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Rembrandt: Turn of the Key

ZHENYA GERSHMAN
In memory of Leonid Matsikh

here are many mysteries and much contradictory evidence surrounding Rembrandts life. Why was
Rembrandt, the ninth of ten children, the only one to be enrolled in Latin school? Around age fifteen, why was he then
pulled out to apprentice as a painter with Jacob Isaacz van
Swanenburg? Why was Swanenburg, whom we would call a
second-rate artist, chosen as a teacher? How did Rembrandt,
the son of a miller, cross paths with Constantijn Huygens,
one of the most erudite people in the Netherlands and a secretary to Stadholder, prince of Orange? How did Rembrandt,
a newcomer to Amsterdam and only in his mid-twenties, become one of the most famous and sought-after artists almost
overnight? And why did he then have to declare bankruptcy
in 1656, dying in near poverty, abandoned by most of his students and prior collectors? Most of these questions have been
dealt with by puzzled art historians in one way or another.
Each of their hypotheses often contradicts the otherand in
some cases, Rembrandts history is constructed solely from
guesses. The actual evidence of his biography is largely based
on two sources, the first of which is a 350-word account by
Jan Jansz from 1641, part of his Leiden city guidebook.1
Even this contemporary description of Rembrandts career is
full of generalities and subjective interpretations.
The other famous source of facts about Rembrandt is the exhaustive bankruptcy list of his possessions, which, though it
tells us a lot of details about Rembrandts private life, is full of
gaps when it comes to explaining his work. Titles of Rembrandt paintings were attributed posthumously, with paintings
often being revisited on numerous occasions with diametrically
opposing theories and subject attributions. Such is the case with
arion 21.3 winter 2014

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rembrandt: turn of the key

the great late painting of St. Bartholomew, whose identity morphed over the centuries from assassin, to doctor, to cook, and
finally to apostle. Many subjects remain in question, as in the
famous example of Night Watchwhich is actually not a night
scene. Rembrandt himself seemed either not to be concerned or
was purposefully cautious about leaving any written document
about his life or artistic practice. Paradoxically, he left more autobiographical paintings than any artist
of his time, including over seventy selfportraits and numerous painted, drawn,
or etched images of his wife, children, and
companionsas H. Perry Chapman appropriately calls him, a self-portraitist of
unmatched power.2 In addition, Rembrandt used his signature as another
method of self-insertionwhen signed,
his presence was always proudly asserted.
Over the years, he continually revised and
honed a particular way of signing his
work. By 1632, he had dropped all of the
auxiliary information such as his hometown, his last name, and the reference to
his father to focus primarily on what
makes him unique, which he represented
with his first name alone. Let us begin our
investigation into Rembrandts mysterious contradictions with an examination
of his signature.
Fig. 1

1. d for . . . ?
sometime in the early 1630s (probably around 1633), Rembrandt made a significant change to his identity that, mysteriously, remained uncommented upon by his contemporaries.
For some reason, he added a letter d to his first name, changing Rembrant to Rembrandt (fig. 1). Despite the large number
of paintings and etchings signed with this modified first name,

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most of the documents that mention him during his lifetime retain the original Rembrant spelling. An interesting comparison is presented by a legal document from 1665 that was
drawn up by Titus in which Rembrandts name lacks the letter
d in the body of the text, yet prominently displays it in the
fancy signature by Rembrandt at the bottom (fig. 2). While
scholars have noted the change in the spelling of Rembrandts
name, they have not offered an explanation to account for it.
To explore the reasons behind Rembrandts new identity, first,
lets consider the etymology of the name Rembrant. It derives
from a Germanic name containing the word sword. Some
scholars explain Rembrandts appearances with a sword in his
paintings as indicative of the meaning of his name. By adding
the extra letter, though not making a phonetic change, the
meaning of the word was altered. The name can be divided into
two distinct words: Rem and brandt (in a number of his
signatures after 1632, Rembrandt emphasized this duality by
either capitalizing the letter B in the middle of his name or literally separating the word into two: Rem brandt). In Dutch,
Rem stands for brake (or obstruct) and brandt translates as fire (or light). The combination of these two
words rem and brandt creates a wordplay that means
obstructed light. In fact, whenever Rembrandts name is
mentioned, one of the first associations with his art is the mastery of light and dark. The radiant light that illuminates his canvases, panels, paper, and copper prints, is accentuated by rich,
dense, and velvety areas of darkness or obscurity. Thus, Rembrandts revised name becomes a pun reflecting the quintessential ability of creating illuminated darkness or dimmed light.
Additionally, in Western esoteric tradition the letter d
carries important connotations. It evokes the word Deus
meaning Godbut at the same time, as Antoine Faivre
points outA principle of knowledge, an organ of the soul,
called the Light of Nature, reveals the magnalia Dei. . . .
The task . . . of the people . . . is to learn how to receive this
Light of Nature in themselves.3 Rembrandts modification
of his first name is indicative of his understanding of this con-

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rembrandt: turn of the key

cept and reflects his artistic identity as both receiving and reflecting the light of nature through his art. Furthermore,
Rembrandt repeatedly added a beautifully rendered letter f
after signing his name. Scholars have interpreted this to mean
fecit or made by. A master of multiple meanings, Rembrandt may have enjoyed the potential of this letter to also
evoke the word frater or brother. Thus his signature
would be read as Rembrandt, fraternally, or Rembrandt,
brother, implying his belonging to a closed fraternal society.
There is another piece of evidence in support of the use of
this abbreviation. Albert C. Mackey, in his Encyclopedia

Figs. 2ab

of Freemasonry and its Kindred Sciences, recorded: Abbreviations of technical terms or of official titles are of very extensive
use in Freemasonry. . . . A Masonic abbreviation is distinguished
by three points . . . in a triangular form following the letter.4 It
was a unique form of coded communication by which one
Freemason signaled to other Brothers. Mackey goes through the

