2.

006
Course Notes
Spring 2009

Ch. 9 Pg. 1

CHAPTER 9
Viscosity and the Transfer of Momentum in a Fluid
9.1

Introduction

In thermal-fluids engineering, it is usually necessary to move the working fluid of the

system from one location to another. During this transport process, the fluid frequently comes
into contact with the solid surfaces, or more generally the boundaries, that are used to direct its
motion. These may include surfaces that enclose the fluid such as the walls of a conduit through
which the fluid is flowing or they may be the surfaces over which the fluid flows such as the
wings of an aircraft or the body of an automobile. Whenever the fluid comes into contact with
these boundaries, interactions occur that involve the transfer of momentum and energy between
the fluid and the boundary as a consequence of the transport properties of the fluid, namely the
viscosity and the thermal conductivity. As a result, gradients of fluid velocity and temperature
develop in a direction normal to the surface. Knowing these gradients in velocity and
temperature, we can determine the properties of the fluid as a function of position relative to the
boundary. The larger the values of the viscosity and the thermal conductivity, the stronger the
interaction between the fluid and the boundary. This interaction influences the motion of the fluid
in a manner such that strongest influence occurs in the immediate neighborhood of the boundary.
This influence diminishes rapidly with distance from the boundary so that far from the boundary,
the fluid behaves almost as though it had no viscosity or thermal conductivity and its motion can
be described with the aid of the Bernoulli equation that we developed in Chapter 8. However,
near the boundary, the effect of the transport properties can be of paramount importance in
determining the motion of the fluid and, hence, its performance in the thermal-fluid system.
As we have mentioned previously, an incompressible fluid is an uncoupled system so its
thermal and mechanical aspects of behavior can be separated. Therefore, for this fluid model, the
effects of viscosity and thermal conductivity can be studied separately. In the present chapter, we
shall treat the incompressible fluid as a continuum and focus our attention on the fluid viscosity
and the process of momentum transfer between the fluid and its boundaries. We shall develop the
tools necessary to quantitate this interaction in a wide variety of thermal-fluid systems, both
those with internal flows such as pipes and those with external flows such as airplane wings.
Furthermore, we shall quantitate the strength of the interaction between the fluid and the
boundary, and we shall provide some quantitative measure to the distance over which the effect
of the viscosity can be felt in the fluid. In Chapter 11, we shall take up the effect of the fluid
thermal conductivity and the resulting energy transfer process between the fluid and its
boundaries.
Recall that in Chapter 8 we examined the dynamical behavior of a fluid as it flowed
through an open system which we modeled as a control volume. Although the control volume
approach is general and can be applied to a control volume of any size or shape, we found in
Chapter 8 that it is particularly useful when the control surface that defines the control volume is
coincident with walls of a physical device such as a thermal-fluid machine. In such cases, we are
able to describe the behavior of the device in terms of the thermodynamic states of the fluid as it
crosses the control surface. In using the control volume approach in this manner, we model the
state of the fluid crossing the control surface as uniform over the areas of the ports where the
fluid enters and leaves the control volume. In reality, the values of the properties that define the
state of the fluid vary over these areas for the reasons given above. However, if we know the
manner in which the properties vary over the area of interest, we can perform a suitable

Ch. 9 Pg. 2
averaging process over the area to obtain the appropriate average values of the properties to use
in the control volume conservation equations. As mentioned above, the tools that we shall
develop in the present chapter will provide the means of describing the dynamical behavior of the
fluid under the influence of its viscosity so that we can determine the manner in which the fluid
properties vary over the area of any given port of a thermal-fluid machine. To be sure, the results
of this study will be applicable to any situation in which we need to describe the dynamical
behavior of a fluid at any point in a flow field, but for the present, this will be one of our primary
motivations for the study.
9.2

Viscosity

In order to see the influence of viscosity on fluid behavior, we consider a layer of fluid
confined between two infinite parallel flat plates separated by a distance H as shown in Figure
9.1. Because the plates are infinite in extent, the effects of the edges of the plates do not need to
be considered. Let the upper plate be in motion with the constant velocity i9 while the lower
plate remains at rest. The fluid can be thought of consisting of many thin layers parallel to the
plates such that the fluid in contact with the plates adheres to the plates. This is known as the no
slip boundary condition. As the upper plate moves relative to the lower plate, the fluid at the
upper plate moves with the velocity iY while the fluid at the lower plate remains stationary. This
induces a steady motion in the fluid in the x-direction as the fluid layers slide over one another.
Let the velocity of the fluid in the x-direction at any point between the plates be denoted by 1.
As a consequence of the viscosity of the fluid, there is internal friction between adjacent layers.
The layer below the top layer will be dragged in the forward direction by the layer above it, but at
a velocity somewhat less than the velocity of the layer above. This layer, in turn, will exert a
forward drag on the layer beneath it at reduced velocity and so on through the entire fluid layer.
As a result of this motion, there is a velocity gradient dz /dy everywhere in the fluid. In the
steady state,
dy

(9.1)

Fluid velocity distribution

Control volume
Upper plate
)r

HI

Lower plate

Uo

Figure 9.1 Fluid Layer Between Two Flat Plates

This is analogous to the situation in which a deck of playing cards is placed upon a table
and a force is exerted on the top card in the plane of this card thereby setting it in motion. The
card beneath the top card is dragged along by the friction between the two cards and so on down
through the deck until the bottom card is reached which is stuck to the table. In the fluid, the
frictional forces on the two surfaces of a fluid layer (forward drag on the upper surface and

Ch. 9 Pg. 3
backward drag on the lower surface) are parallel to the surfaces. Since these forces are in the
plane of the surfaces, they tend to shear the layers one over the other. This type of force is known
as a shear force, and it gives rise to a type of stress known as a shear stresses which is defined as
the shear force divided by the area of the surface over which the force is applied. Since shear
stresses, in contrast to the hydrostatic stresses we considered in Chapter 4, are parallel to the
surfaces over which they act, we need to specify two directions for a shear stress. By convention,
the first of these is the direction normal to the surface over which the force acts and the other is
the direction in which it acts. For the case shown in Figure 9.1, the shear stress associated with
the relative motion of the two plates is denoted by z.
For the viscous fluids most commonly found in thermal-fluid systems, the shear stress is
found to be linearly proportional to the velocity gradient. For this fluid model, known as the
Newtonian fluid model, the constant of proportionality is known as the viscosity of the fluid and
denoted by the symbol p. Thus, for the one-dimensional situation shown in Figure 9.1
(9.2)

dy

Physically, this shear stress is the force per unit area that must be applied to the upper plate at all
times so that the velocity of the plate can be maintained constant in the presence of the friction in
the fluid.
The dissipative nature of the fluid friction manifest in the viscosity of the fluid can be
observed by applying the first and second laws of thermodynamics to the control volume fixed in
space as shown in Figure 9.1. Let the fluid be modeled as an incompressible fluid. Since the
plates are infinite in extent, the fluid has an x-component of velocity only. If the control volume
(not the plates) has dimensions L in the x-direction, H in the y-direction, and b in the z-direction
normal to the plane of the figure, the mass flow rate of the fluid through the control volume in
the steady state is given by
=

011
rn

th
=

pz (y) bdy

(9.3)

where the fluid velocity z

(y) is a function of the distance y measured normal to the plate. By
2
integrating equation (9.1), we can obtain the functional relationship between i9. andy, viz.
(9.4)
Then equation (9.3) becomes
z3
brH
0
zY
(9.5)
.i
H
H
2
Equation (9.5) illustrates the manner in which the average values of the fluid properties can be
determined, in this case the average fluid velocity.
Let us examine the fluid control volume of Figure 9.la in greater detail from the point of
view of the forces acting on the fluid control volume in the x-direction. (See Figure 9. lb.)
at
0
F
atm
1
rn=

9
t
3
pbyd
y=p-----j YdYPPbThave

/I
+

pgH

Patm + pgH
Figure 9.lb Forces on the Control Volume of Figure 9.la
Patm

FbOttOm

Ch. 9 Pg. 4
Since the forces due to normal stresses acting on the ends of the fluid control volume are
hydrostatic, the net force acting on the control volume is given by
F=

Hb

pg

Hb +

pg

Fm

atnz +pHb_(P +pgHb+bLbL= 0

where the shear stress acting on the top and bottom surfaces of the fluid control volume are the
same since the velocity gradient is constant throughout the fluid layer. (See equation 9.2.) Thus,
there is no net force acting on the fluid control volume. This is consistent with the fact that there
is no net momentum flow across the control surface for this steady flow situation which can be
seen from the equation of linear momentum, viz.
$P(i)dA=th.e_thZue

Then for this steady flow situation with no pressure drop in the x-direction, the first law
of thermodynamics reduces to

= th (u(,,,

Uf,

) = iic

(9.6)

From the definition of the work transfer and the fact that only the boundary mass points on the
top of the fluid layer are in motion, the fluid shear power becomes
=

s1,ear
7

(FJ,

F,

bLz1
1
r
0

(9.7)

--

Substituting equations (9.1) and (9.2) into equation (9.7), we obtain

14;i,car = jtbL

(9.8)

Since the flow is adiabatic, substitution of equation (9.8) into equation (9.6) yields

,, +

(9.9)
pcH
Thus as a result of the action of viscosity in the fluid, the temperature of the fluid leaving
the control volume is greater than the temperature of the fluid entering the control volume. The
rate of entropy generation in the fluid due to viscous dissipation (fluid shear) can be determined
by applying the second law of thermodynamics to the control volume. For the adiabatic, steady
flow situation shown in Figure 9.1, the second law becomes
=

)
11
= thc(s
, s
01

thcln-

(9.10)

where we have used the entropy constitutive relation for the incompressible fluid model. Then
substituting equation (9.9) into equation (9.10), we obtain
Sge,z =

=p
bcln1 +
0

pcT H
2

(9.11)

From equation (9.11), it is apparent that the more viscous the fluid, i.e., the greater the viscosity
of the fluid, the greater the rate of entropy generation. It is also apparent that the smaller the gap
between the two plates, the greater the shear and the greater the rate of entropy generation. Note
that in the limit of zero viscosity, there is no entropy generation in the control volume due to
fluid shear.

Ch. 9 Pg. 5
For the simple one-dimensional geometry shown in Figure 9.1, we have seen the
consequences of fluid shear and the action of viscosity; however, we have not yet seen the
relationship between the viscosity and momentum transfer. To do this, we need to examine the
fluid on a microscopic scale in which we can identify the individual molecules that make up the
fluid. For this purpose, it is most convenient if the fluid is a gas since the kinetic theory of gases
molecules is better understood and simpler than that of liquids due primarily to the weak
interactions between gas molecules. Suppose the gap between the parallel plates shown in Figure
9. 1 is filled with a gas. Consider an imaginary plane located at y = y which is being crossed by
molecules of gas from above and below. The motion of the molecules in the y- and z-directions is
random with zero average velocity, but in the x-direction their average component of velocity is
equal to the velocity of bulk motion, z = t9(y) Molecules cross the imaginary plane aty Yo
with equal frequency. Each molecule that crosses from above carries with it energy and
momentum which are transferred from the layer above to the layer below by the mechanism of
molecular collisions. Molecules that cross the plane = Y from below transfer energy and
momentum from the lower layer to the upper layer. Since there is a velocity gradient in the
flowing gas, the molecules, each of mass m, crossing y = Yo from above have a greater average
momentum component rni(y) in the x-direction than the molecules below the plane y = Yo
Hence, there is a net transfer of momentum from above the plane to below the plane. By
Newtons second law of motion, the increase in the x-component of momentum of the lower
layer per unit time is equal to the force exerted on it and the decrease in the x-component of
momentum of the upper layer is equal to the reaction force. The net effect is the same as if the
upper layer exerted a drag force in the x-direction on the lower layer. The net transfer of the x
component of momentum per unit time per unit area of the plane y = y is equal to the shear
stress z acting on the plane. Thus the viscosity of the gas originates in the net transfer of
momentum in the direction of the velocity gradient (but opposite in sense) by molecular
collisions.
Using the results of simple kinetic theory of gases, we can develop a quantitative estimate
of the viscosity of a gas. Consider again the situation shown schematically in Figure 9.1. Let
in iY(y) be the x-component of momentum of a gas molecule which varies uniformly in the y
direction due to the velocity gradient in the y-direction associated with the bulk motion of the
gas. As we did above, we focus our attention on the imaginary plane y = Yo and determine the net
transport of m i(y). The average number of molecules crossing y = Yo per unit area per unit time
in either direction is proportional to in where n is the number of molecules per unit volume and
is the average velocity of a molecule which is very different from the bulk velocity i(v).
(Typically 1(y) is on the order of 1 rn/sec whereas is on the order of 500 ni/sec.) When a
molecule crosses the y = Yo plane, it carries a value of in O characteristic of that resulting from its
last collision. Let m(y
0 + iy) be the average value of in i transported in the negative y
direction by the molecules crossing y Yo from above. In the first approximation, y represents
the average distance a molecule travels since its last collision and is, therefore, equal to the mean
free path A. Then the net amount of m i9 transported in the negative y-direction is proportional to
,ieIin 1r(Yo + /y) 1fl l(yo Ly)j. If we perform a Taylor series expansion on the term in square
brackets, we get
.

