acetate. The acetylisation
process, by which esters are made, is not always a quantitative one,
and in some cases it is impossible to acetylate an alcohol to its full
theoretical extent. Commercial samples, however, contain 95 per cent.
or more of true ester, and should have the following characters :—
Specific gravity at 15° 0*910 to O918
Optical activity . . . . . . . 0°
Eefractive index 1-4617 to 1-4662
it should be soluble in 7 to 10 volumes of 70 per cent, alcohol; it should
contain at least 95 per cent, of true ester.
Geranyl Bitty rate.—This ester of the formula C10H17. OOC(CH2)2CH3
is an oil having a fine rose odour, distinct from the esters of the lower
fatty acids, and is largely employed in perfuming soaps, and in com-
pounding artificial otto of rose. It can be prepared by heating geraniol
with butyryl chloride in the presence of anhydrous pyridine, and is an
oil boiling at 142° to 143° at 13 mm. pressure.
Geranyl Isobutyrate.—This ester is isomeric with the last described,
and is quite similar in character, but with a slightly different odour.
Its formula is C10H17. OOC(CH)(CH3)2, and it is an oil which boils at
135° to 137° at 13 mm. pressure.
Geranyl Isovalerianate.—This ester has the constitution
C10H1702C(CH2)(CH)(CH3)2.
The rose odour is still further modified by the presence of the five carbon
acid radicle, and judicious blending of the various geranyl esters is
•capable of giving numerous characteristic bouquets to the various rose
odours. This ester boils at 135° to 138° at 10 mm. pressure.
LINALYL ESTERS.
Linalyl Formate.—The formic acid ester of linalol, C10H17OOCH3, has
a distinctive odour somewhat resembling that of the acetate. It is an
oil boiling at 189° to 192°, and is prepared by treating linalol with formic
acid, but the reaction is not complete and commercial samples are never
pure esters.
Linalyl Acetate.—Linalyl acetate is an ester of extreme value in the
reproduction of bergamot and lavender odours, since the natural ester
is the characteristic odour bearer of the former, and to a large extent of
the latter. It also occurs in ylang-ylang oil, petit-grain oil, neroli oil,
jasmin oil, gardenia oil, and many others. As the alcohol linalol is very
susceptible to alteration under the influence of heat or chemicals, it is
not practicable to prepare anything like pure linalyl acetate by the usual
process of acetylation. Tiemann has prepared it in a pure condition by
the interaction of linalol sodium and acetic anhydride. Linalyl acetate
is a colourless oil, with a very characteristic odour of bergamot, and is
optically active in the same sense as the linalol from which it has been
prepared. It has the formula C10H17OOC . CH3, and when pure boils
at 96-5° to 97° at a pressure of 10 mm., or 115° to 116° at 25 mm.
pressure. At atmospheric pressure it boils at about 220° with decom-
position. Its specific gravity is 0*913 and optical rotation about + 6° or
- 6°. The preparation yielding these figures contained 97*6 per cent.
of true linalyl acetate. Commercial specimens of the best make have
Refractive index at 20° 1-4500 ,, 1-4550
Ester value 88 to 95 per cent.
This ester is indispensable in the reproduction of numerous flower oils
in addition, of course, to artificial bergamot oil.
Linalyl Propionate.—This ester is also produced by condensing the
free alcohol and the free acid by means of sulphuric acid. It has a
somewhat fruity odour recalling that of bergamot, and is especially suit-
able for perfumes of the lily of the valley type. It is a colourless oil,,
boiling at 115° at 10 mm. pressure.
Linalyl Butyrate.—The butyric ester of linalol has the formula,.
C10H17OOC . CH 2 . CH2CH3. It resembles geranyl butyrate in odour,
but is somewhat heavier. It is most useful for imparting fruity odours
to flower perfumes. It is prepared by condensing the alcohol and the
acid by means of sulphuric acid.
BENZYL ESTERS.
Benzyl Acetate.—This ester is a constituent of the oils of jasmin,
ylang-ylang, and similar flower oils. It has not a very intense odour,
but is essential to the successful production of such perfumes as artificial
jasmin. It has the formula C 6 H 5 . CH 2 . O . OCCH3. It is a colourless
oil, boiling at 206° at ordinary pressure, and has a specific gravity
1-0570 at 16° and a refractive index 1-5034. The propionic ester has
the formula C6H5CH2OOCCH2CH3, and closely resembles the acetate
in odour.
Benzyl Benzoate.—This ester is a constituent of balsam of Peru, and
also occurs in tuberose and ylang-ylang oils. It is prepared on a very
large scale, as it has the extra virtue of beinsf one of the best fixers of
odours, and a remarkably good solvent for artificial musk, so that it
serves a triple purpose of imparting its own delicate odour to the blend,
of acting as a vehicle for the otherwise poorly soluble musk, and acting
as a good fixer. A method of preparing it in an almost pure condition
is to dissolve sodium in benzyl alcohol and then add benzoic aldehyde,
and then heat for a day in a water-bath. The mixture is then acidified
with acetic acid and the benzyl benzoate precipitated with water. It
forms a colourless oil, which, when free from chlorine, does not darken,
having a slight, but sweet, odour. It is, when absolutely pure, a solid,
melting at 21°, and boiling at 323° to 324°, and having a refractive index
1-5681 at 21°, and a specific gravity 1*1224. The best commercial
samples are liquid at the ordinary temperature, and have the following
characters:—
Borling-point at 760° about 310° to 320°
If cooled to a very low temperature crystallisation will take place,
and the ester then melts at 20° to 210.1
1
According to Ellis, the melting-point is 19-5°. The specimen was partially
melted and the liquid poured off three times, and the product was twice recrystallised
from ether. (Private communication from the laboratories of Messrs. A. Boake,
Roberts, & Co., Ltd.).
Benzyl Cinnamate.—The cinnamic acid ester of benzyl alcohol is a
natural constituent of storax, tolu, and Peru balsams. It is a crystalline
substance with a characteristic sweet balsamic odour. It may be
prepared by heating sodium cinnamate, alcohol, and benzyl chloride
together under a reflux conjdenser. It is a useful ester where a sweet
balsamic odour is required to be introduced into a perfume, especially
of the heavy type. It forms white, glistening prisms, which melt at 39°,
and decompose when heated to 350°. The best commercial specimens
• have the following characters :—
Boiling-point at 5 mm 195° „ 200°
or under atmospheric pressure at 335° to 340° with decomposition;
ester value, 96 to 98 per cent.; it is soluble in 1 volume of 95 per cent.
alcohol.
BORNYL ESTERS.
# Bornyl Formate.—This ester occurs naturally. It can be prepared
synthetically by the action of anhydrous formic acid on borneol in the
presence of a small amount of a mineral acid. It has a fragrant odour,
and is useful in blending with borneol itself. Its optical rotation
depends on that of the borneol from which it has been prepared.
Dextro-rotatory bornyl formate has, in the purest state in which it has
been prepared, the following characters :—
at 15 mm. pressure 98° ,, 99°
The purest laevo-bornyl formate examined had a specific gravity
1*016, optical rotation — 48° 56', refractive index 1'47121, and boiling-
point 97° at 15 mm. pressure. The ester has the constitution
C10H17. OOCH.
Bornyl Acetate.—The acetic acid ester is the most important of the
series. It is a constituent of pine-needle and rosemary oils, and has a
most fragrant and refreshing odour. It is prepared artificially by the
action of acetic anhydride on borneol, in the presence of sodium acetate,
or by the condensation of borneol with glacial acetic acid in the presence
of a small amount of a mineral acid. It is absolutely necessary in the
reproduction of any pine odour. It is a crystalline body, crystallising
from petroleum ether in rhombic hemihedric crystals melting at 29°.
The optical activity depends on that of the borneol from which it has
been prepared. It has the following characters :—
Specific gravity . . . . 0-991
Optical rotation + or — abont 40°
Kefractive index 1-4650 to 1-4665
Boiling-point at 10 mm. pressure about 98°
Melting-point . . . . 29°
It is soluble in 3 volumes of 70 per cent, alcohol. The commercial
product is usually a mixture of dextro-rotatory and laevo-rotatory bornyl
acetate. It should contain not less than 98 per cent, of ester, and
should have a specific gravity from O988 to 0*992; and it should melt
at about 29°. Bornyl acetate has the constitution C10H17OOC. CH3.
It can be kept for a long time in a state of superfusion when it has
once been liquefied.
Bornyl Butyrate.—The next higher ester of borneol is the butyrate.
It is a similar camphoraceous ester, having the formula
C10H17OOC. CH2CH2CH3
and the following characters :—
Boiling-point at 10 mm. pressure 120° to 121°
Specific gravity . . . . . . . . . 0 966|
It usually contains 98 to 99 per cent, of true ester.

Bornyl Isovalerianate.—This is the highest ester of borneol met with
in commerce. It has the composition C10H17OOC . CH 2 . CH : (CH3)2.
It occurs naturally in several essential oils, and is prepared artificially
by esterifying borneol with anhydrous isovalerianic acid. It is a colour-
less oil, boiling at 255° to 260°, and has a specific gravity of 0*956. It is
an ester, like terpinyl acetate, that requires two hours' saponification,
and it also requires a large excess of alkali. Good commercial specimens
Specific gravity 0'953 to 0*956
Optical rotation about - 35°
Refractive index 1-4620 to 1*4635
Boiling-point at 10 mm. pressure . . . . 128° „ 130°
It has a strong camphoraceous odour.
Bornyl Propionate.—The propionic acid ester of borneol closely
resembles the acetic ester, but as is, of course, usual in homologous
series, its odour is slightly different. It has the formula
C10H17OOC. CH2CH3,
and has the following characters:—
Optical rotation . . . . . . . + or - about 25°
Boiling-point at 10 mm. pressure . .' . 109° to 110°
It usually contains 95 to 97 per cent, of true ester.
CITRONELLYL ESTERS.
Citronellyl Formate.—Citronellyl formate, C10H19O . OCH, is an arti-

ficial ester resulting from the action of concentrated formic acid on
'citronellol. It is an easily decomposed ester which is, on a commercial
scale, rarely produced of more than 90 to 93 per cent, strength. Such
commercial specimens have the following characters :—
Optical rotation - 1° to - 1° 30'
Boiling-point about 100° at 10 mm.
True ester . 90 to 93 per cent.
Citronellyl Acetate.—The odour of the acetic ester of citronellol
recalls to some extent that of bergamot. It is a natural constituent of
geranium oil, and is useful in small amounts for blending with rose and
geranium odours. It is prepared by the action of acetic anhydride on
citronellol. When pure it has the following characters :—
Optical rotation about + 2° 30' to - 2° 30'
Refractive index . . . . . . 1*4:456
Boiling-point at 15 mm. pressure . . 119° to 121°
The best commercial samples vary in their characters within very
narrow limits, which should be as follows:—
Specific gravity 0'894 to 0'902
Optical rotation - 2° „ + 2°
Refractive index 1-4465 „ 1-4490
The odour of the ester varies slightly, according as it is made from

the dextro-rotatory or the laevo-rotatory variety of the alcohol. That
of the former is rather fuller and deeper in its rose odour than that
of the latter. Both esters blend excellently with the corresponding
citronellols, and are very useful in preparing synthetic otto of rose.
The formula of this ester is C10H19OOC . CH3.
ClNNAMYL ESTEES.
Cinnamyl Propionate.—The propionic acid ester has a distinct grape-

like odour, and is very useful for fruit and flower blends. It has the
constitution C6H5. CH : CH . CH2OOC . CH 2 . CH3.
Cinnamyl Butyrate.—This ester has the formula
C6H5. CH : CH. CH2OOC(CH2)2CH3.
It has a characteristic fruity odour, and is most useful for imparting a
fruity bouquet to a flower perfume, but must be used in small quantities.
Cinnamyl Cinnamate.—This ester is known as styracin, and is found
in storax and other balsamic products, and possibly also hi oil of hya-
cinths. It has the constitution
C 6 H 5 . CH : CH . COOCH2CH : CH. C6H5.
It has an odour resembling that of benzyl cinnamate. It forms crystals
melting at 44°. It yields a characteristic dibromide, melting at 151°,
which serves to characterise this ester.
HOMOLINALOL ESTER.
Homolinalyl Acetate.—This body has the constitution CUH19OOCCH3,
and is prepared by the action of homolinalol-sodium on acetyl chloride,
or by the action of acetic anhydride on homolinalol. It is an oil with
a marked bergamot odour, similar to that of linalyl acetate, but not
identical with it. It boils at 111° to 117° at 15 mm.
TERPINYL ESTERS.
Terpinyl Formate.—The formic acid ester of terpineol, C10H17OOCH,
occurs naturally in Ceylon cardamom oil. It is prepared artificially by
the action of formic acid on terpineol, but on a commercial scale is pre-
pared most economically by the action, for a week, of anhydrous formic
acid on turpentine oil. It has a fragrant odour, resembling, but superior
to, that of geranyl formate. It has the following characters :—
Specific gravity 0'99S
Specific rotation 4- or - 69°
Terpinyl Acetate.—The acetic acid ester of terpirieol is also a natural
ester. It nas a refreshing odour, and is often described as being a ber-
gamot and lavender substitute. The writer, however, considers this
description unjustifiable, and that it is really due to the fact that it is so
often used and recommended as an adulterant for these two essential
oils. Terpinyl acetate is<a colourless oil, of the formula
C10H17OOC. CH3,
and can be prepared by various methods. If terpineol be heated
with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate it is largely converted into
terpinyl acetate, but the yield never exceeds about 84 per cent. It can
be obtained by heating pinene with excess of acetic acid for sixty-four
hours. It is either dextro- or laevo-rotatory or inactive. A sample pre-
pared by heating limonene with acetic acid gave the following values :—
Boiling-point at 40 mm. pressure 140°
The best commercial samples are optically inactive, and have the
Specific gravity . . 0-955 to 0-965
Optical rotation practically nil
Ester content 86 to 92 per cent.
It is soluble in about 5 volumes of 70 per cent, alcohol. This ester has
the character of being saponified much more slowly than most other
esters, so that in any determination in which it is involved it is necessary
to saponify the sample for two hours before it is safe to consider the re-
action complete. This fact also assists in determining whether terpinyl
acetate is present as an adulterant in natural essential oils, for if the
saponification value as determined by thirty minutes' saponification is
materially lower than that as determined by a two hours' saponification,
it may be fairly safely inferred that terpinyl acetate or some similar ester
is present.
Terpinyl Propionate.—This ester, which has the formula
C10H17OOC . CH 2 . GH3,
is regarded as an excellent lavender substitute—that is, for use in con-
junction with other bodies. By many perfumers it is regarded as the
best lavender odour\existing amongst synthetic perfumes. It is a colour-
less oil of sweet and fragrant odour, and is very lasting in its effects.
Terpinyl Cinnamate.—Cinnamic acid forms an ester with terpineol,
which has an indescribable odour, but which is exceedingly sweet. It
is a useful oil to blend with lilac and similar odours. It is a heavy oil
of the constitution C10H17OOC . CH : CH . C6H,.
PHENYL-ETHYL ESTEKS.
Phenyl-ethyl Acetate.—Phenyl-ethyl alcohol yields a series of highly
aromatic esters. That of acetic acid has the formula
C6H5. C 2 H 4 . OOC . CH3.
Its odour is usually described as such as to give fine " leaf" effects if
used properly. It is a liquid boiling at 232°, of specific gravity 1*038.
Phenyl-ethyl Propionate.—The propionic ester of phenyl-ethyl alcohol
has the formula CQH5. C 2 H 4 . OOC . CH2CH3. It has a pronounced
rose odour, differing slightly from that of the acetic ester. It is very
useful in blending rose odours.
VARIOUS ESTEKS.
Phenyl-propyl Cinnamate.—This ester occurs in storax, and has a
perfume res mbling that balsamic substance. It has the formula
C6H5CH,. CH2CH2OOC. CH : CH . C6H5.
It is a powerful fixative as well as being useful on account of its rich,
heavy odour.
Pinenyl Acetate.—By passing nitrous fumes into well-cooled pinene
and steam-distilling the reaction product, an alcohol, pinenol, is obtained.
It has the formula C10H15OH. It can be acetylated, and the resulting
acetate has the formula C10H15—OOCCH3. It has an odour resembling
that of lavender oil. It boils at 150°. at a pressure of 40 mm.
Pinoglycyl Acetate.—This ester can be prepared by the direct acetyla-
tion of pinoglycol, C10H1(.O(OH)2, an alcohol resulting from the oxida-
.tion of pinol with permanganate of potassium. It can also be prepared
from pinol dibromide and acetate of silver. It is an ester with an ex-
cellent fruity odour, of the formula C10H1GO(C2H3O2)2, melting at 97° to
98°, and boiling at 155° at 20 mm. pressure, or at 127° at 13 mm.
Pinolglycyl Propionate.—This ester, of the formula C10H16O(C3H5O2)2,
is a quite similar ester, prepared in a similar manner. It also has a
fine fruity odour.
Styrolyl Acetate.—Styrolene alcohol, or phenyl-ethyl glycol, is an
alcohol prepared from styrolene dibromide by the action of caustic
potash. It can be esterified, and forms an acetic ester of the formula
€6H5. CH(OH)CH2 . OOC . CH3. It is an ester with a fine flower odour,
which has been described as "fragrant and dreamy". It is generally
stated by those who have used it that it is indispensable in the prepara-
tion of fine flower bouquets with a jasmin odour.
Styrolyl Propionate.—This body, having the formula
C6H5CH(OH)CH2OOC . CH2CH3,
is very similar to the acetate, and also has a fine flower odour which is
very lasting and powerful.
Styrolyl Valerianate.—The valerianic ester of styrolol has the formula
C6H5CH(OH)CH2OOC . CH 2 . CH(CH3)2. It has a most powerful odour
resembling jasmin and narcissus, and is very useful for the preparation
of these odours. It is very powerful in odour, and care is required in
its use, or the effects will be spoiled by a too powerful odour.
MENTHYL ESTERS.
Menthyl Acetate.—This ester, of the formula CH 3 . CO . OC10H19, is
present in oil of peppermint, its odour being an important character-
istic of that oil. It can be prepared by heating menthol with acetic
anhydride and sodium acetate. Its characters are as follows:—
9O°
Specific gravity at ri 0-925
„ 15° 0-9298
Menthyl Isovalerianate.—This ester, having the formula
C4H9COO . C10H19,
exists naturally in American oil of peppermint. It can be prepared
artificially by boiling menthol with isovalerianic acid and sodium
acetate. It is a very stable ester and requires a considerable excess of
alkali, and at least two hours boiling, for complete saponification. It
Specific gravity 0'907 to 0-908
METHYL METHOXYRESORCYLATE AND METHYL METHOXYSALICYLATE.

Two glucosides have been separated from the roots of Primula
officinalis by Goris, Mascre, and Vischniac,1 which have been termed
primeverin and primulaverin, and which are both hydrolysed, yielding
the two constituents of the essential oil.
Primaverin has the formula C20H28O13 and melts at 206°, and on
hydrolysis yields sugars and the methyl ester of /?-methoxyresorcylic
acid, of the formula
C . CO . O . CH3
H . C/\C . OH
H.C CH
C . O . CH3
This is the solid constituent of the essential oil, melting at 49°. It
has been, described by Mutschler 2 as primula camphor.
Primulaverin, C20H28O13, melts at 163°, and on hydrolysis yields the
liquid portion of the essential oil, which is the methyl ester of w-meth-
oxysalicylic acid, of the formula
C . CO . O . CH
H. . OH
CH,. O. ,CH
.H
1
2
Roure-Bertrand Fils, Bulletin, October, 1912, 3.
Annalen, 185 (1877), 222.
5. ALDEHYDES.
A number of the aldehydes, both of the aliphatic and aromatic series,
are of the highest importance in synthetic perfumery. The relationship
existing between alcohols, aldehydes, and acids is shown by the following
example:—
CH3. CH2OH CH3 . CO . H CH3CO . OH
Ethyl alcohol Ethyl aldehyde Acetic acid
Generally speaking, aldehydes are prepared by the following methodr

inter alia: (1) Oxidation of primary alcohols, (2) by the dry distillation
of a mixture of the calcium or barium salts of two monobasic fatty acids.
For the approximate determination of aldehydes, an absorption process
of shaking with a solution of either neutral or acid sulphite of sodium
is most generally used. Five or 10 c.c. of the oil to be examined are
shaken in a flask holding about 150 c.c. with about 100 c.c. of 30 per
cent, solution of sodium bisulphite, the flask being kept in a water-bath
for one to three hours as may be necessary. The agitation is repeated
frequently, and when absorption is complete, the oil is driven up into
the graduated neck of the flask by adding more of the bisulphite solu-
"tion, and the unabsorbed oil can be measured, the remainder represent-
ing the aldehyde (or ketone). The aldehyde citral in small quantities is
better determined by means of hydroxylamine. The determination of
aldehydes will be dealt with in a subsequent chapter. The following are
the principal synthetic or isolated aldehydes which will require descrip-
tion: (1) The aldehydes of the fatty series. (2) The aldehydes of the
geraniol series. (3) The aldehydes of the aromatic series. The use of
the higher aldehydes of the fatty series has during the past year or two
become a matter of some importance to the synthetic perfumer. These
aldehydes possess intensely powerful odours, and must be used in very
minute quantities lor they will spoil any perfume in which they are used.
The following are the general methods by which the higher fatty
aldehydes may be produced.
1. The corresponding alcohol may be oxidised :—
E . CH2OH + O2 = R . CHO . + H2O.
2. The barium or calcium salt of the corresponding acid may be
distilled with barium formate :—
(K . COO)2Ba + (H . COO)2Ba = 2BaCO3 + 2E . CHO.
Schimmel & Co. 2 have prepared a number of fatty aldehydes by
a modification of this reaction. They distilled mixtures of barium
formate with the barium salt of the corresponding acid, in a vacuum, as
it was well known that this increases the yield when working with the
higher aldehydes, which volatilise with difficulty.
3. Darzens 3 claims a method in which a ketone is condensed with1
chloracetic-ether in the presence of an alkaline condensing agent. For
example, acetone reacts with chloracetic-ether as follows:—
2
iRadcliffe, P. and E.O.R.,
8
1917, 65. D.R.P., 126, 736 of 1902.
Ibid., 174, 239, and 174, 279.
VOL. II. 12
Cl . CH2 . COOG,H,
" =
C— CH . COOC2H5 + HCI
o
^/
The resulting product is then hydrolysed, giving—
O
and, finally, this compound on heating evolves carbon dioxide and
undergoes a slight molecular change, yielding a butyric aldehyde of the
formula:—
CH,\r/H
CH3/U\CHO + CO,
4. Aldehydes are also formed by the action of nascent hydrogen
(sodium amalgam) upon the chlorides of acid radicles or their oxides
(the acid anhydrides):—
(1) CH3COC1 + 2H = CH 3 . CHO + HCI
(2) (CH 3 . CO),O + 4H = 2CH 3 . CHO + H 2 O
5. Aldehydes are formed by the reduction of the ester of the corre-
sponding acid to the alcohol, and then oxidising the alcohol with heated
copper as catalyst. It is well known that when primary alcohols in the
gaseous state are passed over finely-divided copper dust, obtained by
reduction of copper oxide, at 250° to 400°, they yield hydrogen, and
aldehydes or ketones respectively.
Aldehydes are usually most easily separated from the essential oils
in which they occur, by means of acid sodium sulphite. The oil—or
the suitable fraction thereof—is well shaken for a time varying accord-
ing to the nature of the aldehyde, with an equal volume of a saturated
solution of sodium bisulphite, with a little ether added, in order to hinder
the non-aldehydic portion of the oil from becoming occluded in the
crystals of the bisulphite compound of the aldehyde. These crystals are
separated and washed well with ether They are then decomposed by
warming with a solution of sodium carbonate, and the regenerated
aldehyde is extracted by means of ether.
Neuberg and Tiemann l propose the following method, depending
on the fact that most aldehydes form a compound with thiosemi-car-
bazide. The oil containing aldehyde is heated in alcoholic solution on
a water-bath, with thiosemi-carbazide. Various salts of the heavy
metals will form insoluble precipitates with the thiosemi-carbazone
formed, and such precipitate is dissolved in alcohol, and a current of
hydrogen sulphide passed through until the metal is precipitated, leaving
the thiosemi-carbazone dissolved in the alcohol.
The following are the most effective compounds to prepare for the
identification of an aldehyde.
Semi-carbazones.—Most aldehydes react with semi-carbazide, forming
l
Berichte (1902), xxxv., 2049.
condensation products known as semi-carbazones, which are usually oi:

a well-defined crystalline character with a sharp melting-point, the
reaction taking place is as follows :—
B.CHO + NH 2 . NH . CO . NH2 = E . CH : N . NH . CO . NH2 + H2O.
Aldehyde. Semi-carbazide. ~ Semi-carbazone.
They are usually best obtained by dissolving the aldehyde in alcohol,
and adding excess of an equimolecular mixture of semi-carbazide hydro-
chloride, and acetate of sodium. The mixture is allowed to stand for
some time and the semi-carbazone then precipitated by the addition of
water. Some semi-carbazones are more easily prepared by substituting
free acetic acid (glacial) for the acetate of sodium. Semi-carbazones are
best recrystallised from hot methyl alcohol.
Oximes.—Most aldehydes yield a condensation product with hydroxyl-
amine, according to the equation :—
E . CHO + NH 2 . OH - E . CH : NOH + H2O.
Aldehyde. Hydroxylamine. Oxime.
To obtain the oximes, equimolecular quantities of the aldehyde and
hydroxylamine are heated in alcoholic solution on the water-bath for
thirty to sixty minutes. The hydroxylamine is best added in the form
of hydroxylamine hydrochloride, and the necessary amount of alcoholic
solution of potash added to liberate the hydroxylamine. Most, but not
all, the oximes are crystalline.
Phenylhydrazones.—Nearly all aldehydes form condensation pro-
ducts with phenylhydrazine, known as phenylhydrazones, according to
the following equation :—
E. CHO + NH 2 . NH . C6H5 = E . CH : N . NH . C6H5 + H2O.
Aldehyde. Phenylhydrazine. Phenylliydrazone.
They are best prepared by heating the aldehyde in alcoholic solution,

on the water-bath, under a reflux condenser, with slightly more than
the equimolecular quantity of phenylhydrazine hydrochloride, with
acetate of sodium added. Thirty to sixty minutes is usually sufficient
for the reaction.
Pyruvic Acid Compounds.—Lubrzynska and Smedley l have recently
shown that a number of aldehydes such as heliotropin, anisic aldehyde,
benzaldehyde, and cinnamic aldehyde, condense with pyruvic acid in
slightly alkaline solution, with the formation of /2-unsaturated-a-ketonic
acids. For example, if heliotropin and pyruvic acid in alkaline solution
be left standing for about eight days at ordinary temperature, dihydroxy-
methylene-benzal-pyruvic acid is formed. This body forms yellow
needles, melting at 163° Similarly, anisic aldehyde yields methoxy-
benzal-pyruvic acid, melting at 130°; and cinnamic aldehyde yields
cinnamal-pyruvic acid, melting at 73°.
Doebner2 showed that certain aldehydes, citral, for example, form
condensation products with pyruvic acid and /2-naphthylamine, known
as naphthocinchoninic acids. The reaction takes place as follows :—
1 2
Ghem. Zentral. (1914), 561. Berichte, 27 (1894); 354 and 2026.
E . CHO + CH3CO . COOH + C10H7NH2

Aldehyde. Pyruvic acid. j8-Naphthylamine.
N = C—E
= CH + 2H90 + H9
COOH
Naphthocinchoninic acid.
Schlogll has shown that para-aminophenylglycine, para-amino-
phenyloxamic acid, and para-aminoacetanilide form compounds with
aldehydes, which have sharp melting-points and are suitable for the
characterisation of aldehydes. With ^-aminophenylglycine condensa-
tion takes place when the glycine, mixed with alcohol and the alde-
hyde in question, is warmed. For the purpose of condensing with
j9-aminophenyloxamic acid and with £>-aminoacetaldehyde the alcoholic
suspension of the amino-body is acidulated slightly with hydrochloric
acid and the solution is warmed after the aldehyde has been added.
This method yields the hydrochloride of the condensation products.
Condensation Product
M.p. Designation
of with
Cinnamic 2>-Aminophenylglycine 120° Cinnamic aldehyde anilglycine

aldehyde .
Furfurol »» 135° Furfurol anilglycine
Benzaldehyde p-Aminophenyloxamic acid 180° Benzaldehyde aniloxamic acid ."
Vanillin
Cinnamic 5» >»
170° Vanillin aniloxamic acid
125° Cinnamic aldehyde aniloxamic acid &
'9
aldehyde . 8
Furfurol 130° Furfurol aniloxamic acid *&
Benzaldehyde ^-Aminoacetanilide . !
. 165° Benzaldehyde acetaminoanile b'
Vanillin » 208° Vanillin acetaminonile . 0<
Cinnamic » 195° Cinnamic aldehyde acetaminoanile; •
aldehyde .
THE ALIPHATIC ALDEHYDES.

The following are the principal members of the fatty series of
aldehydes which either occur in essential oils, or are used in synthetic
perfumery :—
Formic Aldehyde.—This aldehyde, H . CHO, is the lowest member
of the aliphatic series. It has been found, but rarely, in the distillation
waters of a few essential oils. It can be identified by evaporation on
a watsr-bath with ammonia when crystals of hexamethylene-tetramine
are formed.
Acetic Aldehyde.—Acetic aldehyde, CH3 . COH, ocours in a number
of essential oils, or their distillation waters. It is a liquid boiling at 21°.
Butyric Aldehyde.—This body, C3H7COH, has been found in the oils
of Eucalyptus globulus and Cajuput. It boils at 75° and forms a para-
nitro-phenylhydrazone, melting at 91° to 92°.
Isovalerianic Aldehyde.—This aldehyde, which has the constitution
CH3 . CH(CH3) . CH2 . CHO, exists in American peppermint oil. L
l
Jour.$rakL Ghent., ii. 88 (1913), 251.
boils at 92*5°, and forms a thiosemi-carbazone, melting at 52° to 53°.

Its specific gravity is 0-804.
Vdlerianic Aldehyde.—The normal valerianic aldehyde,
CH3(CH2)3.CHO,
, is a liquid boiling at 102°, of specific gravity 0*816.
Hexylic Aldehyde.—Hexylic or caproic aldehyde, C5H11CHO, has
been identified in oil of Eucalyptus globulus. It is a liquid boiling at
128° at 740 mm., and having a specific gravity 0-837.
Heptylic Aldehyde.—This aldehyde, also known as oenanthylic alde-
hyde, is formed by distilling castor oil under reduced pressure. It is an
Oil of powerful fruity odour, boiling at 155°, or at 45° at 10 mm. pressure,
and having a specific gravity 0*820, and refractive index 1'4150. It
forms an oxime melting at 50°.
Octyl Aldehyde.—The eight-carbon aldehyde has the formula
CH3(CH2)6CHO.
It is a natural constituent of neroli and rose oils. It is described as
hiving a deep honey-like odour, and is usetul in rounding off perfumes
with a heavy odour. It is a liquid boiling at 82° at 13 mm., and has a
specific gravity about 0*826, and refractive index 1*41955. It' absolutely
pure its specific gravity is only 0*821. It melts at - 13° to - 16°. It
yields an oxime melting at 60°, a semi-carbazone melting at 101°, and a
naphthocinchoninic acid compound melting at 234°.
Nonyl Aldehyde.—The nine-carbon aldehyde has the formula
CH3(CH2)7CHO.
This aldehyde belongs to the rose and orange types of odour. It is
present naturally in both these essential oils. It can be used success-
fully, in very small quantity, in all perfumes of the rose, geranium,
orange, and neroli types. It is an oil having a specific gravity 0*8277,
refractive index 1*4245, and boils at 92° at a pressure of 13 mm. Its
melting-point is + 5° to + 7°. It yields an oxime melting at 69°, and
a semi-carbazone melting at 100°, which serve to identify it.
Decyl Aldehyde.—This body, which has the formula CH3(CH2)8CHO,
is also a constituent of rose, orange, and other essential oils. It is most
useful in minute quantities in reproducing the odours of orris, neroli,
cassie flowers, rose, and orange. It is probably the most generally
useful of the whole of this series of aldehydes. It is an oil boiling at
207° to 209° at 755 mm. pressure, and at 80° to 81° at 6 mm. The specific
gravity is 0*828 and refractive index 1-42977. Its melting-point is
+ 2° to + 5°. It yields a naphthocinchoninic acid compound, melting
at 237°, an oxime melting at 69°, and a semi-carbazone melting at 102°.
On oxidation it yields capric acid melting at 30° to 31°.
Undecylic Aldehyde.—This 'has recently been prepared, and is now
being used in the blending of flower bouquets. It has the formula
CH3(CH2)9CHO.
It melts at - 4°.
Duodecylic Aldehyde.—The twelve-carbon aldehyde, also known as
lauric aldehyde, has the constitution CH3(CH2)10CHO. It was origin-
ally introduced for blending with violet perfumes, but it is not very
suitable for this purpose. It is, however, of considerable value in mixed
flower perfumes and fancy bouquets. It is a solid body and rapidly
oxidises to lauric acid, melting at 23° to 24° and boiling at 128° at 13 mm.
It should therefore be kept in solution in alcohol. It yield sTa semi-
carbazone melting at 102°.
Tredecyl Aldehyde. — This aldehyde has the constitution
CH3(CH2)11CHO.
American perfumers go so far as to state that it has created quite a
furore amongst progressive perfumers. It has no distinct flower per-
fume, and can be used to modify the odour of almost any combination.
It is stated that it is so characteristic that nothing can replace it. It is
very expensive, but must only be used in minute quantities.
Tetradecyl Aldehyde. — This is the highest of this series of aldehydes,
and has the formula CH3(CH2)12CHO. It resembles the thirteen-carbon
aldehyde somewhat, and is very useful for blending in flower combina-
tions.
Hexylenic Aldehyde. — This aldehyde, of the constitution
CH3 . CH2 . CH2 . CH = CH . CHO,
is an unsatuiated compound, and exists in a number of plants, for
example in the leaves of the vine and strawberry. It forms a hydrazone
melting at 167°.
Undecylenic Aldehyde. — This aldehyde is closely related to those just
described, but belongs to the unsaturated series. It has the formula
CH2 : CH(CH2)8CHO. It is very similar to the aldehydes just de-
scribed, and is used in exactly the same way, namely, for modifying the
odour of flower combinations. It melts at + 5° to + 7° and boils at
118° at 13 mm.
Oleic Aldehyde. — Oleic aldehyde, C17H33 . CHO, is 'found in oil of
orris root. It has the following characters : —
Specific gravity ......... O8513
It forms a semi-carbazone melting at 87° to 89°.
The aldehydes of the geraniol series are of very great commercial
importance. The only two which are of common occurrence are citral
and citronellal.
CITRAL AND NERAL.
Citral, or geranaldehyde, and neral or neraldehyde, are, as indicated
under geraniol, the two stereoisomeric forms of the aldehydes derived
from geraniol and nerol. Citral is best described as a-citral, and neral
corresponds with /?-citral. The constitution of the two aldehydes is
either that indicated under geraniol, namely,
,
>C : CH . CH.," . CH.,' . C(CH3) : CH . CHO
CH t
or
2
V). CH,. CH,. CH,. C(CH3) : CH . CHO
CH X
The former is the more probable constitution. Citral as found in
commerce, is probably almost invariably a mixture of the two isomers,
which are very similar in their general characters. It occurs to a con-
siderable extent in various essential oils, being the principal constituent
of lemon-grass oil, and of the oil of Backhousia citriodora, and occurring
to the extent of about 4 to 6 per cent, in lemon oil, which owes its
characteristic flavour to this aldehyde.
It can be obtained artificially by the oxidation of the alcohols geraniol,
nerol, and linalol, by means of chromic acid. To prepare it from these
sources, the following process may be used. Ten grams of potassium
bichromate are dissolved in a mixtuie of 12*5 grams of sulphuric acid
and 100 c.c. of water. To this mixture, 15 grams of geraniol are gradu-
ally added, care being taken thatr the mixture is kept cold at first, and
then allowed to get warm, the w hole being well shaken for about half an
hour. It is then rendered slightly alkaline and a current of steam passed
through it. To separate the citral from other products and from un-
changed geraniol, the distillate is shaken with a saturated solution of
sodium bisulphite, and shaken from time to time, for about twenty-four
hours in the cold, or for an hour or so at water-bath temperature. In
the cold, crystals of the compound of citral with bisulphite separate,
which are dried, washed with ether, mixed with sodium carbonate and
steam distilled, when citral passes over. By careful manipulation about
35 per cent, of the theoretical amount is obtained.
Citral can also be obtained in a pure state by distilling a mixture of
the calcium salt of geranic acid with calcium formate, according to the
usual method for the production of aldehydes.
Citral can also be obtained from essential oils, such as lemon-grass
oil, by means of the bisulphite process, but care should be taken that the
temperature be kept low, as otherwise a considerable loss occurs, due to
the conversion of part of the citral into sulphonic acid compounds.
Citral combines with 4 atoms of bromine, and, under the influence of
dehydrating agents, such as potassium hydrogen sulphate, yields cymene,
C10H14. Under the influence of alkalis, citral condenses with acetone,
with the splitting off of water to form pseudo-ionone, C13H20O, which is
converted into isomeric ionones by means of acids. These bodies are
the characteristic artificial violet perfume, which will be mentioned later.
Keduction with sodium and alcohol produces the alcohol, geraniol.
Various derivatives of citral have been prepared, such as the oxime,
anilide, and phenylhydrazone, which are oily liquids, and the semi-
carbazone, which appears to exist in several isomeric forms of different
melting-points. Most characteristic, however, is the citryl-/3-naphtho-
cinchoninic acid, discovered by Doebner. This can be prepared by warm-
ing together in alcoholic solution 20 parts of citral, 20 parts of
/^naphthylamine, and 12 parts of pyruvic acid. This acid, C23H23NOo,
melts sharply at 197°, and is the most useful compound for characteris-
ing citral. Indeed, Doebner has applied its preparation to the quantita-
tive estimation of citral in oils containing it. The determination of this
body in essential oils is by no means an easy matter, and will be men-
tioned later. A siîdy of citral and its derivatives has caused the most
recent investigators to assign one or other of the formulae given 011
p. 53 to the stereoisomeric varieties of citral.
According to Tiemann the following are the characters of a-citral and
/?-citral, but as these were determined before the exact relationships of
geraniol and nerol and the stereoisomeric aldehydes were as well under-
stood as they now are, they must be accepted with some reserve.
a-Citral.
ft-Citral.
The purest specimens which have been prepared of natural citral,
either from lemon-grass oil, lemon oil, or the oil of Tetranthera citrata,
Specific gravity 0-892 to 0-8955 at 15°
Refractive index . 1-4880 to 1-4900
Boiling-point at 12 mm. 110° ,, 112°
» 760 „ 228° „ 229°
Several years ago Tiemann 1 carried out a great deal of work on the
chemistry of citral, in connection with which the following points are
•especially noteworthy. He has shown that in addition to the normal
bisulphite of sodium compound of citral, three hydrosulphonic acid
•derivatives are formed, according to the conditions under which the ex-
periment is performed (acidity, alkalinity, temperature, etc.). He con-
sidered that the explanation of the existence of two well-defined isomeric
semi-carbazones (melting at 164° and 171°) was the existence of two
stereoisomeric forms of citral in lemon-grass oil. To support this, he
mixed the normal bisulphite compound with water and added sodium
carbonate. The liquid was then shaken with ether, and about half the
citral set free and dissolved in the ether (fraction a) ; the remainder was
set free by the addition of caustic alkali and extracted with ether (fraction
b). Whilst both fractions have exactly the same physical properties, it
is found that fraction a gives only one semi-carbazone, melting at 164°,
whilst fraction b gives both, melting at 164° and 171° respectively. The
same was found to be the case with the cyanacetic compound fraction a
yielding only one citralidene cyanacetic acid, melting at 122°, whilst
fraction b gave this, and also one melting at 80°, which is now known
to be impure, the pure compound melting at 94° to 95°. This view has
been confirmed by the discovery of the alcohol nerol, as mentioned above
(and see also under ionone).
Further important work on the pure chemistry of citral by Semmler
and by 2Skita has been published during the past few years. Semmler has
shown that aldehydes which possess one or more labile hydrogen atoms
adjoining the CHO group, possess the property of forming enolic acetates,
that is, acetates in which a double bond has migrated into the conjugated
position. He draws the following general conclusions in regard to this
property of this type of aldehyde :—
1. All the aldehydes hitherto studied, which contain next to !the
functional aldehydic group one or more labile hydrogen atoms are cap-
Berichte, 42 (1909), 1161, 2014; 44 (1911), 991.
-Ibid., xxxi. 3278, 3324; xxxii. 107.
able of reacting with the organic anhydrides and acids in their enolic
forms giving unsaturated esters.
2. These unsaturated esters, by oxidation, permit of the elimination
of the CHO group and the preparation of aldehydes or acids with fewer
carbon atoms.
3. This reaction shows that the estimation of alcohols in essential
oils containing aldehydes may lead to numbers which are too high.
4. The enolic esters, on saponification, regenerate the aldehydes.
With sodium and alcohol, the saturated alcohol corresponding to the
aldehyde is obtained.
This migration has been described under geraniol (p. 17).
Bnklaar1 has shown that when citral is reduced by metals in a
stream of hydrogen, it yields not only reduced aliphatic compounds, but
that the ring is also closed, and a series of cyclic compounds is also
formed.
Cyclo-citral thus formed appears to have the following constitution :—
CH3 CH,
.CHO
H,C C . CH,
CH2
According to Skita, the reaction proceeds in a different manner if
the reduction be effected with palladium chloride and hydrogen. In
this case the citral in alcoholic solution is mixed with an aqueous solu-
tion of palladium chloride and the whole thickened with gum-arabic.
Hydrogen gas is then forced into this solution under pressure. The
products of the reduction include citronellal and citronellol and a di-
molecular aldehyde, C20H34O2, which probably has the following con-
stitution :—
CH
\C : CH. CH,. CH.2. C(CH3)CH.,. CHO
CH,
iH. /
CH3-
: CH . CH2 . CH2 C(CH3)CH2 . CHO
CH/
Schossberger has recently isolated the isomeric form of citral which
is known as isocitral, corresponding to the isogeraniol resulting from
enolised citral acetate.
Isocitral is left as a residue when reduced enolised citral is freed
from isogeraniol by means of phthalic anhydride, and has the following
characters :—
1
Chem. Weekblad, 4 (1907), 322.
It yields a /2-naphthocinchoninic acid compound melting at 206°.
Citral is used on a very large scale for the manufacture of ionone,,
the base of the artificial violet perfumes (q.v.)
The identification of citral is a matter of considerable importance,
and may be effected by the preparation of several well-defined crystal-
line derivatives.
The semi-carbazones, C10H1(}: N . NH . CO . NH2, are well defined.
That of a-citral melts at 164° and that of /2-citral at 171°, a mixture of
the two in equal amounts melting at 135°. If it is desired to obtain
mainly the semi-carbazone of a-citral, 5 parts of citral should be dis-
solved in 30 parts of glacial acetic acid. Four parts of semi-carbazide
hydrochloride are dissolved in a little water and added \ to the citral
solution. After standing for a short time, a considerable quantity o(
crystals separate in fine needles. These are recrystallised several times
from methyl alcohol, when 60 to 70 per cent, of the theoretical yield
can be obtained of the a-citral semi-carbazone, melting at 164°. The
mother liquors yield /3-citral semi-carbazone, melting at 171°. If the
reaction be allowed to take place in a neutral, instead of an acid, solu-
tion, about 10 per cent, of /?-citral semi-carbazone can be obtained,
leaving a mixture of the two isomers, melting at 135° as the main yield.
The isomeric semi-carbazones may be separated in the following manner::
The dry mixture of semi-carbazones is finely powdered, and repeatedly
exhausted with boiling ether. The liquid is filtered and deposits crystals
melting at 135°. The ethereal mother liquor on concentration yields
only the same product, but the insoluble residue has a higher melting-
point and can be washed with ether until this rises to 160°. This pro-
duct can now be recrystallised from alcohol, when the pure /3-citral
semi-carbazone melting at 171° is obtained, the alcoholic mother liquors
yielding the a-citral compound, which on a second recrystallisation is
obtained pure, melting at 164°.
In order to resolve the mixture melting at 135°, it should be dis-
solved in cold acetic ether to saturation, and allowed to stand so that
the solvent evaporates very slowly. Two distinctly different forms of
crystals separate which can be picked out and recrystallised separately,
when the two semi-carbazones are obtained in a state of purity.
Very characteristic of citral is the compound which it forms with
/2-naphthocinchoninic acid. It is obtained in the following manner:
Twenty grams of citral and 20 grams of pyruvic acid are dissolved in
absolute alcohol, and 20 grams of /?-naphthylamine are added. The
whole is heated for three hours on the water-bath under a reflux con-
denser.
On cooling a-citryl-/3-naphthocinchoninic, acid separates in fine
needles, melting at 199° to 200°, which are filtered off and washed with
ether, and recrystallised from alcohol. If too little citral is present
a-methyl-^-naphthocinchoninic acid is formed as well, but this is less
soluble than the citral compound, and is separated from it by dissolving
the latter in hot alcohol and recrystallising it. The reaction taking
place is as follows :—
C9H15. CHO + CH 3 . CO . COOH + C10H7NH2 =

Citral. Pyruvic acid. j8-naphthylamine.
/N:C.C 9 H 15
C10H / | + 2H.O + H.,
\C : CH " "
COOH
a-citryl-j8-naphthocinchoninic acid.
Citral also forms a crystalline derivative with cyanacetic acid,
citrylidene-cyanacetic acid of the formula—
,CN
C9H15CH: C/<f
N3OOH
It is obtained by mixing 1 molecule of cyanacetic acid, 1 molecule
oi\ citral, and 2 molecules of caustic soda. The reaction liquid is
extracted with ether, in order to remove non-aldehydes, and the clear
liquid acidified with acetic acid. The separated acid is dissolved in
benzene and precipitated by petroleum ether when it forms yellow
crystals, melting at 122° in the case of a-citral, and at 94° to 95° in the
case of /3-citral.
In a similar manner citrylidene-malonic acid can be prepared, melt-
ing at 191°.
The oxime and phenylhydrazone are liquid, and not suitable for
identification purposes.
On oxidation by weak oxidising agents, citral yields geranic acid,
C10Hj602; on reduction it yields geraniol.
Citral forms condensation compounds with sulphites and \acid
sulphites which are exceedingly useful in the estimation of the alde-
hyde. Tiemann has isolated three separate hydrosulphonic acid com-
pounds. The normal bisulphite compound is best prepared by shaking
citral with a hot solution of sodium bisulphite containing free sulphur-
ous acid.
When the normal sodium bisulphite compound is dissolved in water
and submitted to steam distillation, half of the citral passes over, the
remainder being converted into the sodium salt of the so-called " stable "
citraldihydrodisulfonic acid :—
/OH
2C9H15. CH< = C9H15COH + C9H17(SO3Na)9COH.
\SO3Na
This compound is readily soluble in water without regeneration of the
citral from the solution either by sodium carbonate or hydrate.
When citral is agitated with an aqueous solution of neutral sodium
sulphite, the sodium salt of the " labile " citraldihydrodisulfonic acid
results according to the following equation :—
C9H15COH + 2Na 2 SO 3 + 2H2O = C9H17(SO3Na)2COH + 2NaOH.
This differs from the isomeric " stable" compound in being quan-
titatively decomposed by the action of sodium hydrate into citral and
neutral sodium sulphite.
A thiosemi-carbazone, melting at 107° to 108°, and a semi-oxamazone,

melting at 190° to 191°, have been prepared.
ClTBONELLAL AND EHODINAL.
These aldehydes, of the formula C10H18O, are those corresponding to

the alcohols citronellol and rhodinol (assuming, as is apparently true,
that they are distinct compounds as indicated under citronellol. Their
constitutions would therefore be as follows : —
C . CH9 . CH9 . CH9 . CH(CH3)CH, . CHO.

Citronellal.
C : CH . CH2 .iCHo . CH(CH3)CH2 . CHO.

GIL
Bhodinal.
Citronellal which was originally termed citronellone, is one of the
characteristic constituents of citronella oil, in which it occurs to a con-
siderable extent. It can be prepared by shaking the essential oil with
a hot solution of sodium bisulphite, and decomposing the resulting
bisulphite compound by means of sodium carbonate and distilling the
citronellal in a current of steam. Citronellal is optically active, and it
is probable that the specimens isolated from natural sources are mixtures
of the two optically active isomers, so that the actual theoretical rotation
is not known with certainty.
It can be prepared artificially by the reduction of cjtronellol, C10H200,
and the isomeric rhodinal can, according to Bouveault, be prepared by
the reduction of rhodinal from oil of rose.
According to Tiemann and Schmidt, citronellal has the following
characters : —
,, ,, at 25 mm. 103° „ 105°
Specific gravity at 17-5° 0-8538
Commercial specimens of a high degree of purity have the follow

ing characters :—
Specific gravity 0'855 ,, 0-858
Optical rotation + 10° „ + 11°
Citronellal prepared from Java citronella oil is laevo-rotatory to the
extent of about - 3°.
For the identification of citronellal, the semi-carbazone is the easiest
crystalline compound to prepare. It results if an alcoholic solution of
citronellal be well-shaken with a solution of semi-carbazide hydrochloride
and acetate of sodium. It is purified by recrystallisation from a mixture
of chloroform and petroleum ether, and then melts at 84°. It also
forms a well-defined naphthocinchoninic acid, which is prepared in the
same manner as the corresponding citral compound. It melts at 225°.
It also forms eitronellylidene-cyanacetic acid, melting at 137° to 138°.
It forms additive compounds with sodium bisulphite, which are similar
in characters to the corresponding citral compounds.
On oxidation it yields citronellic acid, C10H18O2. On acetylation,
catronellal is converted into the alcohol isopulegol, which is acetylated,
forming isopulegyl acetate, so that this aldehyde is included in the re-
sults of determinations of geraniol in oils in which both constituents are
present. For example, the total acetylisable constituents of citronella
oil, which are usually returned as " geraniol/' really include the citronellal
present as well. According to Tiemann,1 citronellal, under the influence
of acetic anhydride forms an enolic ester which is gradually converted,
by heating with the anhydride, into isopulegol acetate—the relationships
being shown as follows :—
CH3—C=CH2 CHo—C=CH9 CH3—C=CH.,"
CIH2 CEL n
i
CHO, (CH 3 )CO.OCH \CH2 OH.CH/\CIL
CH ,CH
H . CH3 CH . CH, CH . CH
Citronellal. Enolic acetate. Isopulegol.
Ehodinal, under similar circumstances, appears to give rise to men-
thone, the relationships being shown as follows :—
CH3—C— CH3 CH3—C—CH3 CH3—CH—CH3
CH CH CH
CHO (CH3)CO . OCH,
CH2 CH CH, CH2v ,CH2

'"^H. 01 CH . CH3 CH. CH3
Rhodinal. Enolic acetate. Menthone.
The work of Harries and Himmelmann 2 provides considerable con-
firmation of the individuality of the aldehydes citronellal and rhodinal.
By the action of ozone on the aldehyde, results differ materially accord-
ing to the source of the " citronellal," and those chemists are of opinion
that the two complexes—
CH3
. CH2 and \C : CH
CH9' CH,
are present, which is in accordance with the assumption stated pre-
viously. They consider that the first complex becomes less stable as the
acid-carrying group in the molecule increases.
This view would explain the observation made by Tiemann and
Schmidt, that citronellal when heated with acetic anhydride, only
yields about 50 per cent, isopulegol; or the fact noted by Harries and
1
Berichte, 42, 2014. ., 41 (1908), 2187.
Schauwecker, that when citronellal acetal is oxidised by permanganate,
there is formed the acetal of the semi-aldehyde of /3-methyladipic acid
and a glycol. The indistinct melting-points observed in citronellal
derivatives (for example in the semi-carbazone) can also thereby be ex-
plained. It would appear that commercial citronellal contains the two
isomeric forms in varying proportions.
H. J. Prins L has isolated two isomerides of citronellal by repeated
fractionation. The first boils at 203° to 204°, has a specific gravity of
0*888 at 14°, and forms a semi-carbazone, melting-point 85° to 86°.
The second boils at 198° to 199°, has a specific gravity of 0*8745 at 14°,
and yields a semi-carbazone, melting-point 83° to 84°. It is suggested
that the formula of the first is—
CH 2 : CMe . CH2 . CH 2 . CH2CHMe . CH 2 . CHO,
whilst that of the second is—
CMe,: CH . CH 2 . GIL,. CHMe . CH2. CHO.
These results would suggest that ordinary " citronellal" is a mixture of
citronellal and rhodinal.
The aldehydes of the cyclic series include a number of compounds
which are of common occurrence in essential oils, and a certain number
which are prepared synthetically for perfumery purposes.
The simplest of these, in reference to chemical constitution, is:—
BENZALDEHYDE.
Benzaldehyde, C6H5COH, is the main constituent of oil of bitter
almonds and other oils of the same family. It-can be formed in various
ways, including the oxidation of benzyl alcohol, or, as is usually done, by
acting on benzal chloride, C6H5CHC12, with sulphuric acid or with milk
of lime, or by heating benzyl chloride, C6H5CH2C1, with water and lead
nitrate. Artificial benzaldehyde is manufactured and sold largely as
" artificial oil of almonds ". It is almost identical with the natural oil,
but possesses a rather harsher odour, probably due to the presence of
traces of impurities, which generally consist of chlorinated compounds.
A very pure variety, however, is now produced, which is free from these
impurities. The natural benzaldehyde results from the decomposition of
a glucoside, amygdalin, under the influence of the ferment emulsin in the
presence of water (vide oil of bitter almonds).
The starting-point in the synthesis of benzaldehyde,2 which requires
a good deal of skill for its successful manufacture, is the hydrocarbon
toluene, and this must first be separated from the benzene and other
hydrocarbons accompanying it in its crude form by suitable fractional
distillation. The initial reaction of the toluene is with chlorine, and this
reaction takes place far better in sunlight than away from it. The toluene
is heated to boiling in as strong a light as possible, and a current of
perfectly dry chlorine is passed through it until 100 parts has increased
in weight to 140 parts. The weather and light will determine the time
which is taken to complete this reaction; during the winter the whole
day may be necessary, whereas on a fine summer day the reaction may
be finished in two to three hours. The chlorinated compound so formed
1
2
Chem. Weekblad, 14 (1917), 692-95.
Badcliffe, P. and E.O.R. (1917), 298.
is benzalchloride, C6H5. CH. C12, which has now to be converted into
benzaldehyde.
The crude benzalchloride obtained by the above-described chlorination
of toluene is mixed with three times its weight of water and its own
weight of finely precipitated calcium carbonate, and the mixture is heated
for four hours in a bath of oil or similar material to a temperature of
130°. After the expiration of this time steam is passed through the
Contents of the reaction vessel, which is maintained at the temperature
of 130° until no more oil distils over. The resulting crude benzaldehyde
<sontains a fair amount of benzoic acid which must be removed. The
bulk of the benzoic acid, however, is left in the reaction vessel, and may
be recovered by filtering the hot liquid and adding hydrochloric acid, by
which means the benzoic acid separates out and may be filtered off,
washed, and dried. If recrystallised from hot water it can be obtained
in a state of purity. The crude benzaldehyde which has been steam
distilled, together with the watery distillation liquid, is now treated with
a concentrated solution of acid sulphite of sodium and the whole well
shaken until almost the whole of the oily liquid has gone into solution.
If crystals of the double compound of benzaldehyde and sodium sulphite
separate, more water must be added and the liquid well shaken until the
crystals are dissolved again. The aqueous solution is now filtered from
any small quantity of oil which remains undissolved, and the filtrate
treated with anhydrous sodium carbonate until it acquires a decided
alkaline reaction. The alkaline liquid is now subjected to distillation
with steam, when the benzaldehyde distils over.
There is, of course, always the risk of the purified benzaldehyde con-
taining traces of chlorine—in fact, samples manufactured with merely
ordinary care may be found to contain up to 2'5 per cent, of this im-
purity. It is very objectionable when the benzaldehyde is to be used, as,
for example, a soap perfume in pale-coloured soaps, since the presence
of chlorine compounds invariably causes the product to change colour,
which renders the soap more or less unsaleable. One of the causes of
the presence of chlorine in tha finished product is that chlorine reacts
with toluene, especially if the temperature is a little too low when
the current of chlorine starts, in such a way that one atom enters
the nucleus, forming chlorotoluene, C6H4C1CH3. Chlorine reacts with
toluene in such a manner, at higher temperatures, as to replace the atoms
of hydrogen in the methyl side chain, so as to form benzal chloride,
C6H5CHC12. But the reaction of chlorine on chlorotoluene is quite
similar, and the result is the presence of a certain amount of chloro-
benzal-dichloride, C6H4C1. CHClg. In the subsequent reaction with
water and calcium carbonate, it is only the chlorine in the side chain
which is eliminated, so that we shall, under the above conditions, have
a certain amount of chlorobenzaldehyde formed, C6H4C1. COH. It is
obvious, therefore, that the greatest care must be exercised in carrying
out the synthesis of benzaldehyde if a product free from chlorine is to be
obtained. In the actual course of the reaction in practice, the mixture
contains several chlorinated compounds, including benzal chloride, which
is the principal constituent of the mixture, and which is eventually con-
verted into benzaldehyde, benzyl chloride, chlorotoluene, and benzo-
trichloride. If the mixture is boiled with water, with the addition of
•calcium carbonate, the resulting reaction-mass consists essentially of
benzaldehyde, benzyl alcohol, and traces of the chlorinated products
which do nob enter into the hydrolytic reaction, and also a considerable
quantity of benzoic acid which remains behind in the still as calcium
benzoate, when the volatile bodies are steam distilled. By rendering the
distillation residue acid with dilute sulphuric acid, or preferably dilute
hydrochloric acid, the free benzoic acid is obtained. A large proportion
of the so-called " benzoic acid ex toluol " is obtained in this manner as a
by-product in the manufacture of benzaldehyde.
The process of Lauth and Grimaux is also very largely employed ;
a mixture of benzyl chloride 5 kilos, nitrate of lead or copper 7 kilos,
and water 10 litres, is boiled for seven or eight hours in an apparatus
provided with a reflux cooler ; the reaction being as follows : —
C0H5CH2C1 + O = C6H5CHO + HC1.
When the reaction is complete the oil is distilled, or more nsually
decanted off, and the benzaldehyde thoroughly agitated with fifteen
times its weight of bisulphite of soda. This results in the formation of
the solid sodium bisulphite compound. This is washed with alcohol
and then decomposed by a solution of sodium carbonate, and finally the
benzaldehyde is distilled in a current of steam.
A process giving a chlorine free product is as follows : —l
A mixture of 300 kilos of toluene and 700 kilos of 65 per cent, sul-
phuric acid is thoroughly agitated, and 90 kilos of finely powdered
manganese dioxide added little by little. The temperature is maintained
about 40°. The process is a very slow one, and finally a mixture of
unchanged toluene and benzaldehyde is obtained, and from this the
sulphite compound is prepared, purified, and the pure benzaldehyde
isolated as usual.
Benzaldehyde has the following constitution : —
CH
HC, .CH
C.CHO
„ ,, 5 mm ........ 45°
Specific gravity ......... 1'052
Optical rotation ....... . +0°
It forms a semi-carbazone melting at 214°, and a phenylhydrazone
melting at 156°.
On oxidation it readily yields benzoic acid, melting at 121°. Ex-
posure to the air is sufficient to effect this oxidation.
For the examination of benzaldehyde for chlorine, see p. 352.
SALICYLIC ALDEHYDE.
Salicylic aldehyde, C7H6O2, is the simplest representative of the
ortho-hydroxy aldehydes, which are, generally speaking, strongly odorous
1
D.R.P., 101221 of 1897.
compounds. It occurs naturally in the essential oil of several varieties
of Spiraea, and can be manufactured artificially with considerable ease
if the following details be followed :—
One hundred grams of caustic soda are dissolved in 100 c.c. of water
and placed in a round-bottomed flask. To this are added 30 grams of
phenol. The mixture should be warmed to 60° to 65° and then attached
to a reflux condenser. Seventy-five grams of chloroform are then added
gradually in the following manner: One-third is first to be added
through the condenser, and as the temperature rises the mixture must
be cooled to 65° by immersion in cold water. In ten minutes, a second
third of the chloroform is added with the same precautions, and after
another twenty minutes the remainder is added. After allowing the
whole to remain for two hours at 65°, with constant shaking, the chloro-
form in excess is distilled off in a current of steam, and the alkaline
liquid then acidified with dilute sulphuric acid, and steam passed through
until no more oily drops pass over. The distillate is extracted with
ether, and the ether evaporated. The residue now consists of salicylic
aldehyde with unchanged phenol. It is treated with strong solution of
sodium bisulphite, and the resulting crystalline compound is washed
with alcohol to remove phenol, and finally once with ether. The
crystals are decomposed by dilute sulphuric acid, and the liberated
salicylic aldehyde extracted with ether, and, on evaporation of the ether,
purified by distillation.
Salicylic aldehyde is an almost colourless oil with a fragrant odour
of meadowsweet. Its constitution is as follows :—
CH
HC/VJH
HC..COH
C.CHO
It has the following characters :—
Specific gravity . . . . . . . . . 1*170
Solidify ing-point - 20°
It yields an oxime, melting at 57°, and a phenylhydrazone, melting
at 96°.
On oxidation it yields salicylic acid, melting at 155° to 156°.
CINNAMIC ALDEHYDE.
Cinnamic aldehyde, C9H8O, is the principal odorous constituent of:
cinnamon and cassia oils, and is manufactured to a considerable extent.
artificially. It can be extracted from the oils in which it occurs by
means of sodium bisulphite, the sodium bisulphite compound being
decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid, and distilled in a current of
steam. The preparation of artificial cinnamic aldehyde, which is used
in perfumery as a substitute for the natural oils, is usually carried out;
by a condensation of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde, according to the
following reaction:—
C 6 H 5 . CHO + CH3CHO = C 6 H 5 . CH : CH . CHO + H2O.
VOL. II. 13
A mixture of 10 parts of benzaldehyde, 15 parts of acetaldehyde,