Fig. 3

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Figs. 4ab

list of known abbreviations in which f stands proudly for


Brother, as can be seen in a document from Grande Lodge of
France (fig. 3). Jacques Huyghebaert in Three Points in Masonic
Context specifies that this triple punctuation also appeared in
signatures, which explains why Freemasons are still called in
French: Les Frres Trois Points.5 Looking at a great number
of Rembrandts signatures, three dots in a triangular pattern can
indeed be visible following the letter f (fig. 4). This type of public
display that nonetheless remained invisible to the uninitiated
seemed to appeal to Rembrandt, and we will see it again with his
approach to self-portraits as well as the encoding of his name
within the artwork.
2. . . . let there be light
what was the impetus behind Rembrandts obsession with
creating the illusion of illumination? It is hard to disassociate
the subject of light in art, following the innovations by Renaissance masters such as Leonardo and Titian and culminating
in the technical virtuosity of chiaroscuro in Caravaggio. What
lies beyond the visual illusionism of dark backgrounds accentuating luminous characters which seem to break free from the
two-dimensional surface? Light has been used as a visual symbol of divinity, spirituality, creativity, knowledge, truth, purification, and birth across time and in cultures like those of
ancient Egypt and Greece, as well as in Judeo-Christian traditions. There is, though, another important scheme of thought
that should be explored in connection with chiaroscuro: inspired both by kabalistic and Christian symbolism, light is of
great importance in Masonic rituals.6 It represents the divine

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rembrandt: turn of the key

truth and is believed to be a guiding


principle that points the way for
ones life pilgrimage. No wonder
that Goethe, a brilliant writer as well
as a Freemason, is believed to have
uttered Mehr Licht (more light) as
he was dying.7
Obviously there can be no light without darkness. The
shadow, or obscurity, serves as an important stage for the
backdrop of illumination. Consider the story of Genesis 1:1-3:
In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And
the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon
the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the
face of the waters. And God said, Let there be light: and there
was light. Following this concept of creation, one of the most
significant rituals of the initiation into the Brotherhood of
Freemasons is the placement of the blindfolded candidate into
a coffin.8 After a period of time which gave the initiate a
chance to reflect on the mysteries of life and death, the coffin
was opened and the candidate was led through a series of corridors that symbolized passing through the birth canal, culminating in the removal of the blindfold in an intensely
illuminated room. This ceremony would both metaphorically
and psychologically simulate a second birth, an emotional and
intellectual resurrection from darkness to light. To follow
Goethes famous line from Gtz von Berlichingen, Act I
(1773): There is strong shadow where there is much light. In
Masonic images, moreover, this duality is often represented by
black-and-white checkered floors. Was Rembrandt merely following in the footsteps of the Caravaggisti,9 who were imitating the rapidly spreading contagious formula of extreme
chiaroscuro; or was he contemplating the symbolism and mysteries of the necessary polarities beyond the technique (fig. 5)?
Consequently, was the self-imposed silent letter d in his first
name added to signify the extremes of light and dark, a hint
for the initiated?10

Fig. 5

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3. know thyself
just as in his preoccupation with light and dark, Rembrandts
ongoing practice of self-portraiture is also akin to the Masonic
philosophy of self-realization. Unlike most organized groups,
Freemasons strive for the cultivation of individuality rather than
adjusting to fit in with the preexistent structure. Each members
task is to cultivate and polish oneself, a process akin to polishing a rough stone to smooth perfection. This undertaking involves not only striving to perfect oneself and thus realizing full
potential, but understanding ones personal limitations. The concept of initiating change in the world by changing oneself is at the
basis of the Masonic way of life.
No wonder Masonic philosophy appealed to such great and
independent minds as Voltaire,
Mozart, and Goethe. Few
painters have practiced the task
of scrupulous self-examination
as much as did Rembrandt. In
just four years, between 1627
and 1631, he portrayed himself
at least 20 times. As mentioned
earlier, he painted, etched, and
drew his own likeness at least
75 times over 40 years in an astonishing number of roles, ranging from a street beggar to the
Apostle Paul. Over time, one can observe the pretenses of an aspiring court painter being stripped away from the aging artist, allowing a more private and vulnerable self to come forward. This
impulse of self-examination has been variously interpretedas
the practice of the humanistic tradition, as vanity, or a self-marketing tool, or even as a response to actors exercises (fig. 6).
However, it is important to consider Rembrandts extraordinary
contribution to self-portraiture in a new light, as it bears strong
resemblance to the Masonic task of ongoing self-examination.

Fig. 6

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rembrandt: turn of the key

4. are you looking at me?


what lies beyond the
face in Rembrandts selfportraits? There are often
multiple metaphors in
seventeenth-century
Dutch painting. We know
to look behind ordinary
objects to read a deeper
meaning or to take away
a moral lesson. Gestures,
clothes,
backgrounds,
poses, direction of gaze,
and colors can all be indicative of a meaning that
the artist is conveying to
the viewer. Unfortunately,
over time, these messages
frequently are misread or
overlooked. Often, myths
attach themselves to paintings over the centuries. The heart of
the matter, however, usually lies in a deceptively basic observation of the work of art. Lets take a closer look at Rembrandts
Self-portrait (163638), now in the Norton Simon Museum (fig.
7). At first glance its a rather traditional bust-length portrait.
Rembrandt portrays himself in an artists beret, with a penetrating gaze, which can be said to be either examining the viewer or,
in contrast, drilling through his own image in the mirror. One
barely detects the hint of a hand hidden in the lapel of the jacket.
The chiaroscuro effect illuminates the face, inviting the viewer to
scrutinize the persona as it obscures the hand gesture, making it
easily unnoticeable. Remember that it is from the dark that
knowledge is born. This gesture may look familiar. Compare
Rembrandts self-portrait (either the painting or a related etching from 1638) to a portrait of George Washington from 1776
by Charles Willson Peale (fig. 8). The gesture is identical. In the

Fig. 7

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case of Washington (who was a Freemason), we know ex- Figs. 8abc


actly what it represents. The hidden hand is found in the
rituals of the Royal Arch Degree of Freemasonry11 and communicates Masonic membership to other initiates. The hidden fingers also represent an internal disposition of faith illustrated by
the Masonic diagram of this concept. Is the hiding of the hand
in Rembrandts self-portrait actually a way of revealing an important message?
5. written in stone . . .
one aspect of Rembrandts preoccupation with self-examination spills over to his unorthodox treatment of the signature. His signatures go beyond the basic purpose of claiming
authorship and can be seen as an extension of self-representation or self-insertion. Most often the placement of his signature deliberately directs the viewers attention to the key
aspects in his work, for example, at the bottom of the feet of
Christ in his Jesus on the Cross from 1631, on a garment
supporting the carried child by the eagle in The Abduction