d(rn)

=22

d(niz)

(9.12)

dy
dy
By our arguments above, the shear stress in the fluid is proportional to the net transport of the x

Ch. 9 Pg. 6
component of momentum, viz.
-

d(m)

(d(mt9J

d
dy

(9.13)
j
where a and q are constants of proportionality. Then combining equations (9.2) and (9.13), we
get
= omn3
2 = tp32
(9.14)
where p = mn is the density of the gas. By arguments outside the scope of this treatment, J. C.
Maxwell showed in 1860 that o = 1/3. Thus since the mean free path A varies inversely with n,
the viscosity p is independent of density or pressure as confirmed by experiment.
If the molecules are modeled as simple billiard balls with no force of attraction between
them, the product nA is independent of temperature. Then since the mean speed of the molecules
. Experiment shows that the temperature
2
varies as
the viscosity of gases should vary as I
dependence of the viscosity of gases is actually stronger than this. In 1893, W. Sutherland
showed that by accounting for the weak attractive forces of the gas molecules, the viscosity can
be related to the temperature by an expression of the form
=2anc2

dy

=o(nc2)i

p=A

dy

i=(mnc2)

112
T

(9.15)

(Sfl
1+1
where A and S are constants now known as the Sutherland constants whose values are
determined by experiment. Equation (9.15) gives good agreement with the available data.
Representative values of the viscosity of gases commonly used in thermal-fluid systems are listed
in Table 9.1 along with their Sutherland constants. Note that in the SI unit system, the units of
viscosity are (kg/rn see) or (Pa-see).
Table 9.1 Viscosity of Common Gases at 300 K and 1 atma
Gas

j Viscosity, p (kg/rn see)

A (K

S (K)

Air

6
18.53x10

6
1.462x10

110

Ammonia, NH
3

10.23 x 106

1.4 18 x 10

420

Carbon dioxide, CO
2

15.02 x 106

1.596 x 10-6

252

Helium, He

19.94 x 10-6

1.535 x 106

100

Hydrogen, H
2

8.949 x 10-6

6.889 x iO

100

Nitrogen, N
2

17.8x 106

1.408x 106

111

Oxygen, 02

20.65 x 106

1.749 x 106

140

3.54 x iO N/rn
)
2
9.195 x 10-6
2.064 x 10-6
781
a Except for steam, data derived from Handbook of Heat Transfer, ed. by W.M. Rohsenow, J.P.
Hartnett, and Y.I. Cho, McGraw-Hill, New York, 3d. ed., 1998, Table 2.10, pp. 2.4-2.11. Data
for steam from NIST/ASME Steam Properties, NIST Standard Reference Database 10, Version
2.11, by A.H. Harvey, A.P. Peskin, and S.A. Klein.
Steam, H
0 (at P
2

Ch. 9 Pg. 7
Although we have examined only gases with respect to the transfer of momentum
by
molecular collisions, the physics are similar for liquids as well. Of course, the
quantitative results
will be different for the two types of fluids because the molecules of a liquid
are more tightly
packed into the volume they occupy and, as a result, they interact with one anothe
r more strongly
than do the molecules of a gas that occupy an equivalent volume. Because
of these strong
intermolecular forces, the temperature dependence of the viscosity of liquids
is quite different
from that of gases. As the temperature of a liquid increases, the liquid expand
s and the
intermolecular forces decrease in magnitude. As a result, the viscosity of a liquid
decreases as the
temperature increases. The viscosities of some representative liquids are given
in Table 9.2.
The important point here is that momentum is transferred in a velocity gradien
t in the
fluid by virtue of collisions between the molecules that make up the fluid as these
molecules
move from one location to another location of different bulk velocity. This transfe
r of
momentum, in turn, leads to entropy generation in the fluid.
Table 9.2 Viscosity of Some Common Liquids at 300 K and 1 atm
Liquid
Viscosity, p (kg/rn sec)
Ethyl alcohol, 2
C
O
5
H
H

10.95 x iO

Octane, 8
C
1
H
8

5.10 x i0

Engine oil, Mobil 1, IOW-30 (at T 40 C)b

506.95 x iO

Castor oil

6500 x iO

0c
2
Water, H
8.538 x iO
a Handbook of Tables for Applied Engineering Science, ed. by R.E. Bolz and G.L.
Tuve, 2 ed.,
1973, CRC press, Cleveland, Ohio, Table 1-46, 92. b Mobil Oil Co. Produc
t Data Sheet.
p.
c NIST/ASME Steam Properties, NIST Standard Reference Database 10, Versio
n 2.11, by A.H.
Harvey, A.P. Peskin, and S.A. Klein.

9.3

The Total Derivative

We now want to examine the way in which the viscosity of the fluid influen
ces the
dynamics of fluid behavior, but in order to do this, we need to study the motion
of the fluid by
looking at the fluid at the most minute level where it still retains its identity as
a continuum. That
is, we are going to examine an element of fluid that is so small that we can describ
e flow
phenomena on a point by point basis in space, but is still large enough to contain
a sufficiently
large number of molecules that the thermal-fluid properties can be described by
the continuum
constitutive relations introduced previously. In formulating this description, we
utilize the
conservation equations that we developed for the control volume in Chapte
r 8.
We have already seen in Chapter 8 that there are two alternative descriptions
of fluid
motion: the Lagrangian approach in which we follow the time history of a
fluid particle and the
Eulerian approach in which we examine the flow at a particular point in space.
The two methods
are equivalent and lead to the same end result, but each one has its own set of
circumstances for
which it is the more appropriate method.
In Chapter 8 we saw that in the Lagrangian approach we were concerned with
a control

Ch. 9 Pg. 8

mass, whereas in the Eulerian approach we were concerned with a control volume. The basic
physical laws were originally written for a control mass, and we transformed them by means of
an important transformation known as the Reynolds Transport Theorem so that they could be
applied to a control volume. We now wish to shrink the size of the control volume down to that
of a differential element of volume at some point in space as shown in Figure 9.2. The approach

1,7, k are unit vectors

z
Figure 9.2 Differential Fluid Element
is to follow the time history of a control mass of infinitesimal size, a fluid particle, and to then
shrink the time interval of our observation of the history of the particle to zero. In this limit, the
fluid particle and the differential volume element become one and the same. The result of this
mathematical procedure is the equivalent of the Reynolds Transport Theorem that we used in the
case of the finite control volume to transform the time derivative that appears in the Lagrangian
approach to the appropriate time derivative for the Eulerian approach. For the differential control
volume this transformation is known as the total deriative and it provides us with the means to
find the proper time rate of change of properties that are specified in terms of both time and the
location of the differential control volume in space.
In the Eulerian approach, the properties that describe the flow p, T, u, h, s, and z9 are
functions of four independent variables, x, y, z, and t. The values of the properties p, T, u, h,
s,and t
9 are then specified in terms of the values of the four independent variables, x, y, z, and t.
Each property defines a hypersurface in the resulting five-dimensional space. For example,
T=T(x,y,z,t)
(9.16)
defines a hypersurface on which the values of the temperature of the fluid must lie. Similarly, for
the velocity vector
(9.17)
where
=z(x,y,z,t)
z9). =L9)(x,y,Z,t)

(9.18)

=t,(x,y,z,t)
are the velocity components in the x, y, and z directions.
Consider a fluid particle (which can also be thought of as a control mass denoted by the
symbol CM as we did in Chapter 8) as it moves a distance x, y, and z in physical space

Ch. 9 Pg. 9
during the time interval At. Let us suppose that we wish to determine the manner in which the
fluid temperature changes as the fluid particle moves in space during this time interval. Since the
temperature is a function of the four independent variables, x, y, z, and t, it will change by an
amount AT which will depend upon the amount that each of the independent variables changes.
If

represents the rate of change of T with respect to the independent variable w, then by the
3w
chain rule of differential calculus, the total change in T due to the changes Aw in each of the
independent variables is given by
3T
(9.19)
AT=At+-Ax+----Ay+Az
1y
Then if we divide equation (9.19) by At, we have
AT T 3TZ\X STAy dTAz
(9.20)
At
3t
x At Jy At z At
In the limit as the time interval shrinks to zero (At 0), equation (9.20) becomes
)T (dx
3T (dy 3T (dz
3T
(dl)
(9.21)
II
=+I-I +1I +1I
dt JCM
3t
dt JCM
dt JCM Y \ dt )CM Z
-

where we have used the notation CM to identify the derivatives that pertain to the control mass,
our fluid particle. Let us now define a new differential operator D/Dt such that
(9.22)

Dt

dt}cM

and recognize that the time derivatives of the spatial coordinates traversed by the control mass
are simply the instantaneous velocities of the control mass in each of those coordinate directions,
viz.
=t9

dt

dt

)CM

dt

)CM

(9.23)

)CM

Then equation (9.21) becomes

DT

dT

3T

+i,+LZ
9
=-+t
Dt
t
ax

(9.24)

where
D
= + l5 + z9. + t
total derivative
(9.25)
,
9
1* 3t
x
ay
dz
Equation (9.24) is also known as the material derivative or the substantial derivative since it is
derived from studying the behavior of a fluid particle. When the total derivative is applied to a
property, regardless of whether it is a scalar or a vector, it gives the total time rate of change of
that property.
There are two contributions this total time rate of change:

(9.26)
which represents the time rate of change of the property at a given point in space due to the
unsteady nature of the flow and is known as the temporal contribution; and
(9.27)
x

which represents the time rate of change of the property at a given point in space due to the fact

Ch. 9 Pg. 10
that at a given instant of time, the fluid is at some point in a spatial gradient of that property and
is at the same time moving with some velocity in that spatial gradient. This is known as the
convective contribution for which the rate at which the property changes will depend upon the
spatial gradients in the property at the point in question

p-, p-,

and

-p--

and the speed at

Z)

which the fluid is moving at that point (C,

and i9).
To gain some physical sense of the total derivative, consider the following analogy.
Imagine yourself riding on a train car or a subway car, and the car is in a tunnel. Suppose that the
tunnel is illuminated only by the proverbial light at the end of the tunnel so that the level of
illumination in the tunnel will be a function of position in the tunnel as the light entering the
tunnel is gradually absorbed by the walls of the tunnel as it travels down the tunnel. That is, there
is a spatial gradient in illumination inside the tunnel. The farther into the tunnel the position of
observation, the darker it will appear. Now suppose that the car in which you are riding is
stopped inside the tunnel arid that the intensity of light at the end of the tunnel is modulated in
some time-wise fashion such as might occur as a cloud passes over the sun. The time rate of
change of light intensity that you would observe by looking out the car window would be that of
the rate of change of intensity of the source of illumination. This is equivalent to the first
contribution to the total derivative. Now suppose that the light source is fixed in intensity so that
there is a fixed spatial gradient in illumination in the tunnel that does not vary with time.
Suppose further that the car is now moving in the tunnel. The time rate of change of illumination
that you now observe upon looking out the car window will depend upon the spatial gradient in
illumination and the speed of the car. This is equivalent to the second contribution to the total
derivative.
In a fluid flow field, if the flow is steady, the first contribution to the total derivative
vanishes. In a steady, but spatially non-uniform flow field as in a nozzle or diffuser, the fluid
velocity can vary in all three directions. As a fluid particle passes through a given point, any one
of its properties, such as velocity, changes in response to the spatial variation in the property and
the local velocity of the fluid. For example, consider the steady flow of an incompressible fluid in
a converging duct as shown in Figure 9.3. As the fluid moves from point A to point B, it speeds
up in accordance with the continuity equation. Then even though the flow is steady, the fluid
.,

-*

-*

.=*

Figure 9.3 Flow in a Converging Duct

accelerates, and this acceleration is described by the convective part of the total derivative.
Thus the total derivative provides information about the rate at which properties of a fluid
particle change in the Eulerian approach. In vector notation, it is an operator. Then,
Di

3t

Note that z V is not a scalar product but rather an operator such that

(9.28)

Ch.9Pg. 11
(9.29)

)Y

k.3

Note also that since

V=z +j+-k
3z
y

t+\.J+i9k

,
9
t

(9.30)

known as the divergence, is an operation but

9
t

z9.

ar

ay

V is an operator.

-+-2
Vr2=-+---

(9.31)

Thus, the total derivative of a scalar property like the density is

Dt
t
3x
y
whereas the total derivative in a vector property like the velocity becomes
Dz9
Dt

(ar.

I a- +

i- +

9.