900 parks of water, and 10 parts of 10 per cent, solution of caustic soda
are allowed to stand for ten days at 30° with constant stirring. The
cinnamic aldehyde formed is extracted with ether and purified by
fractional distillation.
Cinnamic aldehyde is a sweet, odorous liquid, resembling cinnamon
oil, but without its delicacy of odour. It has the following consti-
tution : —
CH
^ .CH
C . CH : CH . CHO
Its characters are as follows :—
at 20 mm. 128° „ 130°
Specific gravity 1-0540 „ 1*0570
Melting-point - 7-5°
Its phenylhydrazone melts at 168°, and its semi-carbazone at 208°.
PHENYLACETIC ALDEHYDE.
Phenylacetic aldehyde, C8H8O, is one of the most important of
modern synthetic perfumes. It has not been found naturally in essential
oils. It possesses a powerful odour of hyacinths, and is extremely
useful for the reproduction of all odours of this and the narcissus type.
Phenylacetic aldehyde can be prepared by various methods, of which
the following are the principal:—
Methyl cinnamate l (16 parts) is dissolved in methyl alcohol (20 parts)
and treated with bromine (20 parts). The mixture solidifies in the cold.
It is shaken with a solution of caustic soda (12 parts) in water (24 parts),
the temperature being kept down to 40°. After two hours the mixture
is neutralised with dilute sulphuric acid, and an oily layer separates.
This is mixed with water (to 250 parts) and sodium carbonate (5'5 parts)
added, and the aldehyde distilled in a current of steam, and extracted
with ether, and the ether evaporated. The yield is about 75 per cent, of
the theoretical.
By allowing phenylmagnesium bromide to react with ethoxyacetal,
Spath 2 has shown that the following reaction takes place :—
C6H5. MgBr. + (OC2H5). CH 2 . CH(OC2H5)2
= C2H5O . MgBr . + C6H5. CH(OC2H5). CH2(OC2H5).
The ether thus formed reacts with a second molecule of magnesium
phenylbromide, thus:—
C6H5CH(OC2H5). CH2(OC2H5) + MgC6H5Br
= C2H5OMgBr + C6H6 + C6H5. CH : CH(OC2H5).
1 2
Bull. Soc Ind. Mulhouse, 83 (1913), 805. Moiiatshefte, 36, (1915), 1.
On saponification this last compound yields vinyl alcohol and phenyl-
acetaldehyde and alcohol, thus :—
C6H6. CH : CH(OC2H5) + H20 = C 6 H 5 . CH 2 . CHO + C2H5OH.
Phenylacetaldehyde can also be prepared by treating sodium cinna-
mate with bromine, and then adding oxalic acid. The sodium salt of
phenylbromolactic acid results. On steam distillation this gives off CO2,
and yields phenylacetaldehyde (the reaction is probably more complicated
than the equation indicates):—
C6H5. CHBr . CHOH . COONa = C 6 H 5 . CH 2 . CHO + KBr + CO2.
It also results by reducing phenylethyl alcohol in vapour with copper
dust at 250°, when hydrogen is evolved:—
C 6 H 5 . CH2CH2OH = C^H5. CH 2 . CHO . + H2.
Phenylacetaldehyde is very apt to polymerise, especially in the pres-
ence of acid or alkali, so that its preparation in the pure state is a matter
of some difficulty. It has the following constitution :—
CH
HC/VJH
HC, .CH
C . CH 2 . CHO
„ „ at 11 mm 78°
CUMIC ALDEHYDE.
Cumic aldehyde, or isopropyl-benzaldehyde, is present in cummin oil
and in the oils of boldo leaf, cassie flower oil, and, probably, in certain
eucalyptus oils. It is an oil of powerful odour, having the formula
C10H120. Its characters are as follows :—
„ at 14 mm 116°
It yields a semi-carbazone melting at 210° to 211°, oxime melting at
58° to 59°, and phenylhydrazone melting at 126° to 127°.
C—CHO
HC
V/CH
C . CH(CH3)
It can be prepared by extraction from the oils in which it occurs by .
means of sodium bisulphite in the usual manner.
On oxidation it yields cuminic acid, melting at 114° to 115°.
METHOXY-CINNAMIC ALDEHYDES.
Ortho-methoxy-cinnamic aldehyde is present in small amount in
cassia oil. It has the composition C10H10O2, and its physical characters
are as follows:—
Melting-point 45°
Boiling-point 295°
Melting-point o f phenylhydrazone . . . . . . 116°
Para-methoxy-cinnamic aldehyde has been isolated from tarrago . oil.
Melting-point of oxime 138°
„ ' ,, „ semi-carbazone 220° (?)
,, , , , , phenylhydrazone . . . . . . 138°
The constitution of these aldehydes is as follows:—
CH C . O . CH
HCl /C.O.CH, HCV /CH

C . CH : CH . CHO C . CH : CH . CHO
o-methoxy-cinnamic aldehyde. £>-methoxy-cmnamic aldehyde.
The or tho-compound yields, on oxidation by permanganate of potas-
sium, methyl-salicylic acid melting at 99°, whilst the para-compound
yields anisic acid melting at 184°.
An aldehyde was isolated from the oil of the root of a variety of
Chlorocodon, by Goulding and Pelly,1 which Friedlander 2 has shown to
be _p-methoxy-cinnamic aldehyde. This aldehyde has been obtained
artificially by Tiemann and Parrisius3 by acting with chloroform on an
alkaline'Solution of methylresorcinol.
HYDKOCINNAMIC ALDEHYDE.
Hydrocinnamic aldehyde, C9H10O, exists in cinnamon bark oil. It
has the constitution—
CH
•Rr/V'TT
±±Oi| |UJti
HC| /CH
C . CH 2 . CH 2 . CHO
It forms a semi-carbazone melting at 130° to 131°.
PARA-METHYL-HYDROCINNAMIC ALDEHYDE.
This aldehyde is a homologue of hydrocinnamic aldehyde, having the
following constitution :—
1 2
Proc. Chem. Soc. 24'(1908),
s
62. Monatshefte, 30 (1909), 879.
Berichte,R (1880), 2366.
C.CH
HCl CH
C . CH2CH . CHO
It is prepared synthetically and has an intensely powerful odour of
the lily or lilac type.
ANISIC ALDEHYDE.
Anisic aldehyde, C8H8O2, is a methyl ether of para-oxy-benzaldehyde,
which is found to a small extent in the oils of fennel and aniseed. It is
manufactured on an extensive scale artificially, and is the basis of
all the perfumes of the hawthorn or "May blossom" type. It is
known commercially as " aubepine ". A certain amount of anisic alde-
hyde is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of coumarin, but
the greater, part of it is obtained by very careful oxidation of anethol, the
characteristic constituent of aniseed oil, which has the constitution —
= CH . CH8
CH3
The aldehyde is obtained by gently warming the oil for about an hour
with three times its volume of nitric acid (specific gravity I'l), and separ-
ating the heavy oil so formed, and washing it with potash solution. The
crude oil is agitated with a warm concentrated solution of sodium bisul-
phite, with which the aldehyde combines, and the resulting crystalline
magma is washed with alcohol and pressed in blotting-paper, and dis-
solved in warm water. Excess of sodium carbonate is added, when the
aldehyde is liberated and floats on the surface of the liquid. It can be
further purified by distillation. It can also be prepared from phenol,
which is treated in ethereal solution, with a mixture of hydrochloric and
hydrocyanic acid gases, using zinc chloride as the condensing reagent.
An imide hydrochloride is formed according to the following equation : —
/OH
C6HrOH + HCN + HC1 = C6H4<
X
CH : NH . HC1
which on reaction with water forms ^>-oxy-benzaldehyde —
C0H4< + H20 = C6H4< + NH4C1

X
CH : NH . HC1 \OH
This on methylation in the usual manner yields anisic aldehyde.
Anisic aldehyde has the following constitution : —
C . GHO
HC/NCH
HC CH
C . OCH3
Its physical characters are as follows;—
,, , , at 4 m m . . . . . . . . 91°
Optical rotation . . . . . . . . +0°
It readily oxidises to anisic acid, melting at 184°, so that it should be
kept in amber glass, well-stoppered bottles, in order to prevent oxidation.
It forms a semi-carbazone melting at 203° to 204°, and two oximes, one
melting at 63° and the other at 132°.
There is a solid " aubepine" met with in commerce, which appears
usually to be the sodium bisulphite compound of anisic aldehyde.
VANILLIN.
Vanillin, C8H8O3, is one of the most important synthetic perfumes.
It is the active odorous ingredient of the vanilla pod, in which it occurs
to the extent of about 2 per cent., appearing on the surface of the bean
as a fine white crystalline efflorescence. It occurs naturally also in
Sumatra benzoin (about 1 per cent.), Siam benzoin (-15 per cent.), and
the balsams of Tolu and Peru (traces). Numerous other bodies have
been recorded as containing it, such as asafoetida, beetroot and as-
paragus, the seeds of Lupinus albus, the seeds of Rosa canina, etc.
It was first artificially prepared by Tiemann from the glucoside coni-
ferin, which occurs in the cambium of various coniferous woods. The
constitution of vanillin is that of methyl protocatechuic aldehyde—
C.CHO
HG C . O . O H3
V
C.OH
Vanillin.
and coniferin, C16H22O8 + 2H2O, which is a glucoside melting at 185°,
was the substance which Tiemann first used for preparing vanillin from,
and for whose process Haarmann and Eeimer took out a patent. Coni-
ferin was decomposed, either by emulsin or by boiling with dilute acids,
into glucose and coniferyl alcohol, C6H3(OH)(OCH3)C3H4OH, and this
body on oxidation yields vanillin ; or the oxidation may take place first
and the hydrolysis afterwards. The process then consisted of the follow-
ing reactions. When coniferin is oxidised with an aqueous solution of
chromic acid it is converted into gluco-vanillin.
C6H3(0. CH3)(0. C6HU05)(CHO),
the glucoside of vanillin, a crystalline body melting at 170°. For this
purpose a solution of 10 parts of coniferin in 200 parts ot water is treated
at the ordinary temperature with a solution of 8 parts of chromic acid
dissolved in a small quantity of water, and the mixture allowed to stand
for several days. Barium carbonate is then added to precipitate the
chromium. The solution is evaporated to a small bulk, treated with
alcohol and filtered. The filtrate on evaporation yields crystals of gluco-
vanillin, melting at 170°. On treating this body with the ferment emulsin,
or by boiling it with dilute mineral acids, it is decomposed into glucose
and vanillin. The latter may be extracted with ether. This process,
however, has only an historical interest to-day.
The most important method, however, by which vanillin is now pre-
pared is by the oxidation of eugenol, the chief constituent of oil of cloves.
This process proved the subject-matter of a patent taken out in England
in 1876 by Tiemann, and an almost simultaneous one in France by De
Laire. The eugenol was instructed to be separated by diluting the oil
with three times its volume of ether and agitating the ethereal solution
with a dilute solution of ,potash or soda. The aqueous liquid is separated
and acidified, and the eugenol separated by extraction with ether. The
eugenol is first acetylated by means of acetic anhydride, and the resulting
acet-eugenol is dissolved in acetic acid and oxidised with permanganate
of potassium. The liquid is then filtered, and rendered alkaline, and the
whole is then evaporated, and the residue treated with moderately dilute
acid, and extracted with ether. The ethereal solution is extracted with
a solution of sodium bisulphite, which combines with the vanillin. The
double sulphite compound is decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid, and
the vanillin is extracted with ether, from which solvent it is obtained in
fine white crystals.
The best yield, however, is obtained by first converting the eugenol
into iso-eugenol, OH . OCH3 . C6H3 . CH : CH . CH3, bv treating it with
solution of potassium hydrate. The acetylation product is oxidised, by
which a cetyl- vanillin is chiefly formed, which yields vanillin by splitting
off the acetyl group.
By direct oxidation by means of ozone, isoeugenol is converted into
vanillin.
OH . OCH3 . C0H3 i CH : CH . CH3 + 2O3 =
isoeugenol
CH3COH + C8H803
vanillin.
Vanillin is also obtained by starting from meta-amido-benzaldehyde,
which is converted into its diazo compound, which yields meta-oxy-
benzaldehyde, on treatment with water. These reactions may be repre-
sented as follows : —
xNH./1) N 2 . NO3
CGH4< " +NOHO + HN08 = C 0 H/ +2H 0 O
\COH
Meta-amido-benzaldehyde. Diazo nitrate.
X N 2 '.NO 3 /OHd)
C0H / + H90 = C0H / + N 2 + HN03
\COH \COH<8>
Meta-oxybenzaldehyde.
The weta-oxybenzaldehyde is then nitrated and methylated, by which
means para-nitrome£a-methoxy-benzaldehyde
C6H3 . NO 2 (4) . OCH3 ( 3 ) . COH11)
is formed. By reduction this is altered to the corresponding amido-
aldehyde, which is again diazotised and the amido-group replaced by
hydroxyl in the usual wray, when j9ara-oxywe£a-methoxy-benzaldehyde
results, which is, of course, identical writh vanillin, or protocatechuic

aldehyde methyl ether, C6H3 . COH1 . OCH33 . OH4. Another compli-
cated method, which is the subject of a patent, is to nitrate meta-
methoxy-cinnamic acid methyl ester, by which means the corresponding
m<3ta-methoxy-jt96&ra-nitro-cinnamic methyl ester is formed. This body,
C6H3 . OCH/) . NO2(4) . (G.2H2C02G'Hs)(l) is hydrolysed and the free acid
is converted into its ammonium salt, which is dissolved in water and
reduced to the corresponding meâ-methoxy-âra-amido-cinnamic acid.
This is diazotised in the usual way, and the amido-group is replaced by
hydroxyl, by which means an acid termed ferulic acid is formed. This
is meta-mekhoxy-para-oxyeinudbmic acid, C6H3(OCH3)OH . (C2H2COOH).
This acid is oxidised (best as an acetyl compound) with potassium per-
manganate, and thus converted into vanillin. The two methods last
described, viz. those starting from weto-oxybenzaldehyde and methoxy-
cinnamic acid are only of theoretical interest.
Vanillin is also produced in several ways from guaiacol. A recent
patent (D.R.P. 189,307 — German patent) for this is as follows : Guaia-
col is treated with hydrocyanic acid in the presence of hydrochloric acid
and zinc chloride. The reaction mass, after forty-eight hours, is treated
with hot water and filtered; the unaltered guaiacol is removed by ex-
tracting the vanillin from ethereal solution by means of sodium bi-
sulphite and recovering it in the usual manner. Care must be taken to
remove all traces of guaiacol, as the slightest taint with this phenol
entirely spoils the odour and flavour of the vanillin.
Tiemann and Reimer have prepared vanillin by the action of chloro-
form on guaiacol in an alkaline medium. The mixture is boiled under
a reflux condenser for six hours. A mixture of vanillin and meta-
methoxysalicylic aldehyde results. The mixed aldehydes are separated
from the reaction mass by means of bisulphite in the usual manner,
and the liberated aldehydes are separated in a current of steam. The
vanillin is formed according to the following reaction —
CH C . CHO
+ CHC1,' + 3KOH = 3KC1 + 2H,O

~ +
GEl,v C . O . CH
s\J . W . V^-L-Lg J.-LVAN IJC.O.CH,
xV
C\OH C.OH
(Guaiacol). (Vanillin).
Another method of obtaining vanillin from guaiacol is as follows:
Formic aldehyde is allowed to react with guaiacol in the presence of
phenylhydroxyJamine sulphonate:—
OTT TT ^tO TT
CflH4/ + H . COH + \N . CBH /
\CH3 OH/ \CH3
OH\ /OH
\CGH3. CH,. N< + H20
OCH/ XH3(HS03)(OH)
This body gives up another molecule of water, yielding
OHV xHS03
>C 6 H 3 . CH : N . C(.H,<
3
OCH/ \OH
'which, on hydrolysis by means of sodium acetate, yields vanillin and a
methyl-amido-sulphonic acid.
Guyot and Gey have prepared vanillin by a synthesis depending on
the property possessed by compounds containing two carbonyl groups in
juxtaposition, of condensing with guaiacol giving products from which
it is easy to pass to vanillin.
Acetylglyoxylic acid
CH,— CO— CO— COOH
for example, yields with guaiacol the compound
OH
.CO-CH,
COOH
which is converted by oxidation into vanilloyl carboxylic acid
(CH3O)(OH)C6H3— CO— COOH.
This latter, when heated at 150° to 160° C. with dimethyl-p-toluidine is
decomposed with the production of vanillin.
Gattefosse and Morel (La Parfumerie Moderne, 1919, 114) describe a
method for the production of vanillin by reducing nitrobenzene-sul-
phonic acid with iron filings and hydrochloric acid in the presence of
guaiacol and formic aldehyde. The first-named body is reduced to
phenyl-hydroxylamine-sulphonic acid, which reacts with the guaiacol
as follows : —
/S03H X)CH.,
€6H4< + C6H4< ' + HCOH
\NHOH X)H
Guaiacol. Formic aldehyde.
/SO3H /OCH3
= CtiH / + H20 + C(iH3f OH
\NH3 \CHO
Vanillin.
Vanillin yields a number of well-defined crystalline derivatives, of
which the following are the principal : Bromo vanillin,
C6H2Br (CHO) (OCH3) (OH) ,
melts at 160° to 161° and results when an aqueous solution of vanillin is
treated with bromine. lodo-vanillin melts at 174°. Vanillin methyl
ether melts at 42° to 43°, and the ethyl ether at 64° to 65°. The oxime
Vanillin forms fine white' needles melting at 81° to 82°, or when
.absolutely pure at 82° to 84°, and possessing an intense vanilla odour.
Some of the cheaper commercial samples are heavily adulterated with
the quite odourless compound, acetanilide. The effect of this body is to
lower the melting-point even if present in large quantity, but it is very
easily detected, as by boiling with solution of potash, aniline is formed,
which is easily detected by any of the usual reactions. A quantitative
separation may be effected as follows : The substance is dissolved in
ether and the liquid repeatedly shaken with concentrated solution of
sodium bisulphite. The vanillin is thus extracted, and the ether, after
being washed twice with water, is allowed to evaporate, when the acet-
anilide remains. This will then be found1 to have a melting-point close-
to 113°. A little isovanillin, C6H3(CHO) (OH)3(OCH3)4, is occasionally
present, but this is due to the fact thar, it is generally formed in small
quantity with vanillin, in many reactions.
Acet-iso-eugenol, one of the intermediate bodies in the manufacture of
vanillin, is sometimes found in commercial samples; it lowers the melt-
ing-point of the sample, yields acetic acid in hydrolysis, and gives a fine
red colour with strong sulphuric acid, whereas pure vanillin only gives a
lemon-yellow colour. Benzole acid is also found as an adulterant. This
is easily detected by the high acid value of the substance (vanillin is-
neutral), and by dissolving the sample in ether, extracting the vanillin by
means of sodium bisulphite solution, and neutralising the residue from the
ethereal solution with potash, dissolving it in water, and testing it with a
neutral solution of ferric chloride, when red ferric benzoate is precipi-
tated.
In examining vanilla beans the determination of the vanillin is a
matter of importance. Busse recommends the following process for the
determination: 20 grams of the pods, crushed with sand, are exhausted
with ether in a Soxhlet tube, and the ethereal extract is shaken out with
20 per cent, sodium bisulphite solution. From the latter, vanillin is re-
moved by treatment with dilute H2SO4, the SO2 generated removed by a
current of CO2, and the vanillin extracted by shaking out with ether,
evaporating the solvent and weighing the residue. In East African vanilla
the author found 2*16 per cent, of vanillin, in that from Ceylon 1*48 per
cent., and in Tahiti vanilla from 1-55 to 2'02 per cent. Tiemann and
Haarman found in the best Bourbon vanilla 1*94 to 2*90 per cent., in the
best Java vanilla 2*75 per cent., and in Mexican vanilla from 1*7 to 1*9
per cent. Tahiti vanilla sometimes contains less than 1 per cent, of
vanilla.
In suspected cases the crystals on the beans should be carefully
separated and examined for benzoic acid as above described.
Hanus l recommends that /2-naphthyl hydrazine hydrochloride should
be added to the solution of vanillin in such proportion that from two to
three parts are present for each part of vanillin. After standing for five
hours the precipitate is transferred to a tared filter, washed with hot
water until the washings no longer precipitate silver nitrate, dried at 90°
and weighed. The weight of the hydrazine formed, divided by 1*92 gives,
that of the vanillin present. This method is available in all cases where
an aqueous solution of the vanillin can be prepared.
Hanus has more recently recommended the following method for the
determination of vanillin in vanilla beans and in preparations thereof.2
Three grams of the crushed pods are extracted for three hours in a Soxhlet
tube with ether, the solvent distilled off cautiously, and the residue dis-
solved in a little ether, the solution filtered and the filtrate evaporated
cautiously. The residue is treated with 50 c.c. of water at 60° on a
water-bath ; 0'25 gram of wetfa-nitrobenzhydrazide is then added to the
aqueous solution in a stoppered flask, which is kept for two to three hours
* Analyst, xxv. 318. * PJiarm. Zeit., 50, 1022, 157.
at 60°, and then set aside with occasional shaking for twenty-four hours.
"The vanillin is precipitated quantitatively as vanillin-meto-nitrobenzhydra-
zone, N0 2 . C6H4 . NH 4 . N : CH . C6H3(OCH3). OH. The precipitate
is washed with three successive quantities of petroleum ether to remove
fat, then washed with water, and then again with petroleum ether, and
then dried at 100° for two hours. The weight, multiplied by 0 4829
gives the amount of vanillin present. Preparations of vanillin are
treated similarly, alcohol being removed by evaporation. The presence
of other aldehydes, suc]^ as heliotropin, of course, will vitiate the results
Essence of Vanilla.—The substance sold under this name is, properly,
a spirituous extract of the vanilla bean. Many samples, however, are
little more than alcoholic solutions of artificial vanillin, coloured with
caramel. Some samples, which cannot be described as adulterated, con-
tain a little coumarin or other odorous substance, added to vary the
characteristic vanillin odour and flavour somewhat.
A genuine extract can bs recognised by the fact that it contains some
dark red or red-brown resin, soluble in 50 per cent, alcohol, but pre-
cipitated on further dilution.
Coumarin, or extract of Tonka beans, which contain coumarin, may
be detected as follows : A small quantity of the essence is evaporated to
dryness, the residue fused with caustic potash, saturated with hydro-
chloric acid and treated with a drop of ferric chloride solution. If
coumarin be present, a violet colour due to the formation of salicylic acid,
will be produced.
Winton and Silverman l recommend the following methods for ex-
amining essence of vanilla :—
De-alcoholise 25 grams of the extract in an evaporating dish upon a
water-bath, at a temperature of about 80° C., adding water from time to
time to retain the original volume. After removal of the alcohol, add
normal lead acetate solution, drop by drop, until no more precipitate
forms. Stir to facilitate flocculation of the precipitate, filter through a
moistened filter, and wash three times with a few c.c. of hot water.
Cool the filtrate and extract with ether by shaking out in a separator.
Use 15 c.c. to 20 c.c. of ether at each separation, repeating the process
three or four times, or until a few drops of the ether, evaporated upon a
watch glass, leaves no residue. Place the combined ether extracts con-
taining all of the vanillin and coumarin in a clean separator, and shake
out four or five times with 2 per cent, ammonia, using 10 c.c. for the
first, and 5 c.c, for each subsequent shaking.
Set aside the combined ammoniacal solutions for the determination
of vanillin.
Wash the ether solution into a weighed dish, and allow it to evapor-
ate at the room temperature. Dry in a desiccator and weigh. Usually
the dried residue is pure coumarin. Treat the residue with 5 c.c. to 10
c.c. of cold petroleum ether, boiling between 30° C. and 40° C., and decant
off the clear liquid into a beaker. Kepeat the extraction with petroleum
ether until a drop evaporated on a watch glass, leaves no residue. Dry
the dish for a few moments in a water oven, cool and weigh. Subtract
the weight of the dish and the residue (if any) from the weight previously
obtained after evaporation with ether, thus obtaining the weight of pure
coumarin. Allow the petroleum ether to evaporate at the room tempera-
ture, and dry, if necessary, in a desiccator. The residue should be
l
Jour. Amer. Chem. 8oc.t 24, 1128.
crystalline and have a melting-point of 67° C. This, with the character-
istic odour of coumarin, is sufficient for its identification.
Slightly acidulate the reserved ammoniacal solution of vanillin with
10 per cent, hydrochloric acid. Cool and shake out in a separatory
funnel with four portions of ether of about 15 c.c. to 20 c.c. each.
Evaporate the ether at room temperature in a weighed platinum dish,
dry over sulphuric acid, and weigh. Treat the residue with boiling
petroleum ether (boiling-point 80°) decanting into a dry beaker. Eepeat
the treatment until all vanillin is removed. Dry the dish and .residue (if
any) for a few moments at 100° C. and weigh ; deduct the weight from
the weight of the ether residue. The difference is the weight of the
vanillin. Evaporate the petroleum ether at ordinary temperatures, and
dry in a desiccator. The residue should be crystalline, and melt at 80° C.
to 81° C.
Tests for Caramel.—Valuable indications of the nature of an extract
are obtained in the process of determination of vanillin and coumarin.
Pure extracts of vanilla beans give, with lead acetate, a bulky, more or
less glutinous, brown-grey precipitate, and a yellow or straw-coloured
filtrate, whereas purely artificial extracts coloured with caramel give a
slight dark brown precipitate and a dark brown filtrate. If both vanilla
bean extract and -caramel are present the precipitate is more or less bulky
and dark coloured, and the filtrate is more or less brown. The solution
remaining after extraction of the vanillin and coumarin with ether, if
dark coloured, should be tested for caramel.
The most satisfactory test for caramel is to shake with Fuller's earth,
as recommended - by Crampton and Simons. If the colour is due to
caramel and a grade of Fuller's earth is used, which experience has
proved suitable, the solution, after filtering, is yellow or colourless. This
test does not positively identify the colour, as some other brown sub-
stances may give similar reactions, but no such substance is liable to be
present in vanilla extract.
Winton and Bailey determine vanillin, coumarin, and acetanilide
(which is sometimes found as an adulterant of artificial vanillin, and
therefore indicates its presence) in the following manner, 1which is a
modification of the method devised by Hess and Prescott : -
Twenty-five grams of the essence are weighed into a 200 c.c. beaker,
marked to indicate volumes of 25 c.c. and 50 c.c. The essence is diluted
with water to 50 c.c. and evaporated on a water-bath to 25 c.c. at a
temperature not exceeding 70°. It is now again diluted to 50 c.c. and
evaporated to 25 c.c. Solution of acetate of lead is then added until no
further precipitation takes place. The liquid is then, after being well
stirred, filtered through a moistened filter paper, and washed three times
with hot water, so that the total filtrate does not exceed 50 c.c. The
filtrate, when cold, is shaken with 20 c.c. of ether in a separator. The
ether is separated, and the liquid extracted with three further portions of
15 c.c. of ether. The combined ether extracts are then shaken with 10 c.c.
of 2 per cent, ammonia solution and with three subsequent portions of 5
c.c. The ethereal solution is reserved (B) and the combined ammoniacal
solutions are rendered slightly acid with 10 per cent, hydrochloric acid.
The liquid is then extracted four times with ether, and the ether evapor-
ated and the residue dried at room temperature, and finally in a desic-
cator and weighed (A). If acstanilide is absent, this may be taken as
1
Jour. Amer. Cliem. Soc. (1899-), 256.
pure vanillin, which should melt at 79° to 81°. If acetanilide has been
detected (vide infra), the residue should be dissolved in 15 c.c. of 10 per
cent, ammonia, and the liquid shaken twice with ether. The ether, on
evaporation, will- leave a residue of acetanilide, which is dried at room
temperature and then in a desiccator and the weight deducted from the
"vanillin" (A) previously weighed. The total amount of acetanilide is
the amount thus obtained, together with that present in the ethereal
solution (B) reserved above. The latter is transferred to a tared dish and
the ether allowed to evaporate at room temperature. The residue is dried
in a desiccator and weighed. It is then extracted several times by stir-
ring well with petroleum ether, which is decanted each time. If the
residue is thus completely dissolved, it may be taken to be entirely
coumarin. Any undissolved residue is probably acetanilide (melting-point
112° to 113°) and its weight deducted from the total residue gives the
coumarin.
The acetanilide here found is added to the amount extracted with the
yanillin to give the total amount present.
The presence of acetanilide in these residues may be confirmed by
boiling the residue for two to three minutes with HC1, and when cool,
adding a few drops of 0'5 per cent, of chlorinated lime solution, in such a
manner that the liquids do not mix. A fine blue colour results if acetani-
lide be present.
Commercial essence of vanilla is usually made with about 5 per cent,
of vanillas, the menstruum varying in strength from 40 to 50 per cent.
alcohol in the best varieties. Sugar is sometimes added, but not always.
The average vanillin content is 0*1 to 0*2. Much higher values than
these indicate the presence of synthetic vanillin.
Dox and Plaisancex have described the following method for the
determination of vanillin in extracts of vanilla. In depends on the use
of thiobarbituric acid in the presence of 12 per cent, hydrochloric acid
as a precipitating agent. The precipitate consists of a condensation
product 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy-benzal-malonyl-thiourea. The method
of procedure is as follows: 25 c.c. of the extract is freed from alcohol,
transferred to a 50 c.c. standard flask, and filled up with lead acetate
solution. After standing for several hours at about 37° C., the contents
of the flask are filtered through a dry filter. The filtrate should be a
straw colour, indicating absence of caramel. Forty c.c. of the filtrate is
transferred to another 50 c.c. flask, and sufficient concentrated hydro-
chloric acid is added to make the volume 50 c.c. After standing a few
minutes the lead chloride is removed by filtration and 40 c.c. of the
filtrata is taken for the determination. On adding thiobarbituric acid in
12 per cent, hydrochloric acid solution, an orange-coloured precipitate
results, which, after standing overnight, is filtered on a Good} filter,
washed with 12 per cent, hydrochloric acid, and dried at 98°. A correc-
tion is made tor the solubility of the condensation product which amounts
to 2*6 milligrammes. The conversion factor for the vanillin equivalent
to the weight of condensation product obtained is 0*5462, or T6T, after
correcting for the solubility and the aliquot part taken. Thus, the weight
of precipitate obtained from 64 per cent, of 25 c.c. of extract was 0*450,
and corrected for solubility 0*476, equivalent to 0*026 gramme of vanillin,
or 016 per cent, of the original extract.
The method is not applicable to artificial extracts where caramel is
1
Amer. Jour. Chem. (1916), 481.
added, since caramel contains furfural derivatives which react with thio-
barbituric acid. A delicate test for caramel is the reaction with phloro-
glucinol. After clarification and removing excess of lead as chloride, on
the addition of a solution of phloroglucinol a brown precipitate is formed.
If caramel is absent a delicate rose-pink colour or a slight pink precipitate
may be obtained.
HELIOTROPIN.
This body, also known as piperonal, is a white crystalline compound
possessing a powerful odour of heliotrope. It is the methylene ether of
protocatechuic aldehyde, of the constitution—
/CHOW
The source from which it was originally made is the base piperine,
C17H19NO3. Ground pepper, preferably white Singapore pepper (which
contains up to 9 per cent, of the alkaloid), is mixed with slaked lime
and water, and the whole evaporated to dry ness on a water-bath. The
dry mass is then extracted with ether, which deposits the piperine on
evaporation; or the pepper may be exhausted with alcohol, and the
alcohol recovered. The semi-solid residue is mixed with potash solution,
and the insoluble powder left is washed with water and recrystallised
from alcohol, when the piperine is obtained nearly pure. When boiled
with solution of caustic potash in alcohol, the base is converted into
potassium piperate, which on oxidation with potassium permanganate
yields heliotropin. The heliotropin of commerce, however, is manu-
factured by the oxidation of safrol. This body (q.v.) and its isomer
isosafrol yield large quantities of heliotropin on oxidation with potassium
permanganate or chromic acid.
To prepare heliotropin from isosafrol (which results from the isomerisa-
tion of safrol with alkalis), 5 parts of isosafrol are treated with a solu-
tion of 25 parts of potassium bichromate, 38 parts of concentrated
sulphuric acid, and 80 parts of water. The reaction product is steam
distilled and the distillate is extracted with ether, and the heliotropin
obtained is purified by means of alkaline bisulphite in the usual manner.
Heliotropin melts at 37°, but its perfume is injured by exposure to a
temperature several degrees below this, and it should always be stored in
cool dark places. In very hot weather the stock may with advantage be
kept dissolved in alcohol, ready for use. Its perfume is a powerful helio-
trope odour, and is improved by blending it with a little coumarin or
vanillin, or with bergamot, lemon, or neroli oil. Attention should be
drawn to the fact that the fancy perfumes whose names resemble helio-
trope are usually mixtures of heliotropin—the cheaper ones being chiefly
acetanilide, the more expensive ones containing vanillin or coumarin.
Heliotropine forms a number of well-defined crystalline compounds,
which are suitable for its identification. Bromopiperonal
C 6 H 2 Br. (CHO)(02CH2)
is prepared by treating heliotropine dissolved in carbon bisulphide, with
a slight excess of bromine. It forms crystalline needles melting at 129°.
The oxime of heliotropine exists in two isomeric forms, one melting at
110° to 112°, and the other at 146°. The semi-carbazone melts at 146°.
It also yields a mononitro-derivative which melts at 94'5°, and on oxida-
tion yields piperonylic acid melting at 228°, which on reduction yields
piperonyl alcohol melting at 51°.
ASARYLIC ALDEHYDE.
Asarylic aldehyde, C]0H12O4, is present in calamus oil, and also re-
sults from the oxidation of asarone. It has the constitution—
G . CHO
He"JC.OCH 3
C . OCH.
Asarylic aldehyde is a crystalline body melting at 114°, and yields
asaric acid on oxidation,1 which melts at 144°.
Fabinyi and Szeki give the following details of the compounds
yielded by this aldehyde, which are serviceabler for identification purposes.
When the aldehyde is heated on the w ater-bath with 25 per cent,
hydrochloric acid, it yields a triphenylmethane derivative, nonamethoxy-
triphenylmethane, a body consisting of snow-white crystals, melting at
184*5°. The action of concentrated nitric acid upon the solution in
glacial acetic acid of this triphenylmethane derivative gives rise to
1, 2, 5-trimethoxy-4-nitrobenzene (melting at 130C). With bromine,
nonamethoxytriphenylmethane combines, with separation of a molecule
of trimethoxy bromobenzene, into a tribromo additive compound of
hexamethoxy diphenylmethane, a deep violet-blue body. The 1, 2, 5-tri-
methoxy-4-bromobenzene (melting at 54-5°) may be obtained more readily
from asaronic acid.
PEEILLIC ALDEHYDE.
Perillic aldehyde, C10H14O, is present in the essential oil of Per ilia,
nankinensis. It has been examined by Semmler and Zaar,2 who isolated
it from the oil by means of its sodium sulphite compound. Perillic
aldehyde has the following characters :—
Specific rotation - 146°
,CH,
CH—C
,CH
J.CHO
1 2
Berichte, 43 (1910), 2676. Ibid., 44, 52 and 815.
By reduction with zinc-dust and acetic acid it yields the acetic ester
of perillic alcohol, from which the alcohol itself is separated by saponi-
fication.
The oxime of perillic aldehyde melts at 102°, and when heated with
acetic anhydride in presence of sodium acetate, is converted into the-
nitrile of perillic acid, a liquid having the following characters :—
On saponification the nitrile yields perillic acid, C10H14O.j, a solid
body having the following characters :—
Boiling-point at 10 mm. pressure 164° ,, 165°
Furukawa and Tomizawa l state that perillic aldehyde has the follow-
ing characters:—
Boiling-point 237°
and that it yields two oximes. Of these the a-anti-aldoxime melts at

102° and is 2000 times as sweet as sugar. The /?-syn-aldoxime melts at
129° and is not sweet. The phenylhydrazone melts at 107'5° and the
semicarbazone at 190° to 199°. The nitrile, according to these chemists
boils at 123° at 15 mm., and has a specific gravity 0'949 at 15°. They
give 132° to 133° as the melting-point of perillic acid, which yields an
amide C9H13. CO . NH 2 melting at 164° to 165°. Perillic alcohol has
a specific gravity 0'969 and boils at 118° to 121° at 11 mm.
Dibromoperillic acid melts at 166° to 167°.
These results show that the structure of perillic aldehyde is similar to
that of limonene, and that, consequently, the reducible double bond is
next to the aldehydic group.
When perillic acid is dissolved in five times its weight of amyl
alcohol and is reduced by sodium at the boiling temperature, dihydro-
perillic acid, C10H16O2, is obtained. This acid melts at 107° to 109° C.
By the reduction of its methyl ester by means of sodium, dihydroperillic
alcohol is formed, which is a liquid with a rose odour and having the
MYRTENAL.
Myrtenal, C10H14O, is an aldehyde found in the oil of Per ilia nankin-
ensis, associated with perillic aldehyde. It is also formed by the reduc-
tion of myrtenol, an alcohol of the formula C10H16O, occurring in oil of
myrtle leaves. Myrtenal has the following characters :—
L
Jour. Chem. Ind. Tokyo, 23 (1920), 342.
Eefractive index . 1-5042
Melting-point of semi-carbazone 230°
„ „ ,, oxime 71° to 72°
Its constitution is—
•CH,
HO
AROMADENDRAL.
This aldehyde has been isolated from various Eucalyptus oils by
Baker and Smith. It has a pleasant odour resembling that of cumic
aldehyde, with which Schimmel & Co. have considered it to be identical.
This, however, is improbable, and Baker and Smith l consider it to have
the formula C9H12O, which would make it to be a lower hornologue of
the terpenic aldehydes. Its physical characters, however, are somewhat
doubtful, as specimens isolated from the oils of Eucalyptus hemiphloia
and Eucalyptus salubris show. These are as follows:—
From E. From E.
Hemiphloia. Salubris.
Boiling-point 210° 218° to 219°
,, rotation . - 49° 12' - 90° 25'
It forms an oxime melting at 85°, and a phenylhydrazone melting at
104° to 105°, or possibly a few degrees higher. It also forms a naphtho-
cinchoninic acid melting at 247°, and on oxidation yields aromadendric
acid melting at 137° to 138°, when dried at 110°. These figures are
to be accepted with reserve, as it is not certain that aromadendral has
yet been separated free from cumic aldehyde.
CRYPTAL.
2
Baker and Smith have isolated an aldehyde from the oils of
Eucalyptus hemiphloia and Eucalyptus bractata, of the formula C10H16O,
which they have named cryptal. Two specimens prepared from the
former oil had the following characters :—
Specific gravity at 20° 0-9431 0'9426
Optical rotation - 76-02° - 76-2°
Eefractive index at 20° 1-4830 1-4830
Boiling-point at 10 mm. . 98° to 100° 99° to 100°
Melting-point of semi-carbazone 176° „ 177° 176° „ 177°
1
2
Jour.
Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W. (1900), xxxiv.
A Research on the Eucalypts, 2nd edition, 383.
VOL. II. 14
When prepared from the latter oil, two specimens had the following
characters :—
Specific gravity at 20° . . . . . . 0-9443 0-9446
Optical rotation - 49*7° - 50-2°
Refractive index at 20° 1-4849 1-4842
Melting-point of semi-carbazone . . . 180° 180°
All these specimens may be mixtures of the two optically active
varieties of the aldehyde.
PHELLANDRAL.
Phellandral, C10H16O, is a hydroaromatic aldehyde of the consti-
tution—
C.CHO
H0C CH,
OH
CH(CH3)2
It occurs in oil of water-fennel, from which it can be extracted by
means of its bisulphite of sodium compound. It also results from the
oxidation of /2-phellandrene.
Phellandral has the following characters :—
Boiling-point a t 5 m m . . . . . . . . . 89°
It is a liquid with an odour of cummin oil. It forms a semi-car-
bazone melting at 204° to 205°, and an oxime melting at 87° to 88°. Its
phenylhydrazone, which melts at 122° to 123°, is not very serviceable for
identification purposes, as it very rapidly resinilies.
On oxidation with moist silver oxide or even by exposure to the air
it yields an acid, tetrahydrocuminic acid (of which it is the corresponding
aldehyde) melting at 144° to 145°. This body is very useful for the
identification of the aldehyde, and is easily prepared in the following
manner. A few grams are exposed in a watch glass to the air for three
or four days, when a crystalline mass results, which is purified by com-
bination with sodium hydroxide in aqueous solution, extracting the
solution with ether, and precipitating the free acid by means of sulphuric
acid. If the aldehyde be oxidised by means of potassium permanganate,
it yields a dibasic acid of the formula C9H16O4, melting at 70° to 72°.
NOR-THICYCLOEKSANT ALAL.
This aldehyde, which has the formula CnH16O, appears to be the

only aldehyde with eleven atoms of carbon yet found in essential oils.
It was isolated from santal oil by Schimmel & Co.,1 who gave the follow-
1
Report, October (1910), 122.
ing details in regard to it: It was separated by means of its bisulphite
compound, and was found to have the following characters :—
„ » 761 „ 222° „ 224°
It forms a semi-carbazone melting at 223° to 224° and an oxime,

which is liquid, and boils at 135° to 137° at 7 mm. It isl probable
that this aldehyde is identical with that obtained by Semmler as a de-
composition product of tricycloeksantalal. To substantiate this belief,
Schimmel & Co. transformed the aldehyde into teresantalic acid. Twelve
c.c. of the aldehyde were heated for ninety minutes with 24 c.c. of acetic
anhydride and 2'5 grams of sodium acetate to boiling under a reflux
condenser. The reaction mixture was washed with water, and fraction-
ated, the resulting product being found to be a mixture of mono- and di-
acetates. By oxidation by means of permanganate of potassium, in
acetone solution, teresantalic a<jid, melting at 148° to 152°, was obtained.
The identity of this acid with the teresantalic acid occurring naturally in
santal oil was established, and the following figures indicate the differ-
ences—doubtless due to want of purification between natural nor-tricyclo-
eksantalal, and that obtained from santalol :—
From E.I. Sandalwood Oil From Santalol
(Schimmel & Co.). (Semmler).
Boiling-point 86° to 87° (6 mm.) 92° to 94° (11 mm.)
Specific gravity . 0-9938 0-9964
Optical rotation . - 38° 48' - 30-8°
Befractive index 1-48393 1-48301
Molecular refraction . 47-20 47-00
Semi-carbazone . melting-point 223° to 224° 224°
Nor-tricycZoeksantalic acid „ 91° „ 93° 93°
Teresantalic acid „ 148° „ 152° 156°
This aldehyde has the following constitution :-

H
*O
H2C c—CH2—(X
CH,
HC —C—CH,
SANTALAL.
This aldehyde, C15H22O, was isolated from santal oil by Guerbet 2
who considered it to have the formula C15H240. It has the following
characters:—
1 2
Berichte, 43 (1910), 1890. Comptes rendus (1900), cxxx. 417.
Boiling-point at 10 mm. 152° to 155°-
Specific gravity at 20° . 0-^95
Optical rotation + 13° to + 14°
Melting-point of semi-carbazone about 230°
oxime 104° to 105°
It yields santalic acid, C15H2202, on oxidation.
FAKNESAL.
Farnesol, C15H26O, yields, on oxidation, the aldehyde farnesal,
C15H24O. It forms a semi-carbazone melting at 133° to 135°. Its char-
acters are as follows :—
Specific gravity at 18° . . . 0'893
Its constitution is probably as follows :—
(CH3)2C : CH . CH 2 . CH 2 . C(CH3): CH. CH 2 . CH 2 . C(CH3)CH . CHO,
6. KETONES.
Ketones are bodies of the type K . CO . K', where K and B' may be
identical or different radicles. Ketones are prepared either by the oxida-
tion of secondary alcohols or by the distillation of the calcium salts of the
corresponding acids. Like the aldehydes, the ketones, in general, give
condensation products with hydroxylamine and with phenylhydrazine.
They also, as a general rule, form semi-carbazones. The following is a
useful method for determining whether a ketone is present in a given
mixture. By acetylating the oil, with a consequent saponification the
amount of alcohols present is indicated. The specimen is then treated
with sodium and alcohol, which will reduce most ketones to their cor-
responding alcohols. The reduced oil is now acetylated and saponified.
If it now shows a greater alcohol value this is probably due to the
presence of ketones. Ketones may frequently be determined by absorp-
tion by acid or neutral sodium sulphite, but the generally most useful
method is that based on the reduction of the ketones to alcohols. To
carry out this process 15 c.c. of the mixture is dissolved in 60 c.c. of
absolute alcohol in a flask attached to a reflux condenser. From 5 to 6
grams of sodium in small pieces are then added, and the mixture kept at
the boiling-point. When the metal is dissolved the mixture is cooled,
and the oil is washed with water until quite neutral, after having been
washed first with acetic acid. The amount of alcohols present is then
estimated by the usual acetylation process, and compared with that found
in the unreduced sample. The difference is accounted for by the amount
of ketone present.
Only a few of the ketones of the fatty series are found as natural con-
stituents of essential oils, the majority of them belonging to the aromatic
or hydroaromatic series. The following members of the open-chain
series are found in essential oils :—
ACETONE.
Acetone, CH 3 . CO . CH3, is found in the distillation waters of a few
essential oils such as that of the Atlas cedar. It is a mobile and very
volatile liquid, miscible with water and with oils, and having the follow-
ing characters :—
It forms an oxime melting at 59° to 60°, and a £>ara-bromphenyl-
hydrazone melting at 94°.
METHYL-AMYL KETONE.
This ketone, of the constitution CH3. CO . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH3,
is found in oils of clove and cinnamon. It can be isolated by means of
its sodium bisulphite compound. Its characters are as follows :—
Boiling-point " 151° to 152°
Melting-point of semi-carbazone 122° ,, 123U
ETHYL-AMYL KETONE.
Ethyl-amyl ketone, CH3 . CH2 . CO . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH3, has
been isolated from French lavender oil. Its characters are as follows :—
Refractive index . . . . 1-4154
Melting-point of semi-carbazone . 117-5°
It does not form a crystalline compound with sodium bisulphite.
METHYL-HEPTYL KETONE.
This ketone has been isolated from oil of rose, and in traces, from oil
of cloves. It has the following constitution :—
CH63 . CO. CH&2 . CH2A CHL2 . CH2.2 . CH£2 . CH10 . CH3o.
Boiling-point 196°
„ at 15 mm 80° to 82°
Melting-point - 17°
It forms a crystalline semi-carbazone melting at 118° to 119°. Its
oxime is liquid. On oxidation with hypobromite of sodium it yields caprylic
acid.
METHYL-NONYL KETONE.
Methyl-nonyl ketone,
CH 3 . CO. CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH3,
is the principal constituent of French oil of rue. It is a solid compound
of low melting-point, having a characteristic odour of rue. Its characters
are as follows :—
Boiling-point 233°
Melting-point +13°
It yields an oxime melting at 46° to 47°, and a semi-carbazone melt-
ing at 123° to 124°.
METHYL-HEPTENONE.
Methyl-heptenone, C8HUO, occurs in various essential oils, especially
lemon-grass oil, in which it is associated with, and difficult to separate
from, the aldehyde citral.
It is a liquid of strong odour, recalling that of amyl acetate, and has
the constitution:—
CH3X
)C : CH . CH,. CH,. CO. CHS.
CH/
Methyl-heptenone has the following characters :—
From Lemon- From Decornposi-
grass Oil. tion of Citral.
Boiling-point 173° 173° to 174°
Refractive index at 15° 1-4380 —
Optical rotation ±0° ±0°
It forms a semi-carhazone melting at 136° to 138°, which can be ob-

tained as follows : Ten c.c. of methyl-heptenone are dissolved in 20 c.c. of
glacial acetic acid, and a mixture of 10 grams of semi-carbazide hydro-
chloride and 15 grams of sodium acetate dissolved in 20 c.c. of water is
added. After half an hour the semi-carbazone is precipitated by the
addition of water, and recrystallised from dilute alcohol.
Methyl-heptenone also forms a bromine derivative which is well suited
for the identification of the ketone. This body, which has the formula
C8H12Br30 . OH, melts at 98° to 99°, and is obtained as follows : Three
grams of methyl-heptenone are mixed with a solution containing 3 grams
of caustic soda, 12 grams of bromine, and 100 c c. of water. After a
time an oily substance is deposited, which is extracted with ether. The
solvent is evaporated, and the residue, redissolved in ether, is treated with
animal charcoal and filtered. On slow evaporation the product is ob-
tained in well-defined crystals.
Methyl-heptenone combines with sodium bisulphite. On reduction
by means of sodium and alcohol, it forms the corresponding alcohol,
methyl-heptenol, C8H15OH, which has the following characters:—
This alcohol has been identified in oil of linaloe.

Ciamician and Silber1 have found that .light has a marked effect on
methyl-heptenone. The ketone was kept in a glass flask, exposed to
the light for five months, the flask being exhausted of air, which was
replaced by oxygen. When the seal was broken, the contents of the
flask were found to be at reduced pressure, and the oxygen was mainly
converted into carbon dioxide.
The methyl-heptenone was decomposed, with the formation of acetone,
a ketonic glycol, C8H16O3, and a hydroxydiketone, C8HUO2.
1
Berichte, 46 (1913), 3077.
DlACETYL.
Diacetyl, CH3. CO . CO . CH3, is a diketone found in the distillation