Figs. 9ab

88

Fig. 10

rembrandt: turn of the key

of Ganymede (1635), and


on the pedestal in Aristotle with a Bust of
Homer from 1653 (fig. 9).
In addition, Rembrandt
insistently adds his name
to stone surfaces, for example, at the base of a
column in the painting of
Samson Threatened his
Father-in-law, and in the
rough stone in The Abduction of Europa.
In Masonic ritual and legend, stone (as one might expect)
plays a leading role. Beginning with the new apprentice, who
is entrusted with polishing the rough stone with hammer
and chisel, and culminating in the variously shaped stones
appearing in the Master Mason Degree, there is hardly a ceremony in freemasonry that is not connected in some way
with stone. It is noteworthy that after completion of the initiation ceremony, the new Brother is placed in a particular
position within the Lodge and is usually told that he represents the cornerstone on which freemasonrys spiritual Temple must be built. Additionally, when joining Royal Arch
Masonry, the initiated is asked to create a signature mark
which serves as a personal identifier carved into stone. On
numerous occasions, Rembrandt places the signature in his
paintings as if written on stone for the viewer to ponder. It is
important to acknowledge this deliberate choice, which goes
beyond utilitarian use of the signature for identification purposes of the artists work.
6. open sesame . . .
another type of authorship can be seen in the form of Iwitness in Rembrandts famous Dana (fig. 10). This masterpiece marks one of the first instances in which the artist

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presents himself in the act of creation


within the depiction of a mythological
scene. In the background, one can actually detect Rembrandt, wearing his
signature beret and holding brushes
and a palette perpendicular to his
body, suggesting that the paint is still
wet (fig. 11).
It is surprising enough to discover
Rembrandt inserting himself into a
mythological painting as both the creator and a witness of the scene.12 Even
more intriguing is the combination of
the artists tools of the trade he is holding in his right armthe palette and
brushes together with the keys. There
is no literal door to be opened in this painting. Rather, these
keys are suggestive of an intellectual and perhaps a spiritual
door that can be opened by and for the viewer. Setting the obvious story aside, the myth of Dana is also an allegory of the
boundless reach of divinity. While Dana is locked away in a
tower, God/Jupiter finds a devious way of entering the room in
the form of a golden shower (in Rembrandts interpretation
this is represented by a golden luminous stream of light invading the scene from above). The keys traditionally symbolize a
means by which secrets are obtained. Here we are invited by
the artist to enter the sanctum sanctorum along with the divinity. Once again, we encounter an essential code in
Freemason culture: the key
as a symbol for unlocking
the truth.13
One more hint to consider.
The shackled cupid in the
background of the painting
has served as a source of debate (fig. 12). The accepted
Fig. 12

Fig. 11

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Fig. 13

rembrandt: turn of the key

interpretation was made by Erwin


Panofsky, who claimed that it represented Danas chastity (though hard
to reconcile with Danas welcoming
attitude towards the intrusion). It is
interesting to observe what happens if
we continue to apply a Masonic lens.
To Freemasons, Cupid represents secrecy, based on the idea that love
should be practiced in private.14 By
adding handcuffs to Cupid, the symbol of privacy, is Rembrandt implying
that secret knowledge is being exposed publicly? As viewers we are observing a nude woman on whom,
according to the myth, no one was to cast eyes. Simultaneously,
are we becoming privy to sacred and secret Masonic symbols
(i.e., the key, the streaming light, the proximity of the artist to
God as creator) that have been embedded by the artist? Is Dana
the center of this drama or is Rembrandt placing a seductive
woman here as a distraction from another meaning?
7. all roads lead to . . . ?
rembrandt had various sources for his esoteric quest. One of
them was his fascinating involvement with Menasseh Ben Israel,
or Manoel Dias Soeiro, who was a Portuguese rabbi, cabalist,
scholar, writer, printer, publisher, and founder of the Hebrew
printing press in Amsterdam in 1626. Rembrandt borrowed concepts from the kabala for numerous paintings and prints, such as
Belshazzars Feast, and it is speculated that he had access to esoteric symbols through Ben Israel.15 There was more evident collaboration when Ben Israel commissioned Rembrandt to create
four illustrations for his publication Piedra Gloriosa (Glorious
Rock)David and Goliath, Daniels Vision of Four Beasts, Jacobs Ladder, and The Image Seen by Nebuchadnezzar, published in 1655. In combination, we have the glorified rock (the

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subject of this volume and one of the most important symbols


for Freemasons), the borrowing from the kabala, and the geometric solution that is used to represent the relationship between
God and men. All four images are strongly indicative of Masonic
preoccupations. Specifically, I would like to focus attention on
Daniels Vision (fig. 13). Here we ought to look for: (1) concentric circles surrounding the divine figure at the top; and (2) a
compass shape spreading from the oculus, a symbol of divinity,
pointing down to the Earth.
These two geometric applications are closely reminiscent
of a key Masonic concept describing God as The Great
Architect. The basic tools of measurement, a pair of compasses and the square, are considered the main two symbols
of sacred geometry. Further, the circle as a product of the
compass becomes a symbol of the divine and the creative.16
It is noteworthy that the compass lines radiating from the
oculus and the God figure at the top reach all the way to the
ground to touch Rembrandts signature (fig. 14). Rembrandt
thus underlines the connection between the two creators in
this imageGod and the Artist. It is also fascinating that
when the book was reprinted a different artist was commissioned (most likely unbeknownst to Ben Israel) to copy
Rembrandts etchings. While
Daniels Vision was replicated,
it was altered by deleting the
image of God and the compass
lines. Was Rembrandts visual
solution too controversial?
Fig. 14

8. mirror, 17 mirror on the wall . . .


going a step further, Rembrandts famous print The Alchemist (c. 1652), which has been ascribed various titles (including Faust), is even more daring. It presents a visual
riddle based on a synthesis of three sources: Christianity, Kabala, and Alchemy (fig. 15). A man draped in what appears