9.
-

3x

z s
z J
az)

3x

(9.32)

(9.33)

iz9
+ t9.
+ t9z i- k
x
z
y
which is the acceleration of the fluid at some point whose Cartesian coordinates are (x, y, z).
We can now use this total derivative to formulate the various conservation equations
that apply to the differential control volume of Figure 9.2. Tn formulating these expressions, for
the sake of simplicity, we will consider a two-dimensional differential control volume in each
case and then extend the results to the three dimensional case.
+I

9.4

zx

Conservation of Mass

In Chapter 8 we showed that the Reynolds Transport Theorem applied to a control mass
reduced to
(9.34)
but for a rigid control volume fixed in space, equation (9.34) reduces to
(9.35)
Consider the two-dimensional control volume shown in Figure 9.4 with flow through all four of
its faces. Because this control volume is of differential size, the first term in equation (9.35)
reduces to

and the second term becomes

dV=--dxdy
3t
cvt

fp( .)dA

(9.36)

(9.37)

Ch. 9 Pg. 12
p

(dp/dy)dy

+
+

Ux,

(&/ax)dx
(dp/ax)dx

Uy,

Figure 9.4 Differential Fluid Element Fixed in Space

where

,
Z(A2) 9
=LP+---dxJt
k

+_r

dx jdY

,J

fl

+LP+-dYJIi?Yv

dx (9.38)

and
(p
t
A
1
).

= pi9dy + pr9dx

(9.39)

Carrying out the multiplication in equation (9.38) and neglecting higher order terms, we get

)
A
1
Z(p

1 +pLdy+z
1
=[pzY +pLdx+z9 2dx]dy+[pz

V_dyldx

(9.40)

Then combining equations (9.37), (9.39), and (9.40), we get

=(pz)dxdy+(pz2)dxdy

(9.41)

Substituting equations (9.36) and (9.41) into equation (9.35), we get for the continuity equation
dxdy +( p)dxdy +(p
)dxdy
1

(9.42)

and dividing equation (9.42) through by dxdy, we get the two-dimensional continuity equation
tf
3p
+(p)+--p)=O
(9.43)
3t 1x
but in two dimensions
3x
y
Then the continuity equation in vector notation becomes

(9.44)

(9.45)
at

If we expand equation (9.43), we get

r9
p
++p-+Y+p--=0
iy

Ch. 9 Pg. 13
(9.46)
Making use of the definition of the total derivative, we get the vector form of the continuity
equation, viz.
Dt
which applies in three dimensions as well.
Note that for an incompressible fluid Dp/Dt
for this fluid model reduces to V. = 0.

9.5

(9.47)

0 always, so that the continuity equation

Equation of Linear Momentum for an Inviscid Fluid (Euler Equation)

The differential equation describing the dynamic behavior of a fluid was first derived by
Leonhard Euler (1707 1783) in 1753 who is the most prolific author of mathematics of all time
(886 books and papers). Euler, for whom the Eulerian approach is named, was the first to
introduce the concept of the fluid particle and, following the example of Daniel Bernoulli with
whom he lived from 1730 to 1733, was one of the first mathematicians to use differential and
integral calculus to describe fluid behavior. Following Eulers example, we shall first formulate
the linear momentum equation for an inviscid fluid model. While this might seem a step
backward given the discussion of Section 9.2, the resulting differential equation applies in a fluid
flow field remote from the solid surfaces that bound it. In many cases, this is the largest part of
the flow. Once we have developed this result, known as the Euler equation, we shall use it to
determine the effects of the fluid viscosity on the flow.
In formulating the equation of linear momentum, we are concerned with the effects of
applied forces acting on the fluid in the flow field. To this end, and keeping with our approach in
developing the continuity equation above, we consider the two-dimensional differential control
volume shown in Figure 9.5. Two types of forces are of interest here: surface forces and body
forces. The only applied surface force that concerns us now is that due to the local pressure
acting over each face. The only body force of interest is that due to gravity. If the fluid element is
oriented in an arbitrary fashion with respect to gravity, both of these forces contribute to the net
force acting along each of the coordinate directions. Then the net force per unit volume F acting
-

0
P

0
(aP/ay
d
y
)

Figure 9.5 Forces Acting on a Differential Fluid Element

on the fluid particle due to surface and body forces is
F

cu,jce

wdv

ormaI
Stresses

(9.48)

Ch. 9 Pg. 14
If we let F be the force per unit volume dxdy due to normal stresses and body forces acting in
the x-direction
Fdxdy

dy

L
Fdxdy

dx dy + p
0 gdxdy

X)o

dxdy + p
gdxdy
0

(9.49)

gdxdy
0
dxdy+p

(9.50)

Similarly for the y-direction, we have

Fdxdy

If we were to extend this analysis to three dimensions in order to include the z-direction as well,
we would have
Fdxdydz

dxdydz + p
dxdydz
5
g
0

Fdxdydz

dxdydz + p
g1
0
dxdydz

(9.51)

Y)XO

Fdxdydz

gdxdydz
0
dxdydz + p

Z )z

Then in vector notation (including all three coordinate directions), the net force per unit volume
dxdydz is
F = Fnormai + FbOlY = Fi + F),j + F
k
5
stresses

dP

3P(9.52)
+---k +pgi +pg),J +pg,k
O
stresses
)
where we have dropped the subscript 0 since the result should apply at any point in the flow
field. Making use of the gradient operator of equation (9.30), we have
F

Fuormat

FhO(IV

(EP

--z +--j
OX
O

F=VP+p

(9.53)
Having determined the net force acting on the fluid element, we can apply Newtons second law
of motion: the applied force is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the fluid particle.
Using the acceleration vector defined in equation (9.33), we have
Fdxdydz

dxdydz
Dt
Dz1
Di
Substituting equation (9.53) into (9.54), we obtain the Euler equation
= p

(9.54)

p=VP+p
(9.55)
Dt
Equation (9.55) represents the equation of linear momentum in the Eulerian approach. Notice
that the terms appearing on the right-hand side of equation (9.55) are the forces per unit volume
acting on a fluid particle in the flow field. In particular, notice that the pressure force per unit
volume is due to the gradient in the pressure, not the pressure itself, acting on the fluid particle.

Ch. 9 Pg. 15
If we divide equation (9.55) through by the density, we obtain an expression in which all
of the
terms have the units of acceleration, viz.
(9.56)
Dt
p
The left-hand side represents the acceleration of a fluid particle in the Eulerian represe
ntation
while the first term on the right-hand side represents the acceleration of a fluid particl
e due to the
gradient in the pressure and the second term on the righthand side represents the
acceleration of
a fluid particle due to the effect of gravity. Equation (9.56) is a vector equation since
the
acceleration is a vector quantity; therefore, equation (9.56) is really three separate equatio
ns, one
for each coordinate direction.

aj

a.
a.
-+tX
--+--+----=---+g
dt
ay

az

at9.

at

ax

pax

ai

i
pay

(9.57)

az

az,9
az
1 P
at
ax
az
paz
(Note that if the y-axis is directed vertically upward, g = 0, g g, and g = 0.) Since the
Euler
equation does not include the viscous forces acting on the fluid element, if we apply it to
a real
fluid that does have viscous effects, it cannot be applied in the region near the solid
surfaces that
bound the fluid (known as the boundary layer) where there is fluid shear due to the momen
tum
transfer between the wall and the fluid resulting from the action of the viscosity of the
fluid. The
Euler equation applies only in that region where viscous effects are negligible far from
the
boundaries. The Euler equation applies to both compressible and incompressible fluid
models.
Example 9E.1: In Section 5.3 of Chapter 5 we considered the case for which a piston
traveled at constant velocity in a cylinder containing a compressible fluid that we model
ed as an
ideal gas. We saw that if the motion of the piston was in a direction to compress the gas,
there
was a compression wave of small amplitude that propagated through the gas with a
speed i9. The
compression of the gas that resulted from the passage of the wave was sufficiently rapid
that it
could be modeled as adiabatic. Furthermore, if the amplitude of the wave was suffici
ently small,
the compression process could be modeled as reversible as well. Under these conditions,
no
entropy is generated by the wave (The eventual damping of the wave is another matter
entirely!)
and the speed is given by

ay

where i9. is the speed of sound and the subscript s on the partial derivative indicates that
the
derivative should be taken in a plane on which the entropy is constant. We showed in Section
5.3
that for the ideal gas model
=JyRT
where y = cf,/c, the ratio of the two specific heats, and R is the gas constant.
We now consider the case for which the motion of the piston is sinusoidal, i.e., the piston
moves back and forth (oscillates) in the cylinder such that its position relative to the midpo
int of
its travel, x
, is given by
0
x x
0 = A sin 0t

Ch.9Pg. 16
where a is the frequency of the motion in radians and A is the amplitude of the oscillation. As a
result of this motion, the gas in the cylinder is alternately compressed and expanded, and the
disturbance associated with this alternating compression and expansion propagates into the gas
inside the cylinder at a velocity of l. This disturbance constitutes a longitudinal plane wave, a
sound wave, propagating from the piston face into the gas. [Note: There are two types of waves
in material media that involve a deformation of the medium: (1) those in which the deformation
of the medium takes place in the direction of propagation, and (2) those in which the deformation
of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The first type of wave is known
as a longitudinal wave, and the second type is known as a transverse wave. In a longitudinal
wave, the deformation is a compression or expansion of the medium, but in a transverse wave,
the deformation is a shearing deformation of the medium. In a solid, both types of waves may
exist, but they travel at different velocities with the velocity of the longitudinal wave always the
greater of the two. In an inviscid fluid, shear deformations cannot occur so only longitudinal
waves are possible.] The sound wave manifests itself as a local perturbation in the density and
the pressure of the gas, as well as a perturbation in the local velocity of the gas.
We now show that by applying the continuity equation and the Euler equation to the gas,
we can quantitate the behavior of the density of a one-dimensional traveling sound wave
propagating from the piston face.
Solution: For the present purpose, we consider the cylinder to be infinitely long so that
we do not have to deal with the events that occur when the wave reaches the far end of the
cylinder. For the case of a wave propagating in the x-direction only, we can write the continuity
equation in the form {cf equation (9.46)]
+z2X
+p-=O
t
3x
and the Euler equation [cf equation(9.57)1 becomes

3x
Let us now suppose that as a result of the passage of the compression wave (sound wave), the are
slight local perturbations in the pressure, density, and velocity of the gas such that
PP
+
0
P, p=p
+p, and
0
=+;
where the subscript 0 indicates the rest state (so that 1
b = 0) and the starred quantities represent
2
the perturbations associated with the passage of the sound wave.
If we now substitute these quantities into the one-dimensional forms of the continuity
equation and the Euler equation and neglect terms that involve the products of the perturbation
quantities, we get

and
=0

0
p
+

lt
po=-
ax

Ch. 9 Pg. 17
But
aP(aP (ap

axapJaxJ
where the subscript s indicates that we are considering reversible, adiabatic (isentr
opic)
compression waves. Then the Euler equation becomes

at
Now combining this last result with the continuity equation, we get
p
2
a

a(a
a-

(az

ap
2
PoEIPoIIPo(1
It

ax

p
2
a

at

0
X\p

ax

2
at

which is the well-known wave equation. The general solution of this equation is
p(x,t)=f(x+t.t)+g(xtt)

wheref and g are arbitrary functions that depend only on the values of x + it and
x zt,
respectively. To an observer traveling with velocity dx/dt = i, the value of x + iYt would
appear
constant; thus the first term in the solution represents the motion of a disturbance
in the
negative x-direction. The second term represents another wave moving in the positiv
e x-direction
with the velocity dx/dt i. 1n each case there is no change in the shape and magni
tude of the
deformation as it propagates in its respective direction. Clearly, in the present case
we are
interested only in the wave propagating in the positive x-direction. Then, guided by the
form of
the disturbance (the movement of the piston), we can write the solution of the wave
equation
describing the local density as
p(x
+
0
Bsinfi(x
,t)=p
z9t)
where B is the amplitude of the perturbation in the density. At t 0, the profile of this
wave is
Bsin fix which is a sine wave of wavelength A = 2irI/i. Then the wave form becomes

0
p(x,t)=
p +Bsin-(xz9t)
At any fixed value of time, say t
, the density varies sinusoidally in x with a wavelength of A. At
0
some time Lt later, the whole sinusoidal curve describing the density is displaced in the
positive
x-direction by an amount ix = iLt. This gives rise to the notion of a traveling wave.
On the
other hand, at any fixed position in the cylinder, the density varies sinusoidally with
time. Thus,
there are two sinusoidal variations in this traveling wave.