waters of santal, caraway, orris, savin, pine, and other essential oils.
Melting-point o f osazone . . . . . . . 243°
„ „ „ phenylhydrazone 133° to 134°
PUMILONE.
Pumilone, C8H14O, has been isolated from the oil of Pinus pumilio.
It is a ketone having the characteristic odour of the oil, and whose
characters are as follows :—
Optical rotation . . . . . . . . . . 15°
lONONE.
The ketone, ionone, is one of the most important of all the synthetic
perfumes, and one most valued by perfumers as being indispensable for
the preparation of violet odours.
In 1893, after many years of patient research, Tiemann and Kriiger l
succeeded in preparing this artificial violet perfume which they termed
ionone. The chemical relationships of this body are so interesting and
important that Tiemann's work is here dealt with fairly fully.
The characteristic fragrance of the violet is also possessed to a con-
siderable extent by dried orris root (iris root), and believing, although
apparently erroneously, that both substances owed their perfume to the
same body, Tiemann and Kriiger used oil of orris for their experiments,
instead of oil of violets, of which it was impossible to obtain & sufficient
quantity. The root was extracted with ether, the ether recovered, and
the residue steam distilled. The non-volatile portion consists chiefly of
resin, irigenin, iridic acid, and myristic acid, whilst the volatile portion
consists of myristic acid and its methyl ester, oleic acid, oleic anhydride,
oleic esters, and the characteristic fragrant body which they termed
irone. Irone (q.v.) has the formula C13H20O, and is an oil scarcely
soluble in water. The smell of this oil is quite unlike violets when in
concentrated form, but if diluted, resembles them to some extent. Irone
is clearly a methyl ketone of the constitution—
CH3 CH3
C
. CH : CH . CO . CH,
HC CH . CH,3
CH2
[
Berichte,2G (1893), 2675.
In order to attempt to synthesise irone, experiments were made
which finally led to the condensation of citral with acetone, in the
presence of alkalis. Irone was not obtained, but an isomer, which
Tiemann called pseudo-ionone, as follows : —
C10H160 + (CH3)2CO - C13H300 + H20.
Pseudo-ionone is an oil, having the following characters : —
If pseudo-ionone be heated with dilute sulphuric acid and a little
glycerine, it is converted into another isomeric ketone, and now well-
known ionone, C13H20O.
This body is now recognised to be a mixture of two isomeric ketones,
known as a-ionone and /?-ionone. The commercial article, which is a
mixture of the two ketones has approximately the following char-
acters : —
Specific gravity . 0-935 to 0-940
It has a characteristic violet odour, and at the same time recalls the
vine blossom. Tiemann originally assigned to this body the formula—
CH3 CH3
C
H2C/\CH . CH : CH . CO . CH3
i
HCs\ JCH. OH3
CH
But further researches on the chemistry of citral caused him later to
support the formula—
CH
C
H2C . CH : CH . CO . CH,
H2C C.CH 3
CH
which is now accepted as representing a-ionone.
Barbier and Bouveault,1 however, assigned to it the unlikely
formula —
CH2-C(CH3) .
CH2< >C . CH : CH . CO . CH3
\CH2— C(CH3)/
Tiemann later 2 succeeded in resolving ionone into the two isomeric
1 2
Comptes rendus (1897), 1308. Berichte, 31 (1898), 808, 867.
compounds, which he terms a-ionone and /3-ionone. Tiemann and
Kriiger obtained ionone by heating pseudo-ionone with dilute sulphuric
acid. De Laire, using strong acid, obtained a quite similar body, but
one which yielded different derivatives. This body is the original iso-
ionone, or, as it is now called, /2-ionone. a-Ionone is prepared from the
commercial product by converting it into the crystalline oxime, which
is recrystallised from petroleum, and regenerating the ketone by means
of dilute sulphuric acid, when a-ionone results. It has the constitution
given above, and its characters are as follows ;—
C
Boiling-point . . . . 127 to 128° at 12 mm.
Melting-point of oxime 89° to 90°
,, ,, ,, semi-carbazone 107°
,, ,, ,, bromphenylhydrazone 142° to 143°
j8-ionone is obtained from the commercial mixture by means of the
aemi-carbazone, which crystallises more readily than the corresponding
derivative of the a-ketone, and can thus be separated.
The constitution of /3-ionone is—
C
H2C/Nc . CH : CH . CO . CH,
H0C X3 . CH,
CH9
Specific gravity . . . . . 0-949
Boiling-point 134C to 135° at 12 mm.
Melting-point of semi-carbazone 148° to 149°
,, „ ,, bromphenylhydrazone 116° „ 118°
Some of the most important modern work, which has led to good
practical results, on the ionone question, is that of Dr. Philippe Chuit.
Eecognising the distinct differences between a-ionone and /3-ionone from
a perfumer's point of view, Chuit has devoted considerable time to de-
vising practicable methods for their separation. The chief constituent
of the ionone of commerce is a-ionone. By the use of concentrated
sulphuric acid in the cold, the principal isomerisation product of pseudo-
ionone appears to be /2-ionone, and under the name violettone this pro-
duct was put on the market. Numerous patents have been taken out
for the preparation of the separate ionones, which need not be here dis-
cussed. Although ionone does not readily combine with alkaline bi-
sulphite, yet it does so by prolonged boiling with the solution of bisulphite,
a discovery made by Tiemann and utilised by him to remove impurities
from crude ionone. Further, it was shown that the hydrosulphonic
compound of a-ionone crystallised more readily than that of /3-ionone,
whilst the corresponding compound of /3-ionone was the more easily
decomposed by a current of steam. These facts constituted a step
towards the effectual separation of the isomeric ionones.
It has been proved that whilst concentrated sulphuric acid at a low
temperature caused isomerisation of pseudo-ionone, so that the resulting
product consists chiefly of /?-ionone, the use of phosphoric, hydro-
chloric, and hydrobromic acids at low temperatures yields chiefly a-ionone.
In conjunction with Bachofen, Chuit has devised a method for
separating the isomeric ionones depending on the following facts. The
method is based on the insolubility of the sodium salt of the hydrosul-
phonic compound of a-ionone in the presence of sodium chloride, whilst
the corresponding /^-compound remains in solution. If sodium chloride-
be added to a hot solution of the hydrosulphonic compounds, separation
of the a-salt takes place slowly as the solution cools, and the salt
crystallises in fine white scales, which can be recrystallised from hot
water. The /^-compound remains in solution.
As an example of the efficacy of this separation the following is given :
5 grams of a-ionone and 5 grams of /2-ionone were boiled with bisulphite
solution for four and a halt hours. To the solution, measuring 165 c.c.,
40 grams of sodium chloride were added. On cooling and standing, 11
grams of moist crystals were obtained, which on decomposing in the
usual manner, by caustic soda solution, yielded on steam distillation 5-
grams of a-ionone. The /3-ionone was recovered from the mother liquor
with a trifling loss.
The composition of the ordinary hydrosulphonic sodium compound
of a-ionone is, according to Chuit,
(C13H21O . SO3Na . )2 + 3H2O,
whilst that of £-ionone is C13H21O . SO3Na + 2H2O.
From the point of view of practical perfumery, Chuit points out that
the possession of the two pure isomers enables perfumers to produce
numerous shades of violet perfume, with characteristic and distinct
odours, a-ionone has a sweeter and more penetrating odour, rather re-
sembling orris than violets, whilst /2-ionone is said to more closely
resemble the true fresh violet flower.
Patents covering the separation of the ionones are numerous.
The following is a copy of the provisional and complete specifications-
provided by the original patentee. The patent has now expired. Further
examination of the bodies in question has shown that a few unimportant
details require correction :—
Provisional Specification.—I, Johann Carl Wilhelm Ferdinand Tiemann, member
of the firm of Haarmann and Reimer, of Holzminden, residing at Berlin, Germany, do-
hereby declare the nature of this invention to be as follows:—
I have found that a mixture of citral and acetone, if it is subjected, in the
presence of water, for a sufficiently long time to the action of hydrates of alkaline
earths or of hydrates of alkali metals, or of other alkaline agents, is condensed to a
ketone of the formula C13H200. This substance, which I term " Pseudo-ionone,"'
may be produced lor instance in shaking together for several days equal parts of citral
and acetone with a solution of hydrate of barium, and in dissolving the products of
this reaction in ether.
The residue of the ether solution is fractionally distilled under a reduced pressure
and the fraction is collected, which boils under a pressure of 12 mm. at a tempera-
ture of from 138° to 155° C., and from it the unattacked citral and unchanged acetone
and volatile products of condensation are separated in a current of steam, which
readily carries off these bodies.
The product of condensation remaining in the distilling apparatus is purified by
the fractional distillation in vactco. Under a pressure of 12 mm. a liquid distils off
at a temperature of from 143° to 145° C. This product of condensation which I term
" Pseudo-ionone," is a ketone readily decomposable by the action of alkalis. Its.
formula is C13H200, its index of refraction is nD = 1*527, and its specific weight
0-904.
The pseudo-ionone has a peculiar but not very pronounced odour; it does not
combine with bisulphite of sodium as most of the ketones of the higher series, but,
in other respects, it possesses the ordinary characteristic properties of the ketones,
forming, in particular, products of condensation with phenylhydrazine, hydroxyl-
amine and other substituted ammonias.
Although the odour of the pseudo-ionone does not appear to render it of great
importance for its direct use in perfumery, it is capable of serving as raw material
for the production of perfumes, the pseudo-ionone being converted by the action of
dilute acids into an isomeric ketone, which I term " lonone," and which has most
valuable properties for perfumery purposes. This conversion may be effected, for
example, by heating for several hours in an oil bath 20 parts of "pseudo-ionone"
with 100 parts of water, 2-5 parts of sulphuric acid, and 100 parts of glycerine, to the
boiling-point of the mixture. The product resulting from this reaction is dissolved
in ether, the latter is evaporated, and the residue subjected to the fractional distilla-
tion in vacuo. The fraction distilling under a pressure of 12 mm. at a temperature
of from 125° to 135° G. is collected. This product may be still further purified by
converting it by means of phenylhydrazine or other substituted ammonias into a
ketone condensation product decomposable under the action of dilute acids.
The ketone derivatives of the pseudo-ionone are converted under similar condi-
tions into ketone-derivatives of the ionone. The pure ionone corresponds to the
formula C13H200, it boils under a pressure of 12 mm. at a temperature of about 128°
0., its specific weight is 0-935, and its index of refraction nD = 1'507.
The ionone has a fresh flower-perfume recalling that of violets and vines, and is
peculiarly suitable for being used in perfumery, confectionery, and distillery.
The ionone, when subjected at a higher temperature to the action of hydroiodic
acid, splits off water and gives a hydrocarbon corresponding to the formula C13H18,
boiling under a pressure of 12 mm. at a temperature of from 106° to 112° C. This
hydrocarbon is converted by strong oxidising agents into an acid of the formula
C12H,«>06, melting at a temperature of 214° C.
Complete Specification.—I, Johann Carl Wilhelm Ferdinand Tiemann, member
of the firm of Haarmann & Reimer, of Holzminden, residing at Berlin, Germany, do
hereby declare the nature of this invention, and in what manner the same is to be
performed to be particularly described and ascertained in and by the following
statement:—
I have found that a mixture of citral and acetone, if it is subjected in the
presence of water for a sufficiently long time to the action of hydrates of alkaline
earths or of hydrates of alkali metals, or of other alkaline agents, is condensed to a5>
ketone of the formula C13H20O. This substance, which I term ** Pseudo-ionone,
may be produced, for instance, in shaking together for several days equal parts of
citral and acetone with a solution of hydrate of barium, and in dissolving the pro-
ducts of this reaction in ether.
The residue of the ether solution is fractionally distilled under a reduced pressure
tnd the fraction is collected, which boils under a pressure of 12 mm. at a temperature
of from 138° to 155° C. and from it the unattacked citral and unchanged acetone and
volatile products of condensation of acetone by itself are separated in a current of
steam, which readily carries off these bodies.
The product of condensation remaining in the distilling apparatus is purified by
the fractional distillation in vacuo. Under a pressure of 12 mm. a liquid distils off
at a temperature of from 143° to 145° C. This product of condensation of citral with
acetone, which I term " Pseudo-ionone," is a ketone readily decomposable by the
action of alkalis. Its formula is C13H200, its index of refraction nD = 1*527, and
its specific weight 0-904.
The pseudo-ionone has a peculiar, but not very pronounced odour; it does not
combine with bisulphite of sodium as most of the ketones of the higher series, but
in other respects it possesses the ordinary characteristic properties of the ketones,
forming, in particular, products of condensation with phenylhydrazine, hydroxyl-
amine, and other substituted ammonias.
Although the odour of the pseudo-ionone does not appear to render it of great
importance for its direct use in perfumery, it is capable of serving as raw material for
the production of perfumes, the pseudo-ionone being converted by the action of dilute
acids into an isomeric ketone, which I term " lonone," and which has most valuable
properties for perfumery purposes. This conversion may be effected, for example,
by heating for several hours in an oil-bath 20 parts of "pseudo-ionone" with 100
parts of water, 2'5 parts of sulphuric acid, and 100 parts of glycerine, to the boiling-
point of the mixture.
The product resulting from this reaction is dissolved in ether, the latter is
evaporated and the residue subjected to the fractional distillation in vacua. The
fraction distilling under a pressure of 12 mm. at a temperature of from 125° to 135°
C. is collected. This product may be still further purified by converting it by means
of phenylhydrazine or other substituted ammonias into a ketone condensation pro-
duct decomposable under the action of dilute acids.
The ketone derivatives of the pseudo-ionone are converted under similar condi-
tions into ketone derivatives of the ionone. The pure ionone corresponds to the
formula C13H200, it boils under a pressure of 12 mm. at a temperature of about 128°
C., its specific weight is 0*935, and its index of refraction nD = 1*507.
The ionone has a fresh flower-perfume recalling that of violets and vines, and is
peculiarly suitable for being used in perfumery, confectionery, and distillery.
The ionone, when subjected at a temperature surpassing 100° C. to the action of
hydroiodic acid, splits off water and gives a hydrocarbon corresponding to the
formula C13Hlg, boiling under a pressure of 12 mm. at a temperature from 106° to
112° C. This hydrocarbon is converted by strong oxidising agents into an acid of the
formula C12H12O6 melting at a temperature of 214° C.
Having now particularly described and ascertained the nature of this invention,
and in what manner the same is to be performed, I declare that what I claim is:—
1. A new chemical product termed pseudo-ionone obtained by the reaction of
citral upon acetone in the presence of alkaline agents and subsequent treatment of
the products, substantially as described.
2. A new article of manufacture termed ionone suitable for perfumery and the like
and having the characteristics hereinbefore set forth, obtained from pseudo-ionone
referred to in the preceding claim, substantially as described.
3. The process for the production of the pseudo-ionone referred to in the first
claim, consisting in the subjection of a mixture of citral and acetone to the action of
an alkaline agent, and in purifying the product of this reaction, extracted by means
of ether, by fractional distillation, substantially as described.
4. The process for the production of the ionone referred to in the second claim,
consisting in treating the pseudo-ionone referred to in the first claim or its ketone
condensation products with phenylhydrazine or other ammonia derivatives, finally
with acids, substantially as described.
The commercial product, as put on to the market, was originally a
10 per cent, solution of ionone in alcohol. This was due not only to
the expensive nature of the product, but also to the fact that its odour is
very intense, and when pure, not like that of violets. Ten grams of
this solution are sufficient to produce 1 kilo of triple extract of violets
when diluted with pure spirit. But to-day 100 per cent, violet perfumes,
such as the violettone, above mentioned, are regular commercial articles.
The perfume is improved both lor extracts and soaps by the addition of
a little orris oil, but in the author's opinion the odour of ionone is not
nearly so delicate as that of the natural violet, although far more powerful.
With regard to the practical use of ionone, which sometimes presents
a difficulty to perfumers, Schimmel & Co. have published the following
remarks:—
" This beautiful article maintains its position in the front rank of
preparations for perfumery, and will probably remain without a rival
among artificial perfumes for some time to come. Although the violet
scent has long been a favourite perfume, its popularity has doubled
through the invention of ionone, and it is not too much to say that the
introduction of that body alone has made it possible to produce a perfect
extract. Some of the leading European perfumers produce violet extracts
which may be recommended as examples of excellence, and which have
•deservedly become commercial articles of the first importance. The
inventors of ionone have earned the gratitude of the entire perfumery
industry, and may be congratulated in turn upon the remarkable success
of their invention.
" As we have already pointed out on a previous occasion, the pre-
paration of a violet extract in which ionone is made to occupy its due
position is not such an easy task as is often assumed; on the contrary,
it requires a long and thorough application.
" To obtain a perfect result with ionone is an art in the true meaning
of the word, and on that account no inexperienced hand should attempt
it. We again and again lay stress upon this fact, because in our business
we are constantly brought face to face with people who think that they
can make a suitable violet extract by simply mixing alcohol with ionone
solution. This view is quite wrong. The employment of ionone pre-
supposes above everything else that the user is acquainted with the
peculiarities of the article and knows how to deal with them. Again
and again the uninitiated come to us with the complaint that ionone
has no odour at all, or that it smells disagreeably, although, as a matter
of fact, these objections are usually withdrawn upon closer acquaintance
with the article. The assumptions in question are only due to a blunting
of the olfactory nerves, or, more correctly, to a nasal delusion, which
also occurs sometimes in the case of other flower odours and to which
people are known to be particularly liable when smelling freshly
gathered violets.
"The principal thing in connection with the employment of ionone
is to discover its proper degree of dilution. In its natural state the
body is so highly concentrated as scarcely to remind one of violets.
This is the reason why it was placed in trade in the form of a 10 per
cent, solution, and not in its pure state. This form has proved an ex-
ceedingly useful one. In using it for extracts, powders, sachets, etc.,
the solution must be further diluted and fixed with some orris oil, civet,
and musk."
By using acetone homologues, homologous or reduced ionones are
produced which have intense odours of a similar character.
The above remarks apply to the commercial product known as ionone.
There are, however, numerous other patents in existence for the pre-
paration of artificial violet oil. The complete specification of one of
these reads as follows :—
I, Alfred Julius Boult, of 111 Hatton Garden, in the County of Middlesex,.
Chartered Patent Agent, do hereby declare the nature of this invention and in what
manner the same is to be performed, to be particularly described and ascertained in
and by the following statement :—
This invention relates to a process for manufacturing hitherto unknown oils
having a violet scent.
Patents No. 8,736 of 1 May, 1893, and No. 17,539 of 18 September, 1893, describe
the manufacture of ionone, which is an essential oil, boiling at 128° under 12 mm.
pressure, and of specific gravity of 0-935. This oil is optically inactive.
The final product of the process according to the present invention is an oil
boiling at 142° to 150° C. under 12 mm. pressure and of specific gravity of from 0'94 to
0*95. It differs from ionone by having when concentrated a very strong scent similar
to that of sandalwood by producing a left-handed rotation of a polarised ray and by
having when diluted a scent more closely approaching that of natural violets than
does that of ionone.
Analysis shows that this oil consists of several ketones of the groups G13H20O of
higher boiling-points and greater density than those of ionone. These ketones are
optically active, and both their existence and their artificial production have been
hitherto unknown.
The process employed in carrying out this invention is as follows : A mixture of
1 to 1J parts acetone (45 kg.), 1 part of lemon-grass oil (38 kg.), 1£ to 2 parts of
alcohol (75 kg.), 1 to 2 parts of a concentrated lime-free solution of chloride of lime
(75 kg.), to which is added a little cobaltous nitrate (30 gr.) dissolved in water, is
boiled during six to eighteen hours at a temperature of 70° to 80° C. in a reflux cooling
apparatus.
The alcohol and the excess of acetone are first distilled off and then an essential
oil is obtained, which, after the first distilled portion (about 4 kg.) of specific gravity
0*88 has been removed, represents the stuff for producing artificial oil of violets. It
is an essential oil with a boiling-point of 155° to 175° at 12 mm. pressure (about 25 kg.).
This oil is heated at 110° C. with a solution of bisulphate of sodium of 11° Beaume
(42 kg. for 360 litres of water) in a vessel with a mixing device until the samples
distilled every day show that the first running, which has an unpleasant smell, has
reached the density of 0*936. This happens after about eight days (the first running
being about 8 kg.).
The crude product (about 17 kg.) in the vessel is then purified by fractional dis-
tillation, all the bad-smelling parts being removed, so that finally there remains an
oil of a density of 0*948 to 0*952 (15° C.) boiling at 142° to 150° under 12 mm. pres-
sure.
The lightest portion of this oil has a specific gravity of 0*945 and boils at 142° C.
under 12 mm. pressure; the largest portion of it, which has the pleasantest and
strongest smell, boils at 149° C. and has a specific gravity of 0*953. Analysis has
shown that both substances belong to the group of ketones C13H20O.
By using other ketones instead of acetone homologous substances may be obtained.
The product obtained by the above-described process contains BO ionone, for it
contains no ingredient boiling at 128° C. under the pressure of 12 mm. and having
a specific gravity 0*935. The violet-like smell of the product obtained according to
the present invention is the result of the presence of substances which are different
from ionone, as their specific gravity and their boiling-point are higher than those of
ionone. The new product has the advantage that it can be manufactured in a very
simple and economical manner, and as its smell is much more like that of real
violets than is the smell of ionone, and as it is more constant and less volatile than
ionone, it is much more suitable for artificial violet scent than the " ionone " which
has hitherto been the only artificially made substance known for this purpose, and
which is much more difficult to manufacture.
Having now particularly described and ascertained the nature of the said inven-
tion as communicated to me by my foreign correspondents and in what manner the
same is to be performed, I wish it to be understood that I do not claim anything
described and claimed in the Specifications of Letters Patent Nos. 8,736 and 17,539,
A.D. 1893, granted to Johann Carl Wilhelm Ferdinand Tiemann, but I declare that
what I claim is :—
1. As an article of manufacture an essential oil having the smell of violets,
boiling at 142° to 150° C. under a pressure of 12 mm. and of a specific gravity of 0*948
to 0*952 (15° C.).
2. A process for the manufacture of hitherto unknown oils having the smell of
violets, which oils have a higher boiling-point and higher specific gravity than
ionone.
3. A process for the manufacture of hitherto unknown oils boiling at 155° to
175° C. under the pressure of 12 mm., which can be converted into violet-smelling
oils of higher specific gravity and higher boiling-point than those of ionone by being
boiled with different substances, such, for instance, as bisulphate of sodium.
4. The manufacture of homologous substances by using other ketones instead of
acetone.
5. A process for the manufacture of artificial essence of violets consisting in
causing lemon-grass oil, alcohol, acetone, and concentrated solutions of salts of
hypochlorous acid to react on one another at the boiling temperature.
6. Process for manufacture of artificial essence of violets consisting in causing
lemon-grass oil, alcohol, acetone, and concentrated solutions of salts of hypochlprous
acid to react on one another at a boiling temperature, cobaltous nitrate being added
if desired.
The patentees state that their invention relates to the preparation

of cyclic ketones of the same group as ionone, but with higher boiling-
points and higher specific gravity. They claim to have proved that,
corresponding to the pseudo-ionone of the patent No. 8,736 of 1893,
which distils at 143° to 145° (12 mm.), and which finally gives the ketone
ionone of boiling-point 126° to 128° (12 mm.), and specific gravity
0*935 (20 C.), there exists also an iso-pseudo-ionone which distils at
149° to 151° (12 mm.), and which gives iso-ionone of boiling-point 133°
to 135° (12 mm.), and specific gravity 0'943 (20 C.), and further that
there exists still another isopseudo-ionone which distils at 157° to 160°
(12 mm.), and which gives a cyclic ketone of boiling-point 142° to 146°
and specific gravity 0-960 (20 C.).
They also claim that large quantities of iso-pseudo-ionone are formed
in the process of Tiemann's patent, and which can be separated by dis-
tillation, coming over at a higher temperature than the ordinary pseudo-
ionone.
According to Hanriot ionone can be detected in very minute amount
by the following reaction: If traces of it be dissolved in concentrated
hydrochloric acid, the liquid becomes of an intense golden colour, and
if the solution be warmed with chloral hydrate, a dirty violet colour
results. The violet colouring matter is extracted by ether, and if the
ether be evaporated a water-soluble violet-coloured residue is left.
This test will detect 1 part of ionone in 2000.
Skita 1 has studied the reduction of ionone by means of palladium
chloride. The reduction-product, dihydroionone, boils at 121° and 122°
(14 mm.); it possessed a faint odour of cedarwood. By the same
method, ^-ionone yields a dihydroionone boiling at 126° to 129° (12 mm.).
When the reduction is continued until hydrogen ceases to be absorbed,
both a- and /3-ionone yield tetrahydroionone, boiling at 126° to J27°
at 13 mm.
The fact that the reduction of a- and /3-ionone affords two different
dihydroionones indicates that the double linkage in the side chain is
the first to be saturated. This agrees with the fact that continued re-
duction leads to the same tetrahydroionone.
C
. CH 2 . CH 2 . CO . CH3
H,CV ^C.CH 3
Dihydroionone from a-ionoce.
C
. CH2 . CH2 . CO . CH3 H 2 C C H . CH2 . CH2 . CO . CH
. CH3 H2C 'CH . CH

CH2 CH2
Dihydroionone from j8-ionone. Tetrahydroionone.
2
Kishner has prepared the hydrocarbons corresponding to the iso-
meric ionones, in which the oxygen atom is replaced by two hydrogen
atoms. These two hydocarbons, C13H22, are a-ionane and /2-ionane.
Their characters are as follows : —
a-ionane. j8-ionane.
Boiling-point ...... 220° to 221° 224° to 225°
00°
Specific gravity at ^ • . . . 0-853 0-815
Refractive index ..... 1'4784 1-4725
1 2
Berichte, 45 (1912), 3312. Jour. Phys. Chim. Russe., 43, 1398.
Their constitutions are as follows : —
CH3— CH2— CH =CH—CH

C
CH3
CH
CH
2
CH/
OH :=CH — — 2^ //.CH
CH
Knoerenagel * has studied the products of condensation of citral

with ethyl-acetoacetate, and has obtained the following bodies : /?-
pseudoionone C13H20O,
CH— CH2— CH— CO— CH3
CH3— C — CH2 — CH — CH = C(CH3)2
and a-isoionone, and /2-isoionone, two other closely related isomers.
IRONE.
Irone is the odorous ketone present in oil of orris. It is isomerift
with ionone, having the formula C13H20O and the constitution —
CH2
H,C . OC . HC : HC . HCV JCH
It has also4 been prepared synthetically by Merling and Welde,2 by

condensing ^d -cyclocitral with acetone.
Irone is a colourless oil, having an odour resembling that of violets.
Boiling-point a t 1 6 m m . . . . . . . . 144°
Optical rotation . . . . . . . . . about + 4 0 °
It forms an oxime, C 13 H 20 : NOH, melting at 12i'5°. If a 10 per cent,
solution of irone in glacial acetic acid be allowed to stand with j?-brom-
phenylhydrazone, crystals of irone j9-bromphenylhydrazone separate,
1 2
J . prakt. Chem. [2], 97, 288. Ann. Chem. (1909), 119.
which melt, after repeated recrystallisation from methyl alcohol, at
174° to 175°. Irone also forms a thiosemi-carbazone melting at 181°.
A ketone isomeric with irone has been isolated from oil of cassie
'flowers. It is possible that this is /3-ionone, but its identity has not yet
been established.
METHYL-HEXANONE.
Methyl-l-hexanone-3, C7H12O, is found naturally in pennyroyal oil,
and is obtained by the decomposition of pulegone. It is an aromatic
Specific gravity at -5° 0-911
Its semi-carbazone melts at 182° to 183°, and its oxime at 43° to 44°.
CH . CBL
BLC CH,
H, .CO
tfng
SANTENONE.
Santenone, C9H14O, is a lower homologue of the regular " terpenic "
ketones of the formula C10H1GO. It occurs naturally in sandal wood oil,
and may be obtained by the oxidation of isosantenol, the alcohol resulting
from the hydration of santene. Santenone has the following char-
acters :—
Melting-point 58° to 61°J
Specific rotation (in alcohol) . . . . . - 4° 40'
It forms a semi-carbazone melting at 222° to 224°. The constitution

of santenone is as follows :—
CH3
H2a —c co
H—C—CH,
C CH,
H
SABINA KETONE.
Sabina ketone, C10H14O, is not a natural constituent of essential
oils, but is of considerable interest on account of its utility in the
synthesis of other ketones.
1
The melting-point 48° to 52° given in Vol. I. was apparently determined on an
impure specimen.
VOL. II. 15
It results from the oxidation of sabinenic acid with peroxide of lead,
sabinenic acid itself being an oxidation product of the terpene sabinene.
It is a liquid having the following characters :—
Optical rotation . . . . . . . . . . 2 4 ° 41'
It forms a semi-carbazone melting at 141° to 142°. Its constitution
is probably as follows :—
CO
HC/
. CH(CH3)2
l
Wallach prepares sabina ketone in the following manner: Twenty-
iive grams of sabinene are treated with 60 grams of potassium per-
manganate, 13 grams of caustic soda, 400 c.c. of water, and 400 grams
of ice. The mixture is well shaken and the unchanged hydrocarbon is
distilled off in a current of steam. Manganese dioxide is then filtered
off, and the sodium sabinenate separated by concentrating the filtrate,
when the salt crystallises out. This is then oxidised by potassium
permanganate in sulphuric acid solution.
Kotz and Lemien 2 have recently converted sabina ketone into its
.homologue methyl-sabina ketone, C10H16O, by first converting it into
hydroxymethylene sabina ketone by Claisen's method, and then reducing
this0 ketone, when the homologue results. It is a heavy oil, boiling at
:221 and having the following formula :—
CO
CH,
C . CH(CH3)2
VEBBENONE.
This ketone, C10H14O, is found naturally in oil of vervain, the true
verbena oil. It has, when isolated from this oil, the following char-
acters :—
.Specific gravity 0-974 at 17°
The natural ketone is, however, probably contaminated with traces of
terpenes.
Verbenone results from the auto-oxidation of turpentine oil, d-
1 2
Annalen, 359 (1908), 265. /. prakt. Chem., 1914 [ii.], 90, 314.
terbenone resulting from the oxidation of American, and Z-verbenone
from that of French, oil of turpentine. When purified by decomposition
t0f its semi-carbazone, the characters of d-verbenone are as follows :—
,, ,, at 16 mm. 100°
Melting-point + 6*5°
Verbenone has the following constitution :—

CH-
The constitution of verbenone has been established l by its reduction

to the corresponding saturated secondary alcohol, dihydroverbenol, and
into the corresponding saturated ketone, or dihydroverbenone.
CH
'
HOHC/
HX-C-CH
CH
CH—CH3 CH—CH3
Dihydroverbenol. Dihydroverbenone.
Dextro-dihydroverbenol melts at 58° C. and boils at 218° C.; it yields
an acetic ester, the odour of which recalls that of bornyl acetate. Dextro-
dihydroverbenone is produced by the oxidation of the above alcohol by
means of chromic acid, or by the reduction of verbenone by means of
hydrogen in presence of colloidal palladium. It boils at 222° C. (D15
0'9685; [a]D + 52-1 9°; wD201-47535; molecular refraction 44-45) and gives
a semi-carbazone melting at 220° to 221° C.; its oxime melts at 77° to 78°
C. On applying Grignard's reaction to d-verbenone, a hydrocarbon is
obtained which appears to be methylverbenene, C11H16 (boiling-point
8 mm., 49° C. ; boiling-point 771 mm., 175° to 176° C.; D15 0-876; D20
G'872; aD ± 0°; HD201-4969; molecular refraction 49-64). This inactive
hydrocarbon is probably composed of a mixture of isomerides; it fixes
oxygen with avidity, rapidly becoming resinified.
1
Roure-Bertrand Fils, Bulletin, October, 1913, 134.
When submitted to oxidation by a 2 per cent, solution of permangan-
ate, d-verbenone yields pinononic acid, C9H14O3, melting at 128° to 129°
C., the semi-carbazone of which melts at 204° C. Lastly the constitution
of verbenone, as expressed by the above formula, is further confirmed by
the fact that the bicyclic system is convertible into a monocyclic system
by boiling with 25 per cent, sulphuric acid, with the formation of acetone
and 3-methylcyclohexene-(2)-one-(l). This cyclohexenone has been char-
acterised by its semi-carbazone (melting-point 198° C.) and by its conver-
sion into y-acetobutyric acid (melting-point 36° C). The oily liquid,
which did not react with sulphite, was submitted to benzoylation after
dilution with pyridine. It thus gave rise to a benzoate from which was
CH
C—CH,
Verbenol.
isolated d-verbenol.20 This alcohol boils at 216° to 218° C. (Dr 0-9742 ;

[a]D + 132-30°; nD 1-4890; molecular refraction 45*25). When oxidised
by chromic acid it yields verbenone ; with permanganate it gives pinon-
onic acid. By the action of acetic anhydride it is converted into l-
verbenene (boiling-point 758 mm., 159° to 160° C.; D15 0-8852;
aD - 74-90°; ?^D 1-49855; molecular refraction 44-61). Verbenene,
CH9
CH
C—CH3
Verbenene.
when treated with powerful dehydrating agents, such as zinc chloride
or phosphoric anhydride, is converted into jp-cymene.
PIPERITONE.
This ketone occurs in eucalyptus oils derived from a particular
group of trees, the leaves of which have the venation characteristic of
species yielding phellandrene-bearing oils. It follows the general rule
for all constituents in eucalyptus oils, increasing in amount until the
maximum is reached in one or more species. It occurs in greatest
quantity in the oils of these eucalyptus trees known vernacularly as
"Peppermints," such as E. piperita, E. dives, etc., and consequently
is found more frequently in the oils from species growing on the eastern
part of Australia.
Piperitone can be most easily obtained from the higher boiling por-
tions of the oil of E. dives. It combines slowly with sodium-bisulphite,
and by repeated agitation for two or three weeks eventually forms
crystals in some quantity. A proportion of alcohol assists the combina-
tion. The pure ketone prepared from the purified crystals is colourless
at first, but on long standing becomes slightly yellowish in tint. It has
a burning peppermint-like taste andl odour. The formula is C10H16O.
According to Eead and Smith piperitone is, under natural condi-
tions, optically inactive. By fractional distillation under reduced pres-
sure, it is prepared, by means of its sodium bisulphite compound, in a
laevo-rotatory form. The slight laevo-rotation is probably due to the
presence of traces of cryptal. By fractional distillation alone, it is
usually obtained in a laevo-rotatory form ; whether this is due to decom-
position products or not is unknown. Piperitone has a considerable
-prospective economic value, as it forms thymol by treatment with
formic chloride, inactive menthone by reduction when a nickel cata-
lyst is employed, and inactive menthol by further reduction. Its char-
Optical rotation Laevo-rotatory — 50° or more
Boiling-point 229° to 230° (uncorrected)
at 10 mm. 106° to 107°
With hydroxylamine, piperitone yields a normal oxime melting at

110° to 111°, and an oxamino-oxime melting at 169° to 170°. The semi-
carbazone prepared from piperitone which had been regenerated from
its bisulphite compound melts at 219° to 220°. But piperitone prepared
by repeated fractionation under reduced pressure yields two semi-carba-
zones, melting at 175° to 176° and 182° to 183° respectively. On
reduction in alcoholic solution by sodium amalgam, piperitone yields a
dimolecular ketone, C20H34O2, melting at 149° to 150°. According to
Smith the probable constitution of piperitone is
CH . CH
HCv .CO
. C3H7
Givaudan & Co., however,2 compare the properties of piperitone with
those of the ketone prepared synthetically4 by Wallach,3 and discovered
in Japanese peppermint oil by Schimmel and later in camphor oil by
Bchimmel, and finally in the oil of Cymbopogon sennaarensis by Eoberts,5
1 2
Jour. Chem. Soc., 1921, 781. P. and E.O.R., 1921, 80.
*Annaten,t 362 (1908), 271.
4
8
Semi annual Report, French edition 1910, II., 87.
Jour. Chem. Soc., 107 (1915), 1465.
and consider that it is identical with this body, The constitution would
then be
C.CEL
H2C CH
H. CO
CH(C3H7)
Eead and Smith (ioc. cit.) have prepared benzylidene-piperitone, of
the formula C10H14O: CH. C6H5, by the interaction of piperitone and
benzaldehyde in the presence of alcoholic sodium ethoxide. This body
melts at 61°, and the discoverers claim that it is sufficiently character-
istic to definitely differentiate piperitone from any of the hitherto
described menthenones.
CABVONE.
Carvone, C10H14O, is the ketone characteristic of dill and caraway
oils. It occurs in the dextro-rotatory form in these oils, and as laevo-
carvone in kuromoji oil.
Carvone has the following constitution :—
C.CH,
HO CO
•*"*-2 \ / 2
H3OC . C : CH2A
It is a colourless oil, solidifying at low temperatures and having a
characteristic odour of caraway. Its characters are as follows :—
Optical rotation ± 59° 30'
Boiling-point 224°
Inactive carvone can be obtained by mixing equal quantities of tht

optically active isomers. Carvone yields all the usual ketonic compounds
such as the crystalline oxime and phenylhydrazone. The former com-
pound is interesting on account of the fact that it is identical with nitroso-
limonene (vide limonene). Carvone also forms a crystalline compound
with sulphuretted hydrogen, C10H14(OH)(SH). This results by passing,
the gas through an alcoholic solution of caraway oil saturated with
ammonia gas. The resulting crystals can be purified by recrystallisation,
and decomposed by alcoholic potash, when nearly pure carvone results,
The following table gives the optical rotations of the purest specimens of
dextro- and laevo-carvone derivatives that have been prepared :—
Derivatives of
Dextro-carvone. Laevo-carvone.
Carvone . . . . 62° - 62°
„ sulphydrate + 5-53° - 5-55°
Carvoxime . . . . + 39-71° - 39-84°
Benzoyl carvoxime + 26-47° - 26-97°
,, hydrochlor-carvoxime - 10-58° + 9-92°
The principal derivative for the identification of carvone is the oxime,
which can be obtained by dissolving 5 grams of carvone in 25 c.c. of
alcohol and adding a warm solution of 5 grams of hydroxylamine hydro-
chloride in 5 c.c. of water, and then rendering the solution alkaline by
the addition of 5 grams of caustic potash in 40 c.c. of water. The car-
voxime is precipitated by pouring the liquid into water, and recrystallised
from alcohol. Optically active carvoxime melts at 72°, but ^'-carvoxime,
which is obtained by mixing equal quantities of the two optically active
isomers, melts at 93°.
The phenylhydrazone melts at 109° to 110°, and the semi-carbazone-
at 162° to 163° (active varieties) or 154° to 155° (inactive form). The
sulphuretted hydrogen compound mentioned above melts at 210° to 211°.
By reduction carvone fixes 2 atoms of hydrogen on to the ketonic
group, and 2 atoms in the nucleus, with the formation of dihydrocarveol,.
C10H180, whose corresponding ketone, dihydrocarvone, C10H16O, exists in
small quantities in caraway oil.
G. Vavon l has examined the hydrogenation of carvone, in presenc
of platinum black as a catalyst, and shown that it takes place in three
entirely distinct phases. Carvone fixes successively three molecules of
hydrogen, giving dextro-carvotanacetone, then tetrahydrocarvone, and
finally carvomenthol.
By stopping the hydrogenation at a suitable moment, it is possible to-
obtain any one of these three bodies.
Carvotanacetone thus prepared has the following constants :—
Boiling-point . . . . . . . 227° t o 228° C .
0-937
18 1-4817
'*D
Molecular rotation 46-20
[OJ578 + 59-8°
Its oxime and its semi-carbazone melt respectively at 75° C. and 173° C.
Tetrahydrocarvone boils at 218° to 219° C.
Df° ............ 0-904
V° . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4555
Molecular rotation ......... 46-25
[a]678 ............ - 27°
Carvomenthol, obtained by the fixation of 3H9 by carvone, is a thick

liquid boiling at 217° to 218° C.
D*° ............ 0-908
wD2° ..... ....... 1*4648
Msw . . . . . . . , . . . . _ 24-7°
Its acetate is a liquid with pleasant odour, boiling at 230° to 231° C,

D*0 ............ 0-928
™D20 ............ 1-4477
[«l678 ........ . . . . . . 27-6°
1
The benzoate is a thick liquid.
Boiling-point (15 mm.) . 185° to 186° C.
1-006
1-509
Molecular rotation 77-19
M578 12-9°
DlHYDROCARVONE.
Dihydrocarvone, C10H16O, is found to a small extent in oil of caraway,
and can be prepared by the oxidation of dihydrocarveol by chromic acid
in acetic acid solution. The ketone has the constitution :—
CH . CH
CH . a<
It is an oil having an odour resembling those of carvone and menthone.
It forms a characteristic dibromide, C1QH16Br2O, by the action of bromine
in acetic acid, melting at 69° to 70° (optically active form) or 96° to 97°
(racemic variety). Dihydrocarvoxime melts at 89° (active variety) or 115°
to 116° (racemic variety).
UMBELLULONE.
Umbellulone, C10H14O, is a ketone which was isolated from the oil of
Umbellularia calif ornica, by Power and Lees. It has been examined by
Tutin l who assigned to it one of the following alternative constitutions : —
H,C -- -HC - CO H,C -- HC - CO
CH, —CH, CH,—C—CH,
HC- =CH
CH3 CH3
Semmler,'2 however, has carried out a very exhaustive examination of
the ketone, and considers that its constitution is that of a bicyclic ketone
of the thujone series, as follows :—
C—CH,
/Y
HC
H9C CO
C—CH(CH3)2
1
Jour. Chem. Soc., 89 (1906), 1104. *Berichte, 40 (1907), 5017.
Umbellulone is a colourless liquid of irritating odour, recalling that of

peppermint. It has the following characters :—
93° at 10 mm.
He tractive index 1-48325
The normal semi-carbazone melts at 240° to 243°. By reduction it
yields dihydroumbellulol, C10H18O, a liquid of specific gravity 0*931 at 20°
and optical rotation — 27° 30'.
This body, on oxidation, yields /3-dihydroumbellulone, C10H16O, a
ketone which yields a semi-carbazone melting at 150°. These two bodies
have, according to Semmler, the following constitutions :—
HO.HC
H
'°\CH. CH . CH,
H,
H2C CH
Dihydroumbellulol C10H180.
OC CH
>CH. CH . CH,
H3C/
H2C CH
/8-Dihydroumbellulone, C10H16O.
PlNOCAMPHONE.
Pinocamphone, C10H16O, is the principal constituent of oil of hyssop,
in which it occurs in its laevo-rotatory variety. It is a saturated ketone
having the constitution :—
CH—CH,
\CO College of Dentistry U. S. C.'

C(CH3)
;CH,
CH
It has been prepared artificially by Wallach as a bye-product in the
reduction of nitrosppinene, C10H17NOH. It is best prepared as follows;
Five grams of nitrosopinene are dissolved in 40 c.c. of warm g;lacial
acetic acid, and sufficient water added to produce a slight cloudiness.
A large amount of zinc-dust is then added. After the reaction has be-
come gradual, the mixture is heated on a water-bath under a reflux con-
denser for four hours. The liquid is then filtered, and the filtrate steam
distilled. I he distillate is exhausted with ether, the ether evaporated
and the pinocamphone distilled in a vacuum. The characters of natural

and artificially prepared pinocamphone are as follows :—
Natural. Synthetic.
Boiling-point 211° to 213° 211b to 213°
Specific gravity . 0-966 0-963
Eefractive index 1-4742 1-4731
Molecular refraction 44-4 44-44
Optical rotation - 13° 42' + 0°
Pinocamphone forms the following compounds suitable for its identi-
fication. The dibromide, C10H14Br2O, is obtained by dissolving 5 grams
of the ketone in 5 c.c. of glacial acetic acid. The theoretical amount of
bromine (four atoms) is then added drop by drop, the vessel being kept
cold by immersion in ice water. On standing in a cold place the di-
bromide solidifies, and can be recrystallised from petroleum ether. It
then melts at 93° to 94°. By treatment with zinc and acetic acid, the
dibromide is converted into the ketone again. The semi-carbazone exists
in two modifications, one melting at 228° to. 229° and ,the other at 182°
to 183°. The oxime melts at 86° to 87°.
FENCHONE.
Fenchone, C10H16O, is found in fennel oil and in the oil of Lavandula
Stoechas, in its dextro-rotatory form, and as laevo-fenchone in oil of
thuja leaves. It can be extracted from these oils by treating the frac-
tion boiling at 190° to 195° with nitric acid, or permanganate of potassium,
and then steam distilling the unaltered fenchone.
When the terpene a-fenchene (isopinene) is hydrated by means of
acetic and sulphuric acids, it yields an isomer of fenchyl alcohol, which
is known as isofenchyl alcohol (q.v.), and which on oxidation yields iso-
fenchone, as fenchyl alcohol yields fenchone. The two ketones, fenchone
and isofenchone, are sharply differentiated by isofenchone yielding iso-
fenchocamphoric acid, C10H1604, on oxidation with potassium perman-
ganate, which is not the case with fenchone. According to Aschan,1 the
hydrocarbon found in turpentine oil, and known as /2-pinolene (or cyclo-
fenchene—as he now proposes to name it), when hydrated in the usual
manner, yields both fenchyl and isofenchyl alcohols, which on oxidation
yield the ketones fenchone and isofenchone. According to Aschan the
relationships of these bodies are expressed by the following formulae :—
(CH3)2C CH—CH,
£-Pinolene.
(CH3)2C
HO—CH
i,.A.
CH
C(CH3)-CH2
CH2 (CH3)2C
CH2
CH
CH9
CH2
C(CH3)-CHOH
Fenchyl alcoho . Isofenchyl alcohol.
1
Annalen, 387, 1.
(CH3)2C- ~CH CH, (CH3)2C-
CH,
CO C(CH3)-CH2 jttc) !(CH3)-CO
Fenchone. Isofenchone.
(CH,)2C -COOH
CH9
CH2 C(CH3)-COOH
Isofenchocamphoric acid.
Fenchone has the following characters :—
Boiling-point . . . . . . . . 192° to 193°
Melting-point + 5° „ + 6°
Specific rotation about + 70°
The most characteristic derivative for the identification of fenchone is
its oxime. Five grams of fenchone are dissolved in 80 c.c. of absolute
alcohol and a solution of 11 grams of hydroxylamine hydrochloride in
11 c.c. of boiling water containing 6 grams of caustic potash, is added.
After a time the oxime separates in the form of fine crystals which on
recrystallisation from alcohol melt at 164° to 165° (active form) or 158°
to 160° (inactive form).
The semi-carbazone melts at 182° to 183° (active form) or 172° to 173°
(inactive form).
By reduction fenchone is converted into fenchyl alcohol, melting at
45°. The alcohol, however, has the opposite optical rotation to that of
the ketone from which it is prepared.
By dehydration fenchone yields w-cymene.
THUJONE.
This ketone, of the formula C10H160, isomeric with those above
described, is found in the oils of thuja, tansy, wormwood, and sage. It
is identical with the bodies formerly described under the names tan-
acetone and salvone. It is best prepared in a state of purity from oil of
wormwood. According to Semmler, 200 c.c. of the oil, 200 c.c. of a
saturated solution of sodium bisulphite, 75 c.c. of water, and 300 c.c. of
alcohol are well shaken at intervals during a fortnight. The crystals
formed, consisting of the compound of thujone with the sodium bisulphite,
are separated, washed with alcohol-ether, and pressed. On treatment
with caustic soda solution, the thujone, amounting to over 40 per cent, of
the oil used, separates, and can be distilled with steam.
The hitherto unanswered question whether the chemically identical
thujonGS isolated from various essential oils are also physically identical,
or whether they are physically isomeric, has now been decided by Wallach
in the last-named sense. He has succeeded in establishing the presence
of two and possibly of three thujones, although with regard to the third
the more probable view is, that it represents a mixture of the other two.
His examination has, moreover, proved that thuja oil contains essentially
a-thujone, and oil of tansy essentially /?-thujone. Wormwood oil is very
rich in /3-thujone, but also contains some of the a-compound. Oils of
artemisia and sage contain mixtures of a- and /2-thujones. The formation
of the semi-carbazones and their fractional crystallisation from methyl
alcohol afford means for the separation and identification of the isomers.
a-thujone is laevo-rotatory, and yields two semi-carbazones, one
dextro-rotatory, melting at 186° to 188°, and one, also dextro-rotatory, of
the indistinct melting-point 110°. Pure a-thujone has the following pro-
perties :—
Refractive index . . . . . . . . 1*4510
a-thujone is partially converted into /?-thujone when heated with
alcoholic potash solution, formic acid, or alcoholic sulphuric acid. The
last-named then effects a further conversion into isothujone (q.v.).
/?-thujone is dextro-rotatory, but is not the optical antipode of a-
thujone. The semi-carbazone exists in a labile dextro-rotatory form of
the melting-point 174° to 176°, which readily passes over into the second
form, melting at 170° to 172°. When mixtures of the semi-carbazones of
/2-thujone or of a-thujone, or of both, are present, they give rise to com-
plications which become even more pronounced owing to the fact that
mixed crystals of uniform appearance are formed which can only be split
up by very frequent recrystallisation. The ketone liberated from the
semi-carbazone by means of phthalic anhydride has the specific rotatory
power [a] + 76'16°. Its oxime melts at 54° to 55°, and is dextro-rotatory.
jS-thujone can also be converted into the isomeric a-thujone by boiling
with alcoholic potash.
The various compounds of this ketone are closely analogous to those
of the isomers already described.
Thujone is easily converted into the isomeric ketones, isothujone and
carvotanacetone. The former results by heating thujone with 40 per
cent, sulphuric acid, whilst the latter is formed by heating thujone in a
closed tube to 280°. The more interesting of these isomers is isothujone,
for on reduction with sodium and alcohol, an alcohol, C10H19OH, results,
which is isomeric with menthol, and which is sufficiently similar to this
body in its properties to be termed thujamenthol. Thujamenthol on
oxidation yields the ketone thujamenthone, which is isomeric with ordinary
menthone. Carvotanacetone yields corresponding compounds carvomen-
thol and carvomenthone. The physical properties of the isomers, thujone
(i.e. a mixture of a- and /2-thujone), isothujone, and carvotanacetone are
given by Wallach as follows :—
Boiling-point. Specific Gravity. Refractive Index.
Thujone . . . . 200° to 201° *912 1*4503
Isothujone . . . . 231° „ 232° -9285 1*48217
Carvotanacetone . . . 228° -9373 1-48350
Tiemann gives the boiling-point of thujone (tanacetone) as 230° and
of carvotanacetone as 230°.
Thujone is best identified by its tribromo-compound, C10H13Br3O,
melting at 121° to 122°. It is obtained by adding 5 c.c. of bromine (at
once) to a solution of 5 grams of thujone in 30 c.c. of petroleum ether.
The tribromo-compound separates on evaporation of the solvent and is
washed with alcohol and recrystallised from boiling acetic ether.
THE CONSTITUTION OF ESSENTIAL OILS 237
Thujone has the following constitution :—

CH3—CH—CH3
CH
>CO
CH—CH3
that of isothujone being as follows :—
CH3—CH—CH3
CH
CH,—C/NCH,
-•-3
CH,—C1 ICO
These constitutions have recently received support from the work of
A. Haller.1 If they are correct, then thujone should be capable of yielding
trialkyl substitution products, whilst isothujone should not be able to go
beyond the dialkyl stage. By alkylation with the assistance of sodium
amide, triallylthujone could be prepared, but no higher substitution pro-
duct than dimethylisothujone could be prepared from isothujone. In the
course of his work, Haller prepared the following alkyl derivatives of the
two ketones:—
,C(CH3)2
Dimethylthujone, C8H14<^ \ . Boiling-point at 12 mm. 92° to
X
CO
15°
94° C.; specific gravity — 0*916; [a]D - 19*45°; does not combine with
hydroxylamine.
/C(C3H5)2
Diallylthujone, C8HU^ I . Boiling-point at 18 mm. 147*5° to
\CO
20°
148-5° C. (corr.); specific gravity — O9352 ; refractive index 1-4850.
Triallylthujone, C19H28O. Boiling-point at 21 mm. 173° to 175° C.
20°
(corr.); specific gravity — 0*9467; refractive index 1-5016.
Dimethylisothujone, C12H20O. Boiling-point at 19 mm. 120° to 122° C.
(corr.).
Allylisothujone, C13H20O. Boiling-point at 18 mm. 144° to 146° C,
20°
(corr.); specific gravity— 0'9280; refractive index 1*4930.
1
PULEGONE.
Pulegone, C10H16O, is found in various essential oils, including those of
Mentha pulegium and Hedeoma pulegoides. It can be extracted from
essential oils containing it, in the usual manner, by means of its bisulphite
compound. It is a colourless liquid having an odour recalling that of
peppermint, and having the following characters :—
Boiling-point . . . . 221° to 222rj
,, ,, at 15 mm. 100° „ 101°
„ rotation . . . . + 22-89°
CH . CH,
H9C CH,
H9C CO
A crystalline oxime is obtained in the usual manner, but as the

reaction causes some alteration of the pulegone, it in reality is the oxime
of an isomeric ketone.1 It is prepared in the following manner: 10
grams of caustic potash dissolved in 5 c.e. of water are added to a solu-
tion of 10 grams of pulegone in three times its volume of alcohol. The
mixture is warmed to 80° and then poured into a solution of 10 grams of
hydroxylamine hydrochloride in 10 c.c. of water. The mixture is now
again heated to 80° for 10 minutes, and then, after cooling, poured
into cold water. The oxime separates in a solid condition, and can be re-
crystallised from petroleum ether. It melts at 118° to 119°, or when
repeatedly recrystallised at 123° to 124°.
The oxime thus obtained appears to be that of isopulegone.
The semi-carbazone, obtained in the usual manner, melts at 172°.
Bayer and Henrich 2 have prepared a bisnitrosopulegone, which is
very useful for the identification of the ketone. A solution of 2 c.c. of
pulegone in 2 c.c. of petroleum ether is cooled in a freezing mixture
and 1 c.c. of amyl nitrite and a trace of hydrochloric acid are added.
Fine needles of the bisnitroso compound quickly separate, which, when
dried on a porous plate and washed with petroleum ether, melt at 81*5°.
By careful reduction pulegone is converted into the alcohol pulegol,
C10H18O, or, by complete reduction into menthol, C10H20O.
When hydrolysed by means of formic acid, pulegone yields acetone
and methyl-cyclohexenone, C7H12O. When this body is again condensed
with acetone, it yields a body isomeric with, and very similar to, natural
pulegone. This body may be termed pseudo-pulegone. A second isomer,
isopulegone, was obtained by Tiemann and Schmidt, by oxidising iso-
pulegol (a body which they obtained in the form of its acetate by heating
citronellal (q*v.) with acetic anhydride). This isopulegone is probably a
mixture of two stereoisomers which have not been separated. Isopule-
gone boils at 90° under a pressure of 12 mm., has a specific gravity 0*921
at 18°, refractive index 1-4690, and optical rotation + 10° 15'. It has
the following constitution :—
1 2
Annalen (1896), 347. Berichte, 28 (1895), 658.
CH . CH3
CO
V
CH 3
The pulegone and the isopulegone series of compounds are very
similar in their physical and chemical properties, but they differ sharply
in the fact that pulegone yields menthol on reduction with sodium, whilst
isopulegone does not.
MENTHONE.
Menthone, a ketone of the formula C10H18O, occurs with menthol in
oil of peppermint. According to the early work of Moriya this body was
described as optically inactive, but this has been shown to be incorrect.
Atkinson describes it as an oily liquid, boiling at 206°, with a rotatory
power of + 21°. Beckmann gives 208° as its boiling-point, and 26° to
28° as its optical activity. Its specific gravity is -894. Oxidation of
natural menthol produces laevo-menthone, but this is easily converted
into dextro-menthone by the action of acids. This, on reduction, yields
dextro-menthol. The various derivatives of the optically active isomers
correspond closely, but complicated stereochemical relationships exist,
which render the chemistry of their derivatives a very difficult question.
The oximes of the two isomers do not correspond in their properties,
that of dextro-menthone being a laevo-rotatory oil, whilst that of laevo-
menthone is a solid, melting at 60° to 61°. The semi-carbazone melts at
184° in both cases. There are numerous bodies isomeric with, and
closely similar to, those of the menthone series. Those of the thuja-
menthol and carvomenthol series have already been mentioned. Men-
thone has the constitution —
CH(CH3)
2c, 'GO
H
menthol being, of course, the corresponding alcohol.
Four isomeric ment hones may exist, with eight corresponding isomeric
menthols (vide supra). But whichever menthone is converted into
menthol, natural laevo-menthol is the predominating resulting compound.
Various specimens of menthone have been prepared and examined
by different chemists, the characters of which fall within the following
limits : —
Specific gravity ........ 0-894 to 0-899
Optical rotation . . . . . . . . - 26°
Boiling-point ......... 207° to 208°
Menthone has been prepared synthetically by Kotz and Hesse l from
methyl hexanone. This body was condensed with ethyl oxalate by adding
1
Annalen, 342 (1905), 306.
an ice-cold mixture of the two in small quantities at a time to a cold
solution of sodium ethylate. After fifteen hours the reaction mass is
mixed with ice-cold dilute sulphuric acid, and the oxalic compound of
methyl hexanone is extracted by means of ether. This product is methyl -
l-hexanone-3-oxalic ester-4. When distilled at normal pressure this ester
loses CO2 and becomes methyl-l-hexanone-3-carboxylie ester, which when
treated with methyl iodide and sodium yields methyl-l-hexanone-3-
methyl-4-carboxylic ester-4. This ester on decomposition with alcoholic
potash yields1 ^-menthone.
Wallach has synthesised i-menthone by condensing 1, 4-methyl-
cyclo-hexanone with bromo-isobutyric ester; from the condensation
product he prepared ^-menthene, which was converted into i-menthenone,
by means of its2 nitrosochloride, whence i-menthone resulted by reduction.
Beckmann has examined the characters of the optically active men-
thones. The oxidation of natural Z-menthol by chromic acid mixture
yielded Z-menthone [a]D = - 28'5° which when treated with 90 per cent,
sulphuric acid is converted into a d-menthone [a]D = + 28'1°, which,
however, is not the optical antipode of the first: it behaves as a mixture
of d- and Z-menthone, but is more strongly dextro-rotatory than it would
be if it were only a mixture of the two optical antipodes.
The reduction of Z-menthone or inverted d-menthone yielded, together
with ordinary menthol, a d-isomenthol melting at 78° to 81° C.; [a] =
+ 2*03 which, on oxidation with chromic acid mixture, yielded an iso-
menthone, the specific rotatory power of which varied between + 30'2°
and + 35-1°.
The treatment of menthylamine by nitrous acid yielded a d-isomenthol
still more strongly dextro-rotatory. A d-isomenthylamine hydrochloride,
having a rotatory power of [a]D = + 17*7°, yielded a d-isomenthol having
[a]D = + 25-6°.
Menthone can be prepared by the reduction of piperitone. For this,
Smith and Penfold 3 give the following method :•—
Pure piperitone was subjected to the action of purified hydrogen, in
the presence of a nickel catalyst, for six hours, the temperature ranging
between 175° to 180° C. The double bond in piperitone was readily
opened out with the formation of menthone, but further action of the
hydrogen under these conditions did not reduce the carbonyl group,
even after continued treatment for two days. Under correct conditions,
however, the reduction to menthol should take place. The ease with
which menthone is formed in this way is of special interest, not only in
connection with the production of this ketone, but also as a stage in the
manufacture of menthol.
The reduction of piperitone to menthone cannot well be brought
about by the action of sodium or of sodium-amalgam in alcoholic solution,
because, with the latter particularly, a solid bimolecular ketone is formed
at once. This is a finely crystallised substance, melts at 148° to 149° C.,.
and has the formula C20H34O2. Piperitone thus follows the rule with
substances having a conjugated double bond, carvone for instance,
also forms a bimolecular ketone on reduction, melting at 148° to 149° C.
Menthone was prepared from piperitone in almost quantitative
yield, and had the characteristic peppermint odour of this substance. It
1 2
Annalen,
9
362 (1908), 261. Berichte, 42, 846.
J. and Pro-. Roy. Soc., N.S. Wales, liv. 45.
was colourless ; boiled at 208° C., had specific gravity at 20° = 0-8978 ;
optical rotation aD - 0*15°, and refractive index at 20° = T4529. The
oxime melted at 80° C., the more soluble semicarbazone at 156° C.,
while the least soluble melted at 187° to 198° C. Any unreduced piperi-
tone can be removed from the menthone by the action of neutral sodium
sulphite.
MENTHENONE.
A'-menthenone, C10H16O, has been isolated by Schimmel & Co.1 from
Japanese peppermint oil. It is an aromatic liquid having the following
characters:—
C.CH.
H2a ,co
CH
H(CH8)2
It yields a semi-carbazone, which exists in two modifications, the
a-modification, which is only slightly soluble in alcohol, melting at
224° to 226°, and the /^-modification, which is easily soluble, melting at
171° to 172°.
With hydroxylamine, menthenone yields a normal oxime, and an
oxaminoxime. The latter body is not very volatile, and the oxime can
be separated by steam distillation, and, when recrystallised from alcohol,
melts at 107° to 108°. The oxaminoxime melts at 164° to 165°.
CAMPHOR.
Camphor, C10H16O, occurs in the wood of the camphor tree (Laurus
camphora) as dextro-camphor. This is the ordinary camphor of com-
merce, known as Japan camphor, whilst the less common laevo-camphor
is found in the oil of Matricaria parthenium. Camphor can also be ob-
tained by the oxidation of borneol or isoborneol with nitric acid. Cam-
phor may be prepared from turpentine in numerous ways, and there are
many patents existing for its artificial preparation. Artificial camphor,
however, does not appear to be able to compete commercially with the
natural product. Amocgst the methods may be enumerated the
following:—
1. Esters of borneol are obtained by the action of dry oxalic acid on
turpentine under suitable conditions. From these, borneol is obtained
by saponification and is oxidised to camphor. Some other acids produce
a similar result, as, for example, salicylic and chlorobenzoic acids.
1
Schimmel's Bericht, October (1910), 79.
VOL. II. 16
2. Pinene hydrochloride is prepared in the usual manner from
turpentine, and this is allowed to react with acetate of silver. Isobornyl
acetate is formed, which is hydrolysed, and the isoborneol oxidised to
camphor. Acetate of lead is also used, as is also acetate of zinc.
3. The action of magnesium on pinene hydrochloride gives rise to
bornyl esters, and camphor can be obtained from these in the usual
manner.
4. Pinene hydrochloride is treated by one of the reagents which
abstract-HC1, and so converted into camphene (q-v.). This is heated
with acetic and sulphuric acids, and so converted into isobornyl acetate.
Camphor results in the usual manner.
Camphor forms a translucent mass, which crystallises well from
alcohol. It has the following characters :—
Boiling-point 205° „ 207°
Specific rotation . . . . . . . . + 44°
Optically inactive camphor melts at 179°.

Camphor is the ketone of the alcohol borneol, and forms a number of
well-characterised crystalline derivatives. Amongst these are the semi-
carbazone, the phenylhydrazide, and the oxime, all characteristic of
bodies containing the . CO . group. -The semi-carbazone,
C10H16: N2H . CO . NH2,
melts at 236° to 238°. The hydrazide, C10H16: N2HC6H5, results from
the action of phenylhydrazine. The oxime, C10H16. NOH, is prepared
by the action of hydroxylamine on camphor. It melts at 118°, and when
reduced by means of sodium, yields the base bornylamine, C10H17NH2.
When distilled with phosphorus pentoxide, camphor yields cymene,
and with iodine, carvacrol. Both of these bodies are jpara-derivatives of
benzene. On oxidation with nitric acid camphor yields many acids, of
which the chief are camphoric acid, C10H16O4, camphanic acid, C10H14O4,
and camphoronic acid, C9H14O6. The constitution of these acids has an
important bearing on that of camphor. Many formulae have been sug-
gested for camphor during the pasb few years, but that of Bredt is now
universally accepted, and has received complete confirmation by Komppa's
synthesisl of camphoric acid. This synthesis confirms the formula for
camphoric acid as—
CH2—CH . COOH
C(CH3)2
CH2—C(CH3) (COOH)
which is in accordance with Bredt's formula for camphor.
Camphor has the following constitution :—
i Berichte, 36, 1332.

CH
CHo
CH . C . CH,
H9C CO
C.CH 8
l
Haller and Louvrier have prepared a number of homologues of cam-
phor by heating the ketone in benzene solution with sodamide and alkyl
iodides. The following are the characters of a number of these :—
Boiling-point. Specific
Gravity at 0°. [ajf.
Monoethylcamphor 108° (14 mm.) 0-927 + 45°

Diethylcamphor . 132° to 133° (14 mm.) 0-969 + 91°
Methylethylcamphor 112° „ 114° (11 „ ) — + 99° 30'
Propylcamphor . 116° (11 mm.) 0*942 + 60° 40'
Dipropylcamphor 157° (14 „ )
— + 53° 50'
Benzylcamphor . — + 147° 40'
—
Dibenzylcamphor 255° (12 mm.) + 103° 10'
Ethylbenzylcamphor 193° (11 „ ) —
— + 91°
Eupe and Iselin 2 have prepared a number of homologues of methylene

camphor by a general method depending on the reaction between chloro-
methylene camphor and various organo-magnesium compounds. Chlorp-
methylene camphor itself can be prepared by the action of thionyl chloride
on hydroxymethylene camphor ; the resulting compound is a colourless
oil boiling at 113° at 12'5 mm. pressure, and having an optical rotation
of + 180° in benzene solution. Ethylidene camphor,
C8H14(C : CH . CH3)CO,
is prepared by the action of magnesium methyl bromide on an ethereal
solution of chloromethylene camphor. It forms radiate crystals melting
at 28° to 29° and boiling at 109° to 110° at 12 mm. It has an optical
rotation + 178'5°. The corresponding propylidene camphor is prepared
in a similar manner, and is a colourless oil, boiling at 121° to 122° at
13 mm. Its specific gravity is 0*9448 at 20°, and optical rotation + 173°.
Butylidene camphor has a specific gravity 0*938 at 20°, and optical rota-
tion + 161°. Amyildene camphor, the last of this series prepared, has a
specific gravity 0*927 at 20°, and optical rotation + 156*6°. Aromatic
substituted camphors were also prepared in the same manner, among
which are the following : Benzylidene camphor is a colourless crystalline
solid, melting at 98-5°, and having the formula
C8H14(C ; CH . CH2C6H5)CO.
It has the extraordinarily high specific rotation + 426*5°. Phenyl-
ethylidene camphor is a faintly greenish oil of specific gravity 1*025 at
1 2
Comptes rendus, 158 (1914), 754. Berichte, 49, 25.
20°, and specific rotation + 129°. Phenyl-propylidene camphor has a
specific gravity 1*0094 at 20°, and specific rotation -h 128°. Phenyl-
butylidene camphor has a specific gravity of 0*999 at 29°, and specific
rotation + 113°. Cyclohexylmethylene camphor was prepared by the
use of magnesium cyclohexyl bromide, and forms colourless prisms melt-
ing at 46° to 48°.
Alpha-n&phihylidene camphor was similarly obtained in long trans-
parent crystals melting at 98° to 99°, boiling at 253°, and having a
rotation + 335*6°. An attempt was made to prepare a diphenyl de-
rivative, but this was unsuccessful. A number of the above-described
compounds were reduced with sodium amalgam in methyl alcohol,
neutrality being maintained by the addition of 50 per cent, acetic acid.
In this method the authors obtained iso-amyl camphor, a colourless,
inodorous oil boiling at 140° at 14 mm., and having a specific gravity
0*9197 at 20°, and specific rotation + 66*8°. Phenyl-ethyl camphor forms
colourless prisms melting at 60° to 61°, and having a specific rotation
+ 22*8°. Phenyl-propyl camphor is a colourless oil boiling at 208° to
210° at 15 mm., and having a specific rotation + 52'4°.
ELSHOLTZIONE.
The oil of Elsholtzia cristata contains a ketone, which has been
examined by Asahina and Murayama, and which has the following con-
stants ;—
„ „ 760 „ 210°
Optical rotation . . . . . . . . . 0°
It has the formula C10H14O2, and forms a semi-carbazone melting at
171° and an oxime melting at 54°.
This ketone has, according to Asahina and Murayama, the following
constitution:—l
HC CH
H3C— G C—CO—CH2— CH(CH3)2
According to Asano,2 however, its constitution is as follows ; —

. CH
CH2Z (C ^
\ o3H7i )/ . CO . C
CH
ACETOPHENONE.
Acetophenone, C6H5 . CO . CH3, is a ketone occurring in oil of lab-

danum resin. It also occurs in the oil of Stirlingia latifolia which con-
tains over 90 per cent, of the ketone.3 It is a fragrant, crystalline
substance melting at 20° and boiling at 200° to 202°. It is prepared
artificially and is useful in synthetic perfumery. As found in commerce
1
2
Jour. Pharm. Soc. Japan (1918), 1.
3
J. Pharm. Soc. Japan, 1919, 454, 999.
See Vol. I. p. 172.
it is generally liquid, either in a state of superfusion, or because of traces
of impurities. It can be prepared by distilling a mixture of calcium
benzoate and calcium .acetate, or by condensing benzene and acetyl
chloride in the presence of aluminium chloride.
Anhydrous aluminium chloride in powder is placed in a capacious
flask attached to a reflux condenser, and covered with dry benzene (30
grams). The flask is kept cold with ice, and acetyl chloride is allowed
to drop slowly into the mixture. A vigorous reaction ensues, and much
hydrochloric acid gas is evolved. After about one hour the reaction is
finished, and the mass is transferred to a mixture of ice arid water, when
a brown oil separates. This mixture is extracted with benzene, the
benzene extract is washed with dilute caustic soda, finally with water,
and dried over calcium chloride, from which the liquid is decanted and
distilled, and when the benzene has come over, the temperature of the
vapour rises to 195°, the fraction 195° to 202° being collected as an almost
colourless oil, which solidifies on chilling and is almost pure acetophenone.
It forms an oxime melting at 56° to 60°, and a semi-carbazone at 185° to
187°. It is extremely powerful and gives good results in soap perfumery,
and is a good auxiliary for such perfumes as new-mown hay, syringa, and
the like.
METHYL-ACETOPHENONE.
Paramethyl-acetophenone, CH3 . C6H4 . CO . CH3, is a synthetic per-
fume ketone, having a powerful floral odour. It is prepared by the
Friedel-Craft reaction in the same manner as acetophenone, by con-
densing toluene with acetic anhydride. It is a strongly odoriferous oil
boiling at 220°, and having a specific gravity 1*0062. Its oxime melts at
88° and its phenylhydrazone at 97°.
OXY-ACETOPHENONE.
This body is a phenolic ketone of the formula C6H4(OH). CO . CH3.