92

Fig. 15

rembrandt: turn of the key

to be a tallit (a Jewish prayer


shawl) rises and turns towards the
window. A radiating disk surrounded by three concentric circles
appears in mid-air, obscuring a figure holding and pointing into a
mirror. This levitating vision bears
a secret inscription, which has
been de-coded by using a mirror
and deciphering the Latin anagram
to read as Hebrew words that spell
the name of God.18 The middle of
the roundel bears a cross dividing
it into four sections with the letters INRI (from New Testament: Iesus Nazarenus, Rex Iudaeorum or Jesus Christ,
King of the Jews). However, the letters have been rotated
with the R residing prominently at the top, spelling RIIN
clockwise.19 Riin is an equivalent way to notate Rembrandts last name Rijn, since in Dutch the capital letters I
and J can be written identically.20 Rembrandt also added
a clever and daring spin to the abbreviation of the letter R
from Rex (or King), identifying himself by either first or last
name: R for Rembrandt or R for Rijn.
In alchemy and according to the kabala, the mirror reflects
the image of God. The world can be seen as Gods mirror.21
As we have seen, Rembrandt was intimately acquainted with
the mirror through countless self-portraits. His work can be
seen as an extension of another mirror in reflecting both
Rembrandt and the Divine. Once again, Rembrandt imbeds
his presence while also aligning the artist with the carrier of
light and secret knowledge. The presence of the skull, globe,
books, and the mysterious writing embedded in the roundel
of the apparition has led scholars to see the scene as the vision of the alchemist. Consider a striking new juxtaposition.
Compare the Rosicrucian Cross (also prevalent in Masonic
symbolism)22 to Rembrandts image of the visionyou will
find the three concentric circles, the cross in the middle, He-

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Figs. 16abc

brew letters spelling God, and the letters INRI (fig. 16).
In People of the Book: Christian Identity and Literary Culture, David Lyle Jeffrey stresses the interest that Goethe, as a
Freemason, had in this particular print by Rembrandt. In
fact, Goethe went so far as to obtain a reproduction, illustrating with it his 1790 first edition of Faust.23 Jeffrey suspects that the Alchemists alternate title, Doctor Faustus, was
probably inspired by this association. Further, Jeffrey concludes, The light symbol which comes through the window
does have significance for Freemasonry.24 In addition to the
Christian interpretation of the letters INRI signifying Christ,
Jeffrey adds that for Masons this came to signify rather Igne
Natura Renovatur Integrasuggesting the sacred fire of Masonry that renews humankind naturalistically. Goethe obviously saw something more than just a collectible item in this
mysterious etching by Rembrandt.
Rembrandt had one more source for esoteric knowledge.
Thomas E. Rassieur, in his essay on Rembrandts printmaking
techniques, mentions the artists reuse [of] plates previously
worked by other printmakers.25 He explains that usually
Rembrandt purchased new plates, for those that already
bore an etched or engraved image usually cost more. Out of
the two known exceptions, Rassieur describes the first as
Rembrandts frugal recycling of an out-of-date mathematical
diagram no longer having commercial value. Fate has it that
this copper plate survived and is now housed at the
Rijksmuseum (fig. 17). It is on the verso of the plate for the

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rembrandt: turn of the key

famous 1636 Return of the Prodigal


Son. Careful observation reveals a
squaring-of-the-circle diagram.26 This
mathematical problem has puzzled
great minds, including Leonardo da
Vinci, over centuries. Contemplation
of this problem remains an important
practice for Freemasons today,
though since 1882 it has been proven
to be an impossible task. For
Freemasons ones daily work includes
Fig. 17
the striving to comprehend the divine plan, with the understanding that such comprehension will never be possible. This
oxymoron is reflected in the problem of the squaring of the
circle. The goal is not to solve it, but to practice creative thinking. We know that Rembrandt spent an enormous amount of
money on collecting other artists work. It is too soon to jump
to the conclusion that he may have purchased this plate out of
frugality. Rather, it gave him yet another source for a timeless
esoteric geometric problem that may have resonated with his
creative and philosophical endeavors.
9. the circle of trust
who would have appreciated such nuanced suggestions in
Rembrandts time? It is noteworthy that his first known
commission of 1625, The Stoning of St. Stephen, came from
Petrus Scriverius (Peter Hendrickz Schrijver), a fascinating
and politically controversial figure and a friend of Willem
van Swanenburg (Rembrandts first teachers younger
brother), as pointed out by Gary Schwartz. A seventeenthcentury portrait engraving by an unknown artist bears his
name with an additional inscription Lare Secreto from the
Latin for Secret Home (fig. 18). In describing Scriverius,
Schwartz writes: His album is enriched with drawings by
three Haarlem artists he called friends [including] the imprisoned leader of [the] Rosicrucian movement Johannes

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Torrentius.27 This is the first


known connection between Rembrandt and a Rosicrucian supporter. Schwartz also observes an
interesting coincidence: Rembrandt left Leiden where his first
masters parental home adjoined
that of Petrus Sciverius, for Amsterdam, where he moved in with
his second master Pieter Lastman, next door to Geurt Dircksz
(Scriverius cousin). These facts
point out an intricate network of
connections leading to Rembrandts installment in AmsterFig. 18
dam and his early success. It is
noteworthy that at the root of Rembrandts beginnings as an
artist stands a man who was friends with a highly controversial Rosicrucian artist. It is also important to remember that
Rosicrucianism was instrumental in the development of
Freemasonry.28 In 1928, Karl H. De Haas published a book
in which he explored a geometric reconstruction of Rembrandts painting, The Nightwatch.29 Following De Haas argument, in his article on Torrentius, George Taylor drew
parallels between the work of Torrentius and Rembrandt, observing that there are similar geometric principles underlying
the composition of their work that can be related to Rosicrucian symbols of the Order.30 There is yet another link between Scriverius and RembrandtJoost van den Vondel, one
of the greatest Dutch poets of the seventeenth century. There
are a number of Rembrandt paintings that have been suspected of reflecting scenes from Vondels plays. One example
is Rembrandts hard-to-identify history painting from 1626,
which Schwartz suggests is Palamedes before Agamemnon,
commissioned by Scriverius as a historical analogy supporting Remonstrants. Schwartz notes that just a year before,
Vondel published his play Palamedes, or Innocence Mur-

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rembrandt: turn of the key

dered whose main characters . . . neatly match the major figures in the painting. . . . It lay in the line of expectation that
Scriveriuss clan would encourage Vondel to write
Palamedes, and that Scriverius would commission Rembrandt to paint it.31 Another match between the painter and
the poet is Vondels 1639 play Gebroeders (Brothers), staged
in 1641, and Rembrandts The reconciliation of David and
Mephiboseth (1642). The main two subjects of the play and
the paintings are not brothers by blood but by compassion
and convictiona theme that would fit well with the Rosicrucian or Masonic Brotherhood.
The inspiration worked both ways. Vondels famous lines
were written in response to Rembrandts portrait of Cornelis
Cllaesz Anslo: O, Rembrandt, paint Cornelis voice. The
visible part is the least of him; the invisible is known only
through the ears; he who would see Anslo must hear him.32
The subject of invisibility is described by David Stevenson:
Masons, as many of the seventeenth-century references to
the Mason word indicate, were not what they seemed, in
that outsiders could not see anything distinctive about them
which identified them as masons, but fellow initiates could
detect invisible emanations which identified them.33 Vondel,
indeed, may have belonged to a secret
group that would have
preferred to stay invisible to the authorities.
A seventeenth-century
Rosicrucian caricature
survives, etched by
Pieter Nolpe,34 with a
verse below the image
mentioning a meeting of the brotherhood
of the Red Cross (fig.