9.6

Newtonian Fluid Model

We now wish to take into account the effects of viscosity on the dynamic behavior of
a
fluid as outlined in Section 9.2. In order to do this, we need to develop a fluid model that
accounts for the relationship between viscosity and friction in fluid flow fields. Sir Isaac
Newton
(1643 1727) was one of the first to propose such a relationship in 1687 in his treatise of
the
new physics, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. In Principia, Newton conclu
ded
that the shear stress developed by fluid friction is given by the product of the coeffic
ient of
viscosity and the velocity gradient as shown in equation (9.2). This expression forms
the basis of
-

Ch. 9 Pg. 18
a model which has become known as the Newtonian fluid model in his honor. The Newtonian
fluid model states that the viscous stress in a Newtonian fluid is proportional to the rate of strain.
The model developed from this simple statement encompasses a vast array of fluids, such as
water, air, and oil plus a host of other fluids that are commonly found in thermal-fluid systems. In
fact, the Newtonian fluid model is so all-encompassing that the exceptions to it, such as paint,
liquid polymers, and a variety of food stuffs, form the basis of a new branch of thermal-fluids
engineering known as non-Newtonian fluid mechanics.
Although the Newtonian fluid model applies to both compressible and incompressible
fluids, we shall consider here only the incompressible case. While at first glance this may seem
overly restrictive, it turns out (as we shall soon show) that the incompressible model applies even
to the flow of fluids like gases that we normally think of as being compressible provided the flow
velocities are less than 30 percent of the speed of sound. The incompressible Newtonian fluid
model presents the stress/rate-of-strain relationship in terms of a set of constitutive relations
between the shear stresses and the corresponding rates-of-strain in the fluid, viz.
az9

2p ---,
ox

-c

2jt --

2,u ----,

ay

ciZ

(az9

1
az

\ay
(at9

ax

=ii
ax

9
z

(9.58)

az

+----
P1az
ay

where p is the now familiar coefficient of viscosity. Notice that we have introduced the normal
stresses z which are due to extensional rates-of-strain. Since the viscosity is isotropic (equal in
all directions) in the Newtonian fluid model, these normal stresses are directly proportional to the
extensional rates-of-strain with the same constant of proportionality as the shear stresses are
proportional to the shear strain rates.
9.7

Navier-Stokes Equation

In order to take into account the effect of viscosity on fluid motion, we need to develop
the equation of linear momentum for a viscous fluid. To do this, we need to formulate an
expression for the viscous surface forces in terms of the viscous stresses introduced above.
Again, in the interests of simplicity, we resort to the two-dimensional differential fluid element
shown in Figure 9.6.
If F
101 represents the viscous surface force per unit volume (the two-dimensional volume
dxdy) acting in the x-direction, we have for the x-component of the viscous surface force
=

(
(
a
dy + dy +--dxdy -r)dx + rdx+-dydx
ax
ay
=

a- dxdy + a- dxdy

ay

ax

ax

---

ay

(9.59)

Ch. 9 Pg. 19

(atJay)dy
+

(6Jth)dy
+

(at,,/ax)dx

txy

tyx

tyy

Figure 9.6 Viscous Stresses on a Two-Dimensional Differential Fluid Element

If we extend the result of equation (9.59) to three dimensions, the x-component of the viscous
surface force per unit volume (dxdydz) becomes

3,z.
a- + a- +
3x
y
3
z
Similarly for the y- and z-components, we have
ar..
T.
F
=-+---+-x
z
y
.

1
F

..

(9.60)

-,

V. VISCOUS

Fz. Viscous

(9.61)

=-+-----+--x
V
Z

If we substitute the stress/rate-of-strain constitutive relations given in equation (9.58) into

equations (9.60) and (9.61) and make use of the continuity equation, we obtain for the three
components of the viscous surface force per unit volume
xvi VCOUS

(2

(2
=

2
av

(9.62)
+

(29

s
0
j
1
F
1

\X

?Jy 2

Since the Laplacian operator V

2 in Cartesian coordinates is given by V
2

a-

ay

az-j

the

Laplacian operating on the velocity vector gives

2 +2
a
aij-i-I(a
2i-i- Hi-i-i
(a a
2
2
2+ a
2 2
2 a
a
2 ay
a
az j
2 az
2
dx
2 J

2
Vi3=i

(a2o

--

a2

z+

2
dz

Ik(9.63)

Then we can write the viscous surface force per unit volume in vector form as
= pVz
(9.64)
Now we can combine equation (9.53) (the pressure force and the body force due to gravity)

Ch. 9 Pg. 20
and equation (9.64) (the viscous force) to obtain the net force per unit volume acting on a fluid
particle, viz.
F,

Fpr,ssure

(9.65)
=-VP+p+uV
t
2
9
If we now substitute equation (9.65) into Newtons second law of motion, equation (9.54), we
obtain the well-known Navier-Stokes equation. This is the equation of linear momentum for an
Fnet

p=_VP+p+pV2t
Di

(9.66)

incompressible viscous fluid.

It is interesting to note that this equation was first formulated in 1822 by a Frenchman,
Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier (1785 1836) who was a student of Jean Baptiste Joseph
Fourier (1768 1830) whom we have already identified for his pioneering contributions to the
theory of heat transfer by conduction. Although Navier had the correct form of equation (9.66),
he did not fully understand the physics of the situation he was trying to model. He did not
understand the concept of shear stress in a fluid, but rather he based his work on an attempt to
modify the Euler equation to take into account forces between the molecules in the fluid. In
Naviers formulation of equation (9.66), the viscosity appeared as a constant coefficient, but he
failed to realize its physical significance. It was not until 1843 that another Frenchman, Jean
Claude Barre de Saint-Venant (1797 1886) recognized that this coefficient was indeed the
viscosity of the fluid. Independently, Sir George Gabriel Stokes (1819- 1903) published a
similar derivation of equation (9.66) in 1845. However, this equation was first viewed with some
skepticism. When the Navier-Stokes equation became generally known in the mid-nineteenth
century, investigators who tried to apply it to their data for flow in a circular pipe found that
sometimes it was valid and sometimes it was not. The reason for this apparent dilemma will
become apparent in Section 9.8. Nevertheless, equation (9.66) is an extremely important result in
thermal-fluids engineering that now bears the names of Navier and Stokes despite the pivotal role
played by Saint-Venant.
For the case of rectangular Cartesian coordinates, we can write the Navier-Stokes
equation in component form:
-

(a
a

a
cix

ciz

ax

,1

3t9

(a2

ax

ay

(a

ao

at

a
2
ciy

2X1 a
(a
2

ay

az

ay
a

cz

cjz

2
a

(a2

ax

(9.67a)

az 2 , I

+
ay

2
a
7

az

(9.67b)

az 2 I

(9.67c)

In equation (9.67), there are four unknowns, F,

i., and i9, and we need four equations by
which we can solve for these unknowns. For this purpose, the continuity equation must be
included along with equation (9.67). For the incompressible fluid model used in the development
of equation (9.67), it follows that
Dt
and the continuity equation, equation (9.47), reduces to
V.z1=0

(9.68)

(9.69)

Ch. 9 Pg. 21
In Cartesian coordinates, equation (9.69) becomes
t2

h9

=0

dy

3x

(9.70)

r
r + dr A

z+dz

z
(a) r z plane
-

(b) r 0 plane (z-axis normal to plane of figure)

-

Figure 9.7 Differential Fluid Element in Cylindrical Coordinates

The geometry of many thermal-fluid devices such as pipes, tubes, and cylinders, is
cylindrical. The study of the dynamics of fluid flow in these devices is most conveniently
accomplished if the Navier-Stokes equation and the continuity equation are posed in cylindrical
coordinates r, 0, z, and t. Figure 9.7 shows a differential fluid element in these cylindrical
coordinates.
In cylindrical coordinates r, 0, z, and t the continuity equation for the incompressible
fluid model is given by
(9.71)
The viscous stresses in this coordinate system are given by
rr =

r9 =

/1

r r j

2,u i-,

3r

1zl
J + r0jI

(1t9
2p1

r 0

ze =zze

9
t
=

(?39
/I
\Z

r
1

(9.72)
t9

rO

= Trz =

PI

:_L

cz

or

The r-, 6-, and z-components of the Navier-Stokes equation in cylindrical coordinates for the
incompressible fluid model with constant viscosity are given by, respectively

Ch. 9 Pg. 22

dr

rO

Zj

(9.73 a)

(1

2 9

t9
2
d

2
dZ
p

a- +

i- +

rdO

1
1
)I+8
+roO
6
=-+pg
p--- c(rt9
r uO 2
orror

2 t
.
9
r c,O

(9.73b)

oz 2

p1

dr

rO

(9.73c)

(
=-----+pg +
u1 ---I r1
iz

[r3r

3r

1+
/)

r2

g2

2
z

The Navier-Stokes equation is a non-linear, second-order, partial differential equation as

is the Euler equation. Because of the non-linear nature of these equations inherent in the
convective term on the left-hand side of equation (9.67) [and equation (9.57) as well] there are no
general solutions. However, there are solutions of the Navier-Stokes equation in special cases
commonly encountered in thermal-fluids engineering for which the non-linear terms vanish.
These are known as fully-developed flows in which the viscous forces dominate and occur at low
values of the Reynolds number, and we shall discuss several of the more important cases shortly.
Similarly, for flows in which viscous forces are not important, there are solutions of the
Euler equation in special cases known as irrotational flows for which the average angular
velocity of every fluid particle is zero. With this information, thermal-fluids engineers can
determine the pressure distribution over bodies, such as aerodynamic shapes like aircraft wings
and fuselages, immersed in the flow. In fact, this work forms a special subset of thermal-fluids
engineering known as aerodynamics. Knowing the pressure distribution on these shapes, the
aerodynamicist can then calculate the lift force acting on them. While this work is extremely
important (particularly in the aircraft industry), it is outside the scope of the present treatment and
we shall not consider it here. Rather, we shall focus our attention on the Navier-Stokes equation
which will enable us to determine the drag force acting on these shapes. This information will
enable us to design the propulsion plants required to power these vehicles.
The development of powerful, high-speed computers has facilitated the solution of both
Navier-Stokes
the
equation and the Euler equation for more complex cases that are beyond our
mathematical capabilities to obtain closed form analytical solutions. This has led to a relatively
new subset of thermal-fluids engineering known as computational fluid dynamics. These are the
techniques used, for example, to solve the Euler equation for an entire commercial aircraft flying
at near sonic speed or to solve the Navier-Stokes equation for the flow field characteristics of a
viscous fluid such as water flowing through a complex shape such as the impeller of a pump.
Unfortunately, these numerical methods are also outside the scope of the present treatment and
will not be considered here.
At this point in our development, what we can do is study those special cases for which

Ch. 9 Pg. 23
we can develop solutions to the Navier-Stokes equation. However, in order to do this, we need a
set of boundary conditions. For the Newtonian fluid model, we have two. At the solid surface
bounding the fluid (the wall), we have the no-slip boundary condition in which the fluid sticks
to the wall so that the velocity of the fluid relative to the wall is zero. In addition, there is no flow
through the wall. Then for a stationary wall with a fluid flowing in the x-direction, the boundary
conditions become
= 0
(no slip boundary condition)
(9.74)
= 0
(no flow through the wall boundary condition)
If the fluid is a liquid that forms a free surface as in the case of an open channel flow, for
example, there is an additional boundary condition. Suppose for example that the fluid flowing is
water and that it forms a free surface with the atmosphere. From Table 9.1, we note that the
viscosity of water is
P water

l0- kg/rn sec

and that of air is

Pair

1.8 x l0 kg/rn sec

Then
P wafer 50
Peur
Since the shear stress at the interface between the two fluids is the same, for one-dimensional
flow we have
(Tair

inredace =

(V

water

iutc,Iice

or
Pair

(d t9
dy

dy

)ajr

(dr9
P water I
dy
(d
dy Jair

1
50

wafer

3r

P water
Y Jair
Jwater
It follows, then, that if we assume the shear stress exerted on the water by the air at the free
surface is small, the velocity gradient in the air is also small. Then the velocity gradient in the
water is nearly an order of magnitude smaller. Thus we are justified in taking the velocity
gradient in the liquid at the free surface to be vanishingly small, i.e., zero. Physically, this is
equivalent to saying that the shear stress at the interface is zero. Then despite the fact that the
liquid does actually drag some of the gas along as it moves, we model the free surface of the
liquid as one on which there is no shear stress. The boundary condition at the free surface then
becomes

Tfree stt,fuce = 0
=0

(9.75)

free sutface
9.8

Reynolds Number

As we alluded to in Section 9.8, the solutions that we are about to develop for the Navier
Stokes equation are mathematically valid solutions for all values of the parameters involved;

Ch. 9 Pg. 24
however, experiment shows that these solutions are physically valid only for a certain range of
these parameters. Outside this range of values, mathematically valid solutions become physically
absurd because under certain conditions, the nature of the flow changes dramatically. In the midnineteenth century, when the Navier-Stokes equation was applied to flow in a pipe of circular
cross-section, this equation predicted a linear relationship between the pressure drop in the flow
and the average velocity of the fluid. Experiments showed that sometimes the linear relationship
was valid, but at other times the pressure drop depended more nearly upon the square of the
velocity as shown schematically (not actual data) in Figure 9.8.
25