C . CO . CH,
.OH
HCX JCH
It is found naturally in the oil of Chione glabra. It boils at 160° to

165° at. 34 mm., and has a specific gravity 6*850. It forms an oxime
melting at 112° and a phenylhydrazone melting at 108°.
DlMETHYL-PHLOEACETOPHENONE.
This ketone, of the formula C6H2(CO . CH3)(OH)(OCH3)(OCH3), is
found in the essential oil of Blumea balsamifera. It is a crystalline
substance melting at 82° to 83°, and having the constitution —
CH
H,CO
HC ;C . CO . CH3
Y O.CH,
It yields an oxime melting at 108° to 110°, and a bromine derivative,
C10HnO4Br, melting at 187°.
BENZYLIDENE ACETONE.
Benzylidene acetone, C6H5 . CH ; CH . COCH3, is a crystalline body
melting at 42°, having an intense floral odour. It results from the con-
densation of benzaldehyde and acetone under the influence of caustic
soda. It has the following characters :—
Spe2ific gravity 1-0377 at 15°
Melting-point 42°
Its oxime melts at 115° to 116°.
BENZOPHENONE.
This ketone, C6H5 . CO . C6H5, is diphenyl ketone. It is a fragrant
crystalline body melting at 48° and boiling at 307°.
It is prepared artificially by the distillation of calcium benzoate, or
by the condensation of benzene and benzoyl chloride in the presence of
aluminium chloride.
It has not been found naturally occurring in essential oils.
TKIMETHYL-HEXANONE.
Masson l has isolated a ketone, of the formula C9H16O, from oil of
labdanum. It has the following characters :—
at 10 mm. 66° „ 67°
Specific gravity'at 0° . 0-922
It yields a monobromide melting at 41°, a semi-carbazone melting
at 220° to 221 °, and an oxime melting at 106°. When reduced with sodium
and alcohol it yields a secondary alcohol, which forms large crystals
melting at 51°. On oxidation by cold 3 per cent, solution of potassium
permanganate it yields geronic acid, a keto-acid of the constitution—
CH 3 . CO . CH 2 . CH 2 . CH 2 . C(CH3)2 . COOH.
This acid boils at 190° to 191° at 31 mm., and yields a semi-carbazone
melting at 164°.
The ketone itself is trimethyl-1, 5, 5-hexanone-6, of the constitution—
CH3
CH
H2C/\CO
H
2C\^/C(CH3)2
CH2
1
Comptes rendus, 154 (1912), 517.
PAEONOL.
This ketone has been found in the essential oil of Pgeonia Moutan.
It is a crystalline body of the formula C9H10O3. Its constitution is—
C . CO . CH3
C .OH
HCX VCH
. O . CH3
It is therefore jo-methoxy-o-hydroxyphenyl methyl ketone.
It yields an ethyl ether melting at 46*5°, and a phenylhydrazone
melting at 170°.
Paeonol has been prepared synthetically by Hoesch ; l he allowed
5 parts of resorcinmethyl ether to react with 3 parts of acetonitrile, with
zinc chloride and ether. Chlorine was then passed through the mixture
for four hours. The mixture was shaken with ether, and the aqueous
solution steam distilled, when paeonol comes over with the steam, leaving
the non-volatile isopaeonpl in the flask.
Paeonol forms a nitro-compound C6H905N, melting at 153° to 155°.
Hydroxypaeonol, C9H10O4, has also been found in essential oils of the
Xanthoirhaa species. It melts at 79°.
ACETO v AN-ILLONE .
This body, which is found in the essential oil of Apocynum andosaemi-
fofaim, is isomeric with the last described ketone, being w-methoxy-
j9-hydroxyphenylmethyl ketone, of the constitution—
C . CO . CH,
HCX JC . O . CH,
C.OH
ANISIC KETONE.
Anisic ketone, C10H12O2, is found in oil of fennel. It is a liquid
boiling at 263°, and having a specific gravity T095 at 0°. Its oxime
melts at 72°. On oxidation it yields anisic acid. Its constitution is as
follows :—
C . CH 2 . CO . CH3
HC CH
HC«
C . O . CH,
L
Berichte, 48 (1915), 1122.
DlOSPHENOL.
Diosphenol, C10H16O2, or buchu-camphor as it is also called, is a

phenolic ketone found in the essential oil of buchu leaves. It is a crystal-
line substance having the following characters : —
Melting-point ...... 83° to 84°
Optical rotation . . . . . . +0°
Boiling-point ...... 232°, with decomposition
„ at 10 mm ..... 109° to 110°
It yields a phenylure thane melting at 41°, a semi-carbazone melting

at 219° to 220°, and an oxime melting at 125°. The OH group appears
to possess alcoholic as well as phenolic functions, forming acetic and
benzoic esters, as well as direct combinations with alkalis.
On reduction by means of sodium amalgam and alcohol, it yields an
alcohol, C10H18O2, melting at 159°.
Diosphenol has the following constitution : —
C— CH3
H C
CH . CH(CH3),
It has been prepared artificially by Semmler and McKenzie l by
oxidation of oxymethylene-menthone, C/nHjgOg, a diketone, C10H16O2, re-
sulting, which is inverted by means of alkalis to diosphenol.
Cusmano 2 has also prepared it artificially by shaking dibromomen-
thenone with 2*5 per cent, solution of caustic potash, and when solution
is effected, saturating the liquid with carbon dioxide.
JASMONE.
Jasmone, CnH16O, is a ketone found in essential oil of jasmin, and
also in neroli oil. It is a dark-coloured liquid with a powerful jasmin
odour, and having the following characters : —
Boiling-point at 775 mm ........ 257° „ 258°
Melting-point of oxime ....... 45°
,, ,, ,, semi-carbazone ..... 201° to 204°
SANTALONE.
Santalone, CnH16O, is a ketone found in small quantity in sandalwood
oil. It has the following characters : —
at 15 mm. 88° „ 89°
Melting point of oxime 75°
semi-carbazone 175°
l
2
Berichte,39 (1906), 1158.
Atti. R. Accad d. Lined (5), 22, ii. (1913), 569.
MUSK AND CIVET KETONES (MUSKONE AND ZIBETHONE).
Two ketones of unknown constitution have been isolated from natural
musk. Of these, muskone, C15H28O (or C16H30O), occurs to the extent of
0*5 to 2 per cent.1 It is a thick, colourless oil with a very powerful odour
of musk. It boils at 327° to 330° at 752 mm., and at 142° to 143° at 2
mm. It yields an oxime melting at 46° and a semi-carbazone melting at
133° to 134°.
Sack 2 has recently isolated a ketone from natural civet. The civet
was boiled for some hours with alcoholic potash, the alcohol evaporated
and the residue extracted, with ether. The residue left on evaporating
the ether was distilled with steam to remove skatole, again extracted with
ether, the ether evaporated and the residue dissolved in alcohol. The
alcohol was evaporated, and the residual ketone purified by conversion
into its semi-carbazone, from which it was regenerated. It has the
formula C17H30O, and its characters are as follows:—
„ „ 342° at 741 mm.
Melting-point 32-5°
„ of oxime 92°
,, ,, ,, semi-carbazone . . . 187°
The name zibethone has been proposed for this ketone.
KAEMPFEBIA KETONE.
The essential oil of Kaempferia Ethela contains a crystalline ketone
of the formula C24H28O4.3 It forms large transparent diamond-shaped
crystals melting at 102° and having a specific rotation + 198° 20' in
chloroform solution. The crystals are practically odourless, but in dilute
alcoholic solution a distinct odour is perceived, which reminds one of
crushed ivy leaves. It is a highly unsaturated compound, and combines
readily with bromine. It does not form a bisulphite compound. It
yields a hydroxylamine-oxime melting at 184°, which forms hard white
crystals, and which when shaken with dilute hydrochloric acid is converted
into the oxime C24H28O3: NOH, melting at 166°.
It forms a benzoyl derivative melting at above 260° with decomposition.
GURJUN KETONE.
A ketone exists in gurjin oil, which according to Semmler has the
formula C15H22O, whilst Deussen and Philipp 4 consider its formula to be
C15H24O. It has the following characters :—
Refractive index 1-527°
The last three figures apparently refer to the ketone in the superfused
condition.
The semi-carbazone melts at 234°, and has a specific rotation + 317°
in chloral hydrate solution.
1 2
Jour, pralct. Cliem., ii. 73 (1906), 488. Chem. Zeit., 39 (1915), 538.
*Chem. Soc. Trans. 107 (1915), 314.
4
Annalen, 369 (1909), 56 ; 374 (1910), 105.
7. PHENOLS AND PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS.

PHENYL-METHYL ETHER.
This ether, C 6 H 5 . O . CH3, known as anisole, is a mobile oil of very
fragrant odour. It is used to some extent in synthetic perfumery. It
is prepared by the action of methyl iodide on sodium-phenol, according to
the following equation :—
C6H5ONa + CH3I = C6H5. 0 . CH3 + Nal.
It boils at 172°.
PHENYL-ETHYL ETHER.
This ether, C6H5 . O . C2H5, is known as phenetole. It is a fragrant
liquid boiling at 172°, and is prepared in a similar manner to the methyl
ether.
DIPHENYL OXIDE.
Phenyl Ether.—Diphenyl oxide, C6H5 . O . C6H5, is a crystalline com-
pound which has been known for many years, but which has suddenly
come into considerable vogue in synthetic perfumery. It has been vari-
ously described as having an odour resembling orange oil, hyacinths, and
geranium. As a matter of fact, it has a powerful odour of geranium
leaves, and is the basis of most of the synthetic geranium oils. It can
be prepared in numerous methods, of which the following are examples:
On distilling copper benzoate, diphenyl oxide results directly, or by
digesting diazo-benzene sulphate with phenol, diphenyl oxide results,
according to the following equation :—
C6H5N : N . HS04 + C6H5OH = (C6H5)2O + N 2 + H2SO4.
It also results by heating phenol with aluminium chloride.
Diphenyl oxide forms long crystals melting at 27° to 28° and boiling
at 252° to 253°. As illustrating the manner in which valuable synthetic
perfumes are overlooked, unless their discoverer happens to be an expert
in odours, we quote the following from a work published in 1899: " Di-
phenyl oxide has an indescribable hyacinth-like odour, but has not found
any practical application ". To-day, it is manufactured in very large
quantities, and, as stated above, forms the basis of all the synthetic
geranium oils. It is readily soluble in alcohol, and most organic solvents,
and is most useful in all blends where a geranium odour is required,
Cresol yields similar oxides, having marked perfume odours, but these
do not yet appear to be commercial articles. The three isomeric ethers
have the following characters: their formula is > (C7H7)2O; the ortho-
compound boils at 272° to 273°; the meta-compound boils at 284° to 286°;
and the para-compound melts at 50°.
CRESOL COMPOUNDS.
Meta-creaol, C7H8O, is a crystalline substance, melting at 4° and boil-
ing at 201°. It occurs to a considerable extent in coal-tar mixtures, and
is present in very small amount in essential oil of myrrh. It forms a
characteristic tribromide, melting at 82°.
Para-cresol, which is also a constituent of coal-tar creasote, occurs in
the es ential oils of jasmin and cassie flowers. It is a crystalline sub-
stance melting at 36° and boiling at 199°. It can be identified in the

following manner. Its alkaline solution is treated with dimethyl sulphate,
which converts it with KS methyl ether, a highly odorous liquid boiling at
175°, and which, on oxidation by permanganate of potassium, yields
anisic acid melting at 180°. Para-cresol yields a benzoyl derivative
Para-cresol methyl ether occurs naturally in oil of ylang-ylang and
similar flower oils. It is also prepared synthetically, and forms a useful
artificial perfume for compound flower odours. It is a liquid boiling at
175°, and, as stated above, yields anisic acid on oxidation.
These three bodies have the following constitutions:—
HC/\CH HC/NCH HC/NCH

HCX ,C . OH HC^
CH C . OH C . O . CH3
ra-cre-ol. jp-cresol. _p-eresol methyl ether.
PHLOROL ETHERS.
Phlorol, C6H4< , or ortho-ethyl phenol, has been identified in pine

\OH
oil, and in the form of its methyl and isobutyl ethers, in oil of arnica.
These two ethers have the formula—
1
TT <r/
C6±i rê-t^x
TI /
4 X
\OCH3 OC4H9
Methyl ether. Isobutyl ether.
Phlorol boils at 225° to 226°.
GUAIACOL.
Guaiacol is the monomethyl ether of the diphenol, catechol, or ortho-

dihydroxybenzene. Its constitution is—
/OH
.CH 3
It has been found in pine oil.
THYMOL.
Thymol, C10H14O, is the principal constituent of the oils of thyme and
ajowan seeds. It is isopropyl-weta-cresol of the constitution—
C.CH 3
HC COH
O . C H CH3)2
It is a colourless crystalline substance, having the characteristic odour

of thyme oil, and possessing very powerful antiseptic properties. Its
characters are as follows : —
Melting-point ........ " 50-5° to 51 '5°
Boiling-point ........ 232° at 752 mm.
24°
Specific gravity at -^ ...... 0'969
Eefractive index ....... 1*5227 (superfused)
It combines with chloral to form a compound melting at 131° to 134°.
Its phenylurethane melts at 107°. It forms a nitroso-compound melting
at 160° to 162°, when treated with nitrous acid.
If thymol be treated with sodium and a current of carbonic acid be
passed through it, o-thymotic acid is formed, which when liberated by
means of hydrochloric acid and purified by distillation, melts at 123°.
Thymotic acid has the constitution—
COOH<2>
C3H7<4>
By oxidation it yields thymoquinone, C6H2(O2)(CH3)(C3H7), melting
at 48°.
Thymol frequently occurs associated with carvacrol, its or£/io-isomer,
and may be separated therefrom by fractional crystallisation of the
phenylurethanes, that of carvacrol being much less soluble in petroleum
ether than that of thymol.
Thymol forms a soluble compound with alkalis, and can be extracted
from the oils in which it occurs by shaking with a 5 per cent, solution of
caustic soda or potash.l
Smith and Penfold have shown that thymol can be prepared by the
action of'ferric chloride on piperitone.
60 grams of pure piperitone were added to a solution of 175 grams
ferric chloride, 160 c.c. glacial acetic acid, and 500 c.c. of water. The
whole was then heated on the sand bath to boiling. The reaction takes
place according to the equation 2FeCl3 + H2O = 2FeCl2 + 2HC1 + O,
and was completed at the expiration of about one hour. The reaction
product was then steam distilled, the phenol separated and absorbed in
a 5 per cent, solution of sodium hydrate, the unabsorbed oil removed by
ether, and the aqueous layer decomposed by hydrochloric acid. The
phenol was finally distilled under reduced pressure when the thymol
came over at 110° to 111° C. at 10 mm. In this way they obtained a
25 per cent, yield of the weight of piperitone taken; but, no doubt,
methods can be devised whereby an almost theoretical yield could be
obtained.
Phillips and Gibbs2 have summarised the history of the preparation of
thymol synthetically and gives the following interesting account thereof.
Starting with cuminal, nitro-cuminal was prepared, the nitro group
entering the para position, meta to the aldehyde group. This compound
when treated with phosphorus pentachloride was converted into nitro-
cymyline chloride, which on reduction with zinc and hydrochloric acid
1
J. and Proc. Royal Soc. N.S. Wales, liv. 40.
*Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem. (1920), 733.
gave 3-aminocymene, and upon diazotisation and subsequent hydrolysis
thymol resulted.
Thymol has since been synthetised by a number of chemists, but only
two of those syntheses need be considered in this connection because of
their close relationship to the present method. Dinesmann (D.E.P..
125,097 (1900)) obtained a patent for a process of making thymol from
2-brom-p-cymene. This process consists in sulphonating 2-brom-p-
cymene, obtaining 2-brom-3- or 5-sulphonic acid, which, when heated
with zinc dust and ammonia in an autoclave at 170°, gives cymene-3-
sulphonic acid. This compound on fusion with potassium hydroxide
gives thymol.
Eecently a patent has been granted to Andrews (U.S. Patent 1,306,512,
1919) for a process for making thymol from cymidine (2-aminocymene).
Cymidine is first acetylated, then nitrated; whereupon the nitro group
enters meta to the methyl group. The acetyl group is hydrolysed off and
the amino group removed through diazotisation and subsequent reduction
of the diazo compound with alkaline stannous chloride or with boiling
alcohol. The nitro compound thus obtained is then reduced to the
corresponding amino compound, which on diazotisation and subsequent
hydrolysis gives thymol.
In the details given by Phillips and Gibbs in the publication referred
to the following experimental procedure is. outlined : The j[)-cymene was
isolated from a crude oil obtained from a sulphite spruce pulp mill. The
oil after standing over lime for about a week was subjected to steam dis-
tillation. To the distillate about one-fourth its volume of sulphuric acid
was added, and the mixture stirred in the cold by means of a mechanical
stirrer. After two hours' stirring the dark acid was separated from the
oil, a fresh quantity of sulphuric acid added and the stirring continued.
This operation was carried on until a sample of the oil after being washed
with water gave a very slight yellowish colour when shaken with sul-
phuric acid. The oil was then washed with water, dried over calcium
chloride and distilled over sodium, using a Glinsky stillhead. Practically
all the material came over from 174° to 175° (759*6 pressure), leaving
only a small amount of dark coloured oil in the flask.
For the preparation of nitrocymene a method developed in the Colour
Laboratory and described in the Jour, of Ind. and Eng. Chem. in
1918, p. 453, was used. The nitro group enters in the ortho position
with respect to the methyl group. The reduction of this compound to
aminocymene or cymidine was accomplished by means of iron powder
and hydrochloric acid in exactly the same way as nitrobenzene is reduced
to aniline.
The conversion of cymidine to cymidine sulphonic acid was effected as
follows: To 61 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid 160 grams of
cymidine were added in small quantities at a time, starring after each
addition of the cymidine. The cymidine sulphate was placed in an
oven and, heated for six hours at about 200°. The mass on cooling was
ground and dissolved in hot water. Upon making the solution distinctly
alkaline with sodium hydroxide the cymidine which had escaped
sulphonation separated as an oil and was recovered by steam distillation.
The residue in the flask was concentrated if necessary, boiled with animal
charcoal, filtered, and acidified with hydrochloric acid. Cymidine sul-
phonic acid separated out as a crystalline mass. The yield was about
30 grams (32 per cent, yield calculated on the 60 grams of cymidine
actually used up), and the unused cymidine recovered amounted to 100
grams.
For the preparation of cymene-3-sulphonic acid from cymidine sul-
phonic acid the following modification of Widman's method was used :
22*9 grams of the cymidine sulphonic acid were suspended in about
400 c.c. of 95 per cent, alcohol, 20 c.c. concentrated sulphuric added,
and diazotised in the cold in the usual manner. After diazotisation the
solution was allowed to stand in the cold for an hour and then 10 grams
of copper powder were added in small quantities at a time, allowing the
rapid evolution of nitrogen to subside before making any further additions.
The mixture was filtered and the filtrate distilled on the water-bath.
The residue in the flask was diluted with water, boiled with barium car-
bonate, filtered, and the filtrate containing the barium salt of cymene-3-
sulphonic acid was treated with sodium carbonate, and the sodium
salt of the sulphonic acid obtained. This sodium salt was converted into
thymol as follows : 30 grams of 98 per cent, sodium hydroxide were
treated with a little water and heated iu a nickel crucible, with stirring,
to 280°. To this 10 grams of the sulphonate were added, with stirring.
After all the salt had been added, the temperature was raised to 310°,
and left there for about fifteen minutes, when the reaction was complete.
The melt on cooling was dissolved in water, acidified with hydrochloric
acid and steam distilled. The distillate was extracted with ether, dried
over anhydrous sodium sulphate and fractionated after distilling off the
ether. Nearly all of the product distilled over at the boiling tempera-
ture of thymol. The thymol obtained was identified by its phenylure-
thane derivative (m.p. 107°).
Mr. Max Phillips himself has taken out the following important patent
for the preparation of thymol from para-cymene.
The process of converting para-cymene into thymol is preferably
carried out as follows :' The first step consists in converting cymene into
cymidin by any known process, an example of a good method being:
Pure para-cymene is slowly added to an equal weight of sulphuric acid
(specific gravity 1'84), which is kept at or below 0°C. To this is slowly
added the previously cooled nitrating mixture, consisting of 1 part nitric
acid (specific gravity 1*42) and 2 parts sulphuric acid (1*84), the amount of
nitric acid being used about 5 to 10 per cent, in excess of that necessary
to substitute one nitro group into the cymene molecule. During the
nitration the mixture is stirred efficiently and the temperature kept at
or below 0° C. When all the nitrating mixture has been added, the
mixture is stirred for one hour longer. The mixture is then poured into
cold water, and the oily upper layer separated off. This is washed several
times with water, with sodium carbonate solution, and again with water.
The nitro-cymene thus obtained is then reduced to amino-cymene or
cymidin by means of iron and hydrochloric acid in exactly the same way
as that used in the industrial preparation of aniline from nitrobenzene.
The cymidin is now sulphonated, 100 parts by weight of cymidin
being slowly added to 69 parts by weight of sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1*84),
contained in a shallow dish, and the solid crystalline mass of cymidin
sulphate thus obtai ed is then converted into cymidin sulphonic acid by1
an identical method to that used in the so-called "baking process"
for the preparation of sulphanilic acid from aniline sulphate.
This produces l-methyl-2-amino-4-isopropyl-3 or 5 sulphonic acid.
l
Zeitsch. angew. Chem., 9, p. 685 (1896); Berichte, 13, p. 1940 (1880); Dingl.
Polyt. Jour., 264, p. 181 (1887).
The cymidin sulphonic acid is then diazotised in the usual manner by
treating with sodium nitrite in acid solution and the diazo body reduced
with alkaline tin chloride solution, or with formic acid and powdered
•copper, or with other relatively gentle reducing agents. The 3 or 5
cymidin sulphonic acid gives by the above process one and the same
cymene sulphonic acid, viz., l-methyl-3-sulphonic-4-isopropyl benzene.
The sodium salt of the cymene sulphonic acid is then fused with
sodium hydroxide in the usual manner, and the hydroxyl group sub-
stituted for the sulphonic group. This gives l-methyl-3-hydroxy-4-
isopropyl-benzene or thymol.
The thymol can be separated by dissolving the product obtained by
the sodium hydroxide fusion in water, acidulating with dilute sulphuric
acid, and then steam distilling ; or it may be extracted with a suitable
solvent or in any other appropriate manner.
The reactions which take place in the process are conveniently
expressed as follows :—
CH, CH,
-NIL,
Diazotised and>>
reduced with |
alkaline
SnCl2,
formic acid
and copper.
CH,
HO,S— H.O
CH
/\
CH, CH,
Thymol.
The latest patent for the preparation of artificial thymol is that of
E. M. Cole (U.S.P. 1,378,939, 24 May, 1921). His method consists
essentially in the electrolytic reduction of nitro-cymene in the presence
of sulphuric acid, and the subsequent diazotisation and reduction of the
para-amidocymenol produced, by electric action, involving the use of
stannous chloride.
Apparatus suitable for the electrolytic reduction comprises a cylindri-
cal tank with a lead lining, which also serves as the anode. In this
vessel is placed a container, sufficiently porous to permit the passage of
ions from one chamber to another, but nearly impervious to the passage
of molecules, and within the container is arranged a carbon or copper
cathode in the form of a hollow perforated cylinder. Within this latter
cylinder is also arranged a stirrer or agitator, preferably of stoneware or
lead-covered iron. The anode chamber is charged with 30° B6 (sp. gr.
1-26) sulphuric acid, and the cathode space with 25° Be (sp. gr. 1*21}
acid. The strength of the acid in the anode chamber is maintained
throughout the process by the addition of water in suitable quantities
as the reaction proceeds. The nitro-cymene is placed in the cathode
space in a quantity approximately 50 per cent, of the weight of 100 per
cent. acid.
A current of density 5-J- amperes per square decimetre of cathode space
and a potential of 3 volts is used, and the temperature is maintained at
between 75° and 85° C. During the electrolytic action, the nitro-cymene
is kept in thorough emulsion in the aqueous acid solution by means of
the agitator.
After the electrolytic action .has continued for a suitable period, the
contents of the vessel are allowed to cool, following which the unchanged
nitro-cymene is separated for re-use, and the l-methyl-2-amino-4-iso-
propyl-5-hydroxy benzol is filtered off from the remaining acid solution,
which latter is strengthened for re-use. The l-methyl-2-amino-4-
isopropyl-5-hydroxy benzol is then diazotised, and further reduced in
an alkaline solution of stannous chloride, in the usual and well-known
manner, with the resulting production of thymol (l-methyl-4-isopropyl-
5-hydroxy benzol).
The reactions taking place in following out this process may be
shown thus:—
CH3
NO2 S \ NH2
Electrolysis-^ | Diazotisation-
H0\/ HON
C3H7
It is interesting to note that thymol, as well as its isomer carvacrol can
be removed from its alkaline 1solution either by distillation by steam, or by
repeated extraction by ether.
THYMOL-METHYL ETHER.
The methyl ether of thymol is found in the oil of Crithmum maritimum*
It is a liquid of the constitution—
1
Berichte, 32 (1899), 1517; and 15 (1882), 817.
C.CH 3
HC^
X
C. CH(CH3)2
0°
boiling at 214° to 216°, and having a specific gravity O954 at -—0.
On treatment with hydrobromic acid in acetic acid solution it yields
thymol.
CAKVACBOL.
Carvacrol, C10H14O, is a phenol isomeric with thymol, with which it
is frequently found associated, especially in certain types of thyme and
origanum oils.
Carvacrol is isopropyl-orô-cresol, of the following constitution :—
C.CH,
HC CH
CH
It results, artificially, from the treatment of carvone by potash or
phosphoric acid, and by. heating camphor with iodine.
Carvacrol is a colourless liquid, with a fragrant odour, solidifying,
when quite pure, in the cold.
Melting-point + 0-5° to 4- 1°
Boiling-point 236°
Refractive index 1 "5240
It yields a phenylurethane melting at 141°.
If carvacrol be treated, in alcoholic potash solution, with amyl nitrite,
nitrosocar acrol, C6H2(CH3)(OH)(C3H7)(NO), results. This body forms
well-defined crystals melting at 153°.
By heating carvacrol with alkalis, it is converted into isocuminic
acid, C6H3(C3H7)(OH)(COOH), melting at 93°. By oxidation with
chromic acid mixture, thymoquinone results. This compound forms,
crystalline tables melting at 45° to 46°.
CHAVICOL.
Chavicol, C9H10O, is an unsaturated phenol, found in oils of betel nut
and bay leaves. It is a colourless, highly odorous liquid, having the fol-
lowing characters:—
Specific gravity . . . . . . . . . . 1*035
Optical rotation . . . . . . . . . . +0°
Refractive index . . . 1*5441
Boiling-point 237°
VOL. II. 17
It is âra-oxy-allyl-benzene, of the constitution—
C.OH
HO, * CH
O . OJbL2 . OH '. \j±±.)
Like most phenols, it gives an intense blue colour with solution of

ferric chloride. By heating it with alcoholic potash and methyl iodide it
is converted into methyl-chavicol or estragol, the characteristic constituent
of tarragon oil.
ESTRAGOL.
Estragol, or methyl-chavicol, C^HÔ, is a constituent of tarragon,
anise-bark, bay, fennel, and other essential oils. It is a strongly odorous
Boiling-point 215° to 216° (corrected)
„ at 12 mm 97° to 98°
Specific gravity . . . . . . 0*972°

COCH,
HC
C . CH,. CH : CH2
Methyl-chavicol (estragol, isoanethol methyl-^-oxy-allyl-benzene) is
isomeric with anethol, which by a system of cross-naming is also known
as iso-estragol. In common with other phenol ethers, containing the
allyl group, estragol is converted into its isomer, anethol, which contains
the propenyl group, by boiling with alcoholic potash.
This reaction serves as a means of identification of estragol. If it be
heated for twenty-four hours on the water-bath, with three times its
volume of a saturated alcoholic solution of potash, it is converted into
anethol, which, after drying and recrystallisation from petroleum ether,
melts at 22°, and boils at 232° to 233°.
If 30 grams of estragol be shaken with 20 grams of potassium per-
manganate in 2000 c.c. of water, and 20 c.c. of acetic acid, the solution
being kept cold, estragol yields homo-anisic acid, which can be isolated
by rendering the liquid alkaline with carbonate of sodium, filtering,
liberating the acid by the addition of sulphuric acid, and extracting
with ether.
yCH2COOH
Homo-anisic acid, C(.H4<; , forms well-defined crystalline
cablets, melting at 85° to 86°
ANETHOL.
Anethol (isoestragol, methyl-p-oxy-propenyl-benzene) is the principal
constituent of aniseed and star aniseed oil, and occur to a considerable
extent in fennel oil. It is a crystalline solid, having the characteristic
odour of aniseed oil, and possessing the following characters :—
Boiling-point 233° „ 234°
Befractive index at 25° 1-5600
COCH3
HCLîCH
C . CH : CH . CH3
Anethol is the raw material from which most of the artificial hawthorn
perfume is manufactured. This perfume consists of anisic aldehyde,
known commercially under the name "aubepine".
.COOH
Anethol can be identified by oxidation to anisic acid, C6H4<^
XX)CH3
melting at 184°. It is obtained in the following manner: 5 grams of
the anethol containing oil or fraction are heated to 50° with a solution
of 25 grams of bichromate of potassium and 50 grams of sulphuric acid
made up to 100 c.c. with water. The mixture is well shaken, allowed
to cool and the liquid decanted. The solid deposit is washed with water
and finally recrystallised twice from boiling water when it will be found
to melt at 184°.
Anethol dibromide, C^H4 . OCH 3 . C3H5Br2, melting at 67°, is also a
useful crystalline derivative by which anethol can be identified. It is
obtained by the action of bromine in chloroform solution on anethol.
The product is crystallised from petroleum ether, and then melts at 67°.
1
yCHBr . CHBr . CH,
Its constitution is C6H4<^
N3CH34
HYDKOQUINONE ETHYL ETHEE.
The ethyl ether of hydroquinone,^)ara oxyphenetol, C8H10O2, is found
to a small extent in oil of star aniseed. It can also be prepared artificially
by heating joara-diazophenetol sulphate with dilute sulphuric acid, or by
boiling hydroquinone with ethyl iodide and potassium hydroxide under a
reflux condenser. Its constitution is—
COH
HC
,CH
CO . C2H5
It forms white colourless needles, melting at 66° and boiling at
246° to 247°.
TH YMOHYDEOQUINONE .
Thymohydroquinone,C1 1402, is a constituent of the essential oils
of Callitris quadrivalvis, Monarda fistulosa, and Thuja articulata. It is
a crystalline compound melting at 143° and boiling at 290°, or at 130° at
6 mm. pressure. Its constitution is —
C— CH
HOC^JCH
C. CH(CH3)2
By oxidation with potassium permanganate, it yields thymoquinone
THYMOHYDEOQUINONE DIMETHYL ETHEB.

This phenolic compound, C12H18O2, exists in the essential oil of
Eupatorium triplinerve, and in arnica root oil. It is an oil having the
„ at 12 mm 118°
Its constitution is —
C-CH3
HC/^COCH.,
C H . O.
°\/CH
C . <CH(CH3)2
By treatment with hydriodic acid and amorphous phosphorus, it is
converted into thymohydroquinone, which melts at 143°, and which, as
described above, yields thymoquinone on oxidation.
THYMOQUINONE.
This body, although not a phenol or phenolic ether, is conveniently
described here. It is a quinone, of the formula C6H2(O2)(CH3)(C3H7),
occurring in the essential oils of Monarda fistulosa and Thuja articulata.
It is a crystalline body melting at 48° and boiling at 98° to 100° at 6 mm.
By treatment with hydroxylamine it yields isonitrosothymol, C^H^NO,,,
melting at 161°. This body, on oxidation with potassium ferrocyanide
in alkaline solution, yields mononitrothymol, melting at 137°.
CREOSOL.
Creosol is a dipihenol, of the constitution—
C.CH 3
HCi
vO.OH
C.OH
It occurs in oil of ylang-ylang. It is an odorous oil boiling at 220°.
ALLYL-PYROCATECHOL.
Allyl-pyrocatechol, C9H10O2, exists in betel leaf oil. It is a crystalline
body melting at 48° to 49° and boiling at 139° at 4 mm. It yields a
dibenzoyl derivative melting at 71° to 72°. Its constitution is as follows :—
C. OH
HCl ICH
/ . C*H 2 . CH i CH2
By methylation with dimethyl sulphate and potash, it yields methyl-
eugenol, boiling at 248° to 249°; and which on oxidation yields veratric
acid, melting at 179° to 180°.
PYBOGALLOL DIMETHYL ETHER.
.This phenolic ether, C6H3(OH)(OCH3)2, has been identified in the
essential oil of an Algerian plant, whose botanical source is not identified.
It is a crystalline body melting at 51°, and yields a benzoyl derivative
EUGENOL.
Eugenol, C10H12O2, is the characteristic constituent of the oils of
cloves, cinnamon leaf, bay and pimento, and is also found in numerous
other essential oils. It is a liquid of powerful clove odour, having the
Boiling-point . . . . . 252° at 750 mm.
. 123° „ 12 „
Optical rotation . . . . + 0°
It has the following constitution ;—
COH
HCL JCH
C . CH 2 . CH : CH2
It is the raw material from which the bulk of the vanillin of com-
merce is obtained (see under Vanillin), for which purposes very large
quantities are consumed.
Eugenol yields a characteristic benzoyl derivative when treated with
benzoyl chloride in the presence of caustic potash. Benzoyl-eugenol
The diphenylurethane melts at 107° to 108°. By treatment with
methyl iodide in the presence of caustic alkali, eugenol is converted into
methyl-eugenol, which is characterised by its monobromo derivative
For the manufacture of vanillin, eugenol is first isomerised to iso-
eugenol, in which a rearrangement in the side chain has taken place.
ISOEUGENOL.
Isoeugenol, C10H12O2, is found to a small extent in the essential oils

of ylang-ylang and nutmeg, but is principally of importance in the manu-
facture of vanillin, eugenol being first isomerised into isoeugenol, which
is then converted into vanillin. Isoeugenol has the following constitu-
tion : —
COH
. CH3
JCH
. CH : CH . CH3

Boiling-point ..... ..... 262°
Specific gravity .......... 1-0880
Refractive index ........ . . 1-5730
Isoeugenol, when cooled to a very low temperature, crystallises in

fine needles, which melt at 34°, but it usually exists in a state of super-
fusion.
It is a liquid with a powerful carnation odour, and is indispensable
in the compounding of perfumes of the carnation and " ceillet " type.
There are several crystalline compounds useful for the identification
of isoeugenol, amongst which are the following ; —
Benzoyl-isoeugenol, melting at 105°, is prepared by the addition to
10 parts of isoeugenol of a dilute solution of caustic soda, and then of
15 parts of benzoyl chloride. The temperature should be kept low, and
crystals of benzoyl-eugenol will separate.
If equimolecular proportions of isoeugenol and acetic anhydride are
heated for four to five hours to 135°, and the mixture washed with dilute
alkali, acetyl-isoeugenol results, which, when dissolved in benzene and
precipitated by petroleum ether, crystallises in needles melting at 79°
to 80°.
Isoeugenol, shaken with dimethyl sulphate and caustic potash, yields
methyl-isoeugenol, which can be identified by its dibromide, melting at
101° to 102°.
' Isoeugenol yields a diphenyl-urethane, melting at 112° to 113°.
The conversion of eugenol into isoeugenol is a matter of considerable
importance, especially in the manufacture of vanillin (q.v.). It can be
effected by boiling eugenol with alcoholic potash for twenty-four hours,
but the yield is not a satisfactory one. According to De Laire's patent
(France, 209,149), 25 parts of caustic potash and 36 parts of amyl
alcohol are heated, and any carbonate of potash present is separated by
filtration. Five parts of eugenol are added and the mixture heated to
140° for sixteen to eighteen hours, the amyl alcohol being then removed
by steam distillation. The isoeugenol is then liberated by the addition
of dilute sulphuric acid and distilled in a current of steam.
There are several other methods for the isomerisation of eugenol, but
they all, in the main, depend on the action of caustic alkalis at an
elevated temperature.
ACETEUGENOL.
A very small amount of aceteugenol is present in essential oil of

cloves. Its constitution is as follows :—
COOC.CH 3
.CH 3
HCl CH
CH:CH 2
It also results from the action of acetic anhydride on eugenol. Its
characters are as follows ; —
Melting-point .......... 29°
Boiling-point at 752 mm ......... 281°
„ „ 8 „ ........ 146°
Specific gravity (at 15°, superfused) ...... 1-0842
Refractive index ( „ „ „ ) ...... 1-5207
Acetisoeugenol is the corresponding derivative of isoeugenol, and

METHYL-EUGENOL.
The methyl ether of eugenol, C11H14O2, is found in calamus oil, cassie
oil, betel oil, bay oil, and various other essential oils. It can be prepared
artificially by the action of methyl iodide on eugenol sodium. Its con-
stitution is identical with that of eugenol, except that the phenolic group,
OH, has been replaced by the methoxy group, O . CH3.
It is a useful adjunct in the manufacture of perfumes of the carnation
type, modifying the odours of eugenol and isoeugenol to some extent.
Its characters are as follows ; —
Specific gravity .......... 1-042
Optical rotation .......... ±0°
Refractive index . - ........ 1-5380
Boiling-point .......... 248°
The principal derivative for identification purposes is veratric acid,

C,;H3(COOH)(OCH3)2, which is obtained by oxidising 6 grams of m ethyl -
eugenol with a solution of 18 grams of potassium permanganate in 400
c.c. of water. When recrystallised from alcohol, veratric acid melts at
179° to 180°.
Monobrom-methyleugenol dibromide is also a useful derivative to
prepare. Its constitution is —
. CHBr
CGH,Br— OCH3
It can be obtained by dissolving 50 grams of methyl-eugenol in 100

grams of absolute ether, and adding 30 c.c. of bromine drop by drop, the
mixture being kept cold during the process. The crystalline compound,
having the above formula, melts at 79° to 80°.
METHYL-ISOEUGENOL.
Methyl-isoeugenol, CnH14O2, bears exactly the same relationship to
isoeugenol as methyl-eugenol does to eugenol. It occurs naturally in the
oil of Asarum arifolium, and can be obtained by the action of methyl
iodide on isoeugenol sodium, or by isomerising methyl-eugenol by hot
alcoholic potash.
Methyl-isoeugenol has the following characters :—
Boiling-point 263°
On oxidation it yields veratric acid melting at 179° to 180°, and by
the action of bromine on the phenol-ether dissolved in absolute ether, a
dibromide is obtained, which melts at 101° to 102°. It has the con-
stitution—
/CHBr . CHBr . CH,
TASMANOL.
l
Eobinson and Smith have separated a phenol from the oil of
Eucalyptus linearis, which they have named tasmanol.
The phenol was removed from the crude oil in the usual manner by
shaking with aqueous sodium hydrate, washing the aqueous solution
with ether to remove adhering oil, acidifying and extracting with ether.
The residue, which contained a small amount of acetic and butyric acids,
was washed with dilute sodium carbonate, extracted with ether, the
ether removed and the phenol distilled. It boiled at 268° to 273° C.
(uncor.) and at 175° under 25 mm. pressure. It was optically inactive,
the specific gravity at 23° was 1*077, and the refractive index at 22° was
1*5269. Besides being soluble in alkalies the phenol is soluble in
ammonia, partly soluble also in sodium carbonate but not in bicarbonate.
It also dissolves slightly in boiling water. The reaction with ferric
chloride in alcoholic solution is characteristic, the deep red colour which
is first formed remaining persistent for days, after the alcohol has evapo-
rated. The odour reminds one somewhat of carvacrol. It contains one
methoxy group and appears to have two phenolic groups in the para
position to each other.
AUSTRALOL.
Australol is a crystalline phenol obtained by Baker and Smith 2 from
various, eucalyptus oils, including those of Eucalyptus hemiphloia and
E. wooloiznci. It is a very caustic substance, resembling ordinary phenol
in odour. Its characters are as follows :—
Melting point 62°
Specific giavity at 20° 0-9971 (superfused)
Refractive index a t 2 0 ° . . . . . 1-5195 ( „ )
iJour. ofProc. Roy. Soc.t N.S.W., 48 (1914), 518.

2
A Research on the Eucalypts, 2nd. edition, p. 396.
It forms long thin prisms, which when melted tend to remain in
the liquid condition, but when the liquid is sown with a crystal of the
phenol it at once solidifies. It forms a benzoyl compound, melting at
72° to 73°. It is apparently dihydro-para-allylphenol of the constitu-
tion —
COH
CH2
C . CH2 . CH : CH2
SAFROL.
Safrol, C10H10O.,, is the methylene ether of allyl-dioxybenzene, of the
constitution —
CO— CH2
Hc C
C . CH2 . CH : CH2
It is found to a considerable extent in oils of sassafras, camphor, and
Ilicium religiosum. When pure it is a white crystalline mass at low
temperatures, melting at + 11°. At ordinary temperatures it forms a
colourless oil of characteristic, pleasant odour, and having the following
characters : —
Melting-point + 11°
Boiling-point 233°
at 4 mm. 91°
It is easily converted into isosafrol (containing the propenyl group) by the
action of alcoholic potash. Safrol is used to an enormous extent for per-
fuming cheap soaps, and is also of great commercial value on account of
the fact that on oxidation it yields heliotropin, an artificial perfume which
is now largely employed (q.v.).
Safrol, on oxidation in the following manner, yields homopiperonylic
acid, melting at 127° to 128°. A mixture of 5 parts of safrol and 12*5
parts of potassium permanganate dissolved in water and 5 parts of acetic
acid are heated to 70° to 80°, and the liquid rendered alkaline.
The liquid is filtered, and on extraction with ether yields some pipe-
ronal (heliotropin), melting at 37°. The residual liquid is boiled with
magnesium carbonate-, resinous matter extracted with ether, the liquid
filtered and the acid set free by means of dilute sulphuric acid. Homo-
piperonylic acid crystallises out on evaporation, and forms fine needles
If chromic acid be used as the oxidising agent, piperonal and pipe-
ronylic acid, melting at 228°, are formed.
Safrol yields a pentabromide, C10Br5H5O2, melting at 169° to 170°.
On reduction by nickel in a stream of hydrogsn, safrol yields a dihydro
product, C10H12O2, boiling at 228°, and raeto-propyl-phenol, boiling at 228°
also.
ISOSAFROL.
Whilst safrol is the methylene ether of allyl-dioxy-benzene, isosafrol

is the methylene ether of propenyl-dioxy-benzene, so that the two bodies
are related to each other in the same, way as eugenol and isoeugenol.
Isosafrol results from the isomerisation of safrol by heating with
alcoholic potash, and this conversion is the preliminary step in the manu-
facture of heliotropine since isosafrol yields considerably more heliotropine
on oxidation than safrol does. Isosafrol has the following constitution :—
CO—CH
HCL "JOEL
Yc CH : CH . CH3
Boiling-point . 254°
Befractive index 1*5780
Isosafrol yields piperonal (heliotropine) melting at 37° as the principal

product of oxidation when potassium permanganate is used as the oxidis-
ing agent. If the oxidation be very energetic piperonylic acid, melting at
228°, is the principal reaction product.
With excess of bromine, isosafrol yields a penta-bromide, melting at
197°. If safrol, dissolved in carbon bisulphide be heated carefully with
bromine, it yields monobrom-isosafrol dibromide, C10H9Br3O2, melting at
109° to 110°.
According to Hoering and Baum,1 commercial isosafrol contains two
geometric isomers, which they term a-isosafrol and /^-isosafrol. They
differ slightly in odour, a-isosafrol being intermediate in this respect be-
tween safrol and /:?-isosafrol. It is not probable that they yield different
products on oxidation, nor is there the slightest reason to believe that
heliotropine is any such corresponding mixture.
ASARONE.
Asarone, or 4-propenyl-l . 2 . 5 . trimethoxybenzene, C12H10O3, is the
trimethyl ether of a triphenol, which is found occurring naturally in the
essential oil of Asarum arifoliurn, and to a small extent in matico and
acorus oils. It is an aromatic crystalline compound having the following
characters:—
Melting-point 62°
Boiling-point 296°
1
Berichte, 42 (1909), 3076.
COCH3
H 3 CO(\!CH
C . CH : CH . CH3
On treatment with bromine in carbon tetrachloride solution, it yields
a dibromide in which two atoms of bromine have been fixed in the pro-
penyl side chain, melting at 85° to 86°.
By oxidation asarone yields asarylic aldehyde, C6H2(CHO)(OCH3)3,
melting at 114°, and finally asarylic acid, G^H2(COOH)(OCH3)3, melting
at 144°. This acid is, of course, identical with trimethoxy-benzoic acid.
ELEMICIN.
Elemicin is isomeric with asarone. It is 4-allyl-l . 2 . 6-trimethoxy-
benzene, and is found in the essential oil of Manila elemi. Its char-
acters are as follows : —
Refractive index ......... T5285

COCH3
HG 1CH
C . CH 2 . CH : CH2
If elemicin be heated with alcoholic solution of potash, the allyl group
is isomerised to the propenyl group, and iso-elemicin results.
Both bodies yield trimethylgallic acid, C6H2(COOH)(OCH3)3, melting
at 169°. on oxidation.
Elemicin has been synthesised by Manthora.1
By boiling allyl bromide and pyrogallol dimethyl ether with acetone
and potassium carbonate, he obtained a dimethoxyphenyl allyl ether,
which was converted into dimethoxyallyl phenol by heating to 220°. On
methylation this yields trimethoxyallyl benzene, identical with elemicin.
MYEISTICIN.
Myristicin, CnH12O3,is 4-allyl-6-methoxy-l. 2-methylenedioxybenzene.
It is found in oil of nutmeg and in parsley oil. It is a fragrant compound
„ „ 149° at 15 mm.
lAnnalen, 414(1917), 250.

CO— CH,
. CH
C . CH, . CH : CH2
On isomerisation with hot alcoholic potash it yields isomyristicin,
which contains the propenyl group in the side chain, and is a solid body
Myristicin and isomyristicin are distinguished by their reactions with
bromine. Myristicin, when treated with two atoms of bromine, yields an
oily liquid, whilst isomyristicin yields a crystalline body melting at 109°.
If the isomers are dissolved in acetic acid, and treated with bromine until
no more is absorbed, the mixture being kept cold all the time, the follow-
ing compounds are obtained : — .
C6Br2(CH2 . CHBr . CH2Br .)(OCH3)(O2CH2).
Dibromomyristicin dibromide. Melting point » 130°.
C6Br2(CHBr . CHBr . CH3)(OCH3)(O2CH2).
Dibromoisomyristicin dibromide. Melting point = 156°.
Both isomers yield myristic aldehyde on oxidation by means of potas-
sium permanganate. This aldehyde has the formula
C6H2(CHO)(OCH3)(O2CH2),
and melts at 131°. By further oxidation it yields myristic acid,
C6H2(COOH)(OCH3)(OoCH2),
melting at 210°
ALLYL-TETKAMETHOXYBENZENE.
This phenol ether has been isolated from French oil of parsley. It is
a crystalline compound of the formula C13H18O4, which can be separated
by freezing the oil and drying the crystals on porous plates for twenty-four
hours, and recrystallising the product several times from alcohol. Its
constitution is as follows : —
COCH3
H,
HC SCOCH 3
C . CH 2 . CH : CH,
Melting-point 25°
The corresponding propenyl isomer is unknown.
On oxidation with permanganate of potassium, this phenol ether
yields tetramethoxy benzoic acid, C(.H(OCH3)4COOH, melting at 87°.
APIOL.
Apiol, the principal constituent of oil of parsley, is an allyl-dimethoxy-
methylene-dioxybenzene of the formula C12H1464. Its physical char-
Boiling-point . 294°
,, ,, at 33 mm. 179°
Specific gravity 1-1788 (superfused)
liefractive index 1-5380
CO— CH,
H3COO
HCL ,COCH,
C . CH, . CH : CH,
On heating apiol for twrelve hours with alcoholic solution of potash,
it is isomerised, the allyl group being changed into the propenyl group,
isoapiol resulting. Isoapiol, C0H(CH : CH . CH3)(OCH,)2(O2CH,), is a
crystalline compound having the following characters :—
Boiling-point 303° ,, 304"
at 33 mm 183°
Apiol can be identified by its melting-point and its easy conversion
into isoapiol, melting at 55° to 56°.
If apiol, dissolved in carbon bisulphide, be treated with bromine in
the same solvent, and the solvent evaporated, monobrormpiol dibromide,
C<.Br(O2CH2)(OCH3)2(C3H5Br,), melting at 88° to 89° results. It cm be
obtained in a pure state by several crystallisations from absolute alcohol.
The corresponding isoapiol compound melts at 120°. Both apiol and
isoapiol yield apiolic aldehyde and apiolic acid on oxidation, a better
yield being obtained if apipl be first isomerised to isoapiol. Four grams
of isoapiol are dissolved in 40 c.c. of acetic acid, and 5 grams of chromic
acid dissolved in 100 grams of acetic acid are added. After about two
hours, 1000 c.c. of water are added, the mixture neutralised with caustic
soda, and the liquid filtered. On standing in a cold placa, long needles
of apiolic aldehyde, C10H10O5, separates, which when recrystallised from
alcohol, melt at 102° and boil at 315°. To convert isoapiol into apiolic
acid, 30 gram^ of potassium permanganate are dissolved in 1600 c.c. of
water and mixed with 8 grams of isoapiol suspended in 800 c.c. of water
rendered alkaline and heated to boiling temperature. The mixture is
heated for an hour on the water-bath and then filtered and unaltered
isoapiol extracted with ether. The mixture is then acidified with sul-
phuric acid, the yellow precipitate formed is dissolved in boiling water
with the addition of animal charcoal, and the filtrate allowed to cool,
when apiolic acid, C ]() H 10 O (5 , melting at 175°, separates.
DlLLAPIOL.
Dillap ol, C12H]4O4, differs from apiol only by the orientation of its
side chains. It is found in East Indian, Japanese, and Spanish dill oils,
and in certain types of matico oils, etc. It has the following constitu-
tion :—
CO—CH,
H3COC[X JCH
C.CH, .CH:CH,
Its physical characters are as follows ;—
Boiling-point 285°
,, at 11 mm 162°
Refractive index at 25° . . 1-5278
By boiling with alcoholic potash for six to eight hours, the allyl group
is changed into the propenyl group, and iso-dillapiol results. This body
is a crystalline compound, melting at 44° and boiling at 296°.
If dillapiol dissolved in glacial acetic acid be treated with excess of
bromine, a precipitate is obtained, which, after several recrystallisations
from alcohol, forms fine needles, melting at 110°. This body is mono-
brom-dillapiol dibromide of the formula,
C6Br(CH2. CHBr . CH2Br)(OCH3)(O2CH2).
Iso-dillapiol, which has also been found naturally in oil of Piper
aciitifolium, yields the corresponding bromide, melting at 115°.
On oxidation, in the manner described under apiol, there are obtained
from both dillapiol and iso-dillapiol, dillapiolic aldehyde, melting at 75°,
and dillapiolic acid, melting at 151° to 152°.
CHAVIBETOL.
This phenolic constituent of betel oil, C10H12O2, is an allyl-guaiacol, of
the constitution—
COCH3
HC/^COH
HC ,CH
^ CH,. C H:CH 2
C .
It is an oil having the odour of betel oil, and whose characters are
as follows:—
„ at 12 mm 131° „ 133°
Eefractive index " 1*5413
Melting-point 4-8*5°
It yields a benzoyl compound, which crystallises in small plates

melting at 49° to 50°. It also yields an acetyl derivative, boiling at
275° to 277°.
PHLORACETOPHENONE-DIMETHYL-ETHER.
1 9 O 4 , is a constituent of the oil of Blumea balsamifera.
This ether, C1100H
It is a colourless crystalline compound melting at 82° to 83°. Its con-
stitution is as follows : —
CH
HC' ' C • CO • CH3

COCH3
It yields an oxime, melting at 108° to 110°, an acetyl derivative
melting at 106° to 107°, a methyl ether melting at 103°, and a yellow
crystalline monobromide melting at 187°.
/3-NAPHTHOL-METHYL-ETHER.
This substance is an artificial perfume having a neroli-like odour, and
was introduced into commerce under the name yara-yara, and is also
known as nerolin. It is a crystalline compound melting at 72° and
boiling at 274°. Its constitution is—
CH
HG \COCH,
HC ,CH
It can be prepared by digesting /2-naphthol-sodium with the calculated

quantity of methyl iodide in methyl alcohol solution; or by heating
1 part of /2-naphthol, 3 parts of methyl alcohol, and 1 part of hydrochloric
acid in an autoclave to 150°.
/3-NAPHTHOL-ETHYL-ETHER.
This body corresponds with the methyl-ether just described, the CH3
group being replaced by the C2H5 group. It is prepared in the same
manner, substituting ethyl compounds for the methyl compounds. It
was introduced into commerce under the name bromelia, and is, in
common with the methyl-ether, known as nerolin. It is a colourless
crystalline solid melting at 37° and boiling at 282°. Its specific gravity
at 50° is 1*051. The ethyl-ether has a finer odour than the methyl-ether,
and has a suggestion of pine-apple.
/2-NAPHTHOL-BUTYL-ETHER.
This substance is an aromatic compound, similar to the ethel-ether,

and is a useful fixative. It has been sold under the name Fragarol.
8, OXIDES AND LACTONES.

COUMABIN.
Coumarin, C9H6O.?, is, chemically, the S-lactone of coumarinic acid

(o-oxycinnamic anhydride), of the constitution—
CH
HC .CO
C . CH : CH . CO
It is a white crystalline solid, melting at 67° to 68° and distilling at 290°.
It is soluble in hot water, alcohol, ether, vaseline, and oils in general. It
is the active odorous ingredient of the Tonquin bean (Tonca or Tonco
bean), the seeds of at least two species of Dipteryx (N.O. Leguminosa),
in which it occurs up to 3 per cent. Coumarin possesses the character-
istic odour of the Tonca bean, in which it was discovered in 1825 by
Boullay.1 It also occurs naturally in abundance in the dried leaves of
Liatris odoratissima (deer's tongue, hound's tongue), an herbaceous plant
common in North Carolina, 1 Ib. of leaves yielding from 1-J- to 2£ drachms
of coumarin. It has also been found in the following plants, amongst
others :—
Angroecum fragrans. Herniaria glabra.
Myroxylon Pereirce. Ruta graveolens.
Cevatopetalum apetalum. Alyxia stellata.
Ataxia Horsfeldii. Asperula odorata.
Cinna arundinacea. Galium trifolium.
Hierochloa alpina. Liatris spicata.
,, australis. Prunus Mahaleb.
,, borealis. Meliotus officinalis.
Milium effusum. ,, hamatus
Adiantum pedatum. ,, albus.
,, peruvianum. „ leucanthus.
,, trapeziforme. ,, altissimus.
Drynaria Wildenovi. Ageratum mexicanum.
Phoenix dactylifera. Copaifera Salikounda.
Aceras Winthrophora. Trifolium Melilotus.
Nigritella angustifolia. Anthoxanthum odoratum.
Orchis fusca.
Coumarin was first produced synthetically by Perkin.2 He made it
by heating salicylic aldehyde, C6H4(OH)1(COH)2, acetic anhydride, and
sodium acetate. The whole solidifies to a crystalline mass, from which,
on treatment with water, an oil separates containing coumarin and aceto-
coumaric acid. This acid on heating is decomposed into acetic acid and
coumarin, so that the product of distillation is principally coumarin.
Perkin's synthesis proceeds according to the following equation : —
' COONa +
(CH3C°)20 -
' COONa - H °
I 2
Jour. de Pharm., xi. 480. C1tem. Soc. Journ., xxi. 53, 181.
The sodium salt of aceto-coumaric acid on hydrolysis decomposes,
yielding first an acid which loses water, forming coumarin, together with
acetic acid —
/OOC . CH3 pT
: CH . COOH
CO + H>0
CH:CH
l
Anschiitz treated aceto-salicylic chloride with sodium-malonic ester,
with the formation of ethyl acetate and /3-hydroxy-coumarin-alpha-car-
boxylic ethyl ester —
/C(OH) : C . COOC0H5
"
This compound is heated with caustic potash solution, yielding beta-

hydroxy-coumarin. From this body, coumarin is obtained by substituting
a halogen atom for the OH group, and then reducing the product in
alcoholic solution with zinc-dust.
A synthesis of coumarin has been effected by Meyer, Beer, and
Lasch.'2 Ortho-chlorbenzal chloride is heated with glacial acetic acid
and potassium acetate —
CHCL
/\cl + H2CH . COOH + 2CH3COOK =
CH : CH . COOH
2KC1 + /\ ™ + 2CH3coOH
yielding ortho-chlor-cinnamic acid. This is reduced to ortho-chlor-phenyl-

propionic acid—
CH 0 . CH 2 . COOH
/Nci
On heating this under pressure, with a solution of caustic soda, ortho-

hydi oxy-coumaric acid results—
CH 2 . CH 2 . COOH
'H
2
Ânnalen, 202 (1909). Monatshefte, 34 (1913), 1665.
VOL. II. 18
This acid forms needles melting at 81° C., and on boiling, yields hydro-
eoumarin—
CH2 . CH2
>.CO
which melts at 25° C., and boils at 272° C.