Fig. 19

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19). In this print, the clothing of two figures is decorated


with a cross. And among those whose identities are suggestedJoost van den Vondel and Torrentius.35
10. the secret agent . . .
lets consider one more suspect. It has been widely accepted that Rembrandt was introduced to the Dutch Court
by Constantijn Huygens, who was a secretary to the two
Princes of Orange.36 Huygens secured for Rembrandt a considerable number of commissions for the Princes gallery in
The Hague, including a five-part series of the Passion of
Christ. Thus most art historians remark that Rembrandts
career was made overnight in his early twenties. We return
full circle to the original question of just how and why the
paths of a millers son and that of one of the most brilliant
and erudite courtiers came to cross. It seems that this meeting was not accidental. The choice of Jacob Isaacsz Swanenburg as Rembrandts first painting teacher was not random;
it was an attempt to establish connections at the court. Jacobs cousin had married into Huygenss family;37 it, then,
was only a question of time for the exceptionally talented
student to be introduced to the art connoisseur.38
Who was Huygens beyond his official court identity? Here
are some illuminating facts:39
1. One of Huygens friends and correspondents was the famous Freemason Christopher Wren.40
2. Huygens collected rare treatises on Rosicrucianism and
Kabalism.41
3. He worked closely with operative Masons while designing his own house and contributing plans for the Mauritshuis in The Hague.42
4. Huygens was known for frequently describing God as
the Great Architect.43
5. In 1661, his son Christiaan paid several visits in London
to Sir Robert Moray, a Scottish soldier, statesman, diplo-

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rembrandt: turn of the key

Fig. 20

mat, judge, spy, Freemason and philosopher.


6. Moray sealed his letters to both Huygenses, father and
son, with a Masonic seal.44
7. Visual evidence points to possible Masonic associations as
well: in Huygens impressive portrait by Thomas Keyser,
the artist portrays him at his desk with Huygenss left
hand prominently resting on a pair of compasses (fig. 20).
These facts allow us to revisit Huygens great interest and
early support of Rembrandt45 in a new light (a fraternal bond
based on Masonic46 ideology?). Paradoxically, Rembrandts
success ended as abruptly as it started, in near poverty. If
Huygens made Rembrandts career, could it be Huygens who
contributed to destroying it as well? An unexplained falling
out47 between the two friends was reflected by the ending of
the courts patronage.48 Was the disclosure of Masonic symbols in Rembrandts painting the cause of the sudden withdrawal of support? Was Huygens afraid to be openly
discovered for his Masonic ties at the court by his association with Rembrandt? In Rembrandt His Life, His Paintings,
Gary Schwartz has presented the hypothesis that Rembrandts ultimately unexplainable bankruptcy was political in
nature.49 To go only a step further, was Rembrandts financial decline also tied to Huygens blacklisting?

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99

11. oh brother . . .
an important question remains: when did the Freemasons
originate in the Netherlands? It is commonly accepted that
official Freemason history began with the 1717 Grand
Lodge in England. Naturally, so powerful an organization,
unified under the Grand Lodge, was not born overnight. Its
roots extend deep into the past. In his insightful book, The
Origins of Freemasonry, David Stevenson observes that
without denying the importance of grand lodges in the
spread and development of freemasonry, it is difficult to see
the existence of a grand lodge as an essential of freemasonry,
necessary before the latter term can be used.50 Stevenson
provides a chart for pre-1710 Masonic lodges in Scotland
with the earliest documented lodge, Aitchisons Heaven, dating to 1599.51 Such Masonic documents rarely survive prior
to the eighteenth century. Though Holland was considered
to be tolerant to the outsiders, in Rembrandts time one
could still risk being jailed or even tortured for belonging to
an unsanctioned organization. Consider the example of the
Dutch painter known as Johannes Torrentius (earlier mentioned in connection with Scriverius), whose paintings were
ordered to be burned, after he was accused of being a Rosicrucian, arrested (in 1627), and tortured in prison.
The Freemasons left behind other clues of their existencepredominantly in architecture. In the Netherlands,
Jacob van Campen (15951657), an artist and an architect
(and a friend of Constantijn Huygens), adopted Vitruvian
principles (based on the work of Roman architect Marcus
Vitruvius Pollio) to help design the Mauritshuis. To comprehend the importance of the Masonic implication, consider
Stevensons evaluation: Vitruvius concept of the architect
was vital to the changing perceptions of the mason craft . . .
which helped to lead to the emergence of freemasonry; and
again: It would seem, then, that some men joined lodges
through identifying masonry with Vitruvian concepts of architecture.52 In addition, van Campens work was influ-

100

rembrandt: turn of the key

enced by Christopher Wren, the English architect and


Freemason (mentioned earlier), evidenced in the famous example of Nieuwe Kerk in Haarlem. Intriguingly, a Masonic
Lodge under the name of Jacob van Campen was established
in 1875 in Amersfoot (in the province of Utrecht) in honor
of van Campens symbolic legacy in architecture.
Van Campen is credited with the redesign of Rembrandts
house on Sint-Anthonisbreestraat around 162728. This addition included a new faade with a triangular pediment. A
pediment including an oculus in the center is strongly evocative of Masonic architectural design. The delta triangle,
which masons greatly revere, is a symbol of Freemasonry
adopted from the Egyptians. Among its many profound
meanings, it represents the presence of God as the Great Architect. Part of the importance of this symbol is that for the
uninitiated it looks like an archetypal geometrical shape; but
to the initiated, the sacred meaning is evident, for as Stevenson notes, Playing the mason was being invisible.53 This
element in Rembrandts house provides an interesting comparison when seen side-by-side with Masonic architecture
(e.g., the 1866 Masonic Lodge of Dublin and the 1895 Masonic Temple in Canada; figures 21c and b).
The other clue for Masonic presence comes via publishing
houses, sources of the easiest and most consistent method of

Figs. 21abc

communication. Books were the primary vehicles for reaching


out, before and after the official 1717 Masonic formation date.
In the Netherlands, The Plantin Press at Antwerp was one of the
focal centers of the fine printed book in the sixteenth century.
Christophe Plantin fled from Paris (where at least one printer
had recently been burned at the stake for heresy) to Antwerp,

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101

where he became a citizen and by 1555 began to print books.