20
>

-p

15

p
p

10

cfl

10

15

20

25

Velocity (arbitrary units)

Figure 9.8 Pressure Drop in Pipe Flow (Break in plot indicates change in type of flow.)
It was not until 1883 when Osborne Reynolds (of Reynolds Transport Theorem fame) performed
a series of very carefully controlled experiments involving the injection of dye into fluid flowing
a circular tube that the underlying physics of this dilemma became apparent. Reynolds found
that, indeed, two types of flow do exist: one at relatively low velocities in which the fluid
particles slide smoothly past each other in a laminar fashion and produce a linear relationship
between pressure drop and average fluid velocity; the other at somewhat higher velocities in
which the fluid particles follow a sinuous path that eventually breaks down into a random or
turbulent motion and produce a non-linear relationship between pressure drop and average fluid
velocity. Reynolds showed that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow depended not just on
the velocity, i9 of the fluid but on the parameter EDp/p where D is the diameter of the circular
tube. This dimensionless number is now named the Reynolds number in his honor and is usually
designated by the symbol Re.
The Reynolds number serves to classify many types of flows, not just flow in a circular
pipe, provided that the Reynolds number is properly defined in these other geometries. In
general, small values of the Reynolds number imply that laminar flow conditions prevail while
large values of the Reynolds number imply that turbulent flow prevails. There is usually a critical
value of the Reynolds number at which the transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs. The
numerical value of the critical Reynolds number depends upon the flow geometry. For example,
for flow in a circular conduit, the transition from laminar to turbulent occurs at a value of

Ch. 9 Pg. 25
Reynolds number of approximately 2300. In any given case, the value of the critical Reynolds
number will vary somewhat since the transition is also influenced by outside disturbances such as
background vibrations in the apparatus or the previous history of the turbulence in the fluid. Thus
there is actually a range of values over which one might expect the transition to occur. For the
purposes of designing thermal-fluid systems, there is a generally accepted value of the critical
Reynolds number for each specific geometry.
Although the Reynolds number is a dimensionless number, it does have a physical
nature to it. For example, the inertia forces associated with a given flow geometry can be
determined from Newtons second law of motion, viz.
ma
(9.76)
and the mass m can be written
m pV
(9.77)
where the volume, V, has the dimensions of a characteristic length, L, cubed, L
. Then
3
3
mocL
(9.78)
The acceleration can be written
=

nerria

a==-dt
ds

(9.79)

acc

(9.80)

Then
L
Then the inertia force can be written
(pL3)[=p2L2
,1ertia

(9.81)

The viscous force can be written

=

(9.82)

pz9L

(9.83)

Then
FVISC(,IfS

2
L

Then the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces in a given flow geometry with a characteristic
length L is given by
P p3L
L
2
Re
(9.84)
p iYL
p
Since turbulent conditions prevail at large values of Re, it is apparent that turbulent flow is
dominated by inertial forces. Since laminar conditions prevail at small values of Re, laminar flow
is dominated by viscous forces.
The Reynolds number has utility not only for establishing the transition from laminar to
turbulent flow but also for establishing the similarity between flows. This is known as the
Principle of Dynamic Similarity and is the basis of all wind tunnel testing of models of
aerodynamic shapes. Consider the case of flow of a uniform fluid stream parallel to the x-axis
with velocity i9. past a fixed obstacle of given shape, an aerodynamic shape for example, and
given orientation whose size is specified by a typical length L. Then we introduce nonnertia

Ch. 9 Pg. 26
dimensional variables according to the following scheme:
P
0
z9
*

x =

(9.85)
x

t =

L
L
L
L
Then in terms of these new dimensionless variables, the continuity equation for the
incompressible fluid model, equation (9.70), becomes
9*
t9*
+=0
+
ax
and the Navier-Stokes equation, equation (9.69), becomes
p:
(2*
2*
*
2
a
I
+z
,
9
+z,
+z
=-+
+
+
*2
3t
3x
dx zLp x
2
2
z

(9.86)

9*

*dt9.*

+z

,
9
+t

3x

at

Z
*

ax

ay

Z
*

+ y*

\*

z9Lp

az

Ii

*2

(9.87a)

2*

(9.87b)

*
2
d

(2

=____

az

2
a*

z9Lp

ap

**

.
9
+t

2*

*
*L9,*
+zY,
. =---+
iz
y

(9.87c)

Notice that the coefficient of the viscous force term, the last term on the right-hand side of
equation (9.87), is the inverse of the Reynolds number, 1/Re = p/zLp. The boundary conditions
for the Navier-Stokes equation for this flow configuration are:
At infinity:
(9.88)
and at the boundary of the solid obstacle:
= = =0

(9.89)

Then for the dimensionless Navier-Stokes equation, equation (9.87), the dimensionless boundary
conditions equivalent to equations (9.88) and (9.89) are:
= 1,

=
*

o,

=0
*

=i

(9.90)

=0

Thus the solution to equation (9.87) subject to the boundary conditions (9.90) determine
i9, i9, and P. Then for fluids of different densities and viscosities, for streams of different
2 and P will be the same so long as the value
speeds, and obstacles of different sizes, i,
of Re is the same. The same is true for any stress component divided by pi
. Thus the same
2
value of the Reynolds number insures that the flows will be dynamically similar. Thus a model of
an aircraft wing could be tested in a water or wind tunnel at the same Reynolds number that
corresponds to actual flight conditions on the full size wing, and the dimensionless values of the
lift and drag forces measured on the model would be the same as those on the actual wing. We
also infer from this solution to the dimensionless Navier-Stokes equation that in an internal flow,
such as we might find in a circular pipe, the pressure gradient in the direction of flow is a
function of the value of Re only, or
,

=f(Re)
3x

(9.91)

Ch. 9 Pg. 27
We will make use of this observation later. In fact, in Chapter 10, we will study the process of
dimensional analysis in considerable detail since it is a very powerful tool in the analytical and
experimental study of thermal-fluid systems. We have included this brief discussion of the
Reynolds number at this juncture because it is so intimately connected to the Navier-Stokes
equation.
9.9

Laminar Flow

We now examine some classical flow geometries at relatively small values of the
Reynolds number (but Re>> 1) in which the flow can be classified as laminar. We are motivated
by several reasons for doing this: (1) We want to learn how to develop solutions to the Navier
Stokes equation; (2) we want to know what the solutions to the Navier-Stokes equations tell us
beyond the obvious velocity distribution in the fluid; (3) we want to try to understand the
limitations of the solutions that we do develop, i.e., we want to know what are the other things
about the flow that the Navier-Stokes equation cannot tell us; and (4) we want to develop
solutions to the Navier-Stokes equation for some common geometries that will be useful to us in
the design of thermal-fluid systems.
Example 9E.2: Consider the flow geometry shown in Figure 9E.2 in which a viscous
liquid flows steadily down an inclined infinite plane in a uniform film of thickness h. The plane
is inclined at an angle 0 to the horizontal and the free surface of the liquid is in contact with the
atmosphere. The flow is fully developed.
(a) Determine the distribution of pressure, P(y), in the film.
(b) Determine the velocity distribution of the liquid in the film, i (y).
(c) Determine the shear stress r acting on the surface of the plane.
(d) Determine the volumetric flow rate of liquid in the film, 17.
(e) Determine the average velocity, 19ve, of the liquid in the film.
(f) Determine the steady-state film thickness, h, in terms of the volumetric flow rate, 1,7,
the width of the plate, b, the viscosity of the fluid, p, and the angle 6.
(g) Determine the rate of entropy generation for a plate of length L.
y

Incompressible liquid
Atmosphere

0
g
Figure 9E. 1 Flow of an Incompressible Fluid Down an Inclined Plane
Solution: (a) The first step in applying the Navier-Stokes equation to a given physical
situation is to select the appropriate coordinate system and write down the equation in component
form for that geometry. For the case at hand, the rectangular Cartesian coordinate system is the

Ch. 9 Pg. 28
appropriate coordinate system so we should be working with the Navier-Stokes equation in the
form of equation (9.67) and the continuity equation in the form of equation (9.70). For this case
the flow is independent of the z-direction, and the flow looks exactly the same at every position
along the z-axis. Hence, all derivatives in the z-direction vanish, a/az = 0. Then since we are
working just in x and y coordinate directions, we do not need equation (9.67c) and terms with z
components in them vanish. Since we are looking for the steady flow solution, all the time
dependent terms vanish. The fact that the flow is fully developed means that the solution should
depend only upon the y-coordinate and not the x-coordinate. That is all properties remain the
same regardless the value of x. Then a/ax = 0. In particular,
and

=0

Then
=

f ()

and the continuity equation, equation (9.70) reduces to

/ax

ay

Then

zY=f(x, z)
but we have already shown that the flow is independent of the x- and z-directions. Then it must
be the case that
= constant
From the boundary conditions (9.74), it is apparent that
= 0. Then since i2,
must be the case that i
, = 0 everywhere. Then equation (9.67b) becomes
2

constant, it

or

=pgcosO
Integrating, we get

pgycosO+ f(x, z)
The boundary condition on the pressure is that P =
at y = h and is independent of x and z.
Then
f(x,z) = P +pghcos6
P

and the integral becomes

P +(pgcosO)(h y)
Physically, this equation says that the pressure distribution across the thickness of the liquid film
is the hydrostatic pressure distribution.
(b) Then it follows that

dx

Ch. 9 Pg. 29
Then equation (9.67a) becomes

O=pg+p
Physically, this equation says that the body force per unit volume due to gravity acting on every
fluid particle in the liquid film is exactly balanced by the viscous force which acts on the fluid
stuck to the plane.
As we have already shown,
= f (y). Then above partial derivative becomes an
ordinary derivative. Integrating the x-component of the Navier-Stokes equation, we get
d
3
2
dy

dt9
dy

p
sinO
p

1
y+C

sinO y
2
y+C
1
+C
2
p2
with boundary conditions (9.74) and (9.75)
(1)
=O

at

y=O

(2)

at y=h
dy
From the first boundary condition, it follows that C
2 = 0. From the second boundary condition,
which says that there is no shear stress in the liquid at the liquid-atmosphere interface, we have
sin6
h
=pg
1
C
p
Then the solution of the Navier-Stokes equation for the velocity distribution is
sin6 y
sinO
2
hy
+pg
=pghy(c) Then the shear stress acting on any plane in the fluid is given by the first of equations
(9.58), viz.

(a

/1 -+-----

ox

but since we have shown above that

__2_

ix

0 the expression for the shear stress becomes

,

=p-=(pgsinO)(hy)
dy
the
inclined
On the surface of
plate, y = 0. Then

)su,ce
of plate

pgh sinO

Ch. 9 Pg. 30
This shear stress is just the x-component of the hydrostatic pressure and acts in the positive x
direction. The force required to hold the plane stationary acts in the negative x-direction and is
given by
= pghbL sin 6
Fpiaie =
where b is the width of the plane normal to the plane of Figure 9E.2 and L is the length of the
plane. Notice that the shear force per unit volume of film is exactly equal to the body force acting
on that unit volume.
(d) The volumetric flow rate is given by
3
pgsin6bh

V = bdy= 1
pg

Clearly, more viscous fluids require thicker films to flow a given volumetric flow rate.
(e) Then the average velocity is given by
2
Vpgsin8h
ave

bh
3
p
(f) The film thickness can be determined from the volumetric flow rate. Thus,
hr
[pgbsin6]

Notice that for a film of given thickness, the volumetric flow rate decreases directly as the
viscosity of the fluid increases.
(g) The rate of entropy generation is determined from the second law. For an adiabatic,
steady-flow film of length L, the second law reduces to
Sgen = thc ln

where
is the temperature of the liquid leaving the film and Tm is the temperature of the liquid
entering the film. These temperatures are determined from the application of the first law to the
control volume. Since the pressure over the inlet port is identical to the pressure over the outlet
port, the first law for this adiabatic, steady-flow situation reduces to
0111
U

= g (z
0

,)=
0
z

+
, =,,

Since

( pg sin 6 Izfl

nPA
P
0
1I

3j

the rate of entropy generation for a liquid film of length L, thickness h, and width b is
= p2b1l3gcsin8
gLsin6
gLsin6
=
gen
I
I
I
p
3
Notice that the rate of entropy generation depends only upon the geometry of the film and
appears to be independent of the viscosity of the fluid. This is somewhat misleading because in
this gravity driven flow, the volumetric flow rate is determined by the viscosity of the fluid and
the film thickness.