By heating this lactoneto 270° and 300°, and passing bromine vapour
slowly over it, coumarin is produced—
CH 2 . CH2 CH : CH
2Br - 2HBr . CO
Coumarin is sometimes adulterated with acetanilide, which should

always be looked for; the ease with which it yields aniline, on heating
with potash solution, renders it very easy of detection. Some samples,
otherwise pure, contain traces of unaltered salicylic aldehyde, which is
revealed by the odour.
Synthetic coumarin is largely used in the place of Tonca beans, and
forms an extremely useful substance for fixing other odours. Traces of
fixed oil are useful in coumarin mixtures, as the coumarin odour appears
to become more fixed in this way. Foin coupe, or new-mown hay, is a
favourite perfume in which coumarin is the cnief ingredient. The follow-
ing table of solubilities of coumarin in alcohol of various strengths and in
water has been compiled by Schimmel & Co.:—
100 Parts of Alcohol atO° C. at 16° to 17° C. at 29° to 30° C.
Of 90 volume per cent. 1 7'1 pa rts 13-7 pa rts 42-5 pa rts

„ 80 ! 6'0 12*3 38'3 ,
,i 70 4-4 9-1 26-0
„ 60 3-2 6-0 16-0
.» 50 1-7 3-4 8-9
„ 40 0-7 1-5 3-9
„ 30 0-3 0-6 1-7
,, 20 0-2 0-4 0-8
„ 10 0-15 0-25 0-5
100 parts of water 0-12 , 0-18 , > 0-27 , •
On heating with concentrated solution of potash, coumarin is con-

verted into o-coumaric acid, HO . C6H4 . CH : CH . COOH, melting at
207° to 208°.
ALANTOLACTONE.
Alantolactone, C15H20O2, also known as helenin, is a constituent of the
essential oil of Inula helenium. It is a crystalline compound, melting at
76° and boiling at 275° (or at 195° to 200° at 10 mm.). Its constitution
is not known but it contains the following grouping : —
p TT / \
14 20
\co
By warming with dilute alkalis it is converted into the corresponding
acid, alantolic acid, C14H20(OH)(COOH), melting at 94°.
Alantolactone forms a hydrochloride melting at 117°, a hydrobromide
melting at 106°, a dihydrochloride melting at 127° to 134°, and a dihydro-
bromide melting at 117°.
An isomeric compound, isoalantolactone, exists in the oil of Inula
helenium. It is a crystalline body melting at 115°, and yielding isoalantolic
acid with alkalis, melting at 237° to 239°.
SEDANOLIDE.
Sedanolide, C12H18O2, is the lactone of sedanolic acid. Both bodies
occur in the essential oil of celery.
Sedanolide is a crystalline compound, melting at 88° to 89°. The
relationships of the acid and its anhydride are shown by the following
formulae : —
CH CH
. CH(OH)C4H9 / ^ C . CH •C4H9
A
H,C, .CH . COOH H,C CH.CO
CH2 t>
Sedanolic a?id. ^ Sedanolide.
Sedanolide is therefore, probably, tetrahydrobutyl-phthalide.
SEDANONIC ANHYDRIDE.
The anhydride of sedanonic acid, C12H18O3, is not a lactone, but an
anhydride resulting from the elimination of a molecule of water from a
monobasic ketonic acid. Sedanonic anhydride occurs in oil of celery.
The acid, which melts at 113°, has the following constitution : —
CH
. CO . C4H9
C.COOH
!H
It is therefore ortf/z-o-valeryl-^'-tetrahydrobenzoic acid. The anhydride
is formed by the elimination of a molecule of water from the two side
chains.
BERGAPTENE.
Oil of bergamot contains about 5 per cent, of an odourless solid body
known as bergaptene. This body has the formula C12H8O4, and melts at
188°. It is the methyl ether of a phloroglucinol derivative, related to
coumarin. Its constitution is as follows : —
CO . CH3
X HC . . CH : CH
CH "
. CO
CH
By treatment with methyl iodide and alcoholic potash, it yields
methyl-b^rgaptenic acid and its methyl ether.
XANTHOTOXIN.
Xanthotoxin, C12H8O4, is isomeric with bergaptene, and is present in
the oil of Fagara xanthoxyloides. It is a solid compound, melting at
145° to 146°, and is a pyrogallol derivative, having the constitution—
C . OCH3
OC . O . CO
CH
.C C, H
CH
It yields nitroxanthotoxin, C12H7O4 . NO2, melting at 230°, and a di-
bromide, melting at 164°.
ClTBAPTENE.
Citraptene, CnH10O4, is the odourless solid constituent of the expressed

oil of lemon. After repeated recrystallisations from acetone and methyl
alcohol, it forms needles melting afc 146° to 147°. By treatment with
bromine in chloroform solution it yields a dibromide, C10H10Br2O4, melting
at 250° to 260°. It appears to be a dimethyl-oxycoumarin of the con-
stitution —
C . CHO
COCH,
C
CO.CH CH
ClNEOL OR EUCALYPTOL.
This body, C10H18O, has been described under several names, the
best known being that now usually adopted, viz. cineol; also cajuputol
(from its occurrence in oil of cajuput) and eucalyptol (from its occurrence
in oil of eucalyptus). It is found in nature in very large quantities in
the above-mentioned oils, as well as in many others, notably wormseed,
lavender (English), and spike-lavender oils. It results also by the
treatment of terpin hydrate with acids. Wallach and Brass, who first
characterised it as a definite compound, give the following method for its
preparation. A current of dry hydrochloric acid gas is passed into
rectified wormseed oil. The resulting crystalline magma of cineol hydro-
chloride is pressed at low temperature to remove as much as possible of
adhering liquid, and the crystals are treated with water and steam dis-
tilled. The crude cineol is again subjected to this treatment, when the
pure body is obtained. When pure, cineol has the following characters :—

Melting-point + 1°
Optical rotation . + 0°
Scammel proposed its separation by means of a definite crystalline

compound with phosphoric acid. This body has the composition
C10H18O . H3PO4. The use of phosphoric acid is the basis of the British
Pharmacopceial test for cineol in essential oils.
Cineol forms a number of crystalline derivatives, amongst which may
be mentioned the hydrobromide, C10H180 . HBr, melting at 56°, and
the compound with iodol, C10H18O . C4I4NH, which forms yellowish-green
crystals, melting at 112°. It also forms a crystalline compound with
resorcinol, which has been used as a basis for its quantitative determina-
tion. This compound consists of 2 molecules of cineol with 1 of resorcin,
and forms needle-shaped crystals, melting at 80°.
Belluci and Grassi1 have prepared compounds of cineol with the
following bodies, in the proportion of 1 molecule of each constituent:—
Phenol . (melting-po i + 8°)
o-Cresol + 50°)
w-Cresol '. ( - 5°)
p-Cresol ' ' + 1-5°)
Pyrocatechol + 39°)
Resorcinol - 15°)
Thymol + 4-5°)
add a compound of 2 molecules of cineol with 1 of hydroquinone, melt-

ing at 106*5.
Cocking has shown 2 that the compound with o-cresol melts, not at
50° but at 55'2°, and has prepared a method for the determination of
cineol based on the preparation of this compound (vide infra). This
method was criticised adversely in Volume I of this work. Further ex-
amination of the method has shown that this criticism is not altogether
justified, and should be deleted, a fuller review of the method given on
p. 282 taking its place.
According to all reliable observations, the oxygen atom in cineol does
not possess alcoholic, ketonic, aldehydic, or acid functions. Apparently
it is quite indifferent, which accounts for the isolated nature, chemically
speaking, of the compound. In commerce, this body finds considerable
employment under its name, eucalyptol.
1
2
Chem. ZentraL, 1 (1914), 884.
P. and E. O. R , 11 (1920), 281.
Cineol has the constitution—
CH3
C O
ELC/NCH,
H2C CH0
CH
C—
CH3 CH3
The quantitative determination of cineol has been fully dealt with in
Vol. I. of this work under Eucalyptus Oil, but as this body occurs in
various other oils, and its determination is a matter of considerable im-
portance, details of its estimation are also dealt with here.
The earlier attempts in this direction gave distinctly too low results.
The chief method adopted was a series of fractionations, retaining all
those fractions distilling between 173° and 190°, cooling them to — 15°,
filtering off the still liquid portion, retaining the crystals of cineol, refrac-
tionating the liquid portions and again freezing, subsequently weighing
the crystallised cineol. An average loss of about 10 per cent., in the
author's opinion, takes place in this process, assuming the oil to contain
50 to 60 per cent, of cineol. Scammers process, above-mentioned, has
been more successfully applied to the quantitative determination of cineol
and yields the most satisfactory results so far, although an error of several
per cent, is scarcely avoidable.
There is some diversity of opinion on this matter, some chemists
maintaining that a very close result is obtained, others that very large
errors occur.
To a known weight of oil from 1 to 1-J times its weight of phosphoric
acid, of specific gravity 1'75, should be added, drop by drop, the oil being
kept cold and continually stirred. The crystalline magma formed is
pressed between filter paper, after as much as possible has drained off;
and when the adherent terpenes and phosphoric acid have been re-
moved as far as possible, the crystals are decomposed by hot water in
a graduated tube. On cooling, the cineol is measured, and from its
specific gravity ('930) the weight is easily calculated. The separated
cineol should readily crystallise on cooling to - 3°, otherwise it must
be regarded as impure and the process repeated. Oils rich in cineol
yield a correspondingly high fraction distilling between 170° and 190°.
If the oil be first diluted with petroleum ether, before treatment
with phosphoric acid, the results are rather more concordant in the
hands of different analysts.
It has been assumed that the cineol and phosphoric acid enter into
combination in molecular proportions, forming a solid compound of
definite composition. Helbing and Passmorel have described a method
in which the compound is weighed, and assume that the percentage of
cineol in the phosphoric compound is 61*1 per cent, based on the for-
mula C10H18O. H3PO4.
1
Pharmacological Record, XXXV.
Baker and Smith in their Research on the Eucalypts1 state, however,
that correctly speaking no general formula can be given, as commercial
phosphoric acid has not always the same concentration. They found
that the mean cineol content in the perfectly dry powdery compound
was 59*4:7 per cent. The theoretical mean for the cineol from the
H3PO4 found was 59*56 per cent., thus being in very fair agreement.
The results showed that 59*5 was approximately the amount of cineol in
100 parts of cineol-phosphate, and not 61*1 per cent, as was previously
supposed.
Baker and Smith have devised an improved rapid method which they
find works well with oils containing 20 per cent, and over. Eucalyptus
oils which give a compound that cannot be satisfactorily pressed by the
British Pharmacopoeia method may be readily determined in this way
and the decomposition of the cineol phosphate by long pressing (parti-
cularly in hot countries) is prevented.
The richest cineol oils give the best results when they are first diluted
with the addition of one-third the volume of freshly distilled pinene (tur-
pentine or the non-cineol portion of the more pronounced phellandrene
oils. The method is to be applied in the following manner:—
If a preliminary test indicates from 60 to 80 per cent, of cineol, the
oil is diluted as directed above; if about 60 per cent, or below it can be
used directly.
Ten c.c. of the oil to be assayed are placed in a suitable vessel which
is stood in a bath of ice and salt, and 4 c.c. of phosphoric acid are slowly
added, a few drops at a time (3 c.c. if below 30 per cent.), incorporating
the acid and the oil between each addition by stirring. The cineol phos-
phate is then allowed to remain in the bath for fully five minutes in order
that the combination may be complete. A test tube containing 10 c.c.
of petroleum ether, boiling below 59° C., is placed in the bath and when
quite cold is added to the cake of cineol phosphate and well incorporated
with the mass, using a flat-ended rod for the purpose. The mixture is
at once transferred to a small Buchner funnel 5 cm. in diameter, upon
which is placed a closely fitting filter paper. The non-combined portion
is then rapidly sucked away by the aid of a filter pump. The thus dried
cake is then transferred to a piece of fine calico, the calico folded over
and the cake spread with a spatula to cover an area of about 6 cm. by
8 cm., finally folded into a pad which is placed between several layers of
absorbent paper and the whole strongly pressed for three minutes. The
cake is then broken up with a spatula on a glazed tile or on glass, trans-
ferred to a measuring flask with graduated neck, decomposed with warm
water, the cineol lifted into the neck of the flask, cooled, and when the
separation is complete, the volume is measured. If the original oil were
diluted, a correction is of course necessary. Baker and Smith have ob-
tained very concordant results with the same sample and now use this
method constantly.
Schimmel & Co. recommend the absorption of the cineol by a 40 to
50 per cent, solution of resorcin in water, and reading the unabsorbed
portion in the neck of a Hirschsohn flask.
Ten c.c. of the oil containing cineol are mixed in a cassia flask of
100 c.c. capacity with so much 50 per cent, resorcinol solution that the
flask is filled to about four-fifths. The mixture is shaken thoroughly
1
2nd Edition, 1920, p. 359.
for five minutes, and the oil portions which have not entered into reac-
tion are brought into the neck of the flask by adding resorcinol solution,
and their volume determined. By subtracting the volume from 10 the
cineol-content of the oil is obtained, which is then expressed in per
cent, by volume by multiplication with 10.
Messrs. Schimmel & Co. have since modified the method by recom-
mending the oil to be first fractionated and the portion boiling between
170° to 190° C. to be treated with the resorcin solution. In some cases
this gives results fairly concordant with the phosphoric acid method
usually adopted, as the following results will show:—
Cineol by Direct Cineol by Absorption Cineol by
Absorption with with Resorcin Phosphoric
Resorcin Solution. after Fractionation. Acid Process.
Cajuput Oil, normal 62 per cent. 54 per cent. 52 per cent.

,, ,, abnormal 53 „ 17 „ 14
Eucalyptus Oil I. . . 82 „ 68 65
C. T. Bennett l has, however, shown that this method is quite un-

reliable, only yielding accurate results in certain isolated cases.
In other cases, however, the results obtained are obviously too high.
An oil which yielded 95 per cent, distilling between 170° to 190° C.,
all of which was absorbed by resorcin solution, had the following char-
acters :—
EUCALYPTUS OIL II.
Optical rotation . Nil
Cineol by phosphoric acid method 78 per cenb.
, , , , resorcin method . . . . 95
Other samples gave results as under :—
Ciueol by Ciueol by Cineol by
Direct Absorption after Phosphoric
Absorption. Fractionation. Acid Process.
Eucalyptus Oil III. . . . 100 per cent. 89 per cent. 70 per cent.
,, ,, IV. . . . Crystallised 97 75 „
92 ,, 73
It is evident that this modified method is not absolutely accurate,

since other constituents besides cineol are undoubtedly included in the
portion boiling between 170° and 190° C. A further objection is the
separation of the solid crystalline double compound with 'oils rich in
cineol.
The method has been criticised by H. G. Harding,2 who states that
a pure white oil from Eucalyptus dives, which contained no cineol, showed
an absorption of 32 per cent, by the resorcinol test. Kectifying the oil
and applying the test to the portion distilling between 170° and 190° does
not entirely remove the difficulty, as the results are always slightly high,
2
. and E.O.R. (1912), 269. Analyst (1914), 475.
owing to retention of other constituents by the resorcinol solution. His
experiments show that the method is more reliable when.the percentage
of cineol does not exceed 40 to 50 per cent., oils containing a higher per-
centage requiring to be diluted. Ordinary turpentine oil must not be
used for dilution, as it is likely to produce serious errors. By employing
the fraction of turpentine distilling between 156° and 160° for dilution the
error is minimised, and the following method is recommended : 100 c.c.
of the oil to be tested is distilled, the portion distilling between 170° and
190° collected, and this is diluted to 100 c.c. with the turpentine fraction.
If a trial shows the percentage of cineol to be above 70 per cent., the
cineol fraction is further diluted with the turpentine so that the percentage
is not over 50. The temperature is noted, and 6 to 10 c.c. is shaken with
warm 55 per cent, resorcinol solution. After five minutes' shaking more
solution is added so as to bring the oil into the graduated neck. It is
then cooled and the volume read.
A method for the determination of cineol has recently been proposed
by Dodge.1
The process is based on the fact that the terpenes of the essential oils
to be examined are readily oxidised at 0° C. by a 5 to 6 per cent, solution
of potassium permanganate, whilst the eucalyptol remains unattacked.
Ten c.c. of essential oil are gradually added to 400 or to 100 c.c. of per-
manganate solution, according to whether the essential oil is more or less
rich in terpenes. When the reaction is finished, the sohition is allowed
to stand in the cold for twelve to eighteen hours, with occasional agitation ;.
sulphurous acid or a mixture of sodium sulphite and hydrochloric acid is
added and the oily portion of the residue is brought up into the neck of
the flask, from which it is removed by means of a slender pipette. This
oil is washed with a little alkali, then transferred to a graduated tube
where its volume is determined which indicates the percentage of euca-
lyptol.
This method cannot be relied on, as the action of potassium per-
manganate is such as to react with some and not with other bodies
present in various types of eucalyptus oil.
The whole question of cineol determination in eucalyptus oil has
recently been carefully studied by Turner and Holmes,2 who consider
that all methods so far published are either inaccurate or at best only
approximate. They suggest the following process :—
The determination of cineol in cineol-bearing oils by means of arsenic
acid is carried out as follows :—
Deliver from a pipette 10 c.c. of the oil into a glass dish (preferably a
round-bottom one) of 50 c.c. capacity, which is imbedded in finely cracked
ice. Add 10 c.c. of concentrated arsenic acid (containing about 85 per
cent, arsenic acid), and stir until precipitation is complete. When the
mixture ceases to congeal further, allow to stand ten minutes in the ice.
At this point if the mixture forms a hard mass, indicating an oil rich in
cineol, 5 c.c. of purified petroleum ether should be added, and the mass
mixed well. Transfer immediately to a hardened filter paper by means
of a pliable horn spatula, spread evenly over the surface of the paper, and
lay a second hardened filter paper over the top. Outside of the hardened
filters place several thicknesses of absorbent or filter paper, and transfer
the whole to an ordinary letter-press, bringing to bear all the pressure
1 2
Jour. Ind. and Eng. Cliem., 4, 592. P. and E.O.R. (1915), 21.
possible for about one minute. Change the outside absorbent papers and
press again, repeating the operation, if necessary, until the cineol arsenate
is apparently dry and separates readily when touched with a spatula.
The pressing is not complete when a hard mass remains which is broken
up with difficulty. The method usually requires two changes of filter
paper, pressing each time for about two minutes. If left too long in the
press the compound may decompose. Now transfer completely the com-
pound by means of the horn spatula to a glass funnel inserted into a 100
c.c. cassia flask with neck measuring 10 c.c., graduated in ^ c.c. Wash
the precipitate into the flask with a stream of hot water from a wash
bottle, assisting the disintegration with a glass rod. Place the flask in
boiling water and rotate until the compound is thoroughly broken up ;
add enough water to cause the cineol to rise into the neck of the flask,
cool to room temperature, and read off the volume; on multiplying the
latter by 10 the percentage of cineol in the oil is obtained.
In judging whether or not petroleum ether should be added, the fol-
lowing rule should be observed: Add enough petroleum ether to soften
the cineol arsenate, so as to obtain a plastic mass; the quantity neces-
sary never exceeds 5 c.c., and decreases with oils containing less than
80 per cent, of cineol. The object of adding petroleum ether is merely
to soften the hard mass and to aid in the separation of non-cineol con-
stituents of the oil; a large excess of petroleum ether will decompose
the compound.
The above method is applicable directly to all oils containing above
50 per cent, of cineol; in oils containing lower proportions of cineol
the precipitate is not solid enough to permit convenient handling; and
if the cineol-content drops below 25 per cent, the separation of cineol
arsenate is not quantitative. It was found that the addition of an equal
volume of eucalyptol to such oils (i.e. mixing 5 c.c. of the oil with 5 c.c.
of eucalyptol) successfully overcomes this difficulty; it then only be-
comes necessary.to subtract from the volume of cineol, as observed in
the neck of the flask, 5 c.c., and to multiply the difference by 10, in order
to obtain the percentage of cineol in the oil.
A new method, based on the combination of cineol with ortho-cresol
has recently been described by T. Tusting Cocking.1 The method is a
physical one and consists in determining the freezing-point of a mixture
of eucalyptus oil and ortho-cresol in proportions corresponding to mole-
cular weights of cineol and ortho-cresol. The apparatus required con-
sists of: (a) A stout-walled test-tube about 15 mm. in diameter and 80
mm. in length, fitted with a wire loop for suspending it from the stirrup
of a balance; (b) a small wide-mouthed bottle fitted with a cork bored
to take the test-tube; (c) a thermometer graduated in fifths of a degree ;
and (d) a couple of pipettes to introduce the liquids into the tube.
Ihe determination is carried out as follows:—
The tube is suspended from a balance and into it is accurately
weighed 3 grams of the oil and 2'1 grams of melted ortho-cresol.
It is then removed from the balance, inserted through the bored cork
into the wide-mouthed bottle, stirred with the thermometer and the
freezing-point noted. The tube is then gently warmed until the contents
are completely melted, stirred vigorously with an up-and-down motion
until solidification begins and the freezing-point again noted. This is
1
P. and E.O.R. (1920), p. 28.1.
repeated until concordant figures are obtained. It is found that in
nearly all cases \îth the mixtures of high cineol content the first figure
noted is two to three degrees lower than the subsequent ones. This is
due to the rapid crystallisation which takes place before the two liquids
are properly mixed. In order to obtain accurate results with weaker
cineol mixtures it is necessary to introduce a minute crystal of the double
compound (to which the name " cresineol" has been given by the
author) to promote crystallisation, as the solubility of the compound in
the terpene and excess cresol is so great that only a small quantity of
cresineol separates out.
Pure ortho-cresol melting at 30° should be employed, and the results
obtained with mixtures of known cineol content were as follows :—
Percentage of Cineol Freezing-points. Freezing-points.
in Mixture. Terpene Mixture. Sesquiterpene Mixture.
100 55-2° C. 55-2° C. !

95 534° C. 53-6° C. i
90 51-2° C. 51-7° C.
85 48-5° C. 49-7° C.
j 80 45-8° C. 47-7° C. !
75 43-2Q C. 45-7° C. !
70 40-6° C. 43-8° C. ;
65 37-4° C. 41 '2° C. '
60 34-2° C. 37-4° C.
55 29-0° C. 33*6° C.
: 50 25-4° C. 29-8° C.
45 22-2° C. 26-2° C.
The greatest difference recorded is equivalent to 6 per cent, of cineol,

and, by taking the mean, the maximum error is reduced to + 3 per
cent.
The effects on the freezing-point of other essential oil constituents
were compared by mixing ortho-cresol with mixtures of cineol and
camphor, geraniol, geranyl acetate, terpineol and terpinyl acetate. The
results showed that camphor has the same effect as sesquiterpenes,
geraniol gives a result 2*3 per cent, lower, terpineol 1 per cent, higher
and the two esters 3*1 to 3*3 per cent, higher than sesquiterpenes.
As compared with the B.P. phosphoric acid process the results were
from 4*4 per cent, higher in the case of 80 per cent, oils to 10*5 per cent,
higher in the case of cajuput oil indicating 50 per cent, by the B.P.
process.
This method has been examined carefully and it appears to be more
accurate than the phosphoric acid method as set on in the British
Pharmacopoeia and likely to give practically identical results in different
hands and under different atmospheric conditions.1
It should be emphasised, however, that, as the cresol method gives
higher results than the B.P. method, a minimum of 60 or even 65 per
cent, cineol should be required if the new method is made official in the
British Pharmacopoeia.
The value of Cooking's method was not fully appreciated when
volume I. of this work was published. It appears, on investigation, to
have much to recommend it.
1
See P. and E.O.R., 1921, pp. 44-46.
DlCITRONELL-OxiDE.
1
Spornitz has isolated from Java citronella oil a compound of the
formula C20H34O, which is an oxide having the following-characters :—
Boiling-point at 12 mm 182 to 183°
Optical rotation —4°
CARLINA OXIDE.
The essential oil of Carlina acaulis contains an oxide, C13H10O, which
*
Specific gravity at —o 1'066
On oxidation with potassium permanganate it yields benzoic acid, and

on reduction with sodium and alcohol, it is converted into the tetrahydro-
der vative C13H14O. The constitution of this oxide is probably—2
C6H5. CH : C : CH—Cl|
It is possible, however, that the chain joining the benzene and furfurol
rings may be differently arranged.
COSTUS LACTONE.
Semmler and Feldstein have isolated a lactone from costus root oil,
which they named costus lactone. It is an oil of the formula C15H2002,
Dihydro-costus lactone, C15H22O2, is also present in the oil.
ANGELICA LACTONE.
E. Bocker and A. Hahn have recently isolated a crystalline lactone of
the formula C15H16O3 in the last runnings of angelica root oil. From 200
grains they obtained 10 grams of a lactone which, when recrystallised
from ethyl ether and light petroleum, melted at 83°. It boils without
decomposition at 250°. The lactone is an unsaturated body; when
brominated in a glacial acetic acid solution it yields a dibromide, which
when recrystallised from glacial acetic acid, melts with decomposition at
143° to 145°.
] 3
Berichte, 47, 2478. Seminler, Berichte (1909), 2355.
ASCABIDOL.
Ascaridol is the principal constituent of the oil of Chsnopodium

ambrosoides, var. anthelminticum.
It is an oxide having the following characters : —
Optical rotation , - 4° 14'
When ascaridol is treated with a solution of ferrous sulphate, care

being taken to avoid any rise of temperature, it fixes the elements of water
with the formation of a glycol, C10H18O3, melting at 62 -5° to 64° C. and
yielding a benzoate melting at 136° to 137° C. The glycol possesses the
Specific gravity .......... 1*0981
Optical rotation .......... +0°
Refractive index .......... 1-4796
Molecular refraction ..... . . . 48 '63
It yields a dibenzoate (melting-point, 116*5° to 117*5° C.) when it is heated

for two hours at 150° C. with benzoic anhydride.
On oxidation the glycol yields a dibasic acid, C10H16O5, called
ascaridolic acid (melting-point, 116*5° to 117° C.), and another solid acid,
melting at 186° to 187° C., to which Nelson attributes the formula
Nelson regards ascaridol as a peroxide possessing the constitution I

(see below).
O. Wallach x has also examined the constitution of ascaridol. He:
considers it to be an oxide having the formula II —
CH
n
i
vy I
O
HC< CH
CH
CH
H3C CH3 H
I. II.
Nelson. Wallach.
1
Ann. Chem., 392, 49.
9, NITROGEN COMPOUNDS.
NlTEOBBNZENE.
Nitrobenzene, C6H5NO2, also known as oil of mirbane, is an artificially

prepared benzene derivative, having a coarse, but powerful odour re-
sembling that of oil of almonds. Its coarse odour renders it quite un-
suitable for fine perfumery, but it finds considerable employment in the
manufacture of cheap soaps, polishes, and other articles where more or
less rancid fats are used, as it covers the bad odour of the fat and gives
the product a coarse almond perfume.
Nitrobenzene is an oily liquid, resulting from the direct nitration of
benzene, having the following constitution : —
CH
HCx/CH
C . NO2
Solidifying-point + 5°
Boiling-point 209°
Specific gravity. 1*2200 at melting-point
at 15° 1-2060
On reduction with iron and acetic acid, nitrobenzene yields aniline.
ARTIFICIAL MUSK.
There are a number of nitro-compounds known under the name of
artificial musk, all of which may conveniently be grouped together here.
The natural odorous constituents of musk appear to be, in the main,
ketonic compounds free from nitrogen, so that the term artificial musk
must be understood to mean artificially prepared bodies, having musk-
like odours, but not having any direct chemical relationship with natural
musk perfume.
For many years attempts have been made to artificially imitate the
odour of musk. To a certain extent successful experiments were made
by Margraff and Eisner.1 Eough pieces of amber, ground to powder and
mixed with sand, are distilled in an iron retort; the oil which distils over
is separated from the foetid liquor and succinic acid which accompanies
it, and after being rectified at a gentle heat with about six times its volume
of\water, is gradually added to and digested with 3£ parts by weight of
fuming nitric acid, artificial cold being employed to prevent any portion
of the oil carbonising. A resinous matter of a yellowish colour forms,
which, after being dried, is the product which is required. It is said to
be also formed by digesting for ten days an ounce of foetid animal oil,
obtained by distillation, and half an ounce of nitric acid, then adding a
pint of rectified spirit, and digesting for one month. Another artificial
musk has been patented in England 2 by Schnaufer & Hupfeld, of Frank-
1 2
Jour, filr Praktische Chemie, 1842. No. 18,521, 18 December, 1888.
furt. The specification of this patent states that " 3 parts of metaxylol,
2 parts of isobutyl alcohol, and 9 parts of chloride of zinc are heated in a
digestor to from 220° to 240°, until the pressure, which at the commence-
ment is from 25 to 29 atmospheres, sinks to below 6 atmospheres. The
resulting hydrocarbon, corresponding to the formula C12H18, is collected,
-and the fraction which distils over at from 190° to 230° is nitrated with
HNO3, or with HNO ? and H2SO4, whilst being cooled. The product of
the reaction is poured into water, whereupon a reddish-brown oil separates,
which is washed several times with alkaline water. The formula of this
oil is C12H17N02, and in a concentrated condition it possesses a sweet
smell, whilst in a dilute solution it gives off a penetrating and enduring
musk-like odour."
The complete specification states that " aromatic hydrocarbons con-
taining the isopropyl, isobutyl, or isoamyl group, on treatment with
fuming nitric acid or a mixture of strong nitric acid (40° to 44° B.) and
sulphuric acid (66° B.), produce derivatives which, in very dilute alcoholic
solution, furnish a liquid possessing an odour resembling tincture of musk
in the highest degree ". Only one example of the process is given in the
provisional specification, but of course the u process may be carried out
with the other well-known hornologues. The hydrocarbons may be
produced in the ordinary way, but we produce them by the following
operation : Toluene or xylol is heated in a digester with isopropyl or
isobutyl, or isoamyl alcohol in molecular quantities, with the addition
of from four to five times the quantity of chloride of zinc, to the boiling-
point of the hydrocarbon, or to about 40° or 50° above the boiling-point
of alcohol, until the pressure, which at the commencement was equal to
about 26 atmospheres, sinks to a little above 2 or 3 atmospheres. The
product of the reaction is subjected to fractional distillation.
" By the above process the following hydrocarbons are obtained :—
1. From toluene :—
Methylisopropyl-benzene.
Methylisobutyl-benzene.
Methylisoamyl-benzene.
2. From xylol:—
Dimethylisopropyl-benzene.
Dimethylisobutyl-benzene.
Dimethylisoamyl-benzene.
11
To produce the ' musk-substitute ' :—
" We add to the -above-mentioned hydrocarbons, which during the
operation should be kept thoroughly cool, a little more than the molecular
quantity of fuming nitric acid or nitro-sulphuric acid. The acid should
be gradually run in and the whole then allowed to stand undisturbed for
from one to two hours, the resulting mass being then poured into water
in order to get rid of the excess of acid. The well-washed substances
thus obtained are then subjected to distillation by means of steam,
whereupon simultaneously formed bodies, which smell like nitro-benzol
and overpower the musk odour, readily distil over, whilst the pure sub-
stances remain behind."
The artificial musk which was the first to achieve marked success
was that manufactured under the patent of Albert Baur (English patent
No. 4963 of 1889). The provisional and complete specifications of this
patent are as follows :—
Provisional Specification.—I, Albert Baur of Gispersleben, in the Empire of
Germany, Doctor, do hereby declare the nature of this invention to be as follows :—
The object of this invention is to produce a compound or material, or series of
compounds or materials, having the properties of musk.
To this end I purpose to make a nitrated hydrocarbon of the CnH16 group, and
proceed as follows :—
Toluene is mixed with a haloid combination of butane and boiled with addition
of chloride or bromide of aluminium. Water is added to the product and it is then
distilled with steam, and that portion which distils over at a temperature between
170° and 200° C. is taken and treated with fuming nitric acid and fuming sulphuric
acid. The resulting product is washed with water and crystallised from alcohol.
The product may be dissolved in alcohol, and on addition of a small quantity of
ammonia or sal-ammoniac will exhibit all the essential properties of a tincture of
musk.
Complete Spscification.—I, Albert Baur of Gjspersleben, in the Empire of
Germany, Doctor, do hereby declare the nature of my invention and in what manner
the same is to be performed to be particularly described and ascertained in and by
the following statement:—
The object of this invention is to produce a compound or material, or series of
compounds or materials, having the properties of musk.
To this end I make a nitrated hydrocarbon of the C n H ]fi group, and proceed as-
follows:—
Toluene is mixed with a haloid combination ol butane and boiled with addition
of chloride or bromide of aluminium. Water is added to the product and it is then*
distilled with steam, and that portion which distils over at a temperature between
170° and 200° C. is taken and treated with fuming nitric acid and fuming sulphuric-
acid. The resulting product is washed with water and crystallised from alcohol.
The product may be dissolved in alcohol, and on addition of a small quantity of
ammonia or sal-ammoniac will exhibit all the essential properties of a tincture of
musk.
For carrying the invention into practice, 5 parts of toluene are mixed with 1
part of butyl bromide, or butyl chloride or butyl iodide, and to these may be added
gradually whilst boiling ^ part of aluminium chloride or aluminium bromide; this-
results in the development of hydrobromic acid, or hydrochloric acid or hydriodic
acid respectively, and a product of reaction is obtained from which by the action of
steam the hydrocarbon CnH]H and unchanged toluene are distilled. By the admission
of steam the hydrocarbon is carried along and may be obtained in a condenser
as a colourless oil floating on the water. The oil removed and dried by means
of chloride of calcium is fractionated, and in this manner the necessary hydro-
carbon for the production of artificial musk is obtained, 100 parts of the former
giving a like quantity of musk preparation. Three parts of fuming nitric acid of 1*52'
specific weight and 6 parts of fuming sulphuric acid are mixed together, and to this
mixture is carefully added whilst cooling 1 part of the hydrocarbon aforesaid. Each
drop causes a violent reaction. As soon as all the hydrocarbon is added, the wholfr
mixture is heated up to a temperature of about 100° C. After cooling, the nitro
product is precipitated by pouring into cold water of about 5 to 6 times the volume,,
and is separated from superfluous acid by washing with cold water. The nitro pro-
duct separates first as a heavy viscid oil, which after some time hardens into a firm
crystalline substance.
The raw nitro product is then purified by recrystallisation from alcohol of 90 per
cent, strength. The purified product crystallises out in yellowish-white needles,,
possessing a strong smell of musk.
Having now particularly described and ascertained the nature of my said inven-
tion and in what manner the same is to be performed, I declare that what I claim is—
The process for producing artificial musk substantially as described.
The original scientific account of the preparation of this body stated *
that weta-isobutyl toluene was heated on a water-bath for twenty-four
hours, with five times its weight of a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids.
The product was subjected to a repetition of the same treatment, so as to-
convert it into trinitro-butyl toluene, which crystallises from alcohol in
white needles melting at 96° to 97°. It is insoluble in water, but soluble
in organic solvents. Even in very dilute solutions this compound has a.
1
Comptes rendus, cxi. 238.
strong odour of musk, and for many purposes can replace the natural
product. The homologues of isobutyl toluene behave similarly, and
trinitro-isobutyl metaxylene has an exactly similar odour. In a later
communication 1 Baur stated that his previous view was incorrect, and
that the "artificial musk" was the trinitro-derivative of tertiary butyl
xylene, and not of isobutyl xylene, owing to the occurrence of an intra-
molecular change during the reaction. Tertiary butyl xylene is easily
prepared by the interaction of tertiary butyl chloride and xylene in the
presence of aluminium chloride as follows :—
C4H9C1 + C6H4(CH3)2 = C4H9. C,.H3. (CH3),, + HC1.
The mono- and dinitro products have no musk odour, and therefore
the nitration of the hydrocarbon should be carried as far as possible.
The constitution of this artificial musk, or " xylene musk " as it is often
called, is probably—
C . CH3
;j. NO.,
L>±i3. LA ,u. m^
C1TJ ('11 C^ C* TT
c. NO,
This is the most common form of artificial musk of commerce. It
melts, when pure, at 110° to 113°.
Still later 2 Baur has shown that if an acetyl group is introduced into
the butyl toluene molecule, and the methyl ketone thus formed is nitrated,
artificial musk (ketone musk) is produced. One part of butyl toluene,
10 parts of carbon disulphide, and 6 parts of aluminium chloride are
cooled in a flask and 6 parts of acetyl chloride are run in quickly. After
distillation on a water-bath, the residue is poured on to ice and treated
in the usual manner. The acetyl derivative is obtained as an oil with a
pleasant aromatic odour, boiling at 255° to 258°, of the formula—
CH 3 .CO.C,H.
6 '» «
By nitrating this ketone a dinitro derivative—

(NO,),,
CH 3 . CO . C...H—CH;j
is obtained in needles melting at 131°, and having a strong musk odour.

In this compound one of the nitro groups of the original artificial musk,
trinitro-butyl toluene, has been replaced by the acetyl group. Which
group has been so replaced is uncertain. A quite similar body is obtained
from butyl xylene, the resulting ketone—
C4Ha
CH 3 . CO . C tf H 2 —CH 3
CH:j
1
Iterichte, xxiv. 2882. -Ibid., xxxi. 1344.
ii. 19
melting at 48°, and yielding a dinitro derivative —
(N02)2
CH3 . CO . C6— C4H!(
melting at 136°, and having a strong musk odour. These bodies are
known as "ketone musk". Instead of using acetyl chloride, either
butyryl chloride or valeryl chloride may be used, and higher homologues
produced. Butyl-xylyl-propyl ketone —
C4H9
C3HV . CO . C0H,— CH3
CH3
melts -at 50° and boils at 290°. It forms a dinitro derivative, melting at
128°, with a powerful musk odour. The corresponding butyl-xylyl- butyl
ketone is an oil boiling at 185° to 190° at 14 mm., and its dinitro deriva-
tive melts at 151°, and has also a powerful musk odour.
There are also, although not much met with, an aldehyde and a
cyanide musk. The former is dinitro-tertiary - butyl-xylyl-aldehyde,
C6(CH3)2C(CH3)3(N02)2CHO, melting at 112°, and the latter is dinitro-
tertiary- butyl-xylyl-cyanide, C6(CH3)2CN . C(CH3)3(NO3)2, melting at 110°.
Musk ambrette, which is usually regarded as the finest of all the
artificial musks, is a nitro-compound of the methyl ether of butyl-meta-
cresol, usually described as dinitro-butyl-meta-cresol methyl ether. It
should melt at 85°.
Some of the artificial musks of commerce are mixtures of two or more
of the bodies above described, a fact which is easily demonstrated by
fractionally crystallising the specimen, when the fractions will show
altered melting-points. The principal adulterant of artificial musk is
acetanilide. This can, of course, be easily detected by the phenyl-iso-
cyanide reaction or by dissolving it out with hot water.
DAMASCENINE.
Damascenine, C10HI3NO3, is a nitrogenous compound of an alkaloidal
nature, which is present in the oil of Nigella damascena to the extent of
about 9 per cent. It can be extracted from the oil by shaking it with
dilute hydrochloric acid, rendering the aqueous liquid alkaline and ex-
tracting the alkaline liquid with petroleum ether.
Damascenine has the following characters : —
Melting-point ........ 26°
Boiling-point ...... ' . 270° at 750 mm.
„ „ ........ 157° „ 10. „
It yields salts with the usual alkaloidal reagents, such as platinum,
gold, and mercuric chlorides. Its constitution is —
CO . CH3
HC/\CNHCH,
HC C . CO. OCH,
HC
It is, therefore, the methyl ester of 2-methylamino-3-methoxybenzoic
acid.
It has been prepared synthetically by E wins l in the following manner :
Meta-oxybenzoic acid is converted with the aid of dimethyl sulphate
into w-methoxybenzoic acid, which is then nitrated, and from the nitra-
tion products 2-nitro-3-methoxybenzoic acid is separated. This is re-
duced to 2-amino-3-methoxybenzoic acid which on heating with methyl io-
dide, yields 2-methylamino-3-methoxybenzoic acid. On warming this with
freshly precipitated silver chloride it yields damascenine hydrochloride.
HYDROCYANIC ACID.
Hydrocyanic acid, HCN, also known as prussic acid, or formo-nitrile,
is the product of decomposition of numerous glucosides found in a very
large number of plants, usually together with some other volatile com-
pound, so that essential oils containing hydrocyanic acid do not, for
practical purposes, exist in the first instance as such in the plant, but are
only developed on the decomposition of the glucoside.
Hydrocyanic acid is one of the most powerful poisons known. It is a
colourless liquid, boiling at 26*5°, of specific gravity O700.
It can be detected and estimated in essential oils by the following
method:—
Hydrocyanic acid may be approximately estimated by dissolving 1
gram of oil in 5 c.c. of alcohol, and adding 50 c.c. of water. Then add
ammonio-silver nitrate solution and shake well. Acidify slightly with
nitric acid, and collect, wash, and dry the silver cyanide precipitated.
Ignite and weigh the silver, 4 parts of which correspond to practically
1 of hydrocyanic acid.
For an exhaustive examination of the various processes proposed for
the determination of hydrocyanic acid, the reader is referred to a series
of papers by Eunne in the Apotheker Zeitung.2
ALLYL CYANIDE.
Allyl cyanide, CH 3 . CH : CH . CN, occurs in some of the oils of the
mustard type. It is a liquid of specific gravity 0*8365 boiling at 120° to
123°, and yields, on boiling with alcoholic potash solution, crotonic acid,
melting at 72°.
BENZA'L CYANIDE.
Benzyl cyanide, C(.H5. CH,CN, or phenyl-aceto-nitrile, is a constituent
of cress oil, and probably of neroli oil. It is a strong smelling liquid
boiling at 231'5°, and having a specific gravity 1-0146 at 18°. On boiling
with alcoholic potash it yields phenyl-acetic acid, which can be identified
by its melting-point, 77°, and by the analysis of its silver salt.
PHENYL-PBOPIONITRILE.
Phenyl-propionitrile, C6H5. CH 2 . CH 2 . CN, is present in nasturtium
oil. It is a powerfully smelling oil, boiling at 261°. On hydrolysis by
alcoholic potash it yields phenyl-propionic acid, melting at 47°.
*Jour. Chem. Soc., 101 (1912), 544.
-Apotheker Zeitung, 24 (1900), 288, 297, 306, 314, 325, 333, 344, 356.
INDOL.
Indol, C8H7N, is the mother substance of the indigo group of com-
pounds. It exists in various essential oils including neroli oil and oil
of jasmin flowers. It is a crystalline compound, melting at 52° and
boiling at 253° to 254°. Its odour is powerful and disagreeable, being
distinctly faecal in character. Its constitution is as follows : —
CH
Indol is prepared artificially by numerous methods, most of which

have been patented.
Indol can be isolated from, and determined in, essential oils in the
following manner: The oil is mixed with 10 per cent, of picric acid and
heated to 60°. Excess of petroleum ether is then added. A picric acid
compound of indol separates in long red crystals, which are washed with
petroleum ether and decomposed by caustic alkali, and the free indol ex-
tracted by ether, and the residue left on evaporation of the ether steam-
distilled, when pure indol passes over.
Indol, in alcoholic solutions, turns a pine shaving, moistened with
Tiydrochloric acid, a cherry-red colour. When shaken with a solution of
oxalic acid, indol gives a red coloration.
SKATOL.
Skatol, C9H9N, is /2-methyl-indol, of the constitution—
CH
C.CH,
HC C CH
CH NH
It is found in civet and in the wood of Celtis reticulosa. It forms crystals
melting at 95° and boiling at 265° to 266°. It yields a hydrochloride,
2(C 9 H 9 N). HCl, melting at 167° to 168°, and a picric acid compound
melting at 172° to 173°. Skatol yields a blue colour with a solution of
dimethyl-aminobenzaldehyde.
Skatol is a foul-smelling compound, but when used in very minute
amount is useful in the manufacture of flower blossom perfumes.
10. S U L P H U R COMPOUNDS.
DIMETHYL SULPHIDE.
Dimethyl sulphide, (CH3).2S, is a foul-smelling liquid, found in minute
quantity in the essential oils of peppermint and geranium. It boils at 37°.
VINYL SULPHIDE.
Vinyl sulphide, CH2 = CH2S, has been identified in the oil of Allium
ursinum. It is an evil-smelling liquid of specific gravity O912. It boils
at 101°.
DlALLYL DlSULPHIDE.
Diallyl disulphide, (C3H5)S.S(C3H6), is a light yellow oil of garlic odour,

found to the extent of about 60 per cent, in oil of garlic. It is a liquid of
specific gravity 1*023, and boils at 80° to 81° at 16 mm. pressure.
ALLYL-PROPYL DISULPHIDE.
Allyl-propyl disulphide, (C3H6)S . S. (C3H7), exists to the extent of
about 5 per cent, in garlic oil. It is a bright yellow oil of foul odour,
having a specific gravity 1*023 and boiling at 66° to 69° at 16 mm.
pressure.
DIALLYL TBISULPHIDE.
Diallyl-trisulphide, (C3H5)S . S . S . (C3H5), is probably the compound
of the formula C6H10S3 isolated from garlic oil by Semmler.1 It boils at
112° to 122° at 16 mm., and has a specific gravity 1*0845.
BUTYL ISOTHIOCYANATE.
Secondary butyl isothiocyanate, CH 3 . CH2 . CH(CH3) . N : C : S, has
been isolated from the oils of Cardamine amara and Cochlearia. It is a
liquid with a powerful, irritating sulphur odour, having a specific gravity
0'9415 and boiling at 159° to 160°. Warmed with alcoholic solution of
ammonia, it yields a thiourea, melting at 135° to 136°.
The artificial cochlearia oil of commerce is not identical with secondary
butyl isothiocyanate, but consists of isobutyl isothiocyanate. It is a liquid
boiling at 162° and yields a thiourea, melting at 93*5°.
ALLYL ISOTHIOCYANATE.
Allyl isothiocyanate, CH 2 : CH . CH2N : C : S, also known as " artificial
mustard oil," is the principal constituent of natural oil of mustard. This
body results from the hydrolysis of the glucoside sinigrin under the in-
fluence of the ferment myrosin, according to the equation—
C10H16NS2KO9 + H20 =.SCNC3H5 + C6H12O6 + KHSO4,
Sinigrin. " Mustard oil." Glucose.
It can be prepared artificially by the action of allyl iodide on an
alcoholic solution of thiocyanate of potassium, the latter body being
isomerised to the isothiocyanate under the influence of heat.
Allyl isothiocyanate is a colourless liquid, gradully becoming yellow
on keeping, and having an intensely irritating odour of mustard. Its
characters are as follows :—
Refractive index 1'52S5
Boiling-point 152°
„ „ 30° to 31° at 5 mm.
1
Arch. Pliarm., CCXXX. 434.
When treated with alcoholic solution of ammonia, it yields thio-
sinamine (allyl thiourea), of the formula C3H5 . NH . OS . NH2. This
body melts at 74°. The formation of this body forms the basis for a
method of its determination, which, with other methods, will be found
fully described under " Oil of Mustard" (Vol. I, p. 474).
CROTONYL" ISOTHIOCYANATE.
Crotonyl isothiocyanate, C 4 H 7 . N : C: S, has been found in Indian
rape-seed oil. It is an oil of odour somewhat similar to that of the cor-
responding allyl compound, and having the following characters :—
Boiling-point . . . . 175° t o 176°
Optical rotation . . . . + 0° 3' (probably due to impurities)
Refractive index . . . . 1'52398
BENZYL ISOTHIOCYANATE.
Benzyl isothiocyanate, C6H5. CH 2 . N : C : S, has been found in
Tropaolum oil, probably resulting from the decomposition of the
glucoside, glucotropseolin, C14H18KNS2O9, It has the characteristic
odour of the plant, and yields a thiourea melting at 162°.
PHENYL-ETHYL ISOTHIOCYANATE.
Phenyl-ethyl isothiocyanate, C6H5(C2H4)N : C: S, has been found in
the oils of reseda root, nasturtium, and some varieties of Brassica. It is
an oil of powerful odour, yielding a thiourea, melting at 137°. The latter
body, when treated with silver nitrate and baryta water, yields phenyl-
ethyl-urea, melting at 111° to 112°.
OXYBENZYL ISOTHIOCYANATE.
Para-oxybenzyl isothiocyanate, C^H4 . OH . CH2NCS, is a liquid of

intense odour, occurring in the essential oil of white mustard. It is also
known as acrimyl thiocarbimide. It is produced by the hydrolysis of the
glucoside sinalbin, C30H42N2S2O15. It can also be obtained artificially by
the action of carbon bisulphide on /?-oxybenzylamine, and treating the
resulting compound with mercurous chloride.
11. ACIDS.
FORMIC ACID.
Formic acid, H . COOH, is found in traces in a number of essential
oils. It is a colourless corrosive liquid or crystalline solid, having the
Melting-point 8°
Boiling-point . '. 101°
It can be prepared artificially in various ways ; for example, by dis-
tilling oxalic acid with glycerine, when at about 130° formic acid comes
over according to the equation—
C2H2O4 = HCOOH + CO2.
To prepare it in a completely anhydrous condition the 90 per cent,
acid may be dehydrated by means of phosphorus pentoxide.
ACETIC ACID.
Acetic acid, CH3 . COOH, occurs in traces in the free state in many
essential oils, but principally in the form of esters, of which it is the usual
acid constituent.
It is a crystalline solid, or a liquid at ordinary temperatures, having
Melting-point 16'7°
Boiling-point 118°
It can be obtained by the oxidation of ethyl alcohol, either chemically
or by fermentation under the influence of the organised ferment Myco-
derma aceti.
PROPIONIC ACID.
Propionic acid, C 2 H 5 . COOH, has been found in lavender and a few
other oils in traces. It is a liquid of rancid odour having the following
characters :—
Congealing-point - 24°
Boiling-point . . . . . . . . . . 141°
BUTYRIC ACID.
Butyric acid, C3H7 . COOH, is an oily liquid having an odour of
rancid butter. It has been found in the oils of Eucalyptus globulus,
Heracleum giganteum, and in nutmeg, niaouli, and other essential oils. It
Congealing-point -6°
Its constitution is CH3 . CH2 . CH2 . COOH. Isobutyric acid, which
has the constitution (CH3)9CH . COOH, exists in Spanish hop oil, arnica
root oil, and a few others. It is a liquid of specific gravity 0*949 at 20°,
boiling at 155°.
VALERIASic ACID.
The isomeric valerianic acids have the formula C5H10O2. Normal
valerianic acid does not appear to be found in any essential oils. Iso-
valerianic acid, (CH3)2CH . CH2 . COOH, is found in valerian and other
oils ; it is a liquid boiling at 174°, of specific gravity '947. Another
isomer, also found in champaca and coft'ee oils, is methyl-ethyl-acetic
acid, (C,H5)(CH3) . CH . COOH. This is an optically active liquid, boil-
ing at 175°, of specific gravity '941 at 21°.
CAPKOIC ACID.
Caproic acid,C5Hn. COOH, has been found in lemon-grass, palmarosa,
and several other essential oils. It is a liquid having the following char-
acters :—
Congealing point . . . . . . . . — 2°
Boiling-point . . . 205°
Specific gravity 0*928 at 20
HIGHER FATTY ACIDS.

The fatty acids of higher molecular weight than caproic acid are of
little interest or importance so far as essential oils are concerned, and for
their characters, the reader is referred to standard works on general
organic chemistry.
ANGELIC AND TIGLIC ACIDS.
These two acids, of the formula C5H802, are geometrical isomerides.
They are both unsaturated, and belong to the acrylic acid series. Tiglic
acid forms crystals melting at 64*5° and boiling at 198*5°, whilst angelic
acid melts at 45° to 46° and boils at 185°. They have the following con-
stitutions :—
CH 3 . CH CH 3 . CH
il II
CH 3 . C . COOH COOH . C . CH,
Angelic Acid. Tiglic Acid.
These two acids occur chiefly as esters in Roman chamomile oil.

Tiglic acid is also found as geranyl tiglate in geranium oil.
TERESANTALIC ACID.
Teresantalic acid, C10H14O^, is a hydro-cyclic acid, found in sandal-
wood oil. Its characters are as follows :—
Boiling-point at 11 mm • 150° (approximate)
Melting-point 157°
ClTRONELLIC AdD.
Citronellic acid, C9H17 . COOH, is the acid corresponding to the

alcohol citronellol, and is present in the essential oil of Barosma pulchel-
lum. It has the following characters :—
at 5 mm. 143° „ 144°
It forms a crystalline amide melting at 81° to 82°, which can be ob-
tained by converting the acid into its chloride, and then acting on this
with aqueous ammonia.
BENZOIC ACID.
Benzoic acid, C(;H,- . COOH, is the simplest acid of the benzene series.
It is found either free or in the form of esters in vetivert, jasmin, ylang-
ylang, neroli, and numerous other essential oils. It is a crystalline body
with a slight aromatic odour, having the following characters :—
Boiling-point 249°
It is prepared artificially on a large scale, usually by hydrolysing the