For over two hundred years, the Plantin press had a monopoly,
granted by the papacy, for the printing of liturgical formularies;
yet in 1562, suspected of heresy (Masonic/esoteric ties?),54 Plantin fled to France for two years. After 1564, Plantin set up again
in a new shop under the sign of De Gulden Passer or The
Golden Compasses (also his printers mark).55 Note the hand
of God56 in this design, which is holding a compass outlining an
unfinished circle, with the motto Labore et Constancia (By Labor and Constancy).57 Compare Plantins mark to the common Masonic logothe compass always points down (fig. 22).
The hand of God or a divine presence is usually represented by
the letter G (God = Geometer) and/or by the Delta triangle. In
addition, the motto of persistent or constant58 labor summarizes
one of the main duties of each individual Freemason: self-perfection and self-realization in the world. Thus the roots of what
we would call today a brotherhood of Freemasons (I suggest we
call them PGL Masons or Pre-Grand Lodge Masons) is detectable through visual culture in the Netherlands back to the
mid 1500s.
12. . . . who is there?
our inquiry into the secret world of Rembrandt may not
answer every question here and now. Rather, by opening an
esoteric umbrella, it provides a novel way of looking at his
work and life. In conclusion, consider a new slant on the

Figs. 22ab

102

rembrandt: turn of the key

original set of questions in light of the Masonic tendencies


that we have explored:
1. Did Rembrandt add an extra letter to his name in his signature to reflect his political or philosophical identity?
2. Who helped plan Rembrandts career from his early
teens?
3. What was the impetus behind the numerous self-examinations in his self-portraits?
4. Did Rembrandts possible involvement in PGL Masonic
circles play a part in his overnight success?
5. Did Rembrandt go too far in revealing fraternal secrets,
which resulted in a falling out with his biggest supporter
at the court, Huygens?
6. Finally, was Rembrandts bankruptcy a consequence of
the blacklisting resulting from his divergence with Huygens?
This series of questions marks the beginning of a long and exciting journey. Anyone
can visit Rembrandts house today. You do
not need a special key to open the front
door; just present a ticket to enter what is
now a museum (fig. 23). Another entry
awaits one prepared to use the key that Rembrandt left us through his workare we
ready to open that door?

Fig. 23

notes
authors note: I would like to extend deep gratitude to those who encouraged and advised me throughout the research, writing, or editing process:
Irina Gershman, George Gershman, Amy Golahny, Ineke Huysman, Harry
Maslin, Evan Pepper, Christine Sellin, Paul R. Sellin, and John Slifko.
1. Gary Schwartz, Rembrandt His Life, His Paintings (New York 1985),
20.
2. H. Perry Chapman, Rembrandts Self-Portraits A Study in Seven-

Zhenya Gershman

103

teenth-Century Identity (Princeton, NJ 1990), 3.


3. Antoine Faivre, Western Esotericism A Concise History (Albany, NY
2010), 40.
4. Albert G. Mackey, Encyclopedia of Freemasonry and its Kindred Sciences (New York and London 1914), 11.
5. Jacques Huyghebaert, Three Points in Masonic Context, as communicated by John Slifko
6. A. G. Mackey, The Symbolism of Freemasonry, Illustrating and Explaining Its Science and Philosophy, Its Legends, Myths and Symbols (New
York 1882), chap. XXII.
7. This was probably derived from a longer version: Open the windowshutters, that I may have more light (Macht die Fensterladen auf, damit ich
mehr Licht become).
8. Mackey (note 6), VI.
9. A term applied to painters who followed the conventions of Caravaggios painting style, especially his dramatic lighting techniques, and were responsible for spreading his painting stylistic influence throughout Europe.
10. Traditionally a Freemason member is given a new name after the initiation. Perhaps this could be the reason for Rembrandts need to differentiate the given name in addition to the newly established spiritual and
artistic identity.
11. Malcolm C. Duncan, Masonic Ritual and Monitor (New York 1866),
23738.
12. Zhenya Gershman, Rembrandt: The I Witness, Arion 19.2 (Fall
2011), 6591.
13. Recueil Prcieu, See Ceremonies of the Masters Degree in the Adonhiramite Rite, 87.
14. Charles Clyde Hunt, Masonic Symbolism, (Whitefish, Montana
1939), 326.
15. Steven Nadler, Rembrandts Jews (Chicago 2003), 10444.
16. This metaphor could be possibly applied to the famous riddle of the
Kenwood Self Portrait with Two Circles. J. G. van Gelder (Rembrandt en
de zeventiende eeuw, De Gids 119 [1956], 4089), suggested applying kabalistic signs interpreting the perfection of God to this painting.
17. The original meaning of the word mirror that was used by Kabalists
was from Latin miror wonder at.
18. Shelly Perlove and Larry Silver, Rembrandts Faith (State College, PA
2009). 6365.
19. This observation is partially described by Jean-Marie Clark in his collection of on-line essays Rembrandt Signature Files.
20. I am grateful to Dr. Christine Sellin for contributing to this observation.
21. Deni McIntosch McHenry, Rembrandts Faust in his Study Reconsidered: A Record of Jewish Patronage and Mysticism in Mid-Seventeenth-