Ch. 9 Pg. 31
In developing a solution of the Navier-Stokes equation for this case, the beginning
student might be a bit confused about the elimination of certain terms from the component
differential equations. In particular, one might reason that we know from our experience in
Chapter 8 that a pressure gradient is usually required in the direction of flow of a viscous fluid in
order to overcome the effects of viscous dissipation. If that were the case, the x-component of the
Navier-Stokes equation would then appear as
3P
di)
+p
+pg=O
dy
and the y-component would be unchanged from that given above. Then the solution for the
velocity distribution would become
z9

pax

Since the y-component of the Navier-Stokes equation would be unchanged from that given
above, the solution for the pressure distribution given in part (f) above would still be valid. Then
the pressure gradient in the direction of flow would be given by
3h
(pgcos)
=

but for the film to be truly fully-developed, the film thickness must be constant in the direction of
flow and ah/x = 0. Then for this case, the pressure gradient in the x-direction must be zero and
the x-component of the Navier-Stokes equation is indeed that shown in part (b) above.
Although this solution of the Navier-Stokes equation enables us to characterize this
gravity driven, viscosity limited flow completely, there are many things the solution does not tell
us. For example, this solution is based upon a simplification of the Navier-Stokes equation that
contains only the viscous stresses associated with laminar flow. Therefore, the solution does not
tell us when the film will undergo a transition from laminar to turbulent flow which involves the
motion of fluid eddies in the flow. As we shall see, the Navier-Stokes equation is capable of
describing turbulent flow, but the equation takes on a slightly different form in that case. If the
present flow becomes turbulent, the above solution becomes invalid since it assumes that the
flow is dominated by viscous forces with no consideration for the inertial forces that are
important in turbulent flow. Also, this solution does not tell us the distance the film must travel
down the plate before fully-developed flow is established. To determine this length, we would
need to solve the Navier-Stokes equation with the non-linear convective terms included. In
addition, as anyone who has ever tried to paint a vertical surface has noticed, if too much paint is
applied at one time, a film of viscous fluid (albeit a non-Newtonian one), in this case paint, flows
down the surface. In a relatively short distance, the advancing front of the paint film breaks up
and forms finger-like projections or streaks that painters call runs. The length of film required
for this phenomenon to happen in a Newtonian fluid is not contained in the above solution of the
Navier-Stokes equation. It would be necessary for us to do a stability analysis on the advancing
film front to determine this distance. The point we are trying to make here is that in any physical
situation, the solution of the Navier-Stokes equation can provide us with a lot of information, but
that information has its limits in scope and validity. We should not just assume that the solution
provides us with a complete picture of the situation.
Example 9E.3: A geometry commonly found in thermal-fluid systems is that of two
concentric cylinders, one of which rotates while the other remains stationary: for example, a shaft

Ch. 9 Pg. 32
rotating in a journal bearing or a fluid viscometer used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. The
laminar flow of a liquid in the space between coaxial cylinders is known as Couette flow in honor
of Maurice Frdric Alfred Couette, Professor of Physics at the end of the 19th Century at the
French provincial university of Angers. Couette published his analysis of this flow geometry and
his design of the viscometer in 1890.
There are two possible configurations of this geometry: (1) the inner shaft rotates while
the outer cylinder remains stationary; and (2) the outer cylinder rotates while the inner one
remains stationary. In either case, the no-slip boundary condition causes the fluid stuck to the
rotating cylinder to be dragged along with it while at the same time this boundary condition
causes the fluid stuck to the stationary cylinder to remain fixed in space. The resulting fluid
shear produces a velocity gradient in the fluid and causes the rotating cylinder to exert a torque
on the stationary cylinder. In the first configuration, the flow is stable only up to a certain
condition whereas in the second configuration, the flow between cylinders has been shown, both
theoretically and experimentally, to be inherently stable.
Consider the inherently stable case as shown in Figure 9E.3a. The inner cylinder of radius
1 is stationary and the outer cylinder of radius R
R
2 rotates with steady angular velocity . The two
cylinders are considered long compared to the gap between them which is filled with an
incompressible fluid that can be modeled as a Newtonian fluid.
We wish to make the following determinations about the flow field in the gap:
(a) Determine the velocity distribution lr) in the fluid in the gap.
(b) Determine the torque exerted on the inner cylinder by fluid shear in the gap between
the two cylinders.
(c) For a sufficiently small gap, R
2 R
, this geometry can be modeled as a simple planar
1
shear flow of the type described in Section 9.2 in which the lower plane is stationary and the
upper plane moves with velocity i = R
a. If we take as the limiting criterion the requirement
2
that the shear stress on the stationary plane as predicted by the planar model is within one percent
of the shear stress predicted by the concentric cylinder model, what are the conditions for which
the planar model is a valid representation of the concentric cylinder geometry?
-

g=g
0

g= g
-

r
z-axis normal to plane of figure
Figure 9E.3a Rotating Concentric Cylinders

__

Ch. 9 Pg. 33
Solution: (a) Since the angular velocity a is constant, we can model this as a steady flow
situation of an incompressible fluid. Then 3/dt = 0. For this geometry, there is no flow in the z
direction and there are no variations in any of the flow properties in that direction, i.e., d/dz =0.
The z-component of the Navier-Stokes equation vanishes completely. In addition, the flow is
circumferentially symmetric so there is no 6 dependence and did 0 = 0. Then we are seeking a
solution for which i
6 does not depend upon 0. In cylindrical coordinates the continuity equation,
equation (9.71), becomes

(r)+i+=0
It follows then that

ri3,. = constant
Since z2 = 0 at the solid surface of each cylinder, the continuity equation requires that z. = 0
everywhere. Then the Navier-Stokes equation, equation (9.73a), becomes

and the Navier-Stokes equation, equation (9.73b), becomes

+f
=

or

ri

i
d
=pi I (re)
r

rr

The question is what to do with the pressure term on the left-hand side of this expression. If we
are seeking a solution for which i2 does not depend upon 6, the right-hand side of this
expression is then independent of 6. Then the expression is equivalent to
dP
= constant
dO
If we integrate this, we get
P = aO + b
but symmetry requires that P(6= 0) = P(0= 2rc) which is impossible for this functional form.
Then it follows that P cannot depend upon 6 and

Then the 0-component of the Navier-Stokes equation becomes

Ch. 9 Pg. 34

Ei d

Integrate once to get

=

r dr

Cl

Cl!.

dr
Integrate a second time to get
=

Z99

Cl

2
C

1
-C

+C
2
r

with boundary conditions

(1)

=wR
0
1
z1
2

at

(2)

=0

at

2
r=R

Substituting the two boundary conditions into the expression for i2, we get
cok,

2
R

0=C.L+C
_
2
_
2
1
R

Solving these two equations simultaneously, we get

2w
C=
and C=
I
2

2
-wR
2

l_1L

J
2
R

2
R

Substituting the expressions for the constants of integration into the expression for iY we get
R
2
r

(J)r
2

2=

1
(R
R2)
lI

(2

r-i
1
LR

r]

J
2
R

R2J

(b) To determine the torque exerted on the inner cylinder, we first calculate the shear
stress on that cylinder due to the viscous shear in the fluid. From equation (9.72)
d (t5
irO/JrI

dr

d
pr
dr

2w
=

1
R
2w
=

22

R)
At r

1
R

Ch. 9 Pg. 35
If 3is the torque on the inner cylinder, we have for a cylinder of length L
2a
A = 2R
1 Lp
=
2
l(
where we have neglected any end effects due to flow around the end of the cylinder. Thus, we
can use this geometry to determine the viscosity of a fluid simply by measuring the geometry of
the apparatus, the angular speed of the outer cylinder, and the torque exerted on the inner
cylinder. This torque is typically determined by suspending the inner cylinder from a torsional
element like a slender rod (or even a wire for low viscosity fluids) and measuring the twist in the
element, usually by means of an optical arrangement employing a laser light source and a mirror
attached to the torsional element. One simply measures the displacement of the laser light beam
as the mirror is rotated by the torque on the inner cylinder and, hence, the torsional element.
Knowing the length between the fixed end of the torsional element and the position of the laser
light beam, we can determine the angular displacement of the mirror relative to the fixed end of
the torsional element. Simple torsion theory then yields the torque on the element and, hence, the
cylinder.
(c) Suppose that we now model the flow in the gap as though it were a planar gap; i.e., we
neglect the radius of curvature of the cylinders and treat the flow as shown in Figure 9E.2b. This
configuration is known as plane Couette flow and commonly occurs in engineering practice. The
question is: Under what conditions is this a good model of circular Couette flow?
Moving infinite flat plate
=

[y/(R

)JR
1
R
2

0
Stationary infinite flat plate
1
2
R
Figure 9E.3b Planar Shear Flow
Consider the shear stress acting on the lower plate.
di5
rpianar = p
=
K,

7
R

If we had calculated this using the concentric cylinder model, we would have
2
2w
2w
Tr_R_P
1
P
2
l_L l+L
2
R
2
R
7J
R
2J
R
7
R
-

11

Then
2

rrR
p1anar

l+

2
R

Ch. 9 Pg. 36
If we require the results of the two models to agree within one percent, we have
2

=
planar
1

1
L

=101

+---

K,

iL098
R.,

Then if R
, the planar model, which is much simpler to use, will give results with
2
2 R
1 <0.02R
an error of less than one percent.
As we mentioned previously, the configuration that we just considered is inherently
stable. However, if we considered the other possible configuration in which the outer cylinder is
stationary and the inner cylinder is rotating, it is possible for the flow to become unstable. It is
left as an exercise to show that the solution of the Navier-Stokes equation for the velocity
distribution for this case is given by

1The reason for the instability in this configuration is that the centrifugal force due to the
rotation of the inner cylinder tends to drive the fluid toward the outer cylinder. This motion is
resisted by a radial viscous force. For certain values of the geometrical and flow parameters, the
flow becomes unstable to small disturbances. This instability was studied in great detail in 1923
by Sir Geoffrey I. Taylor (1886 1975), famous for his theory of turbulent flow and other fluid
flow phenomena. ForR
, Taylors analysis yielded a well-defined critical value of a
1
7 R
1 <<R
dimensionless parameter, now called the Taylor number in his honor, at which the base flow
becomes unstable to these small disturbances. The Taylor number, Ta, is the ratio of the
destabilizing centrifugal force to the stabilizing radial viscous force and is given by
-

Ta

1 (R
pwR
2 R
3
)
1

At the value Tacrjt = 1707.8, the effect of the destabilizing centrifugal force outweighs the effect
of the stabilizing radial viscous force and the instability occurs. The resultant toroidal Taylor
vortices, which are rectangular in cross-section and encircle the inner cylinder, are stacked in
the axial direction as shown in Figure 9E.3c. Taylor conducted careful experiments that agreed
with his theory within a few percent for a wide range of parameters, thus demonstrating that
linear stability analyses can make quantitative predictions of patterns. Taylors work in 1923 was
the first to make a direct comparison between a laboratory experiment and a prediction for the
formation of a pattern due to an instability.
It is worth noting at this point that because of the assumptions made at the outset of this
analysis, we have a sense that the straightforward solution of the Navier-Stokes equation for this
configuration is limited in its validity. However, as Taylor showed, if a small disturbance is
introduced into this equation and a new solution obtained, a very different and complex character
of the flow is revealed. Thus, the Navier-Stokes equation is very powerful in that it is capable of
describing the flow of viscous fluids under wide ranging circumstances, but caution must be
exercised in interpreting the applicability of the results. In some cases, one has to know in
advance what one is looking for from the Navier-Stokes equation.

Ch. 9 Pg. 37

Figure 9E.3c Taylor Vortices Between Rotating Concentric Cylinders

(From Laminar Boundary Layers, edited by L. Rosenhead,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1963, P. 4960

Example 9E.4: As shown in Figure 9E.4, a journal bearing for a crankshaft in an

automobile engine has a shaft diameter of 75 mm and rides on a film of oil 0.05 mm thick. In a
particular application of this bearing, the rotational speed of the crankshaft is 3000 rpm and the
bearing is 60 mm long in the plane normal to Figure 9E.4. The viscous dissipation in the oil is
accommodated by pumping oil through the gap at a mass flow rate, in sufficient to produce a
temperature increase in the oil of 100 C.
A
Shaft rotating counterclockwise
Oil
Bearing block
Oil film
Bearing block
not shown here

Shaft

Oil

Section A A
-

0.05 mm
Bearing block
Expanded view of oil film

Figure 9E.4 Journal Bearing

Oil

Ch. 9 Pg. 38
The oil properties are as follows: p
, coil 2120 J/kg K, p
3
011 = 854 kg/rn
011 = 350 x iO kg/rn sec.
(a) What is the rate of shear work transfer in the bearing?
(b) What is the required mass flow rate of oil through the bearing if the solid surfaces can
be modeled as adiabatic?
(c) What is the rate of entropy generation in the oil if the oil enters the bearing at 300 K?
Solution: (a) We saw in Example 9E.3 that if the oil gap is less than 2 percent of the
radius of the shaft, we can model the flow in the gap as simple planar shear flow. In the case at
hand, 0.02(75 mm) = 1.5 mm. Because the actual oil gap is only 0.05 mm, we can model this
bearing as one flat plate moving relative to another. Then
lwar

z9Rw=(37.5x 10 rn)

p
2
1
RLU = p12RL
0
dy}
a )

(3000 rev/min)(2ir radians/rev)

11.781 rn/sec
(60 sec/mm)

2
Acu,j,ce = 2.irRL = 2r(37.5 x l0- m)(60 x i0 m)=l .4137 x 102 m
hear =

(350 x 10 kg/rn sec)

11.781 rn/sec
(l.4l37 x 102 m
)(l 1.781 rn/sec)
2
0.05x10 m

1.3735 x l0 W
(b) For the adiabatic bearing with negligible kinetic and potential energy in the oil, the
steady-flow form of the first law for the bearing reduces to
WcIear

Wchear =

011 (
C
01
rn
ut
7

1.3735 x 102 W
= 6.4786 x 10 3 kg/sec
011
C
1,) (21 20 J/kg K)( 100 C)
(c) Since there is no entropy transfer in an adiabatic bearing, the steady-flow form of the
second law for the bearing reduces to

hear

1 =

gen

Sgen

= in
011

0
(s

s) = th
01 ln
c
011

= (6.4786 x 10 kg/sec)(2120 J/kg K)1n400 =3.95l W/K

This entropy generation is a result of the viscous dissipation in the oil. Ultimately entropy must
be transferred at this rate from the oil to the environment in order for the oil situation to be
modeled as steady-state. This is the reason that large engines are fitted with oil coolers. Smaller
engines rely on simple heat transfer by natural convection from the various external engine
surfaces to the environment to cool the oil.
We have just studied two classic examples of flow geometries that illustrate both the
power and the limitations of the Navier-Stokes equation in describing the flow of a Newtonian
fluid. In both cases we saw that the flow was laminar but could change character as the flow
progressed. We also saw that these solutions have practical applications provided we understand
the full implications of the solutions. We now wish to extend our study of laminar flows to other
special flow geometries that are more commonly found in thermal-fluid systems.