chlorination product of toluene.
SALICYLIC ACID.
Salicylic acid, C(.H4(OH)COOH, is ortho-hydroxy-benzoic acid of the
constitution—
CH
HCX /CH . OH
COOH
It is the acid constituent of the ester forming almost the whole of
wintergreen and birchbark oils, and is a crystalline solid melting at 159°.
Commercially pure samples, however, rarely melt at above 157°. It is
prepared artificially on an enormous scale by heating sodium phenol,
under pressure, with carbon dioxide.
PHENYL-ACETIC ACID.
This acid, C 6 H 5 . CH2COOH, is a sweet-smelling substance, especially
recommended for sweetening soap perfumes. It occurs in neroli oil, and
has a sweet honey-like odour. It is formed by converting toluene into
benzyl chloride which is converted into benzyl cyanide, which is digested
with dilute sulphuric acid, and so converted into phenyi-acetic acid. It
is a crystalline body, melting at 76° to 76*5° and boiling at 266°. It has
been isolated from oil of neroli.
CINNAMIC ACID.
This acid, of the formula C6H5CH : CHCOOH, occurs in a number
of, essential oils in the free state. It is prepared artificially by heating
benzal chloride with sodium acetate. It has a sweet odour. It is a
crystalline substance, melting at 133° and boiling at 300°.
HYDRO-CINNAMIC ACID.
This acid, C6H5. CH 2 . CH2COOH, has a sweet and powerful odour,
and can be used to advantage in many rose odours. It is recommended
especially for perfuming powders and sachets. It is a crystalline com-
pound, melting at 47° and boiling at 280°. It can be obtained by the
reduction of cinnamic acid by means of sodium.
PARA-METHOXY-CINNAMIC ACID.
This acid, CH3O . C6H4. CH : CH . COOH, is methyl-^-couma ric acid,
and is present in kaempferia oil. It is a crystalline solid melting at 171°.
ANISIC ACID.
Anisic acid is jo-methoxy-benzoic acid, C)3H4 . COCH3. COOH.. It is.
found in aniseed oil, and also in Tahiti vanillas. It is a crystalline body
melting at 184°.
VERATKIC ACID.
Veratric acid, (CH3O)2. CGH3 . COOH + H2O, is present in the essential1
oil of sabadilla seeds. It melts at 179° to 181°.
ANTHRANILIC ACID.
Anthranilic acid, or o-amidobenzoic acid, CtiH4 : (NH2)(COOH),. is the
acid constituent of the ester found in neroli, petit-grain, jasmin, and
mandarin oils. It is a solid crystalline substance melting at 145°. It is
prepared artificially, and then converted into synthetic methyl anthranilate..
To prepare anthranilic acid, o-nitrobenzaldehyde is reduced by tin and
hydrochloric acid to anthranil,
CflH / I
\CO
the internal anhydride or lactame of anthranilic acid. This is converted'
into anthranilic acid by boiling with alkalis :—
/NH X NH,
C6H4< i + NaOH = C0H4<
\CO \COONa
Methylanthranilic acid, which has been found as an ester in similar
oils, melts at 179°, and forms an acetyl derivative melting at 186°.,
ALANTOIC ACID.
Alantoic acid, C15H2203, is present in oil of elecampene, both as free
acid and in the form of its lactone. Its constitution is—
,OH
^14-"-20\
\COOH
It is a crystalline compound melting at 94°, and can be obtained by
hydiolysing alantolactone.
EUDESMIC ACID.
Eudesmic acid, C14H18O2, is found in the form of its amyl ester in the oil!
of Eucalyptus aggregata. It is a crystalline compound melting at 160°..
It is monobasic and unsaturated, and yields a dibromide melting,at 102°
to 103°.
COSTIC ACID.
Costic acid, C15H22O2, is a free acid isolated from costus root oil. It
is an unsaturated bicyclic acid of specific gravity 1*0501. It forms > a*,
methyl ester, boiling at 170° to 175° at 11 mm.
CHAPTER III.
THE ANALYSIS OF ESSENTIAL OILS.
IN general, the analysis of essential oils merely involves the application
of the ordinary principles of analytical chemistry to this special group of
bodies, which possess many features in common. Of course, many special
processes have to be used in certain cases, to which attention will be
drawn where necessary. The pfesent chapter will be devoted to the
details of a few methods which are in very common use in the analysis
of these bodies, aud which are absolutely necessary in order to form an
opinion on the purity of very many oils. Particular processes are men-
tioned as required under the essential oils or compounds concerned.
These remarks may be prefaced by saying that the obtaining of the results
of an analysis of an essential oil is not always as difficult a matter as the
interpretation of the same when obtained.
The adulteration of essential oils is now practised to a considerable
extent in a very scientific manner, the adulterants being so chosen that
the final mixture shall have, as far as possible, as many of the ascertain-
able characters of a pure oil as possible.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
The first thing to be done in examining an essential oil is to determine
its specific gravity. For this purpose hydrometers are useless. Approxi-
mate accuracy is useless in this work, and hydrometers are only capable
of yielding approximate results. Besides, one frequently has far too
little oil at one's disposal to use a hydrometer. For ordinary work a
specific gravity bottle is generally used, holding from 10 to 50 c.c.
There are two points to be noted in connexion with this. The graduated
bottles sent out by apparatus firms seldom contain the exact quantity
they are supposed to do. It is therefore advisable to check the contents
of the bottle, and to use the necessary correction when calculating a specific
gravity. Secondly, the counterpoise of a 50 c.c. bottle should be about
60 mgs. less than its apparent weight when empty on account of the air
contained in the bottle. A consideration of the laws of hydrostatic
pressure will show that if this be not so the specific gravity as determined
will be the ratio
weight of oil - '06 gram
weight of water - *06 gram
instead of the correct ratio
weight of oil
weight of water*
This correction of '06 gram is not absolutely accurate, but is sufficiently
so for all practical purposes and may be omitted in most cases.
(299)
It is essential that great care should be taken that the temperature
be accurately determined when taking the specific gravity. The bottle
filled with oil takes some time to assume the exact temperature of the
water in which it is immersed, especially if these differ much at first.
Hence it is always advisable not to depend only on an observation of the
temperature of the water, but to use a very small bulbed thermometer
with which the actual temperature of the oil itself in the bottle can be
taken. Specific gravities are usually expressed as the ratio of the weight
of a volume of the oil to that of an equal volume of water, both at 60° F.,
or approximately 15*5° C. This is written 7^7?^ . Any variation in
Cl _L 0 * O
temperature can thus easily be expressed. For example, the specific
gravity of, say, otto of roses at 30°, as given in the British Pharmacopoeia,
^30°
is intended to be interpreted
r as ^-K- eo - that is, with the water to which
'
it is compared at 15*5°. Wherever the specific gravity of an oil is referred
to in this work, it is to be understood as referring& to ,., , e u , except
r when
alo-5
otherwise quoted.
Fro. 8.
Frequently one has less than 50, and sometimes even less than 10 c.c.
of an oil at one's disposal. The specific gravity should then be determined
in a Sprengel tube. The above diagram shows the most convenient
form of tube for general use. With a very small knowledge of glass-
blowing they can be made in five minutes out of a few inches of glass-
tubing. The only important point is to choose a piece of thick walled
tubing, otherwise it is impossible to draw out satisfactory capillaries. The
oil should be sucked into the tube through the opening, B, by means of a
small india-rubber tube fixed on to the end, A, up to the small glass bulb
C. The tube is theji placed in a beaker of water at the desired tempera-
ture, the bent arms serving to support it on the side of the beaker. Owing
to its small content, from 2 to 5 c.c., it very rapidly acquires the tempera-
ture of the water, and by gently tilting the end, A, upwards, the oil runs
out at B until it just reaches the graduation mark, D. Taking care to
wipe off the last drop of oil exuding at B, the tube is again levelled, when
the liquid flows back into the bulb, so obviating any possibility of loss.
It is then carefully wiped and suspended by a copper wire loop to the
hook on the balance and weighed, and the specific gravity calculated
THE ANALYSIS OF ESSENTIAL OILS 301
from the weight of the oil and the weight of the corresponding volume of
water. The accuracy of these tubes depends on the fineness of the capil-
laries and the rapidity with which their contents assume the exact
temperature of the water in which the tube is immersed.
It is rarely that any greater degree of accuracy than that attained
in the above methods is required. If, however, scientific accuracy is
necessary in specific gravity determinations, the usual standard of com-
parison, at whatever temperature the determination may be made, is
water at its maximum density temperature, namely 4°. If no correction
is made for the weight of the air contained in the bottle or tube, accuracy
to the fourth place of decimals is ensured by reducing the observed
weighings to vacuum weighings. This can be done by the equation—
J° tn,~ T, T-
d =
±° w(Q - L + L
) '
where m is the observed weight of the substance, w that of the water, Q
the density of water at t9 (compared with water at 4°), and L is taken as
0*0012, which is approximately the density of air over a reasonable range
of temperature.
For practical purposes the alteration in specific gravity of essential
oils may be taken as 0*00075 for every degree centigrade, so that to
correct a specific gravity observed at 20° it is usual to add 0*00075 x 5
to correct it to 15°, and so on.
OPTICAL METHODS.
1. Refraction.
The author and several other chemists have for some years past
persistently advocated the use of the refractometer in the examination of
essential oils. Although this determination was regarded as of little use
by many chemists, it is now generally recognised that it is indispensable.
But its value is only to be properly estimated by a very careful considera-
tion of the results obtained.
The refractive index of a given sample of oil is in many cases of very
little value, in indicating adulteration. There are certain well-recognised
exceptions, wrhere the oil and the adulterant have refractive indices which
vary very widely. Such, for example, is the case with otto of roses and
geraniol, or aniseed oil and petroleum. But the chief value of this de-
termination lies in a careful examination of the various fractions obtained
when an oil is distilled in vacua. Here a consideration of the boiling-
points, specific gravity, optical rotation, and refractive index of the various
fractions will lead to most important indications. For example, an oil of
peppermint adulterated with, on the one hand, a small quantity of copaiba
or cedar-wood oil, and, on the other hand, with a small quantity of
glyceryl acetate, would give a refractive index not much different from
that of the genuine oil. But when distilled in vacua and the residues or
high boiling fractions examined, the high index in the one case would at
once suggest the presence of sesquiterpene bodies, whilst in the other-
case the very low index would indicate bodies belonging to the open-chain
series.
Experience alone will enable one to make the best use of these in-
dications, but it is important that as many figures should be available as
.302 THE CHEMISTEY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
possible. All determinations recorded in this volume are made on instru-
ments of the Pulfrich or the Zeiss Abbe types.1 Of these the Pulfrich
instrument is the more elaborate, but the Zeiss Abbe* refractometer, which
ris illustrated below, is the most useful instrument for ordinary work. Its
great advantage lies in the fact that it requires only a few drops of
fluid for a determination, and gives results which are accurate to one
or two points in the fourth place of decimals. The author has made a
very large number of determinations with it, and finds it to be absolutely
reliable. Eefractive indices between 1*3 and T7 can be determined by
FIG. 4.—The daylight which falls upon the mirror passes through the double prism,
closed for the purpose of measurement, into the telescope ; the arrows indicate
the direction of the circulation of hot water round the prisms to retain a constant
temperature. The magnifier is fitted with a reflector, not shown in the figure.
it, which figures cover the range found in essential oils. The following
is the method of using this instrument:—
The method of measurement is based upon the observation of the
position of the border line of the total reflection in relation to the faces of
a prism of flint-glass, into which the light from the substance under in
vestigation enters by the action of refraction.
1
An instrument of the Zeiss Abbe type is now made in England, and is fully
-equal in every respect to the German instrument.
The refractometer is mainly composed of the following parts :—
1. The double Abbe prism, which contains the fluid and can be rotated
•on a horizontal axis by means of an alidade.
2. A telescope for observing the border line of the total reflection
•which is formed in the prism.
3. A sector rigidly connected with the telescope, on which divisions
(representing refractive indices) are engraved.
The double prism consists of two similar prisms of flint-glass, each
•cemented into a metal mount and having a refractive index nd = 1'75 ;
the fluid to be investigated (a few drops) is deposited between the two
adjoining inner faces of the prisms in the form of a thin stratum (about
'0'15 mm. thick). The former of the two prisms, that farther from the
itelescope (which can be folded up or be removed), serves solely for the
purpose of illumination, while the border line is formed in the second
flint prism.
The border line is brought within the field of the telescope by rotating
the double prism by means of the alidade in the following manner :
.Holding the sector, the alidade is moved from the initial position, at
which the index points to nd = 1*3, in the ascending scale of the refractive
indices until the originally entirely illuminated field of view is encroached
upon, from the direction of its lower half, by a dark portion ; the line
dividing the bright and the dark half of the field then is the " border
line ". When daylight or lamplight is being employed, the borderline,
•owing to the total reflection and the refraction caused by the second
prism, assumes at first the appearance of a band of colour, which is quite
unsuitable for any exact process of adjustment. The conversion of this
band of colour into a colourless line, sharply dividing the bright and
•dark portions of the field, is effected by a compensator.
The compensator, which finds its place in the prolongation of the
itelescope tube beyond the objective, i.e. at a point between the objective
and the double prism, consists of two similar Amici prisms, of direct
vision for the D-line and rotated simultaneously, though in opposite
•directions, round the axis of the telescope by means of the screw head.
In this process of rotation the dispersion of the compensator passes
through every value from zero (when the refracting edges of the twro
Amici prisms are parallel and on different sides of the optical axis) up to
•double the amount of the dispersion of a single Amici prism (the refract-
ing edges being parallel and on the same side of the axis). The above-
mentioned dispersion of the border line, which appears in the telescope
as a band of colour, can thus be rendered innocuous by rotating the screw
head, thereby giving the compensator an equal, but opposite, dispersion.
The opposite equal dispersions will then neutralise each other, with the
result that the border line appears colourless and sharply defined.
The border line is now adjusted upon the point of intersection of the
crossed lines by slightly inclining the double prism to the telescope by
means of the alidade. The position of the pointer on the graduation of
the sector is then read off by the aid of the magnifier attached to the
alidade. The reading supplies the refractive index nd of the substance
under investigation itself, without any calculation.
As the refractive index of fluids varies with the temperature, it is of
importance to know the temperature of the fluid contained in the double
prism during the process of measurement.
If, therefore, it be desired to measure a fluid with the highest degree
of accuracy attainable (to within 1 or 2 units of the fourth decimal of nd\
it is absolutely necessary to keep the fluid, or rather the double prism
containing it, to a definite known temperature and to keep it constant.
The refractive index of a substance is, of course, a relative expression,
as it refers to a second substance, which, in ordinary determinations, is
always the air. The term refractive index indicates the ratio of the
velocities with which light traverses the two media respectively. This is,
as is easily demonstrated by a consideration of the wave theory of light,
identical with the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence, and the sine
of the angle of refraction, thus—
V sin i
n=
V1 = sTn~?
where V and V1 are the velocities of light in the two media, i is the
angle of incidence, and r the arigle of refraction.
To correct a refractive index determined for air /liquid to the absolute
index vacuum/liquid, the observed value should be multiplied by r00029.
This correction is, however, too small to be of the slightest value in
practice.
The molecular refraction is a constant frequently quoted for individual
chemical compounds,1 and is of considerable value as evidence of constitu-
tion, since it is generally true that the molecular refraction of a compound
is composed additively of the refractive powers of the atoms contained in
the-molecule. The molecular refraction is the value obtained by multi-
plying the refractive power by the molecular weight.
The refractive power is a value which attempts to correct the effects
of temperature, pressure, and concentration of the substance, all of which
cause the refractive index, n(l1 to vary with the slightest alteration of the
conditions. The most accurate expression for the refractive power is
that of Lorenz and Lorentz, which is
ri* - 1
(n2 + 2)r/'
where n is. the observed refractive index and d is the density of the
substance. The molecular refraction then becomes
2X
where M is the molecular weight of the compound.
Briihl found that the increase of CH2 in all the homologous series of
fatty compounds corresponds to a difference of 4*57 in the molecular
refraction for the red hydrogen line. By deducting n times this value
from the molecular refraction cf an aldehyde or ketone of the formula
CMH2MO, he found 2*328 to be the value for intra-radical oxygen.
Similarly the values of other groupings have been determined which may
be summarised as follows :—
Atomic Refractions for
the Sodium Line.
Carbon . . 2-494
Hydrogen 1-051
O' (hydroxyl oxygen) 1-517
O" (intra-radical oxygen) 2-281
O (simple ether oxygen) 1-679
Cl . 5-976
Br . 8-900
j 14-120
= double linkage between carbon atom s 1-700
== triple linkage between carbon atoms 2-220 (for hydrogen red line)
To indicate the value of this constant in deciding the constitution
of a compound, the case of geraniol, C10H18O, may be examined. Calcu-
lated from the above values the molecular refraction would be the 'sum
of the atomic refractions, as follows:—•
Carbon 2'494 x 10 = 24'940
Hydrogen 1-051 x 18 = 18-918
Oxygen (hydroxyl) 1-517 = 1'577
45-375
But by experimental determination the molecular refraction is found
to be 48*71, which is 3*235 in excess of the value calculated from the
atomic refractions. Two double bonds between carbon atoms would
account for 3*414 in excess, so that it is evident that geraniol contains
two such double linkages. No alcohol of the formula C10H18O with two
double linkages can contain a ring, so that geraniol must belong to the
open chain series, a conclusion entirely supported by its chemical
characters.
The refractive indices of most essential oils have been given under
each oil in Volume I. ; if a temperature correction is required, as it
frequently is, the addition of 0*0004 for each degree centigrade by which
it is necessary to reduce the temperature, and a similar subtraction for
a rise of 1°, should be made. This figure varies slightly, but unless
accuracy to the fifth place of decimals is required, it is sufficiently ac-
curate for practical purposes.
2. Polarimetry.
The polarimeter is an instrument with which the essential oil chemist
cannot possibly dispense. The hypothesis, first seriously enunciated by
Le Bel and van t'Hoff, that substances which contained an asymmetric
carbon atom (i.e. a carbon atom directly united to four different atoms or
radicles) were capable of rotating the plane of polarisation of a beam of
polarised light, has now become a fundamental theory of organic chemistry.
The majority of essential oils contain one or more components containing
such a carbon atom, and so possess the power of effecting this rotation.
In general, the extent to which a given oil can produce this effect is fairly
constant, so that it can be used, within limits, as a criterion of the purity
or otherwise of the oil.
Without discussing the theories of the polarisation of light it will be
desirable to briefly illustrate the fundamental principles upon which t-eir
application depends. Ordinary light consists of transverse vibrations in
numerous planes in which is no polarity or two-sidedness, if the expres-
sion is justifiable; whilst plane polarised light consists of vibrations in
one plane only. This may be roughly illustrated in the following manner ;
If a string, fixed at its ends, be plucked, it will vibrate in a certain plane
dependent on the direction of the plucking. If the string be passed
through a slit, just wider than it is itself, in a piece of cardboard, so that
the slit is in the direction of the vibrations, these will not be interfered
with; but if the slit be turned round, the vibrations will be interfered
with, and when it is at right angles to the direction of the vibrations, they
will be totally suppressed. Light waves (for convenience, the expression,.
a ray of light, is more general) may be plane polarised in several ways, so
that the vibrations in the one plane may be similarly interfered with, and
VOL. n. 20
upon this depends the use of the polarimeter. This instrument, of which
the theory is described fully in the following pages, is constructed
on several different principles, of which by far the most useful for all
general purposes is the Laurent half-shadow instrument. In the an-
nexed diagram, A is a small telescope, B is a magnifying glass used to
read the graduation on the dial and vernier, C is one of the verniers, D
is a dial graduated to half degrees, E is the analysing Nicol's prism (a
specially prepared prism of calc-spar, capable of polarising light) which is
fixed to the graduated dial and telescope, F is the groove in which tubes
containing the liquids to be examined are inserted, H is a pointer attached
to the polarising Nicol's prism, G is the fixed Laurent plate (vide infra),
and J is a plate of bichromate of potassium.
This apparatus can only be used with sodium light, as for quantitative
results light of definite refrangibility must be used. A Bunsen lamp of
convenient construction, into the flame of which a little common salt can
be introduced on a platinum wire, is placed about 4 or 5 inches from the
FIG. 5.
end J. The light is further sifted by means of the bichromate plate, so

that light approximately corresponding to ths D line of the spectrum falls
on to the polariser, and that which passes through is plane polarised.
The plate G- is a special contrivance, half of which is made of quartz or
gypsum, and the other half of plain glass; the thickness of this is care-
fully graduated, and the result—the optical theory of which need not here
be discussed—is that when the analyser is in a certain position with re-
ference to the polariser and plate, the two halves of this plate appear
equally illuminated. By adjusting the prisms by means of the movable
pointer, H, and the screw, E, which govern the delicacy of the instrument,
the zero marks on the dial and on the vernier are made to correspond
when the position of equal illumination is attained. A slight rotation of
the analyser in either direction by means of the projecting screw handle
at once causes the two halves of the field to become unequally illuminated.
Having set the instrument at zero, a tube containing an optically active
liquid is inserted in the groove, F. It will now be found that the analyser
has to be rotated a certain number of degrees either to the right or the
left in order to restore the position of equal illumination of the two halves
of the field. This is the angle through which the plane of polarisation
has been rotated. The beginner will find a little difficulty in using this
instrument; for example, when examining oils with high rotations or when
the dial has been rotated too far, and has been taken beyond the range of
sensitiveness; half an hour with some one who understands the instru-
ment will explain its use far better than pages of printed matter. The
rotation of the dial in the direction of the movement of the hands of the
clock, as the observer sees it, is conventionally termed dextro-rotation,
and conversely. In general, the optical rotation is expressed for a column
of 100 mm. The specific rotatory power is a different figure, and is ex-
pressed by the symbol [a], and, taking the decimetre as the unit of length
for this purpose, is the observed rotation in the decimetre tube divided by
the specific gravity of the liquid. It is to be noted, however, that the
expression [a] is very frequently used to mean the observed rotation for
100 mm. The molecular rotation refers of course only to pure compounds
and not to mixtures, and need not be discussed here, otherwise than to
mention that it is the product of the specific rotary power and the mole-
cular weight. In the sequel, the optical rotation will be understood to
refer to the rotation produced by a column 100 mm. long, unless other-
wise mentioned.
The theory of the half-shadow polarimeter is, briefly, as follows : The
light, of approximately constant refrangibility, falls on the polarising
Nigel's prism, which is a rhomb of calc-spar cut obliquely by a plane
perpendicular to the principal section. The cut faces are polished and
cemented together again by a thin film of Canada balsam. Calc-spar is
a doubly refracting substance, and in the ordinary way the incident ray
is divided 1by the spar into two rays, the ordinary and the extraordinary,
the former following the ordinary laws of refraction, the latter behaving
abnormally. Two rays, then, will be found to emerge. But the refrac-
tive index of the balsam is greater than that of the spar for the extra-
ordinary ray, and less than that tor the ordinary ray, both of which are
plane polarised. According to the usual laws of refraction, total reflection
can only occur in passing from a more to a less refracting medium.
Hence the extraordinary ray will always be transmitted, but by arranging
the angle of incidence properly the ordinary ray can be totally reflected.
Hence only the extraordinary ray now falls on to the Laurent plate, and
it is in a plane polarised condition. This plate is made of quartz or
gypsum over one-half of the field, and plain glass over the other. It is a
doubly refracting substance and refracts the incident ray as ordinary and
extraordinary rays. The thickness is so adjusted that it introduces a re-
tardation of -£A. (where X is the wave length of the light used) between
the two rays. Consequently, the light emerges plane polarised from the
crystalline plate, but the planes of polarisation of the rays emerging from
the two halves will be inclined at an angle 2a, if a is the inclination of
the incident single polarised ray to the optical axis of the quartz. Hence
when this plate, with its two polarised rays, is viewed through the ana-
lysing Nicol, the two halves will be in general unequally illuminated,
except when the principal plane of the Nicol be parallel to the optical
axis of the crystalline plate. In this position we have the zero point of
the instrument. The insertion of an optically active liquid .destroys this
condition by rotating the plane of polarisation, and the angle through
which it is necessary to rotate the analyser in order to restore the " equal
shadows " measures the rotation of the plane of polarisation.
Another simple instrument, known as the Biquartz polariser, depends
on a rather different principle. Here two semicircular plates of quartz
are placed in juxtaposition, each cut at right angles to its axis, one pos-
sessing dextro- and the other laevo-rotatory power. The two plates are
of the same thickness, and produce equal rotations in opposite directions.
The incident light in this case is white, and the lights of different re-
frangibilities are rotated through different angles. Hence when viewed
by an analysing Nicol, waves of different refrangibilities will be quenched
in the two halves, and they will in general appear of different colours.
When the principal plane of the analyser, however, is parallel to the
direction of the incident vibrations, the two halves will always be of the
same colour, dependent on the complementary colours which are quenched.
By suitably adjusting the thickness of the plate, the brilliant yellow may
be quenched, and the delicate grey-violet tint, known as the tint of
passage (Biot's teinte sensible), appears when both halves have the same
colour. This point, the zero point of the apparatus, is easily fixed, for
the slightest rotation to the right or left renders one-half of the field blue
and the other red. Having set the instrument, it is found that when an
optically active substance is introduced, the tint of passage disappears,
and the analyser must be rotated in order to restore it, according to the
optical activity of the substance.
To most observers it is easier to obtain equal illumination in the two
halves of the field than to correctly obtain the tint of passage, hence the
popularity of the former apparatus.
The angle of rotation is, of course, directly proportional to the thick-
ness of the layer of active substance through which the polarised light
passes. The expression optical rotation or rotatory power is universally
understood to be the observed angle of rotation produced by a column of
100 mm. of the optically active substance. If tubes of other lengths be
used, the optical rotation becomes a = d,-, where a is the observed angle,
and I is the length of the tube in decimetres. If, as is usually the case,
this is observed with sodium light the optical rotation is expressed by the
symbol, ad.
It is usual to express this value as for the temperature 20°. A slight
correction may be made for difference in temperature, but as it has no
appreciable effect on the results obtained, it may be regarded as negligible
if the observation be made at any temperature between 15° and 20°.
The expression " specific rotation " is symbolised by [a]d, and indicates
the optical rotation divided by the specific gravity : [a]d = r^ r—.
If expressed for white light instead of sodium light, it is expressed
by [a],.
For solid substances the substance is dissolved in a neutral solvent,
and the specific rotation is calculated from the formula—
lOOa
[a] =
* -pis-
Where a is the observed angle, p is the percentage of active substance,
I is the length of the tube in decimetres, and d is the specific gravity of
the solution.
But, since the specific rotation of dissolved substances vary with the
concentration and the nature of the solvent, these data should always be
given when the specific rotation is quoted.
MELTING- AND SOLIDIFYING-POINTS.

Many oils possess the property of becoming solid at temperatures
slightly below the ordinary, and a determination of the solidifying- or
melting-points becomes an important criterion of purity in these cases.
The melting-point is not usually the same as the solidify ing-point, on
account of the peculiar properties of bodies, included under the term
superfusion, etc. In addition, the temperature recorded differs some-
FIG. 6.
what with the method used in the determination. For general work
the following apparatus gives the best results in a convenient manner:—
Here the outer vessel contains a sufficient quantity of the freezing
mixture, such as a mixture of ice and salt, or a solution of one of the
usual salts. The longer test tube acts as an air cover to the inner tube
in which the thermometer is placed. A small quantity of the oil—just
enough to cover the bulb of the thermometer—is placed in this tube, and
in certain cases the platinum stirrer is used. The melting-point is de-
termined by freezing the oil and then removing the freezing mixture and
allowing the temperature to rise slowly, and noting the temperature at
which liquefaction takes place. The solidification-point is determined
by cooling the oil down without disturbing it until the temperature is
clearly below the point of solidification. A slight agitation of the stirrer
will now usually induce solidification, if not, the introduction of a crystal
of the compound solidifying—anethol, for example, in the case of aniseed
oil—will do so. A disengagement of heat occurs on solidification, which
causes the thermometer to rise. The maximum reading during the
process of solidifying may be regarded as the solidifying-point.
BOILING-POINT AND DISTILLATION.

The determination of the temperature at which an oil begins to boil
is often of importance, as is also the percentage of the oil which distils
within definite limits of temperature. The results obtained in distillation
processes must, however, be interpreted very carefully, as the quantitative
results depend so largely on the exact conditions of distillation. For
ordinary purposes, an ordinary .Wurtz flask is useful for determining the
temperature at which the liquid first boils, but when an examination of
FIG. 7.—Fractionating columns. FIG. 8. FIG. 9.

Fractionating Wurtz flask.
flask.
any of the fractions or any estimation of the quantity boiling between

given temperatures is needed, a fractional distillation flask is better.
These flasks are illustrated above.
It is often advisable to distil or fractionate an oil under reduced
pressure, especially when the constituents decompose when boiled at
atmospheric pressures.
The value of fractional distillation in the examination of essential
oils cannot be overestimated. The various fractions may be examined
and their specific gravities, optical rotations, and refractive indices deter-
mined. The combination of these figures will often give the experienced
analyst the most useful information and save him many hours' needless
work. Experience alone, however, will teach the chemist to make the
fullest use of the results so obtained. In most cases distillation under
reduced pressure is necessary on account of the risk of decomposing the
various constituents of the oil. The use of a Bruhl receiver (or any
similar contrivance), which is easily obtained from any apparatus maker,
saves the necessity of breaking the vacuum when collecting the different
fractions.
But by applying the process of fractional distillation to a sample,
and determining the characters of numerous fractions, the actual number
of available determinations may be, and frequently is, so largely increased
that there is practically no chance of the adulterator being able to
standardise his oils to meet all these figures. This proposition, of course,
fails where it is possible to use a substance obtained from a cheaper source
which is identical with one contained naturally in the oil, and which is
added in such amount as not to materially exceed, in the total, the
amount naturally occurring in the essential oil in question.
In fractionally distilling an oil, in order to compare it with oils of
known purity similarly treated, it should be remembered that the details
of the process should be as constant as possible for all the samples ex-
amined. Thus the size of the distilling flask, the nature of the condensing
apparatus, and the rate of distillation are of the highest importance.
Experience alone will tell whether it is better to distil the oil at normal
pressure or under reduced pressure. Then again, in some intances it is
advantageous to separate the fractions according to their temperature,
noting the quantities collected. In others, it is better to collect definite
amounts and note the variations in temperature.
THE DETERMINATION OF ESTERS.

Esters, or salts of alkyl radicles, such as linalyl acetate, etc., are fre-
quently the most important constituents of essential oils. Their importance
is especially noteworthy in such cases as lavender, bergamot, peppermint,
and wintergreen oils, and their estimation is very frequently necessary.
The principle upon which this depends is the fact that most esters are
decomposed by solution of caustic alkali (preferably in alcohol) according
to the equation—
EA + KOH = E . OH + KA,
where E is the alkyl, and A the acid, radicle.
Strictly speaking the amount of free acids present in an essential oil
should be determined, and the acid value deducted from the saponification
value, the difference being the ester value.
In many cases the amount of free acids is negligible, but in a number
of cases this is not the case, and with oils of lavender, bergamot, geranium,
and similar oils, the deduction for the free acids becomes of importance.
To use this principle for the estimation, from 2 to 5 grams of the oil,
according to the magnitude of its ester content, are exactly weighed into
a small flask capable of holding about 150 to 250 c.c., and from 25 to
35 c.c. of solution of caustic potash in alcohol are added. The strength of
this should be approximately half-normal. The whole is then boiled in
the water-bath under a reflux condenser for an hour. It is then diluted
with water and the excess of potash is estimated by titration with semi-
normal sulphuric acid, using phenol-phthalein as an indicator. To de-
termine the amount of potash originally employed, it is best to perform
a blank experiment with the same quantity of potash solution, merely
omitting the oil, so that the blank and the oil have been treated in an
exactly similar way. The difference in the two titrations gives the
amount of potash used in decomposing the esters. Care should be taken
N
that the number of c.c. of -^ potash absorbed does not exceed the number
2
of c.c. unabsorbed, as otherwise the percentage of esters tends to be
underestimated. If any free acids are present these will have neutralised
some of the potash, and it is then necessary to determine by a preliminary
titration how much is used for this purpose, and to deduct the result
from the total quantity of potash used.
The number of milligrammes of KOH used to saponify 1 gram of the
oil (minus that required for the free acids) is termed the ester number.
From this figure, which is now known, the percentage of esters present
in a given oil mayjbe rapidly calculated from the formula—
M x A . . .
-g = percentage of ester,
ODU
where M is the molecular weight of the ester, and A the ester number.
(This is assuming, as is usually the case, that the ester is a combination
of a monobasic acid with a monatomic alcohol.)
As the free acids present in essential oils consist in the main of acetic
acid, they are, when necessary, calculated in terms of acetic acid ; in the
same way the esters are conventionally calculated from the alkali required
for their hydrolysis, in terms of the principal ester present, for example,
linalyl acetate in the case of lavender and bergamot oils, and geranyi
tiglate in the case of geranium oil.
The molecular weights of the esters commonly found in essential oils
are as follows :—
Geranyi, linalyl, and bornyl acetates M = 196
Menthyl acetate (for peppermint oil) M = 198
Geranyi tiglate (for rose-geranium oil) M = 236
Santalyl acetate (for sandalwood oil) M = 262
Sabinyl acetate (for savin oil) . M = 194
The Detection of Artificial Esters in Essential Oils.—The custom of
valuing certain essential oils, such as lavender, bergamot, geranium,
petit-grain, etc., by the determination of their ester-content, has led to the
use of scientific adulterants in the form of artificial esters which have
been deliberately employed for the purpose of misleading the analyst.
Of course, the ester determination is not a true criterion of value, as most
of this class of oils owe their perfume value to various other bodies as
well. The first compounds of this nature employed for adulteration were
ethyl succinate and ethyl oxalate.1 For the detection of these in lavender
oil the following test was proposed by Guildemeister and Hoffman :—
" Two grams of the oil are saponified ; the portion insoluble in water
separated by shaking with ether, and the aqueous solution neutralised
with acetic acid. The solution is diluted to 50 c.c. and 10 c.c. of cold
saturated solution of barium chloride added. It is then warmed for two
hours on a water-bath and allowed to cool. If a crystalline deposit is
formed, the oil is to be considered adulterated, as the acids contained in
normal lavender oil, acetic and butyric acids, give soluble barium salts."
It is evident that this test will only detect those acids whose barium
salts are insoluble. A more comprehensive test is therefore needed, as
several other esters have since been employed for adulteration purposes.
Glycerin acetate, prepared by the acetylation of glycerine, was first de-
1
Schimmel's Eeport, April, 1897, 25.
tected in peppermint oil by Bennett.1 The acetic radical was overlooked
in the preliminary experiments since the oil itself contained acetic esters.
By fractionation a substance of high molecular weight and low refractive
index was separated, and this proved to be triacetin or glycerin acetate.
Ethyl citrate was detected later by the same worker 2 in a sample of
lavender oil.
The high saponification value of these two bodies render them par-
ticularly suitable for adulteration, a small proportion being sufficient to
materially raise the ester value.
The following esters are amongst those used as adulterants:—3
Per Cent. Linalyl

Boiling-point. Specific Gravity. Acetate Indicated
by Addition of
1 per Cent.
Acetine 261° to 264° 1*19 2'00

Monacetine Decomposes 1-21 1-62
Diacetine . 260° to 265° 1-184 2-22
Triacetine . 258° 260° 1-165 2-62
Ethyl Citrate 286° 289° 1-140 2-13
,, Laurinate 270° 310° 0-866 0-75
,, Oleate 330° 345° 0-680? 0-64
„ Phthalate . 290° 293° 1-124 1-77
,, Succinate . 212° 218° 1-044 2-26
Methyl Phthalate 271° 275° 1-195 2-02
It is not easy to outline a general method which will detect this

adulteration of ester-containing oils. As a general rule, however, the
synthetic esters may be partially separated by fractional distillation, and
by comparing the physical characters of the last fractions with those
obtained from oils of known purity, an indication of the presence of
abnormal constituents may usually be obtained. By saponifying the
high-boiling ester-containing portion with alcoholic potash, neutralising
with acetic acid, evaporating the alcohol and extracting the oily matter
by shaking with ether, abnormal potassium salts may be detected in the
aqueous portion by evaporating to dryness, dissolving in water, and ap-
plying the usual chemical reagents such as barium chloride, calcium
chloride, ferric chloride, etc.
The table on next page shows the reactions of the more common
acids with these reagents.
The natural esters present in essential oils are usually those of acetic,
butyric, and valerianic acids, and in the case of geranium oil, tiglate acid.
The detection of phthalic acid by fusion with resorcin has been found
to be unreliable as a fluorescein reaction is frequently obtained with pure
oils.
Denige's test for citric acid in the saponification liquor is as follows :—•
Ten c.c. of the neutral solution of the potassium salt is shaken with
1 to 1*5 grams lead peroxide ; 2 c.c. of a solution of mercuric sulphate is
added (prepared by dissolving 5 grams HgO in 20 c.c. concentrated
H2SO4 and water to 100 c.c.). The solution is filtered and a 2 per cent.
1 2
CJiemist and3 Druggist, 62, 591. Ibid., 69, 691.
P. and E.O.R., July, 1912, 170.
solution of KMn04 is added until it is no longer decolorised. A white or
pale yellow flocculent precipitate indicates the presence of citric acid.
BaCl2. CaClo. FeCl3.
Benzoate nil nil Buff ppt.

Butyrate » »> nil
Cinnamate . White ppt. White ppt Buff ppt.
Citrate . ,, White ppt. on Green colour
boiling
Formate nil nil Red „
Oleate . White ppt. White ppt. Brown ppt.
Oxalate ,, ,, Green ,,
Phthalate . nil nil Brown „
Succinate . M » >» »»
Tartrate White ppt. White ppt. ? Green colour
Brown ppt. on
heating.
Valeriana:e . » »» Brown ppt.
The following methods for the determination of a number of artificial

esters are reproduced, for the sake of completing the subject here, from
Volume I of this work :—
Terpinyl acetate in the absence of esters of high molecular weight,
or ethyl esters of the fatty acids of coconut oil, is indicated by a difference
to be observed in the apparent ester value by different times of saponifi-
cation. This ester is far more resistant to the action of caustic alkali
than is linalyl acetate, and requires two hours at least for complete
saponification. Hence, if the oil shows a difference in the saponification
value in thirty minutes and in two hours, which amounts to more than
from 1 to 2, terpinyl acetate is almost certainly present. The following
tablel shows the effect of this partial-saponification on the two esters
and on adulterated oils :—
Time of Saponification. 5 mins. 15 mins. 30 mins. 45 mins. 1 hr. 2hrs.
Linalyl Acetate E. No. 191-5 217-5 223'2 223-7 223-1 224-7

Terpinyl „ , 108-2 166-8 209'7 233-4 245*8 262-7
Bergamot Oil , 80-3 94-5 97-3 97-5 97-8 98-5
„ „ + 6°/ Terpinyl Acetate , 82-5 94-8 101-2 102-1 104-7 1072
„ +io°/ 0 „ „ , 79-9 96-4 102-8 105-2 108-3 112-5
» . „ +25% 78-8 100-6 108-1 116-4 119-0 126-8
Fractional saponification, with the use of varying amounts of caustic

alkali, will also reveal the presence of terpinyl acetate.
The following table will indicate the differences observed when about
N
2*5 grams of the oil are saponified (1) with 20 c.c. of -^ alkali for two
A
N
hours, and (2) with 10 c.c. of ~- alkali, diluted with 25 c.c. of alcohol for
A
one hour:—
1
Schimmel's Report, October, 1910, 60.
20 c.c. x 10 c.c. (and

Oil. 2 hours. 25 c.c. Alcohol) Difference.
x 1 hour.
Bergamot (1) . 100-5 98-6 1-9

Bergamot (2) 103 105-5 2-5
,, with 5 per Cent. Terpinyi
Acetate . . . . 117 102-5 14-5
,, with 10 per Cent. Terpinyi
Acetate . . . . J21 104-0 17-0
The table on next page represents the behaviour on fractionation at

3 mm. pressure of two samples of bergamot adulterated with terpinyl
acetate and a sample of pure bergamot oil.
The author l has recommended the examination of the last 10 per
cent, left on evaporation of the oil on a water-bath, since the heavy arti-
ficial esters accumulate in this fraction. The-refractive index of this 10
per cent, should not be below 1*5090, and the saponification value should
not exceed 190. The following figures (see p. 317) represent nine
samples of adulterated oil, all sold as genuine bergamot oil.
Glyceryl acetate, which is an artificial ester commonly used in the
adulteration of bergamot oil, is detected fairly easily on account of its high
solubility in dilute alcohol. The test is carried out as follows : 2 Ten c.c.
of bergamot oil and 20 c.c. of 5 per cent, alcohol are well shaken in a.
separating funnel, and after the solutions have separated and become
clear the watery solution is run off and filtered. Ten c.c. of the filtrate
are exactly neutralised with deci-normal alkali, and then 5 c.c. of semi-
normal alkali run in, and the whole saponified under a reflux condenser
for one hour. In the case of pure bergamot oil 0*1 or at most 0*2 c.c. of
semi-normal alkali will have been used up by the saponification, whilst
each 1 per cent, of glyceryl triacetate present in the oil will be represented
by practically 0*5 c.c. of semi-normal alkali.
Glyceryl acetate is so easily washed out with ordinary hot distilled
water, that an adulterated oil when washed several times with hot water
will show a distinctly lower ester value and refractive index than the
original unwashed oil.
Pure oils of lavender, bergamot and similar oils show practically no-
reduction either in refractive index or ester value by such treatment.
Hall and Harvey3 prefer to determine glyceryl acetate in essential
oils by a method in which the glycerol is separated and weighed. This-
method is as follows :—
A quantity, if possible not less than 10 grams, of the oil to be ex-
amined is mixed with about 50 c.c. of '830 alcohol and saponified with
N/2 alcoholic potash; it is then digested on the water-bath for a period
of one hour; the solution is neutralised by means of N/2 HC1, and
evaporated to dryness upon the water-bath in order to remove the alcohol;
about 20 c.c. of water is added and the oily proportion extracted by
methylated ether, the water solution being run in a 6-oz. round-bottomed
flask; the ether extract should again be washed with a further quantity
of about 10 c.c. of water, which is then added to that already in the flask
1 2
P. and E.O.R., 1911, 14. SchimmePs Bericht, April, 1911, 151.
* P.
lO XO rH rH
S TH TH 00 CO
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Pure Bergamot 0
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«D. 0
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CM CM O GO O
P s '
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O
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CO
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CM
TH s
-• s CO
CO
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rH
rH
00 CO ^ 1
1
+ + 1 ' I I
00 rH rH rH
\ 1
TH lO
CM 00 CJ CM CD 1O CM
fH
CO rH CM rH
O O OO C<I 00 C<l 00
TH lO CO t~ t>- 00 00 O3 ^
ô O j; - ~ - - ~
e3 O O 00 CM 00 CM
£
'8 1
rH CM CO TH lO* CO* t-" 00* C5
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
!
w
Specific Gravity 0-885 0-884 0-884 0-8855 0-886 0-886 0-886 0-885 0-878 >
Optical Rotation . . . . . . + 16° + 16° 30' + 16° 30' + 18° + 23° + 17° + 20° + 26° + 27° >
Refractive Index at 20° 1-4660 1-4660 1-4662 1-4658 1-4660 1-4660 1-4681 1-4675 1-4691 GO
Apparent Esters as Linalyl Acetate . 39% 39-5 °/0 39% 38-8 % 39-5 % 40% 41% 34% CO
O
Fixed Residue . . . . 6-5
^ u °/
/o 6-3 °/ 4-2 °/ 6-4 °/ 6-1 °/ 7-2 °/ 4-5 °/ 6-9 °/ w
1
ESSENTL
,, ,, Saponification Value of 257 225 160 239 236 252 172 242 162
„ „ of Saponified Oil . 5 4-7 % 5-4 % 4-2 %
'3 % 5% 4-9 % 4%
Refractive Index of last 10 per cent. . 1-5040 1-5042 1-5085 1-5042 1-5040 1-5050 1-5070 l'£050 1-5091
k**
Increase in Ester Value in one hour . — — 3-8 % — — — 4'1% —
—
0
All these were adulterated with ethyl citrate except Nos. 3 and 7, which contained terpinyl acetate, and No. 9, which was adulterated
with lemon terpenes.
and the whole evaporated to a syrupy condition. This residue contains
the glycerol origin lly present as glyceryl acetate which is estimated in
the usual way by the triacetin method, the amount of glyceryl acetate
being calculated therefrom.
Schimmel & Co. have proposed to detect esters of fixed acids by an
estimation of the amount of volatile acids obtained by distilling the acidified
saponification residues, and comparing this figure with the amount of
acid indicated by the saponification value.
In this determination about 2 grams are saponified in the usual
manner, and the saponification residue rendered slightly alkaline, and
evaporated to dryness on a water-bath. The residue is dissolved in 5 c.c.
of water and acidified with 2 c.c. of dilute sulphuric acid. This liquid is
now distilled by passing a current of steam through it, and when no
FIG. 10.
further acid comes over the distillate (about 300 c.c.) is titrated with deci-
normal alkali, using phenolphthalein as indicator. The alkali consumed in
this neutralisation is nearly identical with that used in the direct saponi-
fication, if all the esters present are those of volatile acids, as is the case,
with pure bergamot oil. The distillation value should not be more than
5 to 10 below the direct saponification value (i.e. milligrams of KOH per
1 gram of oil). When esters of non-volatile acids have been used as
adulterants the difference is enormous. For example, an oil containing
2 per cent, of ethyl citrate yielded a direct saponification value of 109*1
and a distillation value of 92'8, and one containing 5 per cent, of ethyl
succinate gave a direct value of 127'6 and a distillation value of 91*5.
Umney l has made a critical study of this method, and recommends
the following apparatus to be used in the process :—
3
P. and E.O.R., 1914, 116.
(a) A 3 litre Jena glass flask.
(b) A rubber connection, the removal of which, of course, immediately
cuts off the steam supply.
(c) A long-necked C02 flask of Jena glass and 150 c.c. capacity.
(d) The most suitable splash head for the operation.
(e) A Davies' condenser.
(/) A 500 c.c. Erlenmeyer flask.
The results obtained, unless the special precautions described be
adopted when calculated as percentages of ester in the oil, are consider-
ably too high. Whilst some of the causes may be apparent to many,
nevertheless the following is a list constructed to include the more im-
portant of these causes, and will serve to indicate in what manner the
necessary amendments should be made :—
1. The use of methylated spirit (unpurified by further distillation)
in the preparation of the standard potash solution employed by some
experimenters in the saponification of the oil.
2. The use of hydrochloric acid in neutralising the excess of alkali
after saponification.
3. The employment of water in the steam generating flask which
has been insufficiently boiled to free it from carbon dioxide and other
impurities.
4. The sulphuric acid, used to acidulate before distillation, may be
advantageously replaced by phosphoric acid. This modification, whilst
in many cases not absolutely essential, is desirable on account of the fact
that sulphuric acid is liable to become reduced by certain constituents of
oils, particularly of old oils, which frequently contain substances of a
resinous nature. In such cases the volatile acid products of the reduc-
tion pass over along with the true acids of the oil undergoing examina-
tion.
The relations which the abnormal results obtained bear to the above
outlined conditions are clearly shown by the figures on next page.
It is evident that, in order to obtain accurate results, the method of
working must be clearly and minutely adhered to, especially so in view
of the fact that the determination of ester by the' method of steam distilla-
tion is a very valuable indication as to the purity of an oil, serving to
detect the fraudulent addition to oils of such esters as diethyl succinate,
triethyl citrate, and diethyl oxalate, the free acids of which are non-
volatile in steam. It will not detect glyceryl acetate, terpinyl acetate,
nor the esters of coconut oil fatty acids.
The method yielding reliable results and including modifications,
devised to remove the sources of error above-mentioned, is as follows:—
About 2 grams of the oil (bergamot or lavender) is accurately weighed
into a carbon dioxide flask, and 15 c.c. neutralised alcohol added along
with a few drops of phenolphthalein solution, and the whole is just boiled
on the steam-bath. The acid number is ascertained by titration with
deci-normal alcoholic potassium hydroxide, 25 c.c. semi-normal alcoholic
potash (made with 90 to 96 per cent, spirit, preferably distilled over
potash) is now added, and the whole boiled under a reflux condenser for
one hour, the excess of potash, after saponification and addition of 40 c.c.
of carbon dioxide-free water, being neutralised by means of semi-normal
sulphuric acid. This titration gives the figure from which the ester per-
centage is calculated.
Method. Percentage of Ester

found.
1. Oil saponified by solution of potash in unpurified methy-

lated spirit. Excess of alkali neutralised by hydro-
chloric acid, and the acids liberated, previous to dis-
tillation by sulphuric acid 47-28
2. As 1, but the excess of alkali after saponification neutra-
lised by sulphuric acid 43-51
3. As 2, but the methylated alcoholic potash replaced by a
solution of potash in 96 per cent. (60 o.p.) alcohol 41-38
4. As 2, methylated alcoholic potash (the spirit being
previously purified by distillation over potash) being
used instead of the solution of potash in unpurified
spirit 41-45
5. As 2, the methylated alcoholic potash being replaced by
a solution of potash in Absolute alcohol purified by
distillation over potash . . . . . . . 41-00
6. A "blank" experiment, employing for distillation the 1-5 c.c. deci-normal 1;
residue resulting from the evaporation of 25 c.c. of the sodium hydroxide
alcoholic potash used in 5, previously neutralised by was required for
means o f sulphuric acid . . . . . . . the neutralisation
of the distillate
7. Ester found in 5 less the amount of ester equivalent to
the volume of deci-normal sodium hydroxide used up in
t h e blank experiment . . . . . . . 39-69
A few drops of semi-normal alcoholic potash are added, and the liquid
allowed to evaporate on the steam-bath.
To the residue is added 10 c.c. of dilute phosphoric acid, prepared by
mixing about 3-5 c.c. of 88 per cent, acid with 100 c.c. of carbon dioxide-
free distilled water.
The carbon dioxide flask is now immediately attached to the appara-
tus, and the distillation is commenced.
It should here be noted that the distilled water in the steam generat-
ing flask must have been allowed to become entirely free from carbon
dioxide by at least half an hour's preliminary boiling.
The whole apparatus must be thoroughly cleansed and freed from air
by allowing steam from the generator to blow through for a few minutes
before attaching the carbon dioxide flask.
Distillation is allowed to proceed, the water in the generator being
kept boiling as quickly as possible, and the volume of liquid in the
smaller flask being kept at about 10 c.c. by means of a small flame.
The time taken for the collection of the required 250 c.c. of distillate-
is usually about thirty minutes.
The distillate is collected in a 500 c.c. Erlenmeyer flask having a
mark upon it to indicate the level of 250 c.c. Phenolphthalein solution
and a sufficient excess of deci-normal sodium hydroxide solution are added
to the distillate and the excess of alkali determined by titration.
The best general method for the detection of added esters, other than
those of acetic acid and formic acid, is to separate the acids and identify
them.
For this purpose 10 c.c. of oil are saponified for one hour with 20 c.c.
of 2/N alcoholic potash. 25 c.c. of water are then added and the hulk
of the alcohol evaporated off. The solution is then almost neutralised to
phenolphthalein and the unsaponified oil removed by shaking out three
times with ether.
The aqueous solution is then made acid to methyl orange, and shaken
out with ether.
The ethereal solution will now contain acids such as ben zoic, cinnamic,
oleic, phthalic and lauric, and these will be obtained in a moderately
pure condition by evaporating off the ether.
The aqueous solution will contain the readily water soluble acids
such as citric, oxalic and tartaric, etc. This solution should therefore be
made just alkaline to phenolphthalein, excess of barium chloride solution
added, and the whole warmed for about ten minutes.
A crystalline precipitate of barium salt will be obtained, from which
the acid can be readily liberated and identified.
THE DETERMINATION OF ALCOHOLS.
The determination of alcohols in essential oils depends on the con-
version of these compounds into their acetic esters, and then carrying out
an ester determination as described above.
Ten c.c. of the oil (spike, sandalwood and citronella are typical) are
boiled under a reflux condenser for two hours with 20 c.c. of acetic
anhydride and 2 grams of anhydrous sodium acetate. After the liquid
has cooled, it is diluted with water and allowed to stand in the water-
bath for fifteen minutes in order to decompose the excess of acetic
anhydride. The liquid is then transferred to a separator and repeatedly
washed with brine until the wash water is perfectly neutral in reaction.
The last washing may be effected with brine containing a little sodium
carbonate when the washings should be alkaline. The oil is then separ-
ated and the last traces of water removed by digestion with ignited
potassium sulphate for an hour. About 2 to 3 grams, depending on the
alcohol content of the acetylated (esterified) oil, are then saponified as
described under ester determination care being taken to neutralise the
oil before saponification, as traces of free acid always remain in the
acetylated oil. The amount of ester in the acetylated oil is easily cal-
culated, but to convert this into the percentage of free alcohol in the
original oil requires a more tedious calculation. The following formula,
can be used for this :—
_ N xM
x
~ 10(W - -042N)'
where x is the percentage of the alcohol in the original oil, M is the-
molecular weight, and N is the number of c.c. of normal alkali used, and
W the weight of the acetylated oil. Here the factor -042N is on account
of the increase of the weight due to acetylation. This formula is only
true if the original oil contains no esters. In cases where esters and
alcohols occur together the best method is to—
1. Estimate the esters in the original oil by a preliminary saponifica-
tion of a small quantity.
2. Saponify about 20 grams and separate the resulting oil, which now
contains all the alcohols in the free state.
3. Estimate the total alcohols in 2 by the acetylation process.
VOL. n. 21
4. Calculate the total alcohols in the original oils from 3, by allowing
for the decrease in weight of 1 when saponified.
5. Deduct the alcohols combined as esters from the total alcohols,
which gives the amount of free alcohols.
In these estimations it -is necessary to calculate all the esters and all
the alcohols to one formula, expressing the result, for instance, as menthyl
acetate, although as a matter of fact small quantities of the corresponding
propionate and butyrate may also be present, which it is impossible to
estimate separately.
Cocking l has constructed a simple formula by which the amount of
free alcohol may be accurately determined in the presence of any ester
or mixture of esters, providing that these are unaffected by acetylation.
The formula is as follows : —
Percentage of free alcohol
A = Saponification value of the original oil.
B = Saponification value of the original oil after acetylation (not of
saponified oil).
Y = Molecular weight of alcohol if monatomic.
In certain cases the results thus obtained are very nearly scientifically
accurate, but in certain cases the alcohol breaks down under the influence
of the acetic anhydride and the results are considerably lower than the
truth, the variation depending entirely on the conditions of the experi-
ment, which should therefore be kept constant as above recommended.
Linalol and terpineol are two oases in point. To meet such cases Boulez 2
has recommended diluting 5 grams of the oil with 25 grams of turpentine,
and then boiling with 40 c.c. of acetic anhydride and 3 to 4 grams of
pure sodium acetate. A blank experiment to allow for the " alcohol
value " of the turpentine must be performed, and the proper deduction
made. It is claimed by Boulez that this method yields accurate results,
but, although in the case of terpineol the results are fairly good, the
process does not give scientifically accurate results.
The following tables have been prepared by Schimmel & Co., who
gave permission for them to be reproduced in a previous edition, in order
to save calculations. Having determined the Saponification value of the
oil before or after acetylation, the amounts of esters or alcohols respec-
tively can be calculated. It must be borne in mind that the alcohol values
are only strictly accurate when there are no esters present in the oil.
Table L give& the values for alcohols of the formula C10H]8O and C10H200
(geraniol and citronellol) and their acetic esters. Table II. gives the
corresponding values for the alcohols Cl5H24Oand C15H26O. Table III.
gives the ester values for geranyl tiglinate.
., 1918,37.
*Bull. Soc. CUm., iv. (1907), L 117.
TABLE I.
C10H180. doHÔ.
Sap. Acetate. Alcohol in Acetate.
Alcohol. the Alcohol in
Alcohol. the Sap.
Figure. Orig. Oil. Orig. Oil. Figure.
1 0-35 0-28 0-27 0-35 0-28 0-28 1

2 0-70 0-55 0-55 0-71 0-56 0-56 2
3 1-05 0-83 0-83 1-06 0-84 0-84 3
4 1-40 1-10 1-10 1-41 1-11 1-12 4
5 1-75 1-38 1-38 1-77 1-39 1-40 5
6 2-10 1-65 1-66 2-12 1-67 1-68 6
7 2-45 1-93 1-94 2-47 1-95 1-96 7
8 2-80 2-20 2-21 2-83 2-23 2-24 8
9 3-15 2-48 2-49 3-18 2-51 2-52 9
10 3-50 2-75 2-77 3-54 2-79 2-81 10
11 3-85 3-03 3-05 3-89 3-06 3-09 11

12 4-20 1 3-30 3-33 4-24 3-34 3-37 12
13 4-55 i 3-58 3-61 4-60 3-62 3-66 13
14 4-90 3-85 3-89 4-95 3-90 3-94 14
15 5-25 4-13 4-17 5-30 4-18 4-23 15
16 5-60 4-40 4-45 5-66 4-46 4-51 16
17 5-95 4-68 4-74 6-01 4-74 4-80 17
18 6-30 4-95 5-02 6-36 5-01 5-08 18
19 6-65 5-23 5-30 6-72 5-29 5-37 19
20 7-00 5-50 5-58 7-07 5-57 5-66 20
21 7-35 i 5-78 5-87 7*42 5-85 5-94 21

22 7-70 6-05 6-15 7-78 6-13 6-23 22
23 8-05 6-33 6-44 8-13 i 6-41 6-52 23
24 8-40 6-60 6-72 8-49 | 6-69 6-81 24
25 8-75 6-88 7-01 8-84 ! 6-96 7-10 25
26 9-10 7-15 7-29 9-19 7-24 7-39 26
27 9-45 7-43 7-58 9-55 7-52 7-68 27
28 9-80 7-70 7-87 9-90 i 7-80 7-97 28
29 10-15 7-98 8-15 10-25 | 8-08 8*26 29
30 10-50 8-25 8-44 10-61 8-36 8-55 30
31 10-85 8-53 8-73 10-96 8-64 8-84 31

32 11-20 8-80 9-02 11-31 8-91 9-13 32
33 11-55 9-08 9-31 1167 9-19 9-43 33
34 11-90 9-35 9-59 12-02 9-47 9-72 34
35 12-25 9-63 9-88 12-37 9-75 10-01 35
36 12-60 9-90 10-17 12-73 10-03 10-31 36
37 12-95 10-18 10-47 13-08 10-31 10-60 37
38 13-30 t 10-45 10-76 13-44 10-59 10-90 38
:
39 13-65 10-73 11-05 13-79 10-86 11-19 39
40 ! 14-00 11-00 11-34 14-14 11-14 11-49 40
41 14-35 11-28 11-63 14-50 11-42 11-78 41

42 i 14-70 11-55 11-93 14-85 11-70 12-08 42
43 ! 15-05 11-83 12-22 15-20 11-98 12-38 43
44 1 15-40 12-10 12-51 15«56 12-26 12-68 44
45 15-75 12-38 12-81 15-91 12-54 12-97 45
46 i 16-10 12-65 13-10 16-26 12-81 13-27 46
47 16-45 12-93 13-40 16-62 13-09 13-57 47
48 i 16-80 ! 13-20 13-69 16-97 13-37 13-87 48
49 1715 ! 13-48 13-99 17-32 13-65 14-17 49
50 17-50 1 13-75 14-29 17-68 13-98 14-47 50
1
TABLE I. (continued).
CioHisO- C10H200.
Sap. Acetate. Alcohol in Alcohol in
Alcohol. the Sap.
Figure. Alcohol. the Orig. Oil. Acetate. Orig. Oil. Figure.
51 17-85 14-03 14-58 18-03 14-21 14-77 51

52 18-20 14-30 14-88 18-39 14-49 15-07 52
53 18-55 14-58 15-18 18-74 14-76 15-38 53
54 18-90 14-85 15-48 19-09 15-04 15-68 54
55 19-25 15-13 15-77 19-45 15-32 15-98 55
56 19-60 15-40 16-07 19-80 15-60 16-28 56
57 19-95 15-68 16-38 20-15 15-88 16-59 57
58 20-30 15-95 16-68 20-51 16-16 16-89 58
59 20-65 16-23 16-98 20-86 16-44 17-20 59
60 21-00 16-50 17-28 21-21 16-71 17-50 60
61 21-35 16-78 17-58 21-57 16-99 17-81 61

62 21-70 17-05 17-88 21-92 17-27 18-11 62
63 22-05 17-33 18-18 22-27 17-55 18-42 63
64 22-40 17-60 18-49 22-63 17-83 18-73 64
65 22-75 17-88 18-79 22-98 18-11 19-04 65
66 23-10 18-15 19-10 23-34 18-39 19-34 66
67 23-45 18-43 19-40 23-69 18-66 19-65 67
68 23-80 18-70 19-70 24-04 18-94 19-96 68
69 24-15 18-98 20-01 24-40 19-22 20-27 69
70 24-50 19-25 20-32 24-75 19-50 20-58 70
71 24-85 19-53 20-62 25-10 19-78 20-89 71

72 25-20 19-80 20-93 25-46 20-06 21-20 72
73 25-55 20-08 21-24 25-81 20-34 21-51 73
74 25*90 20-35 21-55 26-16 20-61 21-83 74
75 26-25 20-63 21-85 26-52 20-89 22-14 75
76 26-60 20-90 22-16 26-87 21-17 22-45 76
77 26-95 21-18 22-47 27-22 21-45 22-77 77
78 27-30 21-45 22-78 27-58 21-73 23-08 78
79 27-65 21-73 23-09 27-93 22-01 23-39 79
80 28-00 22-00 23-40 28-29 22-29 23-71 80
81 28-35 22-28 23-72 28-64 22-56 24-02 81

82 28-70 22-55 24-03 28-99 22-84 24-34 82
83 29-05 22-83 24-34 29-35 23-12 24-66 83
84 29-40 23-10 24-65 29-70 23-40 24-97 84
85 29-75 23-38 24-97 30-05 23-68 25-29 85
86 30-10 23-65 25-28 30-41 23-96 25-61 86
87 30-45 23-93 25-60 30-76 24-24 25-93 87
88 30-80 24-20 25-91 31-11 24-51 26-25 88
89 31-15 24-48 26-23 31-47 24-79 26-57 89
90 31-50 24-75 26-54 31-82 25-07 26-89 90
91 31-85 25-03 26-86 32-17 25-35 27-21 91

92 32-20 25-30 27-18 32-53 25-63 27-53 92
93 32-55 25-58 27-49 32-88 25-91 27-8£ 93
94 32-90 25-85 27-81 3324 26-19 28*17 94
95 33-25 26-13 28-13 33-59 26-46 28-49 95
96 33-60 26-40 28-45 33-94 26-74 28-82 96
97 33-95 26-68 28-77 34-30 27-02 29-14 97
98 34-30 26-95 29-09 34-65 27-30 29-47 98
99 34-65 27-23 29-41 35-00 27-58 29-79 99
100 35-00 27-50 29-73 35-36 27-86 30-11 100
C10H180. CioH2ftO.
Sap. Alcohol in Acetate. Alcohol in Sap.
Figure. Acetate. Alcohol. the Orig. Oil. Alcohol. the Orig. Oil. Figure.
101 35-35 27-78 30-05 35-71 28-14 30-44 101

102 35-70 28-05 30-37 36-06 28-41 3077 102
103 36-05 28-33 30-70 36-42 28-69 31-09 103
104 36-40 28-60 31-02 36-77 28-97 31-42 104
105 36-75 28-88 31-34 37-12 29-25 31-75 105
106 37-10 29-15 31-67 37-48 29-53 32-08 106
107 37-45 29-43 31-99 37-83 29-81 32-41 107
108 37-80 29-70 32-32 38-19 30-09 32-74 108
109 38-15 29-98 32-64 38-54 30-36 33-07 109
110 38-50 30-25 32-97 38-89 30-64 33-40 110
111 38-85 30-53 33-30 39-25 30-92 33-73 111

112 39-20 30-80 33-62 39-60 31-20 34-06 112
113 39-55 31-08 33-95 39-95 31-48 34-39 113
114 39-90 31-35 34-28 40-31 31-76 34-73 114
115 40-25 31-63 34-61 40-66 32-04 35-06 115
116 40-60 31-90 34-94 41-01 32-31 35-39 116
117 40-95 32-18 35-27 41-37 32-59 35-73 117
118 41-30 32-45 35-60 41-72 32-87 36-06 118
119 41-65 32-73 35-93 42-07 33-15 36-40 119
120 42-00 33-00 36-26 42-43 33-43 36-73 120
121 42-35 33-28 36-60 42-78 33-71 37-07 121

122 42-70 33-55 36-93 43-14 33-99 37-41 122
123 43-05 33-83 37-26 43-39 34-26 37-75 123
124 43-40 34-10 37-60 43-84 34-54 38-08 124
125 43-75 34-38 37-93 44-20 34-82 38-42 125
126 44*10 34-65 38-27 44-55 35-10 38-76 126
127 44-45 34-93 38-60 44-90 35-38 39-10 127
128 44-80 35-20 38-94 45-26 35-66 39-44 128
129 45-15 35-48 39-27 45-61 35-94 39-78 129
130 45-50 35-75 39-61 45-96 36-21 40-13 130
131 45-85 36-03 39-95 46-32 36-49 40-47 131

132 46-20 36-30 40-29 46-67 36-77 40-81 132
133 46-55 36-58 40-63 47-02 37-05 41-16 133
134 46-90 36-85 40-97 47-38 37-33 41-50 134
135 47-25 37-13 41-31 47-73 37-61 41-84 135
136 47-60 37-40 41-65 48-09 37-89 42-19 136
137 47-95 37-68 41-99 48-44 38-16 42-53 137
138 48-30 37-95 42-33 48-79 38-44 42-88 138
139 48-65 38-23 42-67 49-15 38-72 43-23 139
140 49-00 38-50 43-02 49-50 39-00 43-58 140
141 49-35 38-78 43-36 49-85 39-28 43-92 141

142 49-70 39-05 43-71 50-21 39-56 44-27 142
143 50-05 39-33 44-05 50-56 39-84 44-62 143
144 1 50-40 39-60 44-39 50-91 40*11 44-97 144
145 50-75 39-88 44-74 51-27 40-39 45-32 145
146 51-10 40-15 45-09 51-62 40-67 45-67 146
147 51-45 40-43 45-44 51-97 40-95 46-02 147
148 51-80 40-70 45*78 52-33 41-23 46-38 148
149 52-15 40-98 46-13 52-68 41-51 46-73 149
150 52-50 41-25 46-48 53-04 41-79 47-08 150
TABLE I* (continued).
Ci0H180. C10H200.
Sap. Acetate. Alcohol. Alcohol in Alcohol in Sap.
Figure. the Orig. Oil. Acetate. Alcoho the Orig. Oil. Figure.
"
151 52-85 41-53 46-83 53-39 42-06 47-44 151
152 53-20 41-80 47-18 53-74 42-34 47-79 152
153 53-55 42-08 47-53 54-10 42-62 48-15 153
154 53-90 42-35 47-88 54-45 42-90 48-50 154
155 54-25 42-63 48-23 54-80 43-18 48-86 155
156 54-60 42-90 48-58 55-16 43-46 49-21 156
157 54-95 43-18 . 48-94 55-51 43-74 49-57 157
158 55-30 43-45 49-29 55-86 44-01 49-93 158
159 55-65 43-73 49-65 56-22 44-29 50-29 159
160 56-00 44-00 50-00 56-57 44-57 50-65 160
161 56-35 44-28 50-36 56-92 44-85 51-01 161

162 56-70 44-55 50-71 57-28 45-13 51-37 162
168 57-05 44-83 51-07 57-63 45-41 51-73 163
164 57-40 45-10 51-42 57-99 45-69 52-09 164
165 57*75 45-38 51-78 58-34 45*96 52-46 165
166 58-10 45-65 52-14 58-69 46-24 52-82 166
167 58-45 45-93 52-50 59-05 46-52 53-18 167
168 58-80 46-20 52-86 59-40 46-80 53-55 168
169 59-15 46-48 53-22 59-75 47-08 53-91 169
170 59-50 46-75 53-58 60-11 47-36 54-28 170
171 59-85 47-03 53-94 60-46 47-64 5464 171

172 60-20 47-30 54-31 60-81 47-91 ,55-01 172
173 60-55 47-58 54-67 61-17 48-19 55-38 173
174 60-90 47-85 55-03 61-52 48-47 55-75 174
175 61-25 48-13 55-40 61-87 48-75 56-12 175
176 61-60 48-40 55-76 62-23 49-03 56-48 176
177 61-95 48-68 56-13 62-58 49-31 56-85 177
178 62-30 48-95 56-49 62-94 49-59 57-23 178
179 62-65 49-23 56-86 63-29 49-86 57-60 179
180 63-00 49-50 57-22 63-64 50-14 57-97 180
181 63*35 49-78 57-59 64-00 50-42 58-34 181