104

rembrandt: turn of the key

Century Amsterdam (Yale University Art Gallery Bulletin, Spring 1989,


15).
22. In The Origins of Freemasonry (Cambridge 1988), 96105, D.
Stevenson argues the importance of Rosicrucianism on the development of
freemasonry.
23. David Lyle Jeffrey, People of the Book: Christian Identity and Literary Culture (Grand Rapids, MI 1996), 213.
24. Jeffrey (note 23), 213.
25. Thomas E. Rassieur, et al., Rembrandts Journey: Painter Draftsman
Etcher (Boston 2003), 46.
26. I am grateful to Boris Komarov for the identification of the diagram
as the squaring of the circle.
27. Schwartz (note 1), 25.
28. Stevenson (note 22), 96105.
29. K. H. de Haas, Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek Van Schilderijen
(Rotterdam 1928).
30. In his article on Torrentius, George Taylor (Rosicrucian Beacon 2.1
[March 2012], 19) writes: The connection between Rembrandt and the
Order, although perhaps tenuous on the surface, is reinforced by The fact
that in the foreground of the Nachtwacht, a red rose was originally painted,
though Frans Banning Cocq (who commanded the Company in the painting) later replaced it with an orange on the copy in the British Museum. It
can also be shown that the geometrical basis of the composition of the
Nachtwacht is founded on the aforementioned Rosicrucian symbols.
31. Schwartz (note 1), 3638.
32. From The British Museum, Portrait of Cornelis Claesz Anslo Drawing, inscribed verso, top left, on a remnant of the old mount in pen and
brown ink.
33. Stevenson (note 22), 172.
34. Satire met het schilderen van de Antichrist, ca. 1650, Pieter Nolpe,
16231647, used as an illustration in the book, De geest van Mattheus
Gansneb Tengnagel, Gerrit Jansz, (Amsterdam 1652), Rijksmuseum.
35. G. Taylor, 19.
36. Schwartz (note 1), 73: When Rembrandt came his (Huygenss) way,
he saw in him an artist who could add great luster to the princes court. It
can only have been Huygens who stimulated court patronage of Rembrandt.
37. Schwartz (note 1), 23.
38. The fateful encounter with Rembrandt occurred in 1628, when Huygens travelled to Leiden, and is described in detail in Huygenss diary.
39. Marsha Keith Schuchard, Restoring the Temple of Vision: Cabalistic
Freemasonry and Stuart Culture, (Leiden 2002), 545.
40. The two letters can be found in Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Briefwisseling van Constantijn Huygens 16081687, uitgegeven door J. A. Worp, KA

Zhenya Gershman

105

48, fol. 19r and 5r, Deel 6, 274 and 356, number 6778 and 6954, dated December 31, 1670 and October 7, 1674. Of specific interest is the latter, asking Wren to serve as a reference at court for a Jewish scholar interested to
give a presentation on the curious model of Solomons Temple.
41. Huygens had been a friend of Torrentius. The Rosicrucian painter
protected by Charles I. Some scholars argue that he was associated with
Rosicrucian society in Holland, S. Ackerman, Rosse Cross, 146, 22425.
42. Katherine Fremantle, The Baroque Town Hall of Amsterdam
(Utrecht 1959), 97109.
43. There is a controversial Dutch tradition that Huygens belonged to a
Masonic Lodge in 163738: see Schuchard (note 39), 545, and S. Ackerman (note 41), 146.
44. For futher evidence on Morays contact with Dutch Masons see
David Stevenson, The Letters of Sir Robert Moray to the Earl of Kincardine, 165773, (Aldershot 2007), 7475: The city had decided to build a
grand new town hall. Moray was consulted about how it should be positioned on the chosen site, the market square. He advised that it should not
be built on one side of the square, in line with other buildings, but freestanding, in the middle of the square, in forma quadrata, and that it should
face west. The advice was accepted, and on 6 March 1659 the craft (guild)
of steenmetzen (stonemasons) admitted Moray as a member, to qualify him
for a grant of citizenship, which duly followed on the 10 March. Presented
by the metselaars (bricklayers) craft, he was enrolled as a Brabant citizen of
Maastricht. On 24 March the authorities formally thanked Moray who at
several times has been asked to engineer [some parts of] the new town hall
and the place where it will be placed.
45. The following Huygens quote praising Rembrandt is an excerpt from
the manuscript autobiography of Constantijn Huygens (162931): Such I
place against all the elegance that has been produced throughout the ages. .
. . I maintain that it did not occur to Protagenes, Appeles or Parrhasius, nor
could it occur to them were they return to earth that (I am amazed simply
to report this) a youth, a Dutchman, a beardless miller, could bring together
so much in one human figure and express what is universal. All honor to
thee, my Rembrandt. Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague; published in
Oud Holland (1891), translated by Benjamin Binstock. Art Humanities Primary Source Reading 29, section 7: Rembrandt.
46. While I am using the term Freemasons, Rembrandts involvement may
also include groups that share similar ideologies drawing from the kabala and
alchemy in seventeenth century Netherlands, specifically the Rosicrucians.
47. Schwartz (note 1), 73: By April 1633, however, his (Huygens) enthusiasm had cooled off to freezing point. He wrote a series of perfectly insulting poems on Rembrandts portrait . . . For a few years Huygens was
Rembrandts greatest admirer, and then he turned against him.
48. P. Chapman, 1034: In 1647, the year after Frederk Hendrik had
ordered the Adoration and Circumcision from Rembrandt, his name was
omitted from a list, drawn up by Constantijn Huygens and the architect Ja-