Ch. 9 Pg. 39
9.9.1 Laminar Internal Flows
The study of laminar flows is naturally divided between internal flows and external
flows. Typically, in both of these types of flows, a uniform flow enters a region in which the
flow field is bounded in some way by solid boundaries. h the case of internal flows, like the flow
of water in a pipe, the solid boundaries completely contain the flow, whereas in external flows,
like the flow of air around an aircraft, there are solid objects which are inmiersed in the flow in
some way. In an internal flow, as the uniform flow comes into contact with the solid boundaries,
the interaction (momentum transfer) between the fluid and the solid boundaries that define its
extent is at first confined to a very small region. But as the flow develops, the effect of the
boundaries diffuses into the flow until the influence of the solid boundaries is felt throughout the
fluid flow. Thus, in a fully developed internal flow the effect of viscosity extends throughout the
flow field. On the other hand, in an external flow, the situation at the outset is similar, but as the
flow progresses, the influence of the boundaries is never truly felt throughout the flow field.
Rather, the influence of the boundary is confined to a relatively small region known as the
boundary layer. Inside the boundary layer, viscous effects dominate the behavior of the flow, but
outside the boundary layer, the flow is not influenced by the viscosity of the fluid and the fluid
can be modeled as though it were inviscid. Because of the simplicity of their solutions of the
Navier-Stokes equation, we will first take up the study of laminar internal flows and then follow
this with laminar external flows.
9.9.1.1 Laminar Fully-developed Planar Poiseuille Flow The simplest laminar internal
flow of a Newtonian fluid is the simple shear flow between infinite parallel flat plates that we
discussed in Section 9.2. For that geometry, the flow is actually generated by the viscous drag of
the fluid on the moving top plate. The no-slip boundary condition of the Newtonian fluid
model causes the fluid stuck to the top plate to move with the plate. The action of the viscosity
of the fluid produces a velocity gradient in the fluid. However, if we now fix the position of both
of the plates as shown in Figure 9.9 and we are trying to move a fluid through the space between
Fixed infmite flat plate
y=a

Flow direction

y=o..x>,.............--.......
y

Fixed infinite flat plate

x
Figure 9.9 Fully-developed Plane Poiseuille Flow Between Fixed Infinite Parallel Flat Plates
them in a steady manner, the action of the viscosity of the fluid requires that we impose (by
external means such as a pump) a pressure gradient in the direction of the flow in order to
overcome the viscous drag of the plates on the fluid. This pressure gradient must be the same

Ch. 9 Pg. 40
at every position along the x-direction in order to keep the fluid flowing at the same average
velocity at each position. This type of flow is known as fully-developed plane Poiseitille flow and
is just one example of several laminar internal flows driven by a pressure gradient. This class of
flows is usually known as Poiseuille flow in honor of Jean Marie Louis Poiseuille
(1799-1869), a French physician who studied the flow of blood in capillaries. (The unit of
viscosity in the cgs system is called the poise in his honor.)
Because the flow is fully developed, the flow is steady and the time dependent terms in
the Navier-Stokes equation vanish. Also, the flow has the same character at every location along
the x-axis, so 6/ax = 0. Similarly, the flow is the same in all planes normal to the z-axis, so
0. Then from the continuity equation, equation (9.70), we have
6z9.
629/
6iY
=0
(9.92)
Then z, = constant. From the boundary condition (9.74), iY(a) = 0. It follows then that i9,
everywhere. For the x-component of the Navier-Stokes equation we have

(9.93)
2
j
p
.=0
/

2
ay

For the y-component of the Navier-Stokes equation we have

(9.94)
+pg

=0

For the z-component of the Navier-Stokes equation we have

(9.95)
-=0
From the z-component of the Navier-Stokes equation we conclude that the pressure is uniform in
the z-direction. From the y-component of the Navier-Stokes equation we conclude that the
pressure in the y-direction is hydrostatic. (The dimension in the y-direction is usually small
compared to the dimension in the x-direction, so this hydrostatic pressure distribution due to
gravity is usually neglected.) From the x-component of the Navier-Stokes equation we have
629

iai

= constant
(9.96)
p6x
Thus the viscous force (per unit volume) is just balanced by the pressure force (per unit
volume). This is typical of fully-developed internal flows. Integrating equation (9.96) twice, we
get

p 6x 2

(9.97)

Ch. 9 Pg. 41
For boundary conditions, we have the no-slip condition at the surface of the plates. Then
(1)
=0 at y=a
(2)

at

t
=
9
0
Applying boundary conditions (9.98), we get

y=a

2
irapa

(9.98)

0=p +C
a+C,
1
Jt[ax2
J

(9.99)

2
0=[_i
a
1
l
+C
-_C

(9.100)

and

pLax2

Solving these two equations simultaneously, we get

2
dP a
2
C

(9.101)

1 =0
C
Then the velocity distribution becomes
(9.102)
2pLxa
2
J
Thus the velocity distribution is parabolic with the maximum velocity on the centerline of the
channel at y 0. Then
=

(9.103)

x 2u

--

and equation (9.102) can be written in non-dimensional form and plotted as shown in Figure 9.10

Zfl(Lt

(9.104)

a,)

;::::E:E::;;:::::::::::::-

VIVmax

Figure 9.10 Velocity Distribution in Plane Poiseuille Flow Driven by a Pressure gradient
For a channel of width b the volumetric flow rate is given by
V=

rbdy=t_J
x2#

Y2}
a
1
P3

dx 3p

(9.105)

Ch. 9 Pg. 42
The average velocity,

i,

ave

is given by
II

x 3 p ]2ab)I
x 3p
For the shear stress in the fluid, we have from equation (9.58)
A

max

(9.106)

(9.107)
Thus the shear stress is zero in the center of the gap between the plates and maximum at the
surface of the plates.
One of the key issues in the application of the solution that we have just developed is the
critical value of the Reynolds number for the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in this
configuration. As we have seen in Section 9.8, the definition of the Reynolds number for a
particular flow geometry requires the specification of an appropriate characteristic length to
describe the geometry. For flow in a circular conduit, the physical diameter of the conduit is the
obvious choice for the characteristic length. However, for conduits of non-circular cross-section,
the choice may not be so obvious. By convention, the appropriate characteristic length for these
geometries is taken to be the hydraulic diameter which is defined as
(9.108)

=--

where A is the cross-sectional area of the flow and p is the wetted perimeter of the conduit. This
definition has been chosen because it yields the physical diameter D of a circular conduit as its
!4 and p rtD. For the infinite parallel plate geometry,
2
hydraulic diameter since A = rtD
consider first the case of a duct of rectangular cross-section of height a and width b. Then the
hydraulic diameter for that geometry would be
=
4(2ab) = 2(2a)
11
D
(9.109)
2(2aH-b) -+l
b
Now let b Co since the plates are infinitely wide. Then for the infinite parallel plate geometry
D,r_4a
(9.110)
and the Reynolds number becomes
-

Re=

(9.111)
p
For this geometry, the lower limit of the critical value of the Reynolds for the transition from
laminar to turbulent flow has been determined to be in the range 2200 3400 with Recriticat = 2800
a reasonable value to use for design purposes. For Re> 2800, the flow becomes turbulent and
equation (9.102) is no longer valid.
9.9.1.2 Laminar flow in the Entry Region for Plane Poiseuille Flow: The flow
configuration that we have just studied is known as a fully-developed flow since the effect of the
fluid viscosity is felt throughout the flow field and the resulting parabolic velocity distribution
has the same appearance (shape) at every value of x. However, this solution to the Navier-Stokes
equation for this configuration does not reveal how the flow became fully developed. To see how
this happens, we need to examine the entry region, the portion of the flow field where this
development occurs. The flow field in this entry region can also be described by the Navier
Stokes equation, but now the inertial forces are equally as important as the viscous forces. Since
these terms are non-linear, the solution of the Navier-Stokes equation in the entry region is very
-

Ch. 9 Pg. 43
complicated mathematically and will not be attempted here; however, there are situations in
thermal-fluid systems for which this entry region is important, so it is worth discussing the
physics of the situation.
Parallel plates

1py

Boundary layer

_._

__.

Boundary layer

Fully
Developed

Figure 9.11 Developing Flow in the Entry Region Between Two Parallel Flat Plates
As shown in Figure 9.11, the flow enters the space between plates with a uniform velocity
distribution in which the value of 12 = i is the same at every value of y. As the fluid comes into
contact with the upper and lower plates, the fluid at the surface of the plates is slowed to zero
velocity as a result of the no-slip boundary condition of the Newtonian fluid model. Initially,
the influence of the solid boundary is confined to a very small region near the surface of the
plates, but as the fluid moves downstream, this region of influence, known as the boundary layer,
begins to diffuse further out into the flow in a direction normal to the solid boundary (wall). As
the flow progresses in the x-direction, the boundary layer grows in thickness. Th the boundary
layer, the velocity of the fluid varies in a smooth way normal to the wall as the fluid layers
slide over one another in a laminar fashion. The fluid velocity at the wall is identically zero while
the fluid velocity at the outer limit of the boundary layer is equal to the velocity of the fluid in the
undisturbed flow that has not yet felt the effect of the wall. Then the average fluid velocity in
the boundary layer is less than i, and it follows that the average fluid velocity in the
undisturbed flow must be greater than i
jVL in order to satisfy the continuity equation. Thus in
9
the undisturbed region, the fluid is accelerated as the fluid in the boundary layer is decelerated.
Since the fluid in the undisturbed region has not yet felt the influence of the wall (hence
the modifier undisturbed even though the fluid velocity is rapidly changing in this portion of
the flow), viscous effects are negligible here and the fluid can be modeled as an inviscid fluid in
this region. It follows, then, that the Bernoulli equation is valid in this region. Thus, as the fluid
accelerates in the undisturbed region, inertial forces are dominant, and the pressure must
decrease in accordance with the Bernoulli equation. At small values of x, the undisturbed
region is by far the largest portion of the flow field. Then the pressure in this region is impressed
upon the flow in the boundary layer. As the value of x increases in the entry region, the pressure
falls rapidly in a non-linear manner, in fact as the square of the velocity in the undisturbed
region.
As we move further and further in the x-direction, the boundary layer grows ever larger at
the expense of the undisturbed region. As the size of the undisturbed region shrinks, the flow
continues to accelerate until at some value of x =
the boundary layers from the top and
bottom plates come together, and the local flow velocity in the disappearing undisturbed region
has reached its maximum value i9. This is the value of the velocity given in equation (9.103)
found on the centerline (y = 0) of the fully-developed flow. Thus the flow has become fully-

Ch. 9 Pg. 44
developed at x = Le,zt,,. Since the inertial forces are important in the entry region but not in the
fully-developed region, we would expect the entry length to depend upon the Reynolds number.
Chen has shown that the entry length for plane Poiseuille flow is given by
fltrv

0.315
1+0.0l75Re

(9.112)
Dh
As mentioned previously, the flow remains laminar for this configuration for Re
Then
the longest possible entry length would occur at
= 2800. Thus from equation (9.112)
=0.OllRe+

(9.113)

=30.806
6

Jfl(L

an the laminar flow between infinite flat plates spaced a distance 2a apart becomes fully
developed within (Le,,i,..),,,ar = 30.806(D,?) = 30.806(4a) = 123.23a. Figure 9.12 shows the axial
pressure distribution for a sample plane Poiseuille flow of water with Re = 2800. The pressure of
the water at the inlet to the parallel flat plate geometry is arbitrarily set at j,ilef = 106 N/rn
. The
2
solid line shows the axial pressure distribution assuming fully-developed flow throughout the
flow field with no entry region. The dashed line shows the pressure distribution with the effect of
the entry region included.
6
i.io

I
=30.8Q6

9.99810

9.99610

9.99410

4?