182 63-70 50*05 57-96 64-35 50-70 58-71 182
183 64-05 50-33 58-33 64-70 50-98 59-09 183
184 64-40 50-60 58-70 65-06 51-26 59-46 184
185 64-75 50-88 59-07 65-41 51-54 59-84 185
186 65-10 51-15 59-44 65-76 51-81 60-21 186
187 65-45 51-43 59-81 66-12 52-09 60-59 187
188 65-80 51-70 60-19 66-47 52-37 60-97 188
189 66-15 51-98 60-56 66-82 52-65 61-35 189
190 66-50 52-25 60-93 67-18 52-93 61-72 190
191 66-85 52-53 61-31 67-53 53-21 62-10 191

192 67-20 52-80 61-68 67-89 53-49 62-48 192
193 67-55 53-08 62-06 68-24 53-76 62-86 193
194 67-90 53-35 62-43 68-59 54-04 63«24 194
195 68-25 53-63 62-81 68-95 54-32 63-63 195
196 68-60 53-90 63-19 69-30 54-60 64-01 196
197 68-95 54-18 63-57 69-65 54-88 64-39 197
198 69-30 54-45 63-95 70-01 55-16 64-78 198
199 69-65 54-73 64-33 70-36 55-44 65-16 199
200 70-00 55-00 64-71 70-71 55-71 65-55 200
C10H180. C10H*Q.
Sap.
Figure. Acetate. Alcohol. Alcohol in
the Orig. Oil. Acetate. Alcohol. theAlcohol in Sap.
Orig. Oil. Figure.
201 70-J5 55-28 65-09 71-07 55-99 65^93 201

202 70-70 55-55 65-47 71-42 56-27 66-32 202
203 71-05 55-83 65-85 71-77 56-55 66-71 203
204 71-40 56-10 66-23 72-13 56-83 67-09 204
205 71-75 56-38 66-62 72-48 57-11 67-48 205
206 72-10 56-65 67-00 72-84 57-39 67-87 206
207 72-45 56-93 67-39 73-19 57-66 68-26 207
208 72-80 57/20 67-77 73-54 57-94 68-65 208
209 73-15 57-48 68-16 73-90 58-22 69-04 209
210 73-50 57-75 68*55 74-25 5850 69-44 210
211 73-85 58-03 6S-93 74-60 58-78 69-83 211

212 74-20 58-30 69-32 74-96 59-06 70-22 212
213 74-55 58-58 69-71 75-31 59*34 70-62 213
214 74-90 58-85 70-10 75-66 59-61 71-01 214
215 75-25 59-13 70-49 76-02 59-89 71-41 215
216 75-60 59-40 70-88 76-37 60-17 71-80 216
217 75-95 59-68 71-28 76-72 60-45 72-20 217
218 76-30 59-95 71-87 77-08 60-73 72*60 218
219 76-65 60-23 72-06 77-43 61-01 73-00 219
220 77-00 60-50 72-45 77-79 61-29 73*40 220
221 77-35 6078 72-85 7o-14 61-56 73-80 221

222 77-70 61-05 73-25 78-49 61-84 74-20 222
223 78-05 61-33 73-64 78-85 62-12 74-60 223
224 78-40 61-60 74-04 79-20 62-40 75-00 224
225 78-75 61-88 74-44 79-55 62-68 75-40 225
226 79-10 62-15 74-84 79-91 62-96 75-81 226
227 79-45 62-43 75-23 80-26 63-24 76-21 227
228 79-80 62-70 75-63 80-61 63-51 76-62 228
229 80-15 62*98 76-03 80-97 63-79 77-02 229
230 80-50 63-25 76-44 81-32 64-07 77-43 230
231 80-85 63-53 76-84 81-67 64-35 77:83 231

232 81-20 63-80 77-24 82-03 64-63 78-24 232
233 81-55 64-08 77-64 82-38 64-91 78-65 233
234 81-90 64-35 78-05 82-74 65-19 79-06 234
235 82-25 64-63 78-45 83-09 65-46 79-47 235
236 82-60 6490 78-86 83-44 65-74 79-88 236
237 82-95 65-18 79-27 83-80 66-02 80-29 237
238 83-30 65-45 79-67 84-15 66-30 80-71 238
239 83-65 65-73 80-08 84-50 66-58 81-12 239
240 84-00 66-00 80-49 84-86 66-86 81-53 240
241 84-35 66-28 80-90 85-21 67-14 81-95 241

242 84-70 66-55 81-31 85-56 67-41 82-36 242
243 85-05 66-83 81-72 85-92 67-69 82-78 243
244 85-40 67-10 82-13 86-27 67-97 83-20 244
245 85-75 67-38 82-54 86-62 68-25 83-61 245
246 86-10 67-65 82-96 8698 68-53 84-03 246
247 86-45 67-93 83-37 87'33 68-81 84-45 247
248 86-80 68-20 83-78 87-69 69-09 84-87 248
249 87-15 68-48 84-20 88-04 69-36 85-29 249
250 87-50 68-75 | 84-62 88-39 69-64 , 85-71 250
1
CioH180. C10H200.
Sap. Acetate. Alcohol. Alcohol in Acetate. Alcohol. Alcohol in Sap.
Figure. the Orig. Oil. the Orig. Oil. Figure.
251 87-85 69-03 85-03 88-75 69-92 86-14 251

252 88-20 69-30 85-45 89-10 70-20 86-56 252
253 88-55 69-58 85-87 89-45 70-48 86-98 253
254 88-90 69-85 86-29 89-81 70-76 87-41 254
255 89-25 70-13 86-71 90-16 71-04 87-83 255
256 89-60 70-40 87-13 90-51 71-31 88-26 256
257 89-95 70-68 87-55 90-87 71-59 88-69 257
258 90-30 70 95 87-97 91-22 71-87 89-11 258
259 90-65 71-23 88-40 91-57 72-15 89-54 259
260 91-00 71-50 88-82 91-93 72-43 89-97 260
261 91-35 71-78 89-25 92-28 72-71 90-40 261

262 91-70 72-05 89-67 92-64 72-99 90-83 262
263 92-05 72-33 90-10 92-99 73-26 91-27 263
264 92-40 72-60 90-52 93-34 73-54 91-70 264
265 92-75 72-88 90-95 93-70 73-82 92-13 265
266 93-10 73-15 91-38 94-05 74-10 92-57 266
267 93-45 73-43 91-81 94-40 74-38 93-00 267
268 93-80 73-70 92-24 9476 74-66 93-44 .268
269 94-15 73-98 92-67 95-11 74-94 93-87 269
270 94-50 74-25 93-10 95-46 75-21 94-31 270
271 94-85 74-53 93-54 95-82 75-49 94-75 271

272 95-20 74-80 93-97 96-17 75*77 95-19 272
273 95-55 75-08 94-40 96-52 76-05 95-63 273
274 95-90 75-35 94-84 96-88 76-33 96-07 274
275 96-25 75-63 95-28 97-23 76-61 96-51 275
276 96-60 76-90 95-71 97-59 76-89 96-96 276
277 96-95 76-18 96-15 97-94 77-16 97-40 277
278 97-30 76-45 96-59 98-29 77-44 97-84 278
279 97-65 76-73 97-03 98-65 77-72 98-29 279
280 98-00 77-00 97-47 99-00 78-00 98-73 280
281 98-35 77-28 97-91 99-35 78-28 99-18 281

282 98-70 77-55 98-35 99-71 78-56 99-63 282
283 99-05 77-83 98-80 100-06 78-84 100-08 283
284 99-40 78-10 99-24
285 99-75 78-38 99-68
286 100-10 78-65 100-13
•
TABLE II.
(^15^24^. Cx 5H260.
Per Cent. Per Cent.
Ester Per Cent Per Cent.
Number Acetate. Alcohol. Alcohol in th Per Cent. Per Cent. Alcohol in the Ester
Original Oil. Acetate. Alcohol. Original Oil. Number.
1
1 0-47 0-39 0-39 0-47 0-40 0-40 1
2 0-94 0-79 0-79 0-94 0-79 0-79 2
3 1-40 1-18 1-18 1-41 1-19 1-19 3
4 1-87 1-57 1-58 1-89 1-59 1-59 4
5 2-34 1-96 1-97 2-36 1-98 1-99 5
6 2-81 2-36 2-37 2-83 2-38 2-39 6
7 3*28 2-75 2-76 3-30 2-78 2-79 7
8 3-74 3-14 3-16 3-77 3-17 3-19 8
9 4-21 3-53 3-56 4-24 3-57 3-59 9
10 4-68 3-93 3-96 4-71 3-96 3-99 10
11 5*15 4-32 4-36 5-19 4-36 4-40 11

12 5'61 4-71 4-76 5-66 4-76 4-80 12
13 6-08 5-11 5-16 6-13 5-15 5-20 13
14 6-55 5-50 5-56 6-60 5-55 5-61 14
15 7-02 5-89 5-96 7-07 5-95 6-01 15
16 7-49 6-29 6-36 7-54 6-34 6-42 16
17 7-95 6-68 6-77 8-01 6-74 6-83 17
18 8-42 7-07 7-17 8-49 7-14 7-23 18
19 8-89 7-46 7-57 8-96 7-53 7-64 19
20 9-36 7-86 7-98 9-43 7-93 8-05 20
21 9-83 8-25 8-38 9-90 8-33 8-46 21

22 10-29 8-64 8-79 10-37 8-72 8-87 22
23 10-76 9-03 9-19 10-84 9-12 9-28 23
24 11-23 9-42 9-60 11-31 9-51 9-69 24
25 11-70 9-82 10-01 11-79 9-91 10-10 25
26 12-16 10-21 10-42 12-26 10-30 10-51 26
27 12-63 10-60 10-83 12-73 10-70 10-92 27
28 13-10 11-00 11-24 13-20 11-10 11-34 28
29 13-57 11-39 11-65 13-67 11-49 11-75 29
30 14-04 11-79 12-06 14-14 11-89 12-17 30
31 14-51 12-18 12-47 14-61 12-28 12-58 31

32 14-98 12-57 12-88 15-08 12-68 13-00 32
33 15-45 12-96 13-29 15-55 13-08 13-41 33
34 15-91 13-35 13-71 16-02 13-48 13-83 34
35 16-38 13-75 14-12 16-50 13-88 14-25 35
36 16-85 14-14 14-54 16-97 14-27 14-67 36
37 17-32 14-54 14-95 17-44 14-76 15-09 37
38 17-79 14-93 15-37 17-91 15-06 15-51 38
39 18-25 15-32 15-78 18-38 15-46 15-93 39
40 18-71 35-71 16-20 18-86 15-86 16-35 40
41 19-18 16-10 16-62 19-33 16-25 16-77 41

42 19-65 16-50 17-04 19-80 16-65 17-19 42
43 20-12 16-89 17-46 20-27 17-05 17-61 43
44 20-59 17-28 17-88 20-74 17-44 18-04 44
45 21-05 17-68 18-30 21-21 17-84 18-46 45
46 21-52 18-07 18-72 21-69 18-24 18-89 46
47 21-99 18-46 19-14 22-16 18-63 19-32 47
48 22-46 18-85 19-56 22-63 19-03 19-74 48
49 22-93 19-25 19-98 23-10 19-82 20-17 49
50 23-39 19-64 20-41 23-57 19-43 20-59 50
TABLE II. (continued).
C15H240. C^HÔ.
Ester 3er Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.

lumber. Acetate. Alcohol. Alcohol in the Per Cent. Per Cent. Alcohol
Acetate. Alcohol. in the Ester
Original Oil. Original Oil. Number.
51 23-86 20-03 20-83 24-04 20-22 21-02 51

52 24-33 20-42 21-26 24-51 20-62 21-45 52
53 24-80 20-82 21-68 24-99 21-01 21-88 53
54 25-26 21-21 22-11 25-46 21-41 22-31 54
55 25-73 21-60 22-54 25-93 21-81 22-74 55
56 26-20 22-00 22-96 26-40 22-20 23-17 56
57 26-67 22-39 23-39 26-87 22-60 23-61 57
58 27-14 22-78 23-82 27-34 23-00 24-04 58
59 27-61 23-17 24-25 27-81 23-39 24-47 59
60 28-07 23-57 24-68 28-29 23-79 24-91 60
61 28-54 23-96 25-11 28-76 24-19 25-34 61

62 29-01 24-35 25-54 29-23 24-58 25-77 62
63 29-48 24-75 25-97 29-70 24-98 26-21 63
64 29-95 25-14 26-41 30-17 25-38 26-65 64
65 30-41 25-53 26-84 30-64 25-77 27-09 65
66 30-88 25-93 27-27 31-11 26-17 27-53 66
67 31-35 26-32 27-71 31-59 26-57 27-97 67
68 31-81 26-71 28-14 32-06 26-96 28-41 68
69 32-28 27-10 28-58 32-53 27-35 28-85 69
70 32-75 27-50 29-02 33-00 27-75 29-29 70
71 33-22 27-89 29-46 33-47 28-15 29-73 71

72 33-69 2828 29-90 33-94 28-54 30-17 72
73 34-15 28-67 30-34 34-41 28-94 30-61 73
74 34-62 29-07 30-78 34-89 29-34 31-06 74
75 35-09 29-46 31-22 35-36 29-73 31-50 75
76 35-56 29-85 31-66 35-83 30-13 31-95 76
77 36-03 30-25 32-10 36-30 30-53 32-40 77
78 36-49 30-64 32-54 36-77 30-92 32-84 78
79 36-96 31-03 32-98 37-24 31-31 33-29 79
80 37-43 31-43 33-43 37-71 31-71 33-74 80
81 3790 31-82 33-87 38-19 32-11 34-19 81

82 38-37 32-21 34-32 38-66 32-50 34-64 82
83 38-84 32-60 34-77 39-13 32-90 35-09 83
84 39-30 33-00 35-22 39-60 33-30 35-54 84
85 39-77 33-39 35-66 40-07 33-69 35-99 85
86 40-24 33-78 36-11 40-54 34-09 36-44 86
87 40-70 34-18 36-56 41-01 34-49 36-90 87
88 41-17 34-57 37-01 41-49 34-88 37-35 88
89 41-64 34-96 37-46 41-96 35-28 37-80 89
90 42-11 35-36 37-92 42-43 35-68 38-26 90
91 42-57 35-75 38-37 42-90 36-08 38-71 91

92 43-04 36-14 38-82 43-37 36-47 39-17 92
93 43-51 36-53 39-27 43-84 36-87 39-63 93
94 43-98 36-92 39-73 44-31 | 37-26 40-09 94
95 44-45 37*32 40-18 44-79 ! 37-66 40-55 95
96 44-92 37-71 40-64 45-26 1 38-05 41*01 96
97 45-39 38-10 41-10 45-73 j 38-45 41-47 97
98 45-85 38-50 41-55 46-20 | 38-85 41-93 98
99 46-32 38-89 42-01 46-67 39-24 42-39 99
100 46-79 39-29 42-47 47-14 ! 39-64 42-86 100
TABLE II. > (continued).

C^HÔ. C^HÔ.
Per Cent. Per Cent.
Cent. Per Cent. Alcohol Ester
Ester Per Cent. Per Cent.
Number. Acetate. Alcohol. Alcohol in the Per
Acetate. Alcohol. in the Number.
Original Oil. Original Oil.
101 47-26 39-68 42-93 47*61 40-04 43-32 101

102 47-72 40-07 43-39 48-09 40-43 43-78 102
103 48-19 40-46 43-85 48-56 40-83 44-24 103
104 48-66 40-85 44-32 49-03 41-23 44-71 104
105 49-13 41-25 44-78 49-50 41-63 45-18 105
106 49-59 41-64 45-24 49-97 42-02 45-65 106
107 50-06 42-04 45-70 50-44 42-42 46-12 107
108 50-53 42-43 46-16 £0-91 42-81 46-59 108
109 51-00 42-82 46-63 51-39 43-21 47-06 109
110 51-46 43-21 47-10 51-86 43-61 47-53 110
111 51-93 43-60 47-57 52-33 44-00 48-00 111

112 52-40 44-00 48-04 52-80 44-40 48-47 112
113 52-87 44-39 48-50 53-27 44-80 1 48-94 113
114 53-34 44-78 48-97 53-74 45-19 49-42 114
115 53-81 45-17 49-44 54-21 45-59 49-89 115
116 54-28 45-57 49-91 54-69 45-99 50-86 116
117 54-74 45-96 50-39 55-16 46-38 50-84 117
118 55-21 46-35 50-86 55-63 46-78 51-32 118
119 55-68 46-74 51-33 56-10 47-18 51*80 119
120 56-14 47-14 51-81 56-57 47-57 ! 52-28 120
121 56-61 47-53 52-28 57-04 47-97 52-76 121

122 57-08 47-92 52-76 57-51 48-36 53-24 122
123 57-55 48-32 53-23 57-99 48-76 53-72 123
124 58-01 48-71 53-71 58-46 49-16 54-20 124
125 58-48 49-10 54-18 58-93 49-55 54-68 125
> 126 58-95 49-50 54-66 59-40 49-95 55-17 126
127 59-42 49-89 55-14 59-87 50-35 55-65 127
128 59-89 £0-28 55-62 60'34 50-74 56-18 128
129 60-36 50-67 56-11 60-81 51-14 56-62 129
130 60-82 51-07 56-59 61-28 51-54 57-10 130
131 61-29 51-46 57-07 61-75 51-93 57-59 131

132 61-76 51-85 57*55 62-22' 52-33 5808 132
133 62-23 52-25 58-03 62-70 52-73 58-57 133
134 62-70 52-64 58-52 63-17 53-12 59-06 134
135 63-16 53-03 59-00 63-64 53-52 59-55 135
136 63-63 53*42 59-49 64-11 53-92 60-04 136
137 64-10 53-82 59-98 64-59 54-31 60-53 137
138 64-57 54-21 60-47 65-06 54-71 61-02 138
139 65-04 54-60 60-96 65-53 55-11 6151 139
140 65-50 55-00 61-45 66-00 55-50 62-01 140
141 65-97 55-39 61-94 66-47 55*90 6250 141

142 66-44 55-78 6243 66-94 56-30 63-00 142
143 66-90 56-18 62-93 67-41 56-69 63-50 148
144 67-37 56-57 63-42 67-89 57-09 64-00 144
145 67-84 56-96 63-92 68-36 57-49 64-50 145
146 68-31 57-35 64-41 63-83 57-88 65-00 146
147 68-78 57-75 64-91 69-30 58-28 65-50 147
148 69-25 58-14 65-40 69-77 58-68 66-00 148
149 69-72 58-53 65-90 70-24 59-07 66-50 149
150 70-18 58-93 66-40 70-71 59-46 67-00 150
C]5H240. C15H260.
Ester Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.

Number Acetate. Alcohol. Alcohol in the Per Cent. Per Cent. Alcohol
Acetate. Alcohol. in the Ester
Original Oil. Original Oil. Number.
151 70-65 59-32 66-90 71-19 59-86 67-51 151

152 71-12 59-71 67-40 71-66 60-26 68-01 152
153 71-58 J 60-10 67-90 72-13 60-65 68-52 153
154 72-05 60-50 68-40 72-60 61-05 69-02 154
155 72*52 60-89 68-90 73-07 61-45 69-53 155
156 72-99 61-28 69-41 73-54 61-84 70-04 156
157 73-46 61-68 69-91 74-01 62-24 70-55 157
158 73-92 62-07 70-42 74-49 ; 62-64 71-06 158
159 74-39 62-46 70-29 74-96 63-03 71-57 159
160 74-86 62-86 71-43 75-43 63-43 72-08 160
161 75-33 63-25 71-93 75-90 63-83 72-59 161

162 75-80 63-64 72-44 76-37 64-22 73-10 162
163 76-26 64-03 72-95 76-84 64-62 73-62 163
164 76-73 64-42 73-46 77-31 65-02 74-13 164
165 77-20 64-82 73-97 77-78 65-41 74-65 165
166 77-67 65-21 74-49 78-26 65-81 7516 166
167 78-14 65-60 75-00 78-73 66-21 75-68 167
168 78-60 66-00 75-52 79-20 66-60 76-20 168
169 79-07 66-39 76-03 79-67 67-00 76-72 169
170 79-54 66-79 76-55 80-14 67-39 77-24 170
171 80-01 67-18 77-06 80-61 67-79 77-76 171

172 80-48 67-57 77-58 81 -OS 68-19 78-28 172
173 80-94 67-96 78-10 81-56 68-58 78-81 173
174 81-41 68-35 78-62 82-03 68-98 79-33 174
175 81-88 68-75 79-14 82-50 69-38 79-85 175
176 82-35 69-14 79-66 82-97 69-77 80-38 176 ,
177 82-81 69-54 80-18 83-44 70-17 80'91 177
178 83-28 69-93 80-70 83-91 70-57 81-43 178
179 83-75 70-32 81-23 84-38 70-96 81-96 179
180 84-21 70-71 81-75 84-86 71-36 82-49 180
181 84-68 71-10 82-28 85-33 71-76 83-02 181

182 85-15 71-50 82-80 85-80 72-15 83-55 182
183 85-62 71-89 83-33 86-27 72-55 84-09 183
184 86-09 72-28 83-86 86-74 72-95 84-62 184
185 86-56 72-68 84-39 87-21 73*34 85-15 185
186 87-03 73-07 84-92 87-68 73-74 85-69 186
187 87-49 73-46 85-45 88-16 74-14 86-22 187
188 87-96 73-86 85-98 88-63 74-53 86-76 188
189 88-43 74-25 86-51 89-10 74-93 87-30 189
190 88-89 74-64 87-05 89-57 75-32 87*84 190
191 89-36 75-03 87-58 90*04 75-72 88-38 191

192 89-83 75-42 88-12 90-51 76-12 88-92 192
193 90-30 75-82 8865 90-98 76-51 89-46 193
194 90-77 76-21 89-19 91-46 76-91 90-09 194
195 91-24 76-60 89-73 91-93 77-31 90-54 195
196 91-70 77-00 90-27 92-40 77-70 91-09 196
197 92-17 77-39 90-81 92-87 78-10 91-64 197
198 92-64 77-78 91-35 93-34 78-50 92-18 198
199 93-11 78-17 91-89 93-81 78-89 92-73 199
200 93-57 78-57 92-44 94-28 79-29 93-28 200
THE ANALYSIS OF ESSENTIAL O.ILS 333

^15^24^' C15H2fiO.
[
Per Cent. Per Cent.
Ester Per Cent. Per Cent. Alcohol in the Per Cent. Per Cent. Alcohol in the Ester
Number. Acetate. Alcohol. Original Oil. Acetate. Alcohol. Original Oil. Number.
201 94-04 78-96 92-98 94-76 79-68 93-83 201

202 94-51 79-35 S3-53 95-23 80-08 94-38 202
203 94-98 79-75 94-07 95-70 80-48 94-93 203
204 95-44 80-14 94-62 96-17 80-87 95-48 204
205 9591 80-53 95-17 96-64 81-26 96-03 205
206 96-38 80-92 95-72 97-11 81-66 96-59 206
207 96-85 81-32 96-27 97-58 82-06 97*14 207
208 97-32 81-71 96-82 98-05 82-45 97-70 208
209 97-79 82-10 97-37 98-52 82-85 98-25 209
210 98-25 82-50 97*92 99-00 83-25 98-81 210
211 98-72 82-89 98-48 99-47 83-64 99-37 211

212 99-19 83-28 99-03 99-94 84-04 99-93 212
213 99-66 83-67 99-59 100-41 84-44 100-49 213
214 100-12 84-07 100-14 214
TABLE III.—GEBANYL TIGLINATE : C4H7CO2C10H17.
feJs
<g ^ -|
-4-3
£3 il
*-!'
||
•g u.
f1
el
|
|
Is sl p
1 § ?Jj l| f|
^1 |1 f_ ~X
fc £ £ 52; £ 525 £ fc £^
1 0-42 21 8-85 41 17-28 61 25-71 81 34-13
2 0-84 22 9-27 42 17-70 62 26-13 82 34-55
3 1-26 23 9-69 43 18-12 63 2655 83 34-98
4 1-69 24 10-11 44 18-54 64 26-97 84 35-40
5 2-11 25 10-54 45 18-96 65 27-39 85 35-82
6 2-53 26 10-96 46 19-38 66 27-81 86 36-24
7 2-95 27 11-38 47 19-80 67 28*23 87 36-66
8 3-37 28 11-80 48 20-23 68 28-65 88 37-09
9 3-79 29 12-22 49 20-65 69 29-08 89 37-51
10 4-21 30 12-64 50 21-07 70 29-50 90 37-93
11 4-63 31 13-06 51 21-49 71 29-92 91 38-35

12 5-05 32 13-49 52 21-91 72 30-34 92 38-77
13 5-47 33 13-91 53 22-33 73 30-76 93 39-19
14 5*90 34 14-38 54 22-75 74 31-18 94 39-62
15 6-32 35 14-75 55 23-18 75 31-61 95 40-04
16 6-74 36 15-17 56 23-60 76 32-03 96 40-46
17 7-16 37 15-59 57 24-02 77 32-45 97 40-88
18 7-58 38 16-01 58 24-44 78 32-87 98 41-30
19 8-01 39 16-44 59 24-87 79 33-29 99 41-72
20 8-43 40 16-86 60 25-29 80 33-71 100 42-14
The importance of strictly adhering to the conditions above set out

in the acetylation process has been emphasised by several analysts.
According to Durrans1 the anhydrous sodium acetate acts rather as a
. and E.O.R., 1912, 123.
334 THE. CHEMISTEY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
dehydrating agent than a catalytic agent, since increasing the proportion
results in higher values for the alcohol percentage. This was confirmed
by Umney and Bennett,1 who showed that with pure geraniol 109 per
cent, was indicated when the proportion of anhydrous sodium acetate
was increased to 5 grams, whilst with 2 grams the theoretical percentage
was obtained.
SEPARATE DETERMINATION OF CITRONELLOL IN PRESENCE OF
GERANIOL.
Several methods have been proposed for the separation of geraniol
and citronellol which occur together in otto of rose and in rose-geranium
oils. On treating the mixture with phosphorus trichloride in ethereal
solution, geraniol is partly converbed into hydrocarbons and partly into
geranyl chloride, whilst citronellol is converted into a chlorinated acid
ester of phosphorous acid which is soluble in alkalis and can thus be
separated. By heating a mixture of geraniol and citronellol with phthalic
anhydride to 200° the geraniol is destroyed and the citronellol converted
into a phthalic acid ester, the sodium salt of which is soluble in water
and can be saponified by alcoholic potash. Geraniol can also be de-
stroyed by heating with benzoyl chloride to 140° to 160°.
. The only practical method which appears to give good results depends
on the fact that when a mixture of geraniol and citronellol are heated
with strong formic acid (100 per cent.) the geraniol is decomposed and
the citronellol is converted into citronellyl formate. The estimation is
best carried out as follows : —
To 10 c.c. of the oil (otto of rose or rose-geranium oil) 10 c.c. of formic
acid 100 per cent, (specific gravity 1'22) is added, and the mixture gently
boiled under a reflux condenser for one hour. The mixture is cooled,
100 c.c. of water added, and the whole transferred to a separator. The
aqueous layer is rejected, and the oil washed with successive quantities of
water as in the acetylation process. The formylated oil is dried with
anhydrous sodium sulphate, and about 2 grams neutralised and saponi-
fied with alcoholic potash in the usual manner. The percentage of
citronellol is then calculated from the following formula : —-
,, , , x x 15'6
citronellol percentage = —
where x = the number of c.cs. of normal potash absorbed and W = the
weight of formylated oil taken.
Citronellal and geraniol occur together in citronella oils, and several .
methods have been proposed for the estimation of these two constituents.
The results are only approximate in each case. These are as follows : —
1. Phenylhydrazine method of Kleber.
2. Oximation method of Dupont and Labaune.
3. Sulphite —Bisulphite method of Boulez.
The Phenylhydrazine method is carried out as follows : —
One gram of Ceylon citronella oil or 0*5 grams of Java citronella oil
is mixed with 10 c.c. of a freshly prepared 2 per cent, alcoholic solution
of redistilled phenylhydrazine and allowed to stand for one to one and a
half hours in a flask of about 50 c.c. capacity closed with a glass stopper.
Twenty c.c. of decinormal hydrochloric acid is then added, thoroughly
1
P. and E.O.R., 1912, 250.
mixed, 10 c.c. of benzene is then added, and the mixture allowed to stand
in a separator after being well shaken. The acid layer which measures
30 c.c. is filtered through a small filter and 20 c.c. of the filtrate is titrated
with decinormal alcoholic potash, using ethyl orange as indicator. The
amount required for the whole 30 c.c. of filtrate is then calculated, and
the quantity deducted from the amount required in a blank experiment
without the oil. Each c.c. of decinormal potash shown by the difference
in titration represents 0*0154 grams citronellal. The results obtained
vary somewhat according to the excess of phenylhydrazine absorbed and
according to the time allowed for the reaction.
The Oximation process depends on the fact that citronellal oxime, pro-
duced by shaking in the cold with a solution of hydroxylamine, is con-
verted on heating with acetic anhydride into a nitrile which is not affected
by saponification with alcoholic potash. The difference between the
molecular weight of the nitrile formed and that of citronellal is so small
as to be negligible, and the calculation of the percentage of geraniol from
the saponitication value is made by the usual formula. The method of
procedure is as follows:—
Ten grams of hydroxylamine hydrochloride are dissolved in 25 c.c. of
water ; 10 grams of carbonate of potash, separately dissolved in 25 c.c. of
water, are then added and the mixture filtered. With this solution 10
grams of the oil are thoroughly shaken for two hours at 15° to 18° C. The
oil is then separated, dried with anhydrous sodium sulphate, and acetyl-
ated with twice its volume of acetic.anhydride and one-fifth of its weight
of anhydrous sodium acetate for two hours under a reflux condenser.
The oil is washed, dried, and neutralised, and a weighed quantity (about
2 grams) saponified with alcoholic potash in the usual manner.
A Java oil which showed 83 per cent, of total acetylisable constituents
gave 43 per cent, of geraniol and 40 per cent, of citronellal, whilst a
Ceylon oil containing 60*2 per cent, of total acetylisable constituents was
found to contain 43 per cent, of geraniol.
The Sulphite-Bisulphite method devised by Boulez is conducted as
follows :—
25 or 50 grams of the oil are shaken in an Erlenmeyer flask with 100
or 200 grams of solution of bisulphite of soda, saturated with neutral
sodium sulphite, and allowed to stand for two to three hours with oc-
casional agitation. 100 to 200 grams of water are then added and the
mixture heated for several hours under a reflux condenser, with frequent
shaking until a clear oily layer is obtained on standing. The mixture is
transferred to a separator and the oil separated and measured. The loss
is taken to represent the amount of aldehyde, but the separated bisulphite
solution retains a small quantity of oil which can be extracted with ether.1
The geraniol content is determined in the residual oil by acetylation. The
results obtained by this method compare favourably with those obtained
by the oximation process.
DETERMINATION OF ALDEHYDES AND KETONES.
These two classes of bodies are somewhat closely related in chemical
constitution, and similar processes are therefore available for their estima-
tion. Both contain the carbonyl group, "/CO, owing to the presence of
1
P. and E.O.R., 1912, 334.
which they are capable of forming various addition and condensation
products with certain inorganic and organic reagents, as, for example,
sodium bisulphite or sulphite, hydroxylamine, phenylhydrazine, and its
nitro-derivative, ^-nitrophenylhydrazine, cyanacetic acid, hydrocyanic
acid, and semioxamazide. Some of these compounds are soluble in
water, and thus allow of the separation of the aldehydes or ketones from
the other insoluble constituents of the essential oils; others, on the other
hand, are crystalline, and can be separated by filtration from the rest of
the oil; while in the remaining cases, the reagent is added in excess, and
the quantity absorbed by the aldehyde or ketone determined.
The processes depending on the use of sodium bisulphite or sulphite,
and in which the aldehyde or ketone compounds dissolve in the solution
of the reagent, are known as absorption processes, and are those most
commonly employed for oils containing a high proportion of aldehydes
and ketones, the use of sodium bisulphite being probably still the method
most usually adopted for aldehydes, though the use of neutral sodium
sulphite is the official process in the British Pharmacopoeia of 1914, and
is also that most suitable for the estimation of ketones.
Bisulphite Method.—This is based on the general reaction
/OH
E . CHO + NaHSO3 = R . CH<
\SO3Na
and many variations have been proposed for carrying it out, some favour-
ing the addition of acid, such as acetic, others the use of alkali, such as
sodium carbonate. The process, as now ordinarily employed, is carried
out as follows :—
From 5 to 10 c.c. of the oil are measured carefully into a flask capable
of holding about 150 to 200 c.c., having a long narrow neck graduated
into 1/10 c.c. About an equal volume of a hot nearly saturated solution
(35 per cent.) of sodium bisulphite is added, the whole well shaken for a
few minutes, and then introduced into a boiling water-bath. Successive
small quantities of the bisulphite solution are gradually added with
vigorous shaking, until the flask is nearly full, and the flask kept in the
boiling water-bath until the solid compound at first produced is com-
pletely dissolved, and the oily layer of unabsorbed residue rises to the
surface. More bisulphite salution is then run in until the unabsorbed
oil rises in the graduated neck of the flask, when its volume is read, after
cooling. Two precautions must here be taken. Firstly, the temperature
at which the oil is measured originally, and that at which the unabsorbed
residue is measured, must be identical. Secondly, it must be remembered
that the measurements only give the volume percentages, hence to de-
termine the percentage by weight it is necessary to know the specific
gravity of the oil and of the non-absorbable residue. Of course the latter
can be separated and weighed, but the advantages of this are more than
counterbalanced by the loss in weight experienced whilst removing the
last traces of water.
It is advisable, generally speaking, to take about an hour over the
addition of the bisulphite solution, and heating in a water-bath, but in the
case of cassia oils containing much resinous matter it is sometimes neces-
sary to prolong the heating in boiling water for three or four hours before
the unabsorbed oil separates as a clear oil on the top of the solution.
This method gives good results for the estimation of cinnamic aide-
hyde in cassia and cinnamon bark oils, citral in lemon-grass oil, benz-
aldehyde in bitter almond oil, citronellal in eucalyptus citriodora oil, and
anisic aldehyde in aubepine or crategine. It has, however, the disad-
vantages that it takes not less than one hour, and there is no definite
indication when all the aldehyde has been completely absorbed, as there
is with the Neutral Sulphite process.
This is based on an observation of Tiemann's that when citral is-
shaken with a neutral solution of sodium sulphite, a compound with the
citral is produced, with simultaneous liberation of sodium hydroxide.
The reaction which takes place has not been absolutely established.
Tiemann considered that it proceeded according to the equation—
C9H15CHO + 2Na2SO3 + 2H2O = C9H17(NaSO3)2. CHO + 2NaOH
in which case reaction would only occur with unsaturated aldehydes or
ketones, but Sadtler,1 as the result of an investigation of a large number
of aldehydes and ketones was at first led to conclude that the reaction
was a general one for saturated and unsaturated aldehydes of both the
aliphatic and aromatic series, and that it should be represented by the
following equations for aldehydes and ketones respectively :—
B. CHO + 2Na2SO3 + 2H2O = E . CH : (NaSO3) + 2NaOH + H2O.
E . CO . E'. + 2Na2SO3 + 2H2O = EE'. C : (NaSO3) + 2NaOH + H2O;
though with ketones the reaction was not so general, carvone and
pulegone readily entering into combination with the sodium sulphite,,
whereas thujone did not do so. Based on the above equations, the
amount of alkali liberated is proportional 2to the quantity of aldehyde or
ketone entering into reaction, and Sadtler proposed this as a method for
determining the percentage of these substances in an essential oil, titrat-
ing the liberated alkali with semi-normal hydrochloric acid, and using;
rosolic acid as indicator. Unfortunately the end point of this reaction is
not very definite, and Sadtler, moreover, as the result of fuller investi-
gation of the subject,8 found the reaction was neither so general nor so
definite for aldehydes and ketones as was at first supposed. Whilst citral,
cinnamic aldehyde, carvone, and pulegone combine with two molecules
of sodium sulphite, benzaldehyde and vanillin are found to react with
only one molecule, the reaction with benzaldehyde being represented by
the equation—
/OH
C6H5CHO + Na2S03 + H2O = C6H5CH<x . + NaOH.
SO3Na
Besides thujone, citronellal, camphor, menthone, and fenchone did
not react with the sodium sulphite at all.
Sadtler concluded finally that double bonds seem to aid in bringing
about reaction when close to the . CHO group, e.g., citral, cinnamic alde-
hyde, and that proximity of the benzene nucleus to -the . CHO group, as>
in the case of benzaldehyde and vanillin, was also probably a factor,
while the only active ketones were those containing double bonds near to
the . CO group.
The aldehyde and ketone compounds formed with the sodium sulphite
are readily soluble in water, and H. E. Burgess4 makes use of this fact
l
2
Amer. J. Pharm.,31904, 84, and Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1904, 4 303.
Loc. cit. J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1905,1325. Analyst, 1904, 78.
VOL. ii. 22
to employ the reaction as the basis for an absorption process, a measured
quantity of the oil being heated with a neutral solution of sodium sulphite,
and the reduction in volume due to the solution of the aldehyde or ketone
compound, indicating the proportion of aldehyde or ketone present in the
oil. The alkaii liberated as the result of the reaction must be neutralised
as* fast as produced, and the absence of any further production of alkali
serves to denote the completion of the process. The estimation as de-
vised by Burgess is carried out as follows :—
Five c.c. of the oil are introduced into a 200 c.c, flask having a neck
graduated to 5 c.c. in 1/10 of a c.c., with a side tubulus reaching to the
bottom of the flask for introducing the oil, reagents, and water. To the
measured oil i$ added a saturated solution of neutral sulphite of soda and
two drops of ordinary phenolphthalein solution ; it is then placed in a
water-bath and thoroughly shaken, when a red colour is quickly produced.
It is carefully neutralised with 1 to 10 solution of acetic acid until, after
the addition of a few drops of acid, no further cojour is produced. The
oil is then run up into the graduated neck, and when cold carefully read.
The difference between 5 c.c. and the reading will give the amount of oil
absorbed, and this multiplied by 20 the percentage of aldehyde or ketone.
It will be noticed that Burgess recommends a special and rather more
complicated absorption flask than that used in the bisulphite process, but
this is not necessary, and offers no advantage over the Ordinary absorp-
tion flask already described (p. 336).
Burgess has applied this process to many aldehydes and ketones, and
finds it to give good results with anisic aldehyde, benzaldehyde, cinnamic
aldehyde, citral, carvone, pulegone, and the oils of bitter almonds, cara-
way, cassia, cinnamon, cumin, dill, lemon-grass, pennyroyal, and spear-
mint. Contrary to Sadtler, citronellal is found to react, but it forms a
milky solution, and at first is very frothy, so that care is necessary to
prevent loss. The reaction takes considerable time and heating for com-
pletion, but good results were obtained. Cumic aldehyde at first forms a
solid compound, but this goes into solution on heating with addition of
acetic acid. Litmus is a better indicator than phenolphthalein in the
case of this aldehyde, and should also be used for the oils of cumin and
pennyroyal. Considerable time and heating are required to complete
the reaction with nonyl and decyl aldehydes, but satisfactory results may
be obtained.
Mention has already been made of the fact that thujone and fenchone
do not react with sodium sulphite ; consequently the method is useless
for tansy, thuja, wormseed, and fennel oils.
The determination of citral in letnon-grass oil by the neutral sulphite
absorption process gives results some 4 per cent, lower than those obtained
by the bisulphite method, but the latter is that usually adopted in com-
merce, though, as alreadv stated, the former is official in the new British
Pharmacopoeia.
Labb6l recommends a slight modification of the above process, by
whieh he claims that the separation of crystals at the junction between
the unabsorbed oil and the sulphite liquor is prevented, and greater
accuracy in reading off the percentage therefore attained. He employs a
stoppered bulb, prolonged at the bottom into a graduated cylindrical
closed tube, and into this are introduced 5 c.c. of the oil, together with
1
Journ. de la Pmf. Francaise, 1913, 37.
about 60 c.c. of a cold saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate and
neutral sodium sulphite. After shaking vigorously for half a minute, the
apparatus is almost filled with the sulphite solution, the whole again
shaken for a few minutes, and the apparatus inverted when the unab-
sorbed oil rises cleanly into the graduated tube, and its volume may be
read off.
In all the foregoing cases, the percentage of aldehyde or ketone is so
high that the estimation by the above processes can be sufficiently ac-
curately carried out on the original oil. With such oils as lemon, orange,
hand-pressed lime, and citron or cedrat, however, the proportion of
aldehydes is so small that it is not possible to satisfactorily determine it
directly on the oil itself by absorption processes, and a preliminary con-
centration of the aldehydes in the oils by carefully fractionating out the
hydrocarbons in vacuo has therefore been proposed by Burgess and Child
who recommend the operation to be carried out as follows:—
One hundred c.c. of the oil to be examined are put into a distilling
flask having three bulbs blown* in the neck, and fitted with cork and
thermometer. This is connected to a condenser with a suitable receiver,
iiaving two vessels graduated at 10 c.c. and 80 c.c. respectively. A
JBruhl's apparatus answers the purpose very well. The whole is ex-
hausted, and a pressure of,not more than 15 mm. should be obtained.
The flask is now gently heated by means of an oil-bath, and 10 c.c.
distilled into the first tube. The next vessel is then put into position and
the distillation continued until 80 c.c. have distilled over. The pressure
is now relieved, and the residual oil in the flask distilled over with steam,
when the terpeneless oil, or aldehydes and other oxygenated constituents
-are obtained. The volume of this fraction is carefully noted, and the
•optical rotations and refractive indices of all three fractions determined,
after which the proportion of aldehyde is estimated on a known volume
of the third fraction by either the bisulphite or the neutral sulphite
method described above. For example, supposing 7 c.c. of oil were
obtained for the third fraction of a sample of lemon oil, and that of the
5 c.c., 2*1 c.c. were absorbed in the aldehyde determination, the percentage
2*1 x 20 x 7
of citral in the original lemon oil would be ^-^ = 2*9 per cent.
JLUU
IBy this process lemon oils are found to contain some 2-5 to 3 per cent,
aldehydes, hand-pressed lime oil 8 per cent., citron or cedrat oil 4 per
cent., and orange oil 0*75 to 1 per cent, but more recent work has shown
that these results are somewhat too low, due probably in part to some
of the aldehydes distilling over with the terpenes, and for oils containing
only a small percentage of aldehydes, a volumetric method, such as the
hydroxylamine jwocess, as modified by A. H. Bennetl is much to be
preferred, as being both simpler and more rapid to carry out, and also
more accurate.
For the estimation of benzaldehyde, Eipper 2 proposed a volumetric
•modification of the bisulphite process, the aldehyde being shaken with
a measured volume of a standard solution of bisulphite, and the excess
of bisulphite titrated back with iodine solution at a low temperaturer
Dodge8 found this give fairly accurate results, and recommends the
iollowmg method of carrying out the determination. About 0*15 gram
1 2
Analyst, 31909,U. Monats. f. Ghem., 1900, 1079.
Int. Congress of Applied Chem., 1912, xvii. 15.
bitter almond oil is weighed into a flask containing exactly 25 c.c. N/5
bisulphite solution, and the mixture gently shaken. The flask is then
closed, immersed in an ice-bath for one and a half to two hours, and the
cold solution titrated with N/10 iodine solution, using starch as indicator.
A blank test is made in a similar manner, and from the bisulphite used
up, the benzaldehyde may be calculated, 1 c.c. N/10 iodine solution being
equivalent to O0053 gram benzaldehyde. Feinberg1 also finds this
method very suitable for the estimation of benzaldehyde.
Hydroxylamine Method.—The use of hydroxylamine for the estimation
of citral in lemon oil was first proposed by J. Walther 2 who dissolved
the oil in alcohol, and boiled the solution under a reflux condenser, with
excess of a 5 per cent, solution of hydroxylamine hydrochloride, the
hydroxylamine being liberated from the hydrochloride by addition of 0*5
to 1 gram of sodium bicarbonate. , The resulting evolution of carbon
dioxide has been found, however, to carry off hydroxylamine with it, the
error thus produced varying with the time and rate of boiling and other
conditions, while a further objection to ihe process is that oils containing
different percentages of aldehydes and ketones require different treatment,
with regard to the quantity of hydroxylamine and bicarbonate of soda
necessary, and no definite instructions for its use, which will apply to all
oils, can therefore be given.
The reaction is a general one for aldehydes and ketones, aldoximes-
and ketoximes respectively being produced, according to the equations:—
E. CHO + H9NOH = ECH . NOH + H90
EE'. CO + H2NOH EE'C . NOH + H90
and the following are some results which have been obtained with
various aldehydes and carvone under different conditions as to quantities
of hydroxylamine and sodium bicarbonate, and as to time of boiling:—
Hydrox-
Bicar- Mol. ylamine Hydrox- time of
Weight bonate Per-
Substance. Bicar- taken
taken. Soda. bonate. ylamine Heating centage.
— rt p
C
N
~ °- - TIT
used. (minutes).
NaOH.
Benzaldehyde 1-034 0-4 0-5 124 91 30 93-3

>} 1-039 0-8 1-0 124 94 30 95-9
» 1-037 0-8 1-0 378 85 60 86-9
>» 0-935 1-1 1-5 378 . 79 30 89-6
>» 0-900 1-0 1-5 150 75 60 88-3
Carvone . 1-411 0-8 1-0 378 90 30 95-7
»» 1-410 0-8 10 378 83 60 88-9
1-408 1-1 1-3 378 89 30 94-8
» 1-346 1-0 1-3 150 80 60 89-2
Caraway oil 2-135 1-0 150 '78 60 54-8
Citronellal 1-276 0-35 —
0-5 124 40 30 48-3
19 1-308 0-7 1-0 124 61 30 71-8
>» 1-320 1-1 1-5 378 50 30 58-3
Cuminic aldehyde 1-442 0-4 0-5 124 91 30 93-4
11 1-459 0-8 1-0 124 93 30 94-3
1
2
Int.
Congress of Applied Chem., i. 187.
Pharm. Ctntralb., 40, 1899, 621.
As regards the use of hydroxylamine for the estimation of ketones, it was
recommended by Kremers in 19011 for the estimation of carvone in
spearmint oil, the ketoxime being formed by treating the oil with
hydroxylamine, and the remainder of the oil removed by steam distilla-
tion, the crystalline ketoxime which is left being separated, dried, and
weighed.
E. K. Nelson 2 has applied a slight modification of Walther's process,
especially to the determination of ketones. He heats from 1 to 2 grams
in a water-bath under a reflux condenser, with 35 c.c. of a hydroxylamine
solution, prepared by dissolving 20 grams hydroxylamine hydrochloride
in 30 c.c. water and adding 125 c.c. alcohol free from aldehyde, and 2
grams sodium bicarbonate. The mixture is cooled, rendered acid by
addition of 6 c.c. concentrated hydrochloric acid through the condenser,
and the whole diluted to 500 c.c. with water. The solution is then
filtered and an aliquot part neutralised with N/2 NaOH solution to methyl
orange, and finally the excess of hydroxylamine titrated with N/10 NaOH
to phenolphthalein. This method is found to give fairly accurate results
for the estimation of carvone in spearmint, thujone in tansy and worm-
wood oils, pulegone in pennyroyal oil, and camphor in rosemary oil, but
proved less satisfactory for the estimation of fenchone.
The process has been much improved by A. H. Bennett3 who sub-
stitutes N/2 alcoholic potash for sodium bicarbonate in order to liberate
the hydroxylamine, and this modification is now adopted in the British
Pharmacopoeia as the official method for the estimation of citral in lemon
oil, and is also the process in general use in this country for the purpose.
It is carried out by taking 20 c.c. of oil, adding 20 c.c. of N/2 alcoholic
hydroxylamine hydrochloride solution (in 80 per cent, alcohol), and 8 c.c.
of N/l alcoholic potash, together with 20 c.c. strong alcohol, and gently
boiling the mixture, under a reflux condenser for half an hour, after
which it is cooled, the condenser carefully washed down with distilled
water, and the whole diluted with distilled water to about 250 c.c., the
undecomposed hydroxylamine hydrochloride being then neutralised to
phenolphthalein with N/2 alcoholic potash, and the hydroxylamine re-
maining unabsorbed by the aldehyde then titrated with N/2 sulphuric
acid, using methyl orange as indicator. A blank test is made in exactly
the same manner, omitting only the oil, and the difference between the
number of c.c. of N/2 acid required in the two cases in the final titration
represents the number of c.cs. of N/2 acid which will neutralise the
hydroxylamine absorbed by the aldehyde or ketone, and this, in the case
of lemon oil, multiplied by 0*076 gives the grams of citral in 20 c.c. of
the oil, and from a knowledge of the specific gravity of the oil, the per-
centage of citral by weight can thence be readily calculated. The process
gives slightly too low results, some 5 to 10 per cent, below the true
aldehyde content, but in the case of oils containing only a comparatively
small quantity of aldehyde or ketone, as with lemon or lime oil, this is
unimportant, and concordant results by different observers are readily
obtained.4 In the case of oils containing a large proportion of aldehyde
or ketone, however, the error wou],d be of considerable importance, and
the process is therefore not suitable in such cases.
Phenylhydrazine Methods.—In addition to the general reaction between
almost all aldehydes and ketones and hydroxylamine, there is another
2
Joum. Soc. Chem. Ind.t 1901, 16. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 1911, 588.
-Loc. cit. * P. and E.O.R., 1913, 269.
'equally characteristic reaction between both these classes of compounds
and phenylhydrazine, the condensation products formed being usually
crystalline, and sparingly soluble compounds, termed phenylhydrazones,
or simply hydrazones. The reactions taking place may be represented
by the following equations:—
C6H5CHO + C6H5NH . NH2 = C6H5CH : N . NH . C6H5.
Benzaldehyde. Phenylhydrazine.
CH8. C9HW. CO + C6H5NH . NH2 ., CH3. C9H19. C : N . NH . C6H6.
Methyl nonyl kefeone. Phenylhydrazine.
Several processes for the estimation of aldehydes and ketones have
been based on these reactions, some depending on the separation and
weighing of the insoluble hydrazone, others on treatment of the substance
with an excess of phenylhydrazine, and estimation of the unused reagent.
Among the earliest to suggest this method for the estimation of
aldehydes and ketones were Benedikt and Strache,1 who treated the
aldehyde or ketone with an excess of phenylhydrazine, filtered off the
hydrazone produced, and oxidised the uncombined phenylhydrazine with
Fehling's solution, measuring the nitrogen thereby evolved. The process,
which .really measures the—CO contained by the bodies, has been slightly
modified by Watson Smith, junior,2 who uses a current of carbon dioxide
instead of steam for driving off the nitrogen. Each c.c. of nitrogen cor-
responds to 1*252 mgs.—GO, and the process gives good results with
benzaldehyde, cuminic aldehyde, and methyl nonyl ketone (rue oil), but
with other aldehydes is unsatisfactory.
P. B. Bother has proposed to estimate the excess of phenylhydrazine
by adding to it an excess of standard N/10 iodine solution and titrating
back with N/10 thiosulphate solution, 0*1 gram phenylhydrazine cor-
responding to 37 c.c. N/10 iodine solution. Prom 0'5 to 1 gram of oil
(or in the case of lemon oil, 10 grams) is dissolved in a 250 c.c. flask in
about 30 c.c. alcohol, and enough of a 1 per cent, phenylhydrazine solu-
tion added to give 1 molecule for each molecule of aldehyde. The mixture
is well shaken, and allowed to stand for fifteen hours in the dark with
occasional shaking. It is then diluted with water and filtered through a
plaited paper into a litre'flask containing about 500 c.c. water and 10 to>
20 c.c. N/10 iodine solution. The filter is well washed with water, and
the filtrate titrated back with N/10 thiosulphate solution, using starch as
indicator. The method gives good results with oils rich in aldehydes,
but for lemon oil is not nearly so accurate as the Kleber modification
described below.
The gravimetric method which is specially suitable for the determina-3
tion of small quantities of benzaldehyde is recommended both by H^rissey,
Denis, and Dunbar.4 The former adds 1 c.c freshly-distilled phenyl-
hydrazine and 0*5 c.c. glacial acetic acid to so much of the benzaldehyde
as will yield 0*1 to 0'2 gram hydrazone, heats for twenty to thirty minutes
in a boiling-water bath, and after twelve hours, filters on a Gooch crucible,
washes with 20 c.c. water, and dries in the vacuum desiccator. Denis and
Dunbar, whose process is suggested for the examination of extracts of
almonds, mix 10 c.c. of the extract with 10 to 15 c.c. of a freshly prepared
10 per cent, phenylhydrazine solution, shake thoroughly, and allow to
1 2
3
Monats. f. Chem., Ig93, 273- Clum. News, 1906, 83.
4
Jown. de Pharm. et Chem., 1906,60.
Journ. Ind. and Eng. Chtm., 1909, 256.
stand in dark for twelve hours, at the end of which 200 c.o. cold water
are addel, and the mixture filtered through a Gooch crucible. The pre-
cipitate is washed first with cold water and afterwards with 10 c.c. of 10
per cent, alcohol, dried for three hours in vacua at 70° to 80° C., and
weighed. The weight obtained multiplied by 5408 gives grams henz-
aldehyde in 100 c.c. of the solution.
The most important application of the phenylhydrazine reaction to
essential oil analysis is the process devised by Kleber tor the determina-
tion of citral in lemon oill in which the excess of phenylhydrazine is
titrated 'with standard acid to diethyl orange as indicator. Kleber re-
commends the process to be carried put as follows: About 10 grams
lemon oil are accurately weighed into a flask, 20 c.c. of freshly prepared
5 per cent, alcoholic phenylhydrazine solution added, the flask closed,
and allowed to stand about thirty minutes, after which sufficient N/2
hydrochloric acid is added to exactly neutralise the phenylhydrazine
solution, this quantity being previously determined by a blank test with
the phenylhydrazine only. The neutralised mixture is transferred to a
separator, the flask being rinsed with 20 o.c. water, and the whole vigor-
ously shaken, when on standing two layers separate, the lower one of
whieh is drawn off into a flask, the residue in the separator washed with
5 0.0. water, and the washing added to the liquor previously withdrawn,
this being then titrated with N/2 soda, using diethyl orange as indicator,
and titrating to a brownish tint which precedes the pink coloration.
Each c.c. of N/2 soda required corresponds to 0*076 gram citral. Kleber
found this process satisfactory for the estimation of citral in lemon oil
and citropellal in citronella oils, and considered it capable of general
application for the estimation of aldehydes and ketones. The accuracy
of the method for the examination of lemon oil has been confirmed by
several American chemists* and also by Schimmel,2 who recommend the
following modification: About 2 c.c. of lemon oil are accurately weighed
into a 50 c.c. glass-stoppered bottle, mixed with 10 c.c. of a freshly pre-
pared 2 per cent, phenylhydrazine solution, and allowed to stand for one
hour; 20 c.e, N/10 HG1 are then added, together with 10 c.c. benzene,
the mixture thoroughly shaken, and transferred to a separating funnel.
After standing, an acid layer amounting to about 30 c.c. separates to the
bottom. This is filtered off, and 20 c.c. of the filtrate titrated with N/10
KOH, using 10 drops of a 1 in 2000 diethyl orange solution, as indicator,
and adding potash until a distinct yellow colour appears. A blank test
without oil is made in a similar manner, and from the difference in the
amount of potash required by the two tests, the quantity of citral in the
oil can be calculated. The phenylhydrazine solution rapidly deteriorates.
and should be prepared fresh each time; it should never be used more
than twenty-foux hours old. Schimmel has also proved the value of this
proeess io the estimation of cuminic aldehyde, benzaldehyde, and methyl
nooftyl ketone, but find it useless for fenchone, thujone, camphor, and
menthone.
Phenylhydrazine Derivatives.—The use of w-nitrophenylhydrazimand
j9-bromphenylhydrazine has been proposed by Hanus for the determina-
tion of vanillin, and Van Ekenstein and J. J. Blanksma in 1905 sug-
gested the use of jo-nitrophenylhydrazine as a reagent for aldehydes and
ketones generally, in all three cases the precipitated hydrazone being
1 2
Amer. Perfumer, 1912, 284. Semi-annual Report, April, 1912, 77.
filtered off, washed, dried, and weighed. Feinberg,1 experimenting with
the two latter reagents, finds both to give good results with vanillin and
anisic aldehyde. The last-named is also satisfactory for the estimation
of benzaldehyde, but jp-bromphenylhydrazine gives too low results.
Colorimetric Processes.—Various colorimetric methods have been pro-
posed for the estimation2 of aldehydes, one of the most important being
that of E. McK. Chace, which is based on the well-known reaction of
aldehydes with a fuchsine solution decolorised by means of sulphur
dioxide, the colour produced when this reagent is added to a known
quantity of the oil being matched by a standard solution of the pure
aldehyde. The fuchsine reagent is prepared by dissolving 0-5 gram,
fuchsine in 100 c.c. of water, adding a solution containing 16 grams
sulphur dioxide, and allowing it to stand until colourless, when the
solution is made up to 1 litre. In carrying out the estimation, 2 grams
of the lemon oil are diluted to 100 c.c. with aldehyde free alcohol, pre-
pared by allowing to stand over alkali for several days, distilling, boiling,
the distillate for several hours under a reflux condenser with 25 grams
per litre of m-phenylenediamine hydrochloride, and redistilling. Four
c.c. of this solution are then diluted with 20 c.c. aldehyde free alcohol,
20 c.c. of the fuchsine solution added, and the total volume made up to
50 c.c. with the alcohol. The colour thus produced is compared with
standards prepared in the same way, but with known quantities of a 2
per cent, alcoholic solution of pure citral in place of the solution of oil,
all the solutions being left for ten minutes in a water-bath at a tempera-
ture not exceeding 15° C., and the colours compared either directly or by
means of a colorimeter. The method gives good results with lemon
extracts or mixtures of citral with limonene, but with lemon oil itself a
satisfactory degree of accuracy is not attainable owing to slight turbidity
of the solution due to certain wax-like constituents of the oil, and results
differing by as much as 1*25 per cent, citral on the oil may be easily
obtained, so that this process, though useful for lemon essences, cannot
be regarded as suitable for3the analysis of lemon oil.
Woodman and Lyford recommend a very slight modification of the
above process for the determination of benzaldehyde in extracts of bitter
almonds, the aldehyde free alcohol being prepared by treating it first with
silver oxide, tben with m-phenylenediamine hydrochloride, passing a
strong current of air through it for three hours, and then distilling,
rejecting the first 100 c.c. of distillate.
Another colorimetric method for the estimation of citral is that due to
R. S. Hiltner,4 who substitutes a 1 per cent, solution of m-phenylenedi-
amine hydrochloride in 50 per cent, alcohol for the fuchsine solution em-
ployed by Chace, but otherwise the process is similar, the yellow colour
produced by the m-phenylenediamine and the oil being matched by
means of a standard alcoholic solution of citral. The reaction is more
distinct than in Chace's process, and the results are claimed to be more
accurate, as acetaldehyde and citronellal give no coloration under the ex-
perimental conditions, with m-phenylenediamine. Old lemon oils which
have become oxidised give a yellow-green to blue-green coloration, accord-
ing to the degree of oxidation, and this renders the process useless for
old oils. The estimation is carried out by weighing out 1*5 to 2 grams
1
Eighth Inter. Congress Applied Chem., 1912, 1, 187.
2
4
J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1906, 1472. »IWd.f 1908, 1607. -
e7". Ind. Etig. Chem., 1909, 798.
lemon oil, diluting to 50 c.c. with 90 to 95 per cent, alcohol and to 2 c.c.
»of this solution, adding 10 c.c. of the m-phenylenediamine solution. The
onixture is diluted to a given volume, and the colour produced matched
by means of a 0*1 per cent, solution of citral in 50 per cent, alcohol.
A modification of the Hiltner method of estimating citral is de-
.-scribed in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry1 by
»C. E. Parker and-B. S. Hiltner. In the determination of citral by the
i metaphenylene-diamine method it not infrequently occurs that lemon
iand orange oils and extracts produce blue or green colours instead of
yellow. This abnormal behaviour has somewhat restricted the applica-
bility of the method. Experiments have shown that substances such as
^Fuller's earth, animal charcoal, talcum, pumice, zinc powder, platinised
asbestos, eponite, and kaolin, employed for decolorising the reagent
.affect the metaphenylene-diamine in some obscure way, rendering it
imore responsive to the action of a citrus oil which has the property of
producing the blue colour. Further experiments favour the presumption
that oxidation of the terpene is in part responsible for the production of
:the blue colour. Stannous chloride was found to prevent the formation
-of the blue colour, whether added in solid form or in aqueous or alcoholic
solution. The addition of a proper amount of oxalic acid to the original
Hiltner reagent was found to accomplish the desired object in the most
simple and convenient way, and was finally adopted for the proposed
method. If the various samples are mixed with the reagent at the same
rtime, as many as a dozen can be compared with a single standard within
an hour without any substantial error, but in order to do this it is de-
sirable to employ always a fixed amount of citral in solution. The
^details of the improved method are as follows: Reagents.—Alcohol of 94
.to 95 per cent, strength, practically colourless, may be employed. Citral
.Standard Solutions.—0*5 gram of citral is dissolved in alcohol (94
per cent.) and made up to 50 c.c. Of this 1 per cent, solution, 10 c.c. are
•diluted to 100 c.c. Each c.c. of this contains O'OOl gram citral.
These solutions may be kept in a refrigerator, but should be measured at
room temperature, Metaphenylene diamine Hydrochloride : Oxalic. Acid
.Solution.—Dissolve 1 gram metaphenylene-diamine hydrochloride and
1 gram -of crystallised oxalic acid, each in about 45 c.c. of 80 per cent.
;alcohol. Mix in a stoppered 100 c.c. graduated flask or cylinder, and
jmake up to the mark with 80 per cent, alcohol. Add 2 or 3 grams
Fuller's earth, shake well, allow to settle, and decant through a double
.filter. When most of the liquid has run through, add the turbid residue
to the liquid in the filter. Colorimeter.—Any form of colorimeter may
be used. Manipulation.—Weigh into a 50 c.c. graduated flask about
>0'5 gram lemon oil, or about 4 grams orange oil, or 10 grams lemon
extract, or 50 c.c. orange extract respectively; make up to the mark with
94 per cent, alcohol, stopper and mix the contents. Pipette 5 c.c. of
these first dilutions into 50 c.c. graduated flasks. Pipette also 4 c.c. of
the standard 0-1 per cent, citral solution into a 100 c.c. flask. As nearly
as possible at the same time add from a small'graduated cylinder to the
-50 c.c. tiasks 10-c.c., and to the 100 c.c. flask 20 c.c. of the metaphenylene-
diamine reagent; make all up to the mark with 95 per cent, alcohol,
-stopper the flask and mix well. Empty the 100 c.c. flask of citral dilu-
tion into the plunger tube* of the colorimeter, and a 50 c.c. flask of the
-1 August, 1918, p. 608 (through P. and E.O.R. (1918), 256).

unknown dilution into a comparison tube. Both comparison tubes;
should be graduated in millimetres. Adjust the plunger until both
halves of the field have the same intensity of colour, and note the heights-
of the columns compared. Calculate the average of five or more ob-
servations. From these preliminary results compute the amount of the
first dilution of the unknown, which should be used in making the
second dilution to produce the same colour as the standard in the same
height of column of liquid. Eepeat the determination, preparing at the
same time fresh dilutions of the standard and unknown until columns,
of liquid of equal intensity of colour differ in length not more than 5 or
10 per cent.
Calculation—
(a) = gram of citral (0*002) in 50 c.c. of diluted standard used for
comparison.
(b) — grams of oil or extract weighed.
(c) = volume in c.c. (50) of first dilution of unknown.
(d) —• volume in c.c. of same used for second dilution.
(e) = height of column (mm.) of standard used for comparison.
(/*) = height of column (mm.) of unknown used for comparison.
m, a x c x e x 100 , ., . . ., . . .
Then ^ -j — = rper cent, citral in oil or extract.
b x a x /7
For the estimation of vanillin, T. von Fallenburgl proposes to make*
use of the colour produced by treating a dilute aqueous solution with-
isobutyl alcohol and concentrated sulphuric acid. Five c.c. of the solution
are mixed with 5 c.c. of a 1 per cent, isobutyl alcohol solution in 95 per
cent, alcohol, and 25 c.c. concentrated sulphuric acid, the colour produced
being compared after forty-five minutes with that given by known amounts
of vanillin.
The following processes have been recommended for the determina-
tion of aldehydes and ketones :—
Semioxamazide.—A gravimetric method for the estimation of cinnamic
aldehyde ia cassia and cinnamon oils, but which appears to apply only
to this aldehyde, has been devised by Hanus2 based on the formation of
a crystalline semioxamazone when cinnamic aldehyde is treated with seini-
oxamazide, the reaction being—
CONH. NH2 CONH . N : CH . CH : CH . C6H5
| + C8H7. CHO | + H80-
CONH2 CONH2
The process is carried out by accurately weighing 0*15 to 0*2 gram-
cinnamon or cassia oil in a 250 c.c. conical flask, adding 85 c.c. water,
and shaking thoroughly, after which about 1-J- times the quantity of
semioxamazide, dissolved in hot water, is added, the mixture well shaken
for five minutes, and then allowed to stand for twenty-four hours with-
occasional shaking, especially during the first three hours. The semi-^
oxamazone separates in the form of small flakes, which are filtered through
a Gooch tile, washed with cold water, dried at 105° C. till constant, and
weighed. The process gives accurate results for the estimation of em-
namic aldehyde not only in cassia and cinnamon oils but also in cinnamon
bark, and is for this latter purpose particularly suitable, the oil from 5 to*
1 2
Chem. Zentr., 1916, 391. Zeit&. Untera. Nahr. Gen. Mittel, 1903, 817.
8 grams bark being steam distilled, the distillate extracted with ether, the
ether evaporated off, and the aldehyde estimated as above described.
Cyanacetic Acid, Hydrocyanic Acid.—When an aldehyde is treated
with cyanacetic acid in the presence of potassium -hydroxide, condensation
takes place according to the general equation—
/ON
K . CHO + CH2CN . COOH _ ECH : C< + H2O.
X3OOH
The condensation product is soluble, and it has been proposed to make
use of this reaction as an absorption process for the determination of citral
in lemon oil, but owing to a very indistinct separation between the un-
absorbed oil and the absorbing solution, it has been found practically im-
possible to get satisfactory results and the process has been abandoned in
practice.
A general property of aldehydes and ketones is that when heated with
hydrocyanic acid, additive compounds, termed nitriles or cyanohydrins,
are produced, according to the general equations—
B . CHO + HCN - E . CH(OH)CN
BE'. CO + HCN - BE'. C(OH)CN
On this reaction F. de Myttenaere has endeavoured to base a process,
for the estimation of aldehydes and ketones, adding sufficient of a dilute
(0*4: per cent.) aqueous or faintly alkaline solution of hydrocyanic acid to
give about 4 molecules hydrocyanic acid per molecule of aldehyde or
ketone, and measuring the total and free hydrocyanic acid after first
heating the mixture for seventy-five minutes in the water-bath in a sealed
flask, and then allowing to stand for twelve hours at room temperature.
The total hydrocyanic acid is estimated by adding exactly 6 c.c. of the
solution to be tested to 75 c.c, water, followed by 10 drops of 40 per
cent, soda solution, 10 c.c. 17 per cent, ammonia solution, and a few drops
of 10 per cent, potassium iodide solution, and then titrating with N/100
silver nitrate. The free hydrocyanic acid the author determines by add-
ing 3 c.c. of the solution to be tested to 50 c.c. N/100 silver nitrate in a
100 c.c. flask, diluting to 100 c.c. with water, filtering, and' titrating the
excess of silver nitrate in 50 c.c. filtrate by means of N/100 ammonium
thiocyanate, using iron alum as indicator. The author has obtained good
results with this process in the estimation of benzaldehyde, but it failed
with citral and vanillin, and also with ketones.
Sodium Salicylate,—When an aldehyde is shaken with a saturated
solution of sodium salicylate, there seems to be evidence of the formation
of a weak molecular compound, and with cinnamic aldehyde well-defined
crystals have been obtained which give on analysis :—
Found. Theoretical.
Sodium . . . . . . . . 7*3 per cent. 7-9 per cent.