106

rembrandt: turn of the key

cob van Campen, of painters to decorate the Stadholders new palace, the
Huis ten Bosch . . . After Flinks death he (Rembrandt) was commissioned
to provide a single night scene for the town hall, The Oath of Cladius Civilius, which was removed within a year.
49. G. Schwartz addresses Rembrandts bankruptcy in his two books on
him. In The Rembrandt Book ([New York 2006], 43) he writes: From
1650 on, Rembrandts finances went from bad to worse. In a nightmarish
decade, marked by an endless sequence of broken promises, evasive tactics
and lawsuits, he lost his belongings, his house and the art collection that
was so dear to him. He moved to a poorer neighborhood. . . . Valuable
commissions continued to come in, but the once overfull studio in which
Rembrandt trained his apprentices and gave expansive art lessons to amateurs became a lonely place. In his earlier study, Rembrandt His Life, His
Paintings ([New York 1985], 283) Schwartz comments that though there
are about one hundred-and-twenty-five documents dealing with the problems on the history of Rembrandts insolvency, archivists and art historians are not sure what really happened. Schwartz presented a theory that
the bankruptcy might have been political in nature (287).
50. Stevenson (note 22), 215.
51. Stevenson (note 22), 234.
52. Stevenson (note 22), 106, 113.
53. Stevenson (note 22), 170.
54. It is known that Plantin was connected to the movement of Famillists. Both Freemasons and Rosicrucians have a lot in common with Famillists as we can see from the two sources below:
Elizabeth L. Eisenstein in The Printing Press as the Agent of Change
([Cambridge 1979], 14041), noted: We know that the great Antwerp
printer Christopher Plantin was secretly a member of the Family of Love. .
. . We know that the Family of Love was a secret society . . . which allowed
its members to belong ostensibly to any religious denomination whilst secretly maintaining their affiliation with the Family. These attitudes of the
Family . . . have something in common with Freemasonry. Margaret Anne
Doody, in her chapter on Samuel Richardson (Fiction and Knowledge, in
The Cambridge Companion to the Eighteenth-Century Novel, John
Richetti, ed. [Cambridge 1996], 95) highlights the Rosicrucian connection:
The sense of a certain internationalism, and a brotherhood beyond frontiers, connected with a new religious sensibility even to extent of creating in
effect new sects, such as the Family of Love that grew around the
Antwerp printer Christopher Plantin. The early Familists were printers;
their beliefs were the inception of Rosicrucianism.
55. Dr. Leon Voet, The Golden Compasses: The History of the House of
Plantin-Moretus (Amsterdam 1969), Vol. I, 31.
56. The detail from Rembrandts Belshazzars Feast makes another curious
juxtaposition; in this case, the hand of God produces a radiating circle of light.
57. Ron Heisler in his article The Impact of Freemasonry on Elizabethan

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107

Literature (The Hermetic Journal 1990) noted a parallel symbol: A drawing recently discovered in British Library Mss Harley 1927 f.76 verso. The
manuscript belonged to Randle Holme III, the 17th century Chester freemason and herald. Showing a hand with a compass, and with the inscription of
Constantia et labore, it is drawn on a page with the dates 1621 and July
1639 on the back. Randle Holme III probably was the artist.
58. Stevenson (note 22) observed: Further evidence of Sir Robert
Morays interest in symbolism is provided by a number of other symbolic
seals he used. One shows a dice or a cube bearing a star on each face and
the legend CONSTANTIA. Whichever way the dice fell, the symbol remained unchanged or constant (178).

list of figures and images:


1. Evolution of Rembrandts signature from 1626 to 1633, Rijksmuseum,
Holland.
2a. Titus application to the magistrates for letters of recommendation (detail showing Rembrandts name spelled by the official as Rembrant), 3 June
1665, Den Haag, National Archives.
2b. Titus application to the magistrates for letters of recommendation (detail showing Rembrandts signing his name as Rem bradnt), 3 June 1665,
Den Haag, National Archives.
3. Diplme Maonnique Franais de 1945, Grande Loge De France. 2008
Christophe Dioux, used under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/legalcode
4a. Rembrandt van Rijn, Adam and Eve, 1638, The Museum of Fine Arts,
Houston.
4b. Rembrandt van Rijn, Self-portrait, 1633, Museum Kunstpalast, Dsseldorf.
5. Rembrandt van Rijn, Philosopher in Meditation, 1632, Muse de Louvre,
Paris.
6. Rembrandt van Rijn, Self Portrait with a Cap, openmouthed, 1630, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
7. Rembrandt van Rijn, Self-Portrait, c. 1636-38, Norton Simon Museum,
Pasadena.
8a. Charles Willson Peale, Portrait of George Washington, 1776, Brooklyn
Museum.
8b. Rembrandt van Rijn, Self-portrait in a velvet cap with plume, 1638, National Museum of Wales.
8c. Sign of the Master of the second veil, Figure 34, Duncans Masoic Ritual
and Monitor, Malcom C. Duncan, 1866.
9a. Rembrandt van Rijn, Samson Threatened his Father-in-law (detail showing the signature), 1635, Gemldegalerie, Berlin.
9b. Rembrandt van Rijn, The Abduction of Europa (detail showing the sig-

108

rembrandt: turn of the key

nature), 1632, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.


10. Rembrandt van Rijn, Dana, 1636, Hermitage, St. Petersburg, Russia.
11. Rembrandt van Rijn, Dana (detail showing the background character),
1636, Hermitage, St. Petersburg, Russia.
12. Rembrandt van Rijn, Dana (detail showing the cupid), 1636, Hermitage, St. Petersburg, Russia.
13. Rembrandt van Rijn, Daniels vision of four beasts, 1655, British Museum, London.
14. Rembrandt van Rijn, Daniels vision of four beasts (detail showing the
signature), 1655, British Museum, London.
15.Rembrandt van Rijn, A Scholar in His Study, 1650-54, Rijks-museum,
Amsterdam.
16a. Rosy Cross, Francis King, 1975, Magicthe Western Tradition, Art
and Imagination series, ed. Jill Purce, Thames and Hudson, London.
16b. Rembrandt van Rijn, A Scholar in His Study (detail showing the text in
the roundel), 1650-54, Rijks-museum, Amsterdam.
16c. Rosy Cross (detail showing center), Francis King, 1975, Magicthe
Western Tradition, Art and Imagination series, ed. Jill Purce, Thames and Hudson, London.
17. Rembrandt van Rijn, Verso of the etching plate for The Prodigal Son, c.
1636, Rijks-museum, Amsterdam.
18. Unknown artist, Portrait of Petrus Scriverius, ca. 1650, Royal Library,
Netherlands.
19. Peiter Nolpe, Satire met het schilderen van de Antichrist, ca. 1650, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
20. Thomas de Keyser, Portrait of Constantijn Huygens and his Clerk, 1627,
The National Gallery, London.
21a. Rembrandts House (detail showing triangular roof), Rembrandthuis
Museum, Amsterdam.
21b. Masonic lodge of Dublin (detail showing triangular roof), architect Edward Holmes, 1866.
21c. Masonic Temple in Canada (detail showing triangular roof), 1895.
22a. Christophe Plantin, Labore et Constantia Printers Mark, PlantinMoretus Museum, Antwerp.
22b. Masonic symbol of square and compasses, Symbols of Freemasonry,
Daniel Beresniak, Assouline Publishing, 1998 .
23. Rembrandts house (detail showing front door), Rembrandthuis Museum, Amsterdam.

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