\%

9.99210

9.9910

10

15

20

25

30

35

x/D
1
Fully Developed Flow without Entry Region
Flow Including Entry Region
Extrapolated Fully Developed Flow
Figure 9.12 Axial Pressure Distribution for Flow of Water
Between Infinite Parallel Flat Plates, Re = 2800

R.Y. Chen, Flow in the Entrance Region at Low Reynolds Numbers, J. Fluids
Eng., (95): 153-158, 1973.

Ch. 9 Pg. 45
The vertical line indicates the location of the end of the entry region as defined by the full
development of the velocity profile (x/D, = 30.806 for Re = 2800 for this flow configuration).
Notice that the pressure with the entry region included is always lower than the pressure without
the entry region taken into account. This additional pressure drop is due to the acceleration of the
flow in the undisturbed region. Notice also that once the flow becomes fully developed, the
pressure gradient is the same in both cases. The difference between the extrapolation of the fullydeveloped flow and the flow in the entry region shows the rapid decrease in pressure due to the
acceleration of the undisturbed flow in the entry region.
The effect of the entry region on the drop in pressure that accompanies the flow of a
viscous fluid in the space between parallel flat plates can be seen more clearly by making use of
the pressure drop correlations of Shah and London
2 derived from solutions of the Navier-Stokes
equation for the various flow regimes. These correlations are presented in terms of the following
dimensionless parameters:
=

= ,zlet

(9.114)
D,Re
pi
2
The first of these is the dimensionless pressure drop and the second is the dimensionless length
along the axis of the flow channel. According to the work of Shah and London, for laminar flow
(AP
= 96x
developed

24+
(AF)

appalent

=4x

0.674
4x

3.44

1 + 2.9 x 10 (x)

(9.115)
2

Equations (9.115) are plotted in Figure 9.13 for a flow with Re = 2800. Notice that the pressure
drop with the entry region included is always greater than the pressure drop assuming fullydeveloped flow. The pressure gradient is very steep in early part of the entry region and becomes
a constant value in a relatively short distance. Because of this entry effect, modeling the flow as
fully-developed throughout thus introduces an error in calculating the pressure drop. This error
becomes negligibly small for very long flow channels. Fortunately, most of the situations
encountered in thermal-fluids engineering are of this type. Internal flow channels are frequently,
but not always, thousands of diameters in length so the error in calculating the pressure drop with
the assumption of fully-developed flow is negligible. In the design of a thermal-fluid system, one
must always check to see that this assumption is valid.

R. K. Shah and A. L. London, Laminar Flow Forced Conection in Ducts, Academic

Press, new York, 1978, pp. 40-42 and 168.

Ch. 9 Pg. 46
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
p

1.2
1)

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

10

15

20

25

30

1
x/D
Dimensionless Pressure Drop with Entry Region Included
Dimensionless Pressure Drop not Including Entry Region

Figure 9.13 Pressure Drop for the Flow of a Viscous Fluid

Between Parallel Flat Plates at Re = 2800

9.9.1.3 Laminar Couette Flow with a Moving Boundary and a Pressure Gradient:
We have already considered the case of a simple shear flow between two parallel flat plates in
which one of the plates was moving and the flow was generated by the movement of that plate.
We now take up the case in which a pressure gradient is also imposed upon the flow. The flow
geometry is shown schematically in Figure 9.14. The upper plate moves with velocity i2 while
Infinite parallel flat plates
y=h

Flow direction )

ty

x
y = 0 y

FJA

Figure 9.14 Fully-developed Planar Couette Flow with a Moving Boundary

Notice that if the pressure gradient is zero we have the case of the simple shear flow with the
linear velocity profile. Thus the general velocity distribution is a simple superposition of a linear

Ch. 9 Pg. 47
profile typical of the simple shear flow and a parabolic profile typical of flow with a pressure
gradient. Superposition of velocity profiles can often be a useful technique for the solution of the
Navier-Stokes equation.
Since the velocity profile is a function of y only, the shear stress distribution becomes

ax

h 2
For a channel of width b, the volumetric flow rate becomes
= z9
hb
0
V
zbdy
2
12jtx)
The average velocity is then given by

(9.119)

(9.120)

_L1h2
(9.121)
A
2 l2px}
To determine the maximum velocity in the flow field, we make use of the fact that this occurs
where the velocity gradient becomes zero. From equation (9.118) this occurs at

(1

a
J a

(9.122)

Thus the location of the point in the flow where the maximum velocity occurs depends upon the
magnitude of the pressure gradient as does the value of the maximum velocity itself. Experiment
has shown that the laminar flow velocity profile of equation (9.118) is valid up to
Rec,jjjca, = 1500
where the Reynolds number is based upon the characteristic length h.
In Figure 9.15 we have plotted in dimensionless form some sample velocity profiles for
the three possible cases of the pressure gradient. Notice that if the pressure gradient is negative,
meaning that the pressure decreases in the direction of the flow, the flow velocity is always
positive. This is known as a favorable pressure gradient and results in flows that are inherently
stable. However, if the pressure gradient is positive, meaning that the pressure increases in the
direction of flow, it is possible for the velocity profile to have regions where the flow velocity
is negative, thereby producing flow reversal. For this reason, this type of pressure gradient is
known as an adverse pressure gradient and leads to flows that can become unstable.
As we shall soon see, these cases of flow reversal are extremely important in external
flows because they can lead to separation of the flow from the surfaces on which they are
occurring. In the case of aerodynamic bodies, this can lead to a significant increase in the drag
experienced by the body subjected to the flow. The important point here is that we see that flow
reversal can occur when there is an adverse (positive) pressure gradient. Such pressure gradients
can occur in external flows when the flow is decelerated as it is on the back side of aerodynamic
shapes. This is the reason that aerodynamic shapes such as the bodies of fish are shaped so that
the flow on the downstream side of the body is decelerated as slowly as possible. This helps to
make the positive pressure gradient as small as possible, thereby minimizing the possibility for
flow reversal and eventual separation of the boundary layer from the surface. This separation
leads to high aerodynamic drag. In the case of fish, those with poor aerodynamic shapes (high
drag) were too slow to escape their faster predators and literally got eaten alive because of poor
thermal-fluid design. By the process of natural selection, fish have excellent aerodynamic
characteristics.

y/h

(a)

(b)

0.5

0.2

0.4

y/h

0.6

0.8

Figure 9.15 The Effect of a Pressure Gradient on Plane Couette Flow

0.5

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

(c)

0.5

Ch. 9 Pg. 48

Ch. 9 Pg. 49
9.9.1.4 Slider Bearings: A common application of the type of flow just considered
occurs when the gap h is not a constant but varies slightly along the x-axis. Under these
conditions, the pressure gradient is no longer constant. In fact, the pressure varies in the x
direction in such a way that when we integrate this pressure distribution over the upper surface,
we find that the flow is capable of supporting a load in the y-direction. The resulting geometry is
then a slider bearing capable of supporting enormous loads if properly designed. If we assume
that there is no flow in the z-direction and we regard the volumetric flow rate of equation (9.120)
as a local value since h is now a function of x, it still must be the case that this flow rate is a
constant in the x-direction. Clearly the flow velocity increases as the gap decreases. Then for unit
width in the z-direction
d
1
/b
dx

2 dx

l2pdx

x)

(9123)

di IP)
dh
I/i:- =6pz
clx1 dx)
dx
For a channel of variable gap, h = h(x), equation (9.123) determines the approximate pressure
distribution provided dh/dx << 1. Equation (9.123) is the fundamental equation that describes the
performance of simple slider bearings. Notice that due to the presence of the velocity z in
equation (9.123), the bearing is hydrodynamic and not hydrostatic. That is, the load carrying
capacity (as we shall soon see) is linearly related to the velocity. If z2 = 0, we have no bearing
since that would make the pressure gradient zero. Also note that if i2 = constant, the pressure
distribution depends upon h. We shall now show by way of example that the bearing will respond
to an increase in the load by changing the geometry by changing h and/or dh/dx.
Example 9E.4: As shown in Figure 9E.4a, a simple slider bearing has a uniform taper
from the inlet, where the gap is H
, to the exit where the gap is H
1
. This gap is filled with oil of
7
viscosity p and density p. The upper surface is stationary and the lower surface moves at a steady
velocity i. The thickness of the oil film at a location x measured relative to the leading edge of
bearing is h(x).
Iw

0
U
Moving surface
Figure 9E.4a
(a) Show that the pressure gradient along the slider is given by
dPl2pr
(
0
h
9
2
1
H
dx
3 2 2
h
+H
1
H

Ch. 9 Pg. 50
(b) If the pressure at each open end of the bearing is ,
111 sketch the pressure profile P =
P
P(x) in the oil film. Find the location the maximum pressure and its value.
(c) If the bearing has dimension b normal to the plane of the sketch, what is the load
carrying capacity of the upper block of the bearing?
Solution: (a) The pressure distribution in the bearing is given by equation (9.123). If we
integrate this expression with respect to x we obtain
JiLh3dx = 6PzJdx
dx
x
dx
= 6jn5h + C
1

dP6pzC
1
clx
2
h
3
h
In order to integrate a second time, we note that
dP = dP dh
clx c/h clx
but

H
1
h=H+(H

)--

Then
dP
L
dh 1
2

2
H
J
H h
L

3
h

Integrating this expression, we get

= -6pzL (Ij C
L
1
H)hJ 2
2
(H

H
J
1
J
H
2h

The boundary conditions are

(1)
(2)

atnz
P=P

at

1
h=H

at

2
h=H

Then substituting the boundary conditions and solving for

=12pi
1
C

,
1
C

we get

HH
2
1+H
H
2

Substituting for C
1 in the expression for dP/dx, we get
dPl2pEh
dx
3 [2
h

+H
1
H
2

(b) The maximum pressure in the oil film can be determined by setting dP/dx = 0 and
solving for the value of h. Then
h
H,
1
H
=0
2 2
+H
1
H
h

= 2HH
2

1 +H
H
2

Since
x
h =H +(H 2
H
)

Ch. 9 Pg. 51
it follows that the maximum pressure in the gap occurs at
H
x=L
1 +H
H
2
From the boundary condition (1), we have upon substitution for C
1 and solving for C
2
+ 6pzL
2

at,i

and
6pLr
+
H
2
H
iHiH
i
H I1 L
2
2
h
h
Then the maximum value of the pressure is
+

aim

atm

-H
1
(H
)
6pL 2
(H, + H
) 4111112
7

We can rewrite the expression for the pressure in dimensionless form.

_
H
_
+
2
1
H
IH
H
J
L/
0
6pt9
2
h
/(H2 -H
)
2

and we can combine it with the expression for h = h(x). This yields an expression for the
dimensionless pressure as a function of x. The resulting expression can be plotted as shown in
Figure 9E.4b for the cases in which H
1 1 and H
2 = 0.99 and H
1 = 1 and H
2 = 0.97. Notice that
as the slope of the slider increases, the maximum pressure increases and the location of the peak
pressure shifts downstream.
2.5 10

210
I

1.51O

I ::

;/J

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

xJL

H2=0.99
H2=0.97

Figure 9E.4b Dimensionless Pressure Distribution Across the Face of a Slider Bearing
(c) The pressure distribution has a parabolic shape that can be integrated to yield the load
carrying capability of the bearing.

Ch. 9 Pg. 52
F
L

F
b

L
0
6pz2

2
H

[1+.

JFdA

$Pbclx

2
1
H

11
{H
_H
2
_(H
)
}

1 +H
H
2
1 -(H
{H
2

dx

t1i)Z}

Figure 9E.4c shows the force per unit width of a slider bearing with the following operating
conditions: z2 = 10 mlsec; p = 0.50 kg/rn sec; L = 1 rn; H
2 = 0.9H
. Note the enormous load
1

1 .1011

ZI

o
1
io

110

i .io8

1.1o

iio
Gap Height, Hi (m)

1.1o

Figure 9E.4c Dependence of Bearing Load Upon Gap Height

carrying capability of the bearing when the oil film is its thinnest. The load carrying capability
falls off rapidly as the thickness of the oil film increases. (Note the log-log scale of Figure
9E.4c.) For the thinnest oil films, the machining tolerances of the bearing must be very small in
order for the bearing to function as designed. The adjustment of the gap height to a change in
load is stable since as load is increased and the gap decreases, the load carrying