,, salicylate 53-5 54-8
This process, though referred to by Burgess,1 never seems to have-

been very seriously investigated.
. 79.
.348 THE CHEMISTKY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
Acetylation.—Citronellal may be quantitatively estimated by the
ordinary acetylation process1 when the aldehyde is quantitatively con-
verted into isopulegyl acetate, which is then determined by saponification
with potash in the ordinary way. Dupont and Labaume2 have attempted
•to base a method for the separation of geraniol from citronellal in citron-
ella oils on the fact that the citronellal oxime formed by shaking with
hydroxylamine solution at the ordinary temperature is not converted
into an ester by subsequent acetylation, but into the nitrile of citronellic
acid which is stable towards' alkali during the saponifi cation process.
Cannizzaro's Reaction.—On this reaction, which may be represented
thus—
2C6H5CHO + KOH = C6H5COOK + C6H5CH2OH,
3
Dodge has based a process for the determination of benzaldehyde. A
strong (2'5 N) alcoholic potash solution is required for the estimation,
which is performed .by allowing a mixture of 10 c.c. of this solution with
1 to 2 grams benzaldehyde to stand at the ordinary temperature for
twenty-four hours, after which the unabsorbed potash is titrated back
with N/2 hydrochloric acid. A blank test is also made, and from the
amount of potash entering into reaction, the percentage of aldehyde can
be calculated. The process breaks down in the assay of natural oil of
bitter almonds, probably due to the presence of benzaldehyde cyanhydrin.
THE DETERMINATION OF PHENOLS.
The usual method for the determination of phenols is based on the
solubility of these compounds in solutions of caustic alkali. Such ab-
sorption methods are not strictly accurate, since a small portion of con-
stituents other than phenols are dissolved by the alkali. So long,
however, as the conditions are kept constant, useful comparative results
are obtained. The process is best carried out as follows :—
Five to 10 c.c. of the oil are shaken in a Hirschsohn flask, as used
for cassia oil analysis, with a 5 per cent, solution of caustic soda, until
absorption is complete, and the unabsorbed oil driven into the neck of
the flask by more of the solution and its volume read off. The difference
between the original amount of oil used and the unabsorbed portion may
be taken as phenols. Strictly speaking, this method gives a volume
percentage, which can be converted into a weight percentage if the specific
gravities of the two portions of the oil be known.
Schryver 4 has recommended the use of sodamide for the determina-
tion of phenols; the hydrogen of the phenolic hydroxyl replaces the sodium
with the formation of an equivalent quantity of ammonia,
NaNH2 + HO. B' = NaOK' + NHS.
About 1 gram of sodamide in fine powder is washed several times with
benzene and placed in a 200 c.c. flask. About 50 c.c. of benzene, free
from thiophene, is added, and the flask, attached to a condenser, warmed
-on the water-bath, and traces of ammonia are removed by a stream of
carbon dioxide. From 1 to 2 grams of the phenol-containing oil is then
.admitted to the flask through a stoppered funnel inserted through the
1
2
Determination of Alcohols, p. 297.
3
Roure-Bertrand's Report, April, 1912, 3.
4
Eighth Inter. Congress of Applied Chem., 1912, xvii. 15.
Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 18 (1899), 553.
cork, the last traces being washed through with benzene. The contents-
of the flask are again heafced and a current of air driverj through until
all the ammonia generated is carried over and absorbed in a given volume
(about 20 c.c.) of normal sulphuric acid in a suitable collecting vessel.
The amount of phenol is calculated on the basis of the equation given
above.
Kremers recommends the following method of estimating thymol:—
Five c.c. of the oil to be examined are weighed and brought into a
glass-stoppered burette graduated to -^ c.c., and is diluted with about
an equal volume of petroleum ether; a 5 per cent, potassium hydroxide
solution is added, and the mixture shaken for a short time, then the
liquid is left standing until separation is complete. Then the alkaline
solution is allowed to run into a 100 c.c. graduated flask. This opera-
tion is repeated until no further decrease in the volume of the oil takes-
place.
The alkaline solution of thymol is made up to 100 or 200 c.c. as the
case may require, using a 5 per cent, soda solution. To 10 c.c. of this-
solution in a graduated 500 c.c. flask is added a ~j normal iodine solu-
tion in slight excess, whereupon the thymol is precipitated as a dark
reddish-brown iodine compound. In order to ascertain whether a suf-
ficient quantity of iodine has been added, a few drops are transferred
into a test tube and a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid are added.
When enough iodine is present, the brown colour of the solution indi-
cates the presence of iodine, otherwise the liquid appears milky by the
separation of thymol. If an excess of iodine is present, the solution is
slightly acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid and diluted to 500 c.c.
From this 100 c.c. are filtered,off, and the excess of iodine determined by
titration with ^ normal solution of sodium thiosulphate. For calcula-
tion, the numbej of cubic centimetres required is deducted from the
number of cubic centimetres of -f^ normal iodine solution added and
the resultant figure multiplied by 5, which gives the number of cubic,
centimetres of iodine required by the thymol.
Every cubic centimetre of y^ normal iodine solution equals 0'003753
gram of thymol. Knowing the quantity of thymol in the alkaline solu-
tion, the percentage in the original oil is readily found.
The reaction taking place is represented by the equation—
C10H14O + 41 + 2NaOH = C10H12I2O + 2NaI + 2H2O
In the estimation of carvacrol a slight modification of this method
must be made, because carvacrol is thrown down as a finely divided
white precipitate, giving the solution a milky appearance. In order to
form a precipitate the liquid is vigorously shaken after the addition of
iodine solution, and is subsequently filtered. Then the liquid is acidu-
lated with hydrochloric acid, and subsequently the same procedure is
followed as was described for thymol. The calculation is also the same.
Eedman, Weith, and Brock l have modified the above-described
method, by using sodium bicarbonate instead of sodium hydroxide..
They proceed as follows :—
About 50 c.c. of n-sodium bicarbonate solution is placed in a glass-
stoppered bottle of 500 c.c. capacity and diluted with 100 c.c. water. To.
this is added from a burette 15 c.c. of a solution containing as much of
the phenol under examination as corresponds to about a decinormal
1
Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem., 5 (1913), 831.
.-solution. To this is added -£$ normal iodine solution in excess until a
permanent brown colour is obtained. The excess of iodine should
;amount to 20 c.c. The mixture is now vigorously shaken for one minute,
^diluted with 50 c.c. of n-sulphuric acid, and the excess of iodine titrated
back with decinormal thiosulphate solution, 5 c.c. of a 20 per cent, potas-
sium iodide solution being added. Starch is used as an indicator. The
^temperature should be from 20° to 25°.
In order that the reaction may proceed rapidly it is important to
shake the mixture thoroughly after adding the iodine solution. When
this is done the iodine compound is formed completely within one minute.
With thymol it affords thymol di-iodide. In order to make sure that any
iodine which may have entered into the hydroxyl-group is again liberated,
care should be taken that a little hydriodic acid is always present ; hence
the addition of the potassium iodide solution before the excess of iodine
is titrated back with thiosulphate. Tit rat ion can only be regarded as
•complete when the blue coloration does not return in 10 minutes.
For the determination of eugenol Thorns has elaborated the follow-
ing method, the results of which are fairly accurate : —
About 5 grams of the oil are weighed into a beaker of about 150 c.c.
capacity, 20 grams of ^15 per cent, sodium hydroxide solution added, and
then b grams benzoyl chloride. On stirring, the solid mass of eugenol
sodium salt at first formed goes into solution again as it is converted
into benzoic ester, with evolution of much heat. In the course of a few
minutes the reaction ends, and on cooling a solid crystalline mass of
benzoyl eugenol is obtained. To this 50 c.c. water is added, and the whole
warmed on a water-bath until the ester is completely melted to an oil,
well stirred, cooled, and the clear supernatant aqueous solution filtered
off. The crystalline mass is again washed with two successive quan-
tities of 50 c.c. water, and the resulting impure benzoyl eugenol is re-
crystallised from alcohol, due allowance being made for its solubility in
that medium. 25 c.c. of hot alcohol (90 per cent, by weight strength)
are poured through the filter employed in the previous washing opera-
tions, in order to dissolve any adherent crystals, into the beaker, and
the whole warmed upon the water-bath until complete solution is effected.
The solution is then cooled to 17° C., and the crystalline precipitate
thrown upon a small weighed filter paper, filtered into a 25 c.c. cylinder,
and washed with 90 per cent, alcohol until the filtrate exactly measures
25 c.c. The filter and crystals are then removed to a weighing bottle,
dried at 100° C. until constant, and then weighed. From the total
weight the weights of the filter paper and of the weighing bottle are
deducted, from which the benzoyl eugenol is calculated. To th« latter
weight 0*55 gram are added, being the weight of pure benzoyl eugenol
•dissolved by 25 c.c. 90 per cent, alcohol at 17° C. as determined by ex-
periment.
This final quantity gives the amount of benzoyl eugenol, from which
the amount of eugenol is easily calculated, eugenol having the formula
C10H12O2, and benzoyl eugenol C17H16O3, so that xgg- x 100 •* the per-
centage of eugenol if x equals the weight of benzoyl eugenol obtained,
and y the weight of oil used in the estimation, under these circum-
stances the eugenol -content should not fall below 75 per cent., or if
estimated by absorption with potash not below 82 per cent., usually from
85 to 90 per cent.
THE ANALYSIS OP ESSENTIAL OILS 351
Thorn has recognised that the foregoing process is only approximately
.-accurate and now recommends the following modification, This consists
in heating 5 grams of the oil in a water-hath with 20 c.c, of a 15 per
•cent, soda solution for thirty minutes. After allowing the hydrocarbons
to separate, the eugenol soda solution is run off, and the hydrocarbons
washed with dilute soda solution twice, the washings being added to the
original soda solution. The reaction is now effected at water-bath tem-
perature with 6 grams of benzoyl chloride. The whole is allowed to cool,
and the crystalline mass transferred to a beaker with 55 c.c. of water. It
is heated in order to melt the crystals, and well agitated with the water
to wash the benzoyl eugenol. This washing is repeated. twice. The
•crystalline mass is then transferred to a beaker with 25 c.c. of 90 per
<sent. alcohol, and warmed till complete solution takes place. The solu-
tion is allowed to stand till the bulk of the crystals have separated out,
and is cooled to 17° and filtered through a paper 9 cm. in diameter,
previously dried and tarred. The filtrate measures about 20 c.c. and the
•crystals are washed with more alcohol until it measures 25 c.c. The
•paper and crystals are then dried in a weighing-glass and weighed, the
temperature of drying being not more than 101° C. The solubility allow-
ance for 25 c.c. «of alcohol is 0*55 gram. The total eugenol is calculated,
from the formmla
* °'55
676
where P is the percentage, a the weight of benzoyl eugenol obtained,
cand b is the weight of clove oil used.
Verley and Bolsing propose the following method. It depends on the
iact that acetic and other anhydrides react with phenols in excess of
pyridine. Eugenol reacts readily forming eugenol acetate and acetic
acid, the latter combining with pyridine to form pyridine acetate. This
-compound reacts towards indicators such as phenol-phthalein in the same
way as acetic acid, and therefore a titration is possible. Yerley and
.Bolsing use from 1 to 2 grams of the oil, which js placed in a 200 c.c. flask,
and 25 c.c. of a mixture of acetic anhydride (15 parts) and pyridine (100
parts). The mixture is heated for thirty minutes on a water-bath, the
liquid cooled, and 25 c.c. of water added. The mixture is well shaken
-and titrated with normal potash, using phenolphthalein as indicator. A
blank experiment is carried out without the eugenol, and the difference
between the titration figures in c.c. of normal alkali, multiplied by 0*582,
.gives the amoaint of eugenol in the sample taken.
DBTBBMINATION OF THE METHYL NUMBER.

Benedikt and Griissner1 have proposed the determination of the
methyl number in the analysis of essential oils. Whilst this process may
have some value in the examination of the constitution of a compound,
it is very rarely necessary to use it in the analysis of essential oils. The
methyl number (which is a somewhat fallacious term as it includes other
;alkyl radicles) is understood as the number of milligrams of methyl
yielded by the gram of the substance when heated with hydriodic aoid.
From 0*2 to 0*3 gram of the oil is heated with hydriodic acid of specific
^gravity 1*7 and the methyl iodide formed collected in a suitable receiver,
1
Chem. Zeit.t 13 (1899), 872,1087.
free iodine being absorbed by phosphorus. The methyl (or alkyl) iodide-
is decomposed by alcoholic solution of silver nitrate, and the silver iodide
weighed, from which the amount of alkyl radicle, calculated as CH3 i&
found.
THE DETECTION OF CHLOBINE IN ESSENTIAL OILS.
A few essential oils contain substances which can be easily synthesised.
by processes in which the use of chlorine is involved. Such oils are*
frequently adulterated with the synthetic product. If this contains
chlorine—which is very frequently the case, on account of the difficulty
in removing the last traces of this body—its detection becomes of im-
portance, as the presence of a trace of chlorine is evidence of the presence-
of the artificial compound.
The Determination of Chlorine.—Many methods ha,ve been suggested
for the detection and determination of chlorine, but most of them are
merely qualitative. Of these the following are useful:—
(a) By simple combustion. This method depends on the fact that on
combustion a portion of the chlorine present in the organic compounds-
existing as impurities forms hydrochloric acid, which can be detected by
means of silver nitrate.
A piece of filtering paper about 2 inches by 1 inch, and rolled in the
shape of a spill, is saturated with the oil, the excess of oil is thrown off"
and the paper is placed in a small porcelain dish which in its turn re-
poses in a larger dish, measuring about 8 inches in diameter. The paper
is ignited, and a beaker, of a capacity of about 2 litres, moistened inside
with distilled water, is quickly placed over the paper. The sizes of the
dishes used must be such that the rim of the larger dish must stand out
well all round from the beaker. After the flame is extinguished the
beaker should be left in position for about one minute, after which the
products of combustion which have been deposited against the moist
sides of the beaker are rinsed out with a little distilled water, and filtered.
The filterate, acidulated with a drop of nitric acid, must remain clear when
silver nitrate solution is added.
Care must be taken that the filter paper is free from chlorine. Thig
should be determined by a blank experiment. This process has been
strongly recommended by Schimmel & Co., but there is considerable
doubt whether it will detect minute quantities of chlorine.
(b) The sodium test is distinctly more delicate, and is carried out as-
follows:—
A piece of pure metallic sodium about half the size of a pea is dropped,
into 0*5 c.c. of the oil in a dry test tube, and heated until all chemical
action has ceased. The test tube and contents are immersed whilst still
hot in 10 c.c. of distilled water in a porcelain dish. The solution i&
filtered, acidulated with nitric acid, and silver nitrate solution added.
Any turbidity or opalescence indicates the presence of chlorine compounds.
A blank test should be performed to ensure the absence of chlorine in
the materials employed.
(c) The lime combustion method gives good results as a qualitative
test, although it will often fail to detect very minute traces, say below
0*08\ per cent. It is carried out as follows :—
A mixture of 1 c.c. of benzaldehyde and 5 grams of lime are placed in
the bottom cf a platinum crucible about 3 ins. in depth, a layer of lime
placed on the top and the crucible covered and gently heated; a con-
siderable escape of benzaldehyde takes place, so that it is obvious that
the results can have no quantitative value.
The temperature is then gradually increased until no further vapours
are driven off. The mixture is then dissolved in dilute nitric acid, filtered
and tested in the usual manner with silver nitrate.
The method of Carius for the determination of chlorine in organic
compounds is, of course, absolutely quantitative, but is very tedious, and
is scarcely suitable for the detection of very small traces of chlorine, as
the weight of oil taken in a Carius determination never exceeds 0*5 grams.
Salamon has recommended the following method, and appended are
the results obtained compared with those yielded by the Carius' method
and the obviously inadequate lime method.
About 2 grams of benzaldehyde are heated in a retort with 40 c.c. of
concentrated sulphuric acid, the fumes collected in a solution of silver
nitrate, and the heating continued until no further precipitate insoluble
in hot dilute nitric acid is obtained in the silver nitrate solution. This
takes about three hours.
The solution of silver nitrate is acidified with dilute nitric acid, boiled
so as to decompose any silver sulphite that might have been formed,
and the precipitate filtered, washed, etc.
A slight modification consists in using a mixture of 40 c.c. concen-
trated sulphuric acid and 5 c.c. concentrated nitric acid, the nitric acid
being added last to the mixture of sulphuric acid and benzaldehyde.
The hydrochloric acid was evolved more rapidly, and slightly higher
results were obtained in certain cases, due probably to better oxidation.
By using this modification, a test can be easily carried out in one hour.
In using this method the heating must be very gradual, the mixture
should not be allowed to froth until the end of the operation, and a blank
should be carried out on the reagents used.
In cases where the amount of chlorine is very small such as *005 per
cent., it is advisable to carry out, say, distillations on 5 separate quantities
of about 2 grams each, collecting them all in the same receiver.
By this means an appreciable amount of precipitate can be obtained,
and definitely identified.
Lime Method, Sulphuric Acid Nitro-sulphuric Carius Method,

No. Chlorine, per Cent. Method, per Cent. Acid Method, per per Cent.
Cent.
1 •19 1-83 2-14 2-2

2 Not weighable. 0-13 0-13 0-15
3 •20 1-8 1-9 2-0
4 •19 1-7 1-7 1-9
5 nil. trace trace trace
G •17 1-63
7 •28 — 2-66
8 •17 1-42 —
—
—
THE DETERMINATION OF HYDROCARBONS.

The determination of hydrocarbons is not often required, but is a
matter of some importance in the case of the so-called terpeneless and
sesquiterpeneless oils, especially those of lemon, many commercial
samples of which contain appreciable quantities of hydrocarbons.
VOL. n. 23
Booker l has elaborated the following method for the determination
of the hydrocarbons present in concentrated oils of lemon :—
Citral is first estimated in 10 c.c. of oil by the sulphite method. When
the oil which has not entered into reaction is less than 6 c.c., the estima-
tion is repeated with another 5 or 10 c.c. The oil left over from these
tests is bulked, and 5 c.c. of this citral-free oil is placed in a 600 to
700 c.c. separator, into which, immediately previously, 500 c.c. of alcohol
of precisely 51 per cent, by volume, cooled down to from 0 to — 2° C.,
has been introduced. The separator is closed with a cork and the con-
tents are repeatedly shaken, when the aromatic bodies of the oil are dis-
solved by the alcohol, while the hydrocarbons are left behind almost
quantitatively. The separator is then placed in a cooling-bath at 0° C.,
cork downwards, for six to ten hours. It is then taken out of the freez-
ing mixture, carefully turned back to its proper position, and placed in a
stand. When the alcoholic solution has cleared to ,a point at which only
a slight film remains (which in certain conditions may take up to two
days) it is drawn off to about 10 c.c., any oil-drops which may still adhere
to the sides of the funnel being rinsed down with ice-cold 51 per cent,
alcohol, so that all the oil which has remained undissolved is brought
together. When the mixture has become perfectly clear, the oil, being
freed as far as possible from the last traces of alcoholic solution, is trans-
ferred to a measuring tube calibrated to y1^ c.c., and the vessel rinsed out
with a little more ice-cold 51 per cent, alcohol. It is advisable to use a
separating funnel of which the lower part ends in a narrow graduated
tube. As soon as the oil is completely cleared (when the froth is very
persistent a few drops of dilute acetic acid should be added), the volume
is read off and calculated to the original oil.
The method may be completed by estimating not only the quantity
but also the character of the hydrocarbons. Thus, from 100 to 200 c.c.
of oil is fractionally distilled in vacuo. The distillation is only continued
up to the point where the separate fractions of about 10 c.c. each still
show dextro-rotation. These fractions are put together as the " terpene-
containing portion " of the oil, the rest constituting the " sesquiterpene-
containing portion ". Each of these portions is then freed from citral
by means of Na2SO3, and in both cases the residue is treated with 100
times its quantity of ice-cold 51 per cent, alcohol, as described above, a
large glass fla^k being, if necessary, substituted for the separator. The
alcohol solution is separated by means of a siphon from the portion which
has remained undissolved. The oils which have been separated are
estimated quantitatively, and from the values thus obtained the per-
centage of terpenes and sesquiterpenes in the original oil is calculated.
For purposes of further identification the rotation is estimated, and, if
necessary, the characteristic derivatives are prepared. The terpenes,
of which the principal constituent is d-limonene, are characterised by a
pronounced dextro-rotation; they yield a liberal proportion of limonene
tetrabromide, whereas the sesquiterpenes, which consist chiefly of
bisabolene, are laevo-rotatory and may be identified from the bisabolene
trihydrochloride.
1
Jour. Prakt. Chem. (1914), 89, 199.
THE HYDROGEN NUMBER OF ESSENTIAL OILS.

A new method for the examination of certain oils has recently been
described by Allan E. Albright.1
Some unsaturated compounds are capable of quantitative hydrogena-
ifcion in a solution of colloidal palladium. It has been found that a
^hydrogen number" corresponding to the iodine number of fatty oils
may be ascribed to some ethereal oils.
The colloidal palladium solution is prepared as follows : A solution
of a palladium silt is added to a solution of an alkali salt of an acid of high
molecular weight, the sodium salt of protalbinic acid being suitable. An
excess of alkali dissolves the precipitate formed, and the solution contains
tihe palladium in the form of a hydrosol of its hydroxide. The solution
is purified by dialysis, and the hydroxide reduced with hydrazine hydrate.
On further dialysis and evaporation to dryness a water-soluble product
is obtained, consisting of colloidal palladium and sodium protalbinate, the
latter acting as a protective colloid.
A substitute may be prepared thus: 0'05 gram palladous chloride is
placed in a special shaking flask with 50 c.c. of 50 per cent, alcohol and
1 or 2 c c. of 1 per cent, aqueous solution of gum-arabic, the weight of
gum being about one-fourth the weight of the palladous chloride. On
shaking this mixture in an atmosphere of hydrogen the chloride is re-
duced with formation of a black solution of colloidal platinum, which is
rendered stable by the small quantity of gum present.
The apparatus used is somewhat complicated, and consists of shaking
baskets containing the absorption flasks, which are connected with a gas
•burette and a hydrogen supply, the latter being purified by passing
"through a wash bottle containing alkaline permanganate, and afterwards
-washing with water. Arrangements are made to correct errors due to
absorption of hydrogen by the catalyser, the solubility of the gas in the
-solvent, and the consumption of hydrogen by oxygen dissolved in the
-solvent. The weight of the substance taken is adjusted so that 100 c.c.
•or less of hydrogen is absorbed.
Every essential oil contains at least small quantities of unsaturated
substances, such as terpenes (limonene phellandrene, etc.), but not all
»bonds are hydrogenated with equal ease. For instance, limonene is first
reduced to carvomenthene, citral to citronellal, carvoxime to carvotan-
;acetoxime, the second bond in each case requiring a considerably longer
treatment for complete saturation. For such substances a quantitative
determination is unsatisfactory. Some oils, however, contain substances
which are completely arid rapidly reduced, notably those containing the
.allyl or propenyl group. Safrol, anethol, and eugenol are the chief sub-
stances which have been studied, and these are reduced to dihydro-safrol,
dihydro-anethol, and dihydro-eugenol. The pure substances have been
-compared with the natural oils of sassafras, anise, fennel, clove, and
pimento, and with imitation oils made up of the active constituent and
limonene.
The hydrogen number is defined as the number of c.c. of hydrogen
•corrected to normal temperature and pressure absorbed by 1 gram of the
material during the period of rapid absorption. This number gives a
measure of the proportion of active constituent present, but the results
l
Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1914, 2188; through P. and E.O.R.
are generally too high because of the absorption of hydrogen by other
constituents.
The results obtained are summarised in the following table:—
Hydrogen Equivalent per Theoretical per

Substance. Number. Cent, of Active Cent, of Active
Constituent. Constituent.
Safrol 135-6 98-3 100-0

Limonene . . . . . — ! —
Imitation sassafras oil 111-9 81-1 80-0
Authentic „ ,, . 103-1 74-8
102-0 74-0
Anethol 150-5 99-6 —
100-0
Imitation anise oil . 125-1 82-4 80-0
127-0 83-7 80-0
Commercial anise oil . 125-8 82-9
127-3 83-9
„ fennel oil 101-3 66-8 —
102-7 I 67-7 —
Eugenol . . . . . 134-4 98-3 —
100-0
Imitation clove oil . 113-2 82*8 80-0
113-3 82-8 80-0
Commercial clove oil . 114-6 83-8 —
114-0 83-3 —
„ pimento oil 97-8 71-5
97-8 71-5 —
~~
THE DETECTION OF SOME COMMON ADULTERANTS.1

Turpentine Oil.—This is readily recognised in oils which contain no
pinene, as this is the main constituent of turpentine oil. It is usually
found in the first distillates, and generally reduces the specific gravity
and effects the solubility and optical rotation. Its presence is proved by
the formation of pinene hydrochloride (melting-point 125°) and the nitro-
sochloride (melting-point 103°). If pinene is a constituent of the oil
itself, the addition of turpentine can only be proved by comparison with
an authentic sample.
Cedarwood, Copaiba and Gurjun Balsam Oils.—These adulterants are
usually found in the last fractions owing to their high boiling-points.
They have a high specific gravity (*900 to *950) and high refractive index,
and are only soluble in strong alcohol. Copaiba oil rotates - 7" to - 35°
(African up to + 20°), cedarwood - 25° to - 45°, and gurjun balsam
- 35° to - 130°. No definite characteristic derivatives can be obtained.
Gurjun balsam oil gives an intense violet colour when a few drops of
nitric acid are added to a solution of the oil in glacial acetic acid.
Fatty Oils may be detected by leaving an oily stain on blotting paper
after evaporation by gentle heat. With the exception of castor oil they
are insoluble in alcohol. Castor oil dissolves in a small quantity of
petroleum ether, but on further dilution with petroleum ether, it separates.
Fatty oils usually increase the ester value of an oil, and a greater propor-
tion of non-volatile residue is found on evaporation over a water-bath.
Some volatile oils leave a residue on evaporation, e.g. bergamot, lemon,
orange, nutmeg, ylang-ylang, and cassia oils. The fatty oils do not distil
J
P. and E.O.R. (June, 1915), 148.
without decomposition, and their presence may be proved by the acrolein
test (heating with potassium bisulphate). Cocoanut oil may be detected
by freezing.
Fatty acids may readily be detected by the increase in acid value.
Petroleum or mineral oil (kerosene, etc.) are less soluble in alcohol
than most oils. They have a low specific gravity and refractive index,
and are not saponified by alcoholic potash. The lower boiling fractions
can usually be detected by their odour, and the higher boiling fractions
remain in the residue on fractional distillation. They are unaffected by
fuming nitric acid.
Alcohol and acetone maybe detected by their low boiling-point and by
the iodoform test. Oils containing alcohol form milky mixtures with
water. It may be extracted by washing with water, when the refractive
index of the washed oil is found to be distinctly higher than that of the
original oil.
Chloroform is readily recognised by its odour and by the phenyl iso-
nitrile test. It is found in the first fractions distilled.
Besin is frequently found in cassia oil. It interferes with the accurate
determination of the aldehyde by making it difficult to read off the un-
combined oil. It may be detected by adding a solution of lead acetate in
70 per cent, alcohol to a solution of the oil in alcohol of the same strength.
The presence of resin increases the amount of non-volatile residue, and
also increases the acid value of the oil.
The proportion of resin can be determined by weighing the precipitate
formed with solution of lead acetate in 70 per cent, alcohol.1
Terpenes are commonly employed for diluting lemon, orange, and
bergamot oils. The addition lowers the specific gravity, increases the
optical rotation, and lowers the proportion of oxygenated constituents.
Terpinolene, a by-product in the manufacture of terpineol, has been de-
tected in some oils, notably citronella and spike, lavender. It can be
detected by its odour in the fractionated oils.
1
P. and E.O.B., 1914, 264.
THE END.
INDEX.
ACETEUGENOL, 263. Aromatophores, 28.
Acetic acid, 295. Aronsohn, on odour, 33.
— aldehyde, 180. Artemisia absinthium, oil of, 12, 18.
Acetine, 313. Asarone, 266.
Acetone, 212, 357. Asarylic aldehyde, 207.
Acetophenone, 244. Ascaridol, 285.
Acetovanillone, 247. Atractylene, 93.
Acids, 294. Atractylol, 160.
Alantoic acid, 298. Aubepine, 197.
Alantolactone, 274. Austerweil and Cochin on odour, 33.
Alcohol as adulterant, 357. Australol, 264.
Alcohols, 104. Azulene. 103.
— determination of, 321.
Aldehydes, 177. BACKMAN on odour, 27.
— aliphatic, 180. Baker and Smith on leaf venation, 22, 24.
— compounds of, 178, 179, 180. Basil oil, development of, 12.
— determination of, 335 (and vide Ke- Benzaldehyde, 15, 190.
tones). Benzoic acid, 296.
Allo-ocimene, 79. Benzophenone, 246.
Allyl cyanide, 291. Benzyl acetate, 170.
— guaiacol, 270. — alcohol, 126.
— isothiocyanate, 293. — benzoate, 170.
— isothujone, 237. — cinnamate, 171.
— methoxy - methylene-dioxy - benzene, — cyanide, 291.
267. — esters, 170.
— propyldisulphide, 293. — ethyl-car binol, 128.
— pyrocatechol, 261. — isothiocyanate, 294.
— tetramethoxy-benzene, 268. — menthol, 144.
— trimethoxybenzene, 267. Benzylidene-acetone, 246.
Almonds, oil of, 15. Bergamot oil, development of, 16.
Amygdalin, 15. Bergaptene, 275.
Amyl acetate, 167. Betulol, 159.
— benzoate, 167. Bisabolene, 81.
— heptylate, 167. . Blondel on development of essential oils,
— salicylate, 167. 15.
— valerianate, 167. Boiling-points, determination of, 310.
Amyrol, 152. Bonnier on development of essential oils,
Analysis of essential oils, 299. 6, 20.
Androl, 123. Borneol, 145.
Anethol, 259. tso-Borneol, 146, 147.
Angelic acid, 296. Bornyl acetate, 146, 171.
Angelica lactone, 284. — butyrate, 146, 172.
Anisic acid, 298. — esters 146, 171.
— alcohol, 129. — formate, 146.
— aldehyde, 197. — isovalerianate, 172.
— ketone, 217. — propionate, 146, 172.
Anthranilic acid, 298. — valerianate, 146.
Apiol, 269. iso-Bornyl formate, 147.
Aplotaxene, 103. Bornylene, 53.
Apopinol, 150. Bromostyrolene, 39.
Aromadendral, 209. Bupleurol, 123.
Aromadendrene, 99. Butyl isothiocyanate, 293.
(359)
Butyric acid, 295. Citronellal, 118, 121, 188, 189.
— aldehyde, 180. — determination of, 334, 335.
Citronellic acid, 296.
CADINENE, 83. Citronellol, 33, 118.
Cadinol, 154. — determination of, 334.
Calamene, 99. Citronellyl acetate, 173.
Camphene, 50. — esters, 172.
— hydrate, 148. — formate, 173.
Camphor, 241. Citroptene, 276.
— homologues, 243. Civet ketone, 249.
Cannabis sesquiterpene, 101. Closed chain alcohols, 126.
Cannibene, 102. Clove sesquiterpene alcohol, 156.
Cantharene, 79. Clovene, 97.
Caparrapene, 93. Cohn on odour, 29.
Caparrapiol, 160. Common adulterants, detection of, 356.
Caproic acid, 296. Copaene, 95.
Carene, 75. Copaiba oil, as adulterant, 356.
Carlina oxide, 284. Costene, 100.
Carone, 67. iso-Costene, 100.
Carvacrol, 257. Costic acid, 298.
GarveneDe, 72. Costol, 156.
Carvertrene, 65, 66. Costus lactone, 284.
— synthesis of, 67. Coumarin, 272.
Carvomenthol, 231. Creosol, 260.
Carvone, 66, 230. Cresol compounds, 250.
Carvotanacetone, 71, 231, 236. m-Cresol, 250, 251.
Carylamine, 67. ^-Cresol, 250, 251.
Caryophyllene, 84, 89. jw-Cresol methyl ether, 251.
a-Caryophyllene, 84, 89. Crithmene, 75.
/8-Caryophyllene, 84. Crotonyl isothiocyanate, 294.
*y-Caryophyllene, 84. Cryptal, 209.
iso-Caryophyllene, 88. Cumic aldehyde, 195.
Urn-Caryophyllene, 85. Cuminic alcohol, 129.
terjj-Caryophyllene, 85. Cyclocitral, 33.
Cedarwood oil, as adulterant, 356. Cyclogeraniolene, 32.
Cedrene, 95, 153, 154. ^-Cymene, 254.
Cedrenol, 153. Cypressene, 93.
Cedrol, 97, 153.
pseudo-Cefaol, 97, 153. DACRYDENE, 76.
Cedrone, 96. van Dam on odour, 25.
Charabot, on development of essential Damascenine, 290.
oils, 3, 5, 6, 11, 13, 15, 16, 20, 21, 22. Decyl alcohol, 107.
Chavibetol, 270. — aldehyde, 181.
Chavicol, 257. Diacetine, 313.
Chinese pine sesquiterpene, 102. Diacetyl, 215.
Chlorine, detection of, 14, 352. Diallyl sulphide, 293.
Chloroform, as an adulterant, 357. — thujone, 237.
Chlorophyll, functions of, 20. — trisuphide, 293.
Chlorostyrolene, 39. Dicitronell-oxide, 284.
Cineol, 45, 276, 278. Dihydrocarveol, 66, 139.
Cinnamic acid, 297. Dihydrocarvone, 67, 232.
— alcohol, 129. Dihydrocedrene, 96, 97.
— aldehyde, 193. Dihydroionone, 223.
Cinnamyl butyrate, 173. Dihydroisocedrol, 96.
— cinnamate, 173. Dihydrolinalol, 117.
— esters, 173. Dihydromyrcene, 117.
— propionate, 173. Dihydropseudoionone, 124, 125.
Citral, 111, 182. Dihydroverbenol, 227.
— determination of (see Aldehydes). Dihydroverbenone, 227.
a-Citral, 113, 182, 184. Dihydrovetivenol, 155.
/8-Citral, 113, 182, 184. Dillapiol, 269.
c?/cZo-Citral, 33, 185. iso-Dillapiol, 270.
€no/-Citral, 111. Dimethyl-heptenone, 33.
iso-Citral, 185. -isothujone, 237.
Citronella sesquiterpene, 101. phloro-acetophenone, 245.
INDEX 361
Dimethyl sulphide, 292. Patty oils as adulterants, 356.
— -thujone, 237. Fenchene, 48, 53.
Dinitro-butyl-m-cresol methyl ether, 290. a-Fenchene, 54, 55.
Diorphenol, 248. 0-Fenchene, 54, 56.
Dipentene, 59, 62, 63. •y-Fenchene, 56.
Diphenyl methane, 39, Fenchone, 234.
Diphenyl oxide, 39, 250. Fenchyl alcohol, 140, 234,
Distillation, fractional, 310. iso-Fenchyl alcohol, 234.
Duodecyl alcohol, 107, 108. Ferulene, 100.
Duodecylic aldehyde, 181. Firpene, 49.
Durand on odour, 26. Fliickiger on development of essential
Durrans on odour, 35, 36. oils, 25.
Formic acid, 294.
ELEMENE, 100. — aldehyde, 180.
Elemicin, 262. Fournie on odour, 25.
Elemol, 157. Fractional distillation, 310.
Elsholtzione, 244. — saponification, 314.
Enfleurage, 14.
Enosmophore, 29. GALIPOL, 160.
Erdmann on odour, 25. Geranaldehyde, 182.
Esters, 161. Geraniol, 17, 34, 108, 113.
— artificial detection of, 312. — development of, 17.
— determination of, 311. — dioxide, 110.
Estragol, 258. — rose odour of, 34.
iso-Estragol, 259. iso-Geraniol, 111, 112.
Essential oils, analysis of, 299. Geranium oil, artificial, 39.
in the plant, 1. development of, 17.
origin of, 3. Geranyl acetate, 168.
Ethyl acetate, 165. — butyrate, 169.
— alcohol, 105. — esters, 168.
— amyl-carbinol, 106. — ethyl ether, 110.
ketone, 213. — formate, 166.
— anisate, 165. — isobutyrate, 169.
— anthranilate, 165. — isovalerianate, 169.
— benzoate, 166. — tiglate, saponification values of, 333.
— butyrate, 166. Globulol, 158.
— caprylate, 166. Glucosides in essential oil formation, 13.
— cinnamate, 166. Glyceryl acetate, detection of, 315.
— citrate, 313. Gonostylene, 102, 159.
— heptoate, 166. Gonostylol, 159.
— laurinate, 166, 313. Guaiacol, 251.
— malonate, 166. Guaiene, 93.
— -menthol, 144. Guaiol, 155.
menthyl acetate, 144. Gurjunene, 94.
— myristinate, 166. Gurjun ketone, 249.
— nonylate, 166. — oil as adulterant, 356.
— octylate, 166.
— oleate, 313. HALUER on odour, 28.
— phenyl-acetate, 167. Helinin, 274.
— phthalate, 313. Heliotropin, 206, 265.
— salicylate, 167. Heller on odour, 26.
— succinate, 313. Henning on odour, 26.
— valerianate, 166. Heptane, 38.
Eucalyptol, 23, 45, 276. Heptyl alcohol, 106.
— determination of, 278. — aldehyde, 181.
— leaf venation of, 23. — heptoate, 167.
Eudesmene, 102. Herabolene, 99.
Eudesmic acid, 298. Hexahydro-^-cymene, 39.
Eudesmol, 158, 159. Hexyl acetate, 167.
Eugenol, 261. — alcohol, 105.
— determination of, 350. — aldehyde, 181.
iso-Eugenol, 262. — butyrate, 168.
Hexylenic aldehyde, 182.
:FARNESAL, 124, 212. Higher aliphatic alcohols, 106.
Fame sol, 124. Homoanisic acid, 258.
Homolinalyl acetate, 173. Lim-caryophyllene, 85.
Humulene, 88. Limene, 81.
Hydrocarbons, 38. Limonene, 40, 59, 63, ISO.
— determination of, 353. —- synthesis of, 63.
Hydrocinnamic acid, £97. ortf/z-o-Liriionene, 63.
— aldehyde, 196. #s$wdo-Limonene, 63.
Hydrocyanic acid, 291. Linalol, 110, 114.
Hydrogen number of essential oils, 353. — dioxide, 117.
Hydropinene, 49. — monoxide, 117.
Hydroquinone methyl ether, 259. Linalyl acetate, 169.
Hydroxypaeonol, 247. — butyrate, 170.
— esters, 169.
INDOL, 14, 292. — formate, 169.
a-Ionane, 223. — propionate, 170.
/8-Ionane, 223, Longifolene, 103.
lonone, 32, 215. Lysigenous structures, 1.
o-Ionone, 216, 217, 218.
£-Ionone, 216, 217, 218. MAALI sesquiterpene, 101, 160.
pseudo-Ionone, 216. alcohol, 160.
Irone, 32, 215. Matico camphor, 159.
Isoamyl alcohol, 105. Mehrling and Welde on odour, 32, 33-
— -menthol, 144. Melting-points, determination of, 309.
Isoanethol, 258. Menthadiene, 40.
Isoborneol, 146, 147. Menthane, 39.
Isobornyl formate, 147. Menthene, 40.
Isobutyl alcohol, 105. Menthenol, 40.
Isocanenone, 72. Menthenone, 241.
Isocaryophyllene, 85. Mentho-citronellol, 122.
Isocostene, 100. Menthonyl alcohol, 122.
Isodillapiol, 270. Menthol, 142.
Isoestragol, 259. wô-Menthol, 144.
Isoeugenol, 262. Menthone, 189-239.
Isofenchyl alcohol, 234. Menthyl acetate, 144, 176.
Isogeraniol, 111, 112. — benzoate, 144.
Isohexyl alcohol, 106. esters, 176.
Isopinene, 40, 47, 48, 55. — isovalerianate, 176.
Isopropyl-o-cresol, 257. — propionate, 144.
Isopulegol, 141, 189. Mesnard on development of essential oils..
Isosafrol, 266. 15.
Isosantalene, 92. Methoxy-cinnamic aldehyde, 196.
Iso-sylvestrene, 65. Methyl acetophenone, 245.
Isothujene, 58. — alcohol, 105.
Isothujone, 236. — -amyl-ketone, 213.
Isothujylamine, 58. — anisate, 163.
Isovalerianic aldehyde, 180. — anthranilate, 14, 163.
Isozingiberene, 82. — anthranilic acid, 298.
— benzoate, 164.
JASMIN, oil of, 14, 126, 248. — caprinate, 163.
Jasmone, 248. — caprylate, 163.
Juniperol, 158. — cinnamate, 164.
— chavicol, 258.
— cyclohexanol, 142.
KAEMPFEEIA ketone, 249. — ethyl-propyl alcohol, 106.
Kakosmophores, 29. — eugenol, 263.
Kessyl alcohol, 150. — heptenol, 122, 214.
Ketone musk, 290. — heptenone, 214.
Ketones, 212. — heptoate, 163.
— determination of, 335-346. — heptyl ketone, 213.
Klimont on odour, 28. — heptylene carbinol, 122.
Kremer on odour, 27. — hexanone, 225.
— hydroxy-cinnamic aldehyde, 196.
LACTONES, 272. — -indol, 292.
Lavender oil, development of, 6, 17, 20. — laurinate, 163.
Ledum camphor, 156. — malonate, 164.
Librocedrene, 99. — menthol, 144.
INDEX 363:
Methyl menthyl acetate, 144. Oxybenzyl isothiocyanate, 294.

— methoxy-cinnamic acid, 297. Oxyphenetol, 259.
— methoxyrescorcylate, 176.
— methoxysalicylate, 176. PAEONOL, 247.
— methylanthranilate, 164. Para-methyl hydrocinnamic aldehyde,.
— nonyl-ketone, 213. 196.
— nonylate, 163. Parry on odour, 35.
— j^-oxyallylbenzene, 258. Patchonlene, 101.
— ^-oxypropenylbenzene, 259. Patchonli camphor, 159.
— phenyl-acetate, 164. Peppermint oil, development of, 3, 18.
— phenyl-propionate, 165. Perillic alcohol, 130, 207.
— phthalate, 313. Perkin on odour, 30, 34, 35.
— salicylate, 165. Petroleum as adulterant, 357.
Monoacetine, 313. Phellandral, 210.
Hosier on peppermint plants, 4. Phellandrenes, 68, 69.
Musk, artificial, 286. Phenols, 250, 348.
— aldehyde, 290. — determination of, 348.
— ambrette, 290. Phenyl-acetic acid, 128, 297.
— cyanide, 290. " aldehyde, 128, 194.
— ketone, 249, 290. — amyl alcohol, 129.
— xylene, 289. — butyl alcohol, 129.
Muskone, 249. — dimethyl carbinol, 128.
Myrcene, 77. — ether, 250.
Myrcenol, 78. — ethyl-alcohol, 122, 127.
Myristicin, 267. acetate, 175.
Myrtenal, ±08. carbinol, 128.
Myrtenol, 148. ether, 250.
esters, 175.
isothiocyanate, 294.
0-NAPHTHOL-butyl ether, 271. propionate, 175.
— -ethyl ether, 271. ethylene, 38.
— -methyl ether, 271. — heptyl alcohol, 129.
Neo-menthol, 144. — hexyl alcohol, 129.
Neral, 182. — methyl carbinol, 128.
Nerol, 112, 113. ether, 250.
Nerolidol, 125. — propionitrile, 291.
Nitro-benzene, 287. — propyl alcohol, 128.
Nitrogen compounds, 286. ciDnamate, 175.
Nonyl alcohol, 107. Phlorol ethers, 251.
— aldehyde, 181. Phloracetophenone dimethyl ether, 271*.
Nor-camphene, 79. Phyllocladene, 81.
— -tricycloeksantalal, 210. a-Pinene, 40, 47, 49.
— -tricycloeksantalane, 81. j3-Pinene, 40, 46.
8-Pinene, 40, 46.
OCIMEFE, 77, 78. iso-Pinene, 40, 47, 48, 49, 56.
Ocimenol, 79. Pinenol, 138.
Ocimum basilicum, 12. Pinenyl acetate, 175.
Octyl acetate, 168. Pinocamphene, 233.
— alcohol, 107. Pinocarveol, 138.
— aldehyde, 181. Pinoglycyl acetate, 175.
— butyrate, 168. — propionate, 175.
— heptylate, 168. 0-Pinolene, 48, 234.
Odour and chemical constitution, 25. Piperitol, 148.
Oleic aldehyde, 182. Piperitone, 228.
Olfactometers, 25. Piperonal, 206, 265.
Opoponax sesquiterpene, 100. Polarimetry, 305.
alcohol, 100. Propenyl-trimethoxy-benzene, 266.
Optical methods of analysis, 301. Propionic acid, 295.
Origanene, 74. Propyl-menthol, 144.
Origanol, 57. menthyl acetate, 144.
Osmoceptors, 28. Pseudo cedrol, 97, 153.
Osmophores, 28. ionone, 216.
Oxides, 272. selenine, 90.
Oxyacetophenone, 245. Pulegol, 142.
Oxyallylbenzene, 258. Pulegone, 142, 238.
-364 THE CHEMISTEY OF ESSENTIAL OILS
JPumilone, 215. Terp-caryophyllene, 85.
-Pyrogalloll dimethyl ether, 261. Terpene alcohols, 130.
Terpenes, 39.
REFRACTION, 301. — as adulterants, 357.
.Kefractive index, 301. Terpin, 45.
Eefractometer, 302. — hydrate, 137.
Residual affinity, theory of, 35. Terpinene, 57, 71.
. Resin as adulterant, 357. a-Terpinene, 71, 75.
Resinogeneschicht, 7. £-Terpinene, 71, 72.
Rhodinal, 188, 189, 190. 7-Terpinene, 71, 73.
Rhodinol, 118, 119, 120, 121. Terpinenol, 136.
Rose, evolution of perfume, 16. Terpineol, 57, 130.
— odours, Austerweil on, 33. a-Terpineol, 131, 132.
Roscol, 118. £-Terpineol, 131, 133.
Roure-Bertrand on peppermint plants, 6. 7-Terpineol, 131, 133.
Rupe and Majewski on odour, 28. Terpinolene, 74.
Ruzicka on odour, 28. Terpinyl acetate, 174, 314.
— cinnamate, 174.
SABINA ketone, 57, 225. — esters, 173.
Sabinene, 56, 59. — formate, 173.
Sabinol, 135. — propionate, 174.
Safrol, 265. Tetradecyl aldehyde, 182.
iso-Safrol, 266. Tetrahydrocarvone, 231.
-Salicylic acid, 297. Tetrahydroelemene, 157.
— aldehyde, 192. Tetrahydroelemol, 157.
Salvene, 76. Tetrahydroionone, 223.
Sandalwood oil, hydrocarbons from, 80. Teudt on odour, 35.
Santalal, 211. Thujenes, 57, 58.
Santalene, 92. Thujol, 18.
iso-Santalene, 92. Thujones, 235-237.
• Santalols, 151. Thujyl alcohol, 134.
Santalone, 248. wo-Thujyl alcohol, 134.
Santelol, 149. Thujylamine, 58.
Santene, 79. Thymol, 251, 349.
Santenone, 225. — methyl ether, 256.
Saponification, fractional, 314. Thymohydroquinone, 260.
— table of values, 323. — methyl ether, 260.
Schizogenous structures, 2. Thymomenthol, 144.
Sedanolide, 275. Thymoquinone, 260.
Sedanonic anhydride, 275. Tiglic acid, 296.
Selinene, 89. Tredecyl aldehyde, 18 >.
•0r£/&o-Selinene, 90. Triacetine, 313.
pseudo-Selineue, 90. Triallylthujone, 237.
Sesquicamphene, 95. Trimethyl-hexanone, 246.
Sesquicitronellene, 98. Trinitro-butyl-xylene, 289.
-Sesquiterpenes, 81. Tschirch on development of essential oils,
Skatol, 292. 7, 13.
Solidifying points, determination of, 309. Tuberose, oil of, 14.
Solubility of essential oils in water, 9, 10. Tunmann on development of essentia
water in essential oils, 11. oils, 8.
Specific gravity, 299. Turpentine as adulterant, 356.
Styrol, 38. Tyndall on odours, 27.
Styrolene, 38.
> Styrolyl acetate, 175.
— propionate, 175. UMBELLULONE, 232.
— valerianate, 175. Umney and Baker on solubility of es-
Suginene, 98. sential oils in water, 9.
Sulphur compounds, 292. Uncineol, 124.
Sylvestrene, 65. Undecylenic alcohol, 107.
iso-Sylvestrene, 65. — aldehyde, 182.
Undecylic alcohol, 107.
TANACETENE, 58. — aldehyde, 181.
Tasmanol, 264.
Teresantalic acid, 296. VALERIANIC acid, 295.
'Teresantalol, 139. — aldehyde, 181.
INDEX 365.
Valeryl-tetrahydrobenzoic acid, 275. WOKEB on odour, 30.
Vanilla, essence of, 203.
Vanillin, 198, 261. XANTHOTOXIN, 276.
Veratric acid, 298. Xylene musk, 289.
Verbenene, 45, 46.
Verbenol, 228.
Verbenone, 226. ZIBETHONE, 249.
Vestrylamiiie, 67. Zingiberene, 82.
Vetivene, 97. iso-zingiberene, 82.
Vetivenol, 98, 154. Zingiberol, 155.
Vinyl sulphide, 293. Zwaardemaker on odour, 25, 35.

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THE CHEMISTRY OF ESSENTIAL OILS

AND ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES

THE CHEMISTRY OF ESSENTIAL OILS

ERNEST J. PARRY, B.Sc. (LOND.), F.I.C., F.C.S.

Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged

Royal Svo. 52 Illustrations. 552 + viii pages

ERNEST J. PARRY, B.Sc. (LOND.), F.I.C., F.C.S.

FOURTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED

IN bringing the second volume of this work up to date, I have

Plants Cut on 24 July.

Normal. Sodium Chloride. Sodium Nitrate.

Optical rotation . . . . - 3° 38' 0° - 0° 10'

Dried Plants in Weig

1 1300 0-77 10-01 500

Per cent, on dry

S. G. S. G. Ref. Ind. Ref. Ind. Per Cent. Per Cent.

Eef. It.d. Ref. Tnd.

The oils consisting mainly of terpenes do not appear to dissolve

Oil from the Plants with —

Buds. Flowers. Faded Flowers.

Specific gravity at 15° C. . 0-8849 0-8854 0-8821

Hence, the acidity decreases in the course of vegetation; the pro-

Oil 18 July. On 21 August.

Density at 15° C. . 0-897 0-899

i 1. Oil Extracted Oil Extracted after the Formation 4. Oil Extracted

Separated by Extracted from

Specific gravity at 15° C. 0-9194 0-9140

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ODOUR AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

2*3 di-methyl 5 hexenol 2. a-Terpineol.

CHO . C CHMe CH CHMe CH CHMe

CH2 CH CH2 CH,

As other instances of typical " class " odours might be quoted :—

Nitroso-pinene is obtained from pinene-nitrosochloride by the action of

An important compound for the identification of pinene is the hydro-

/-Verbenene is reduced by sodium and alcohol to dihydroverbenene,

of this body to Wallach's fenchene is still a matter of uncertainty, and

Firpene is a terpene, which may be a chemical individual, but which

Specific gravity at ^ 0-866

Per Cent. Boiling-point. Specific Gravity. Rotation

20 162° to 163° 0-8481 + 59° 30'

By the action of hydrochloric acid gas on sabinene dissolved in acetic

To prepare sabinenic acid for the identification of the terpene, Wallach1

Boilmg- point. Specific Gravity. Rotation. Refractive

Kondakoff and Skworzow3 have recently rein'vestigated the subject

Dipentene is the racemic form of the optically active ^-limonene

Dextro- Inactive Specific Specific

Limoneoe . . . . + 125° - 125°

The portion of the mixture of crude nitrosochlorides which was not

Very characteristic derivatives are obtained by the action of organic

molecular proportions at the ordinary temperature, a reaction takes place

CM< )CH . C09H

H0C CH—CK BLC CH—C/

These terpenes have been exhaustively studied by Wallach,1 who

d-a-phellandrene. rf-j8-phellandrene. /- a- phellandrene .

Specific gravity 0-844 at 19° 0-852 at 20° 0-848 at 15°

All varieties of phellandrene are somewhat unstable and are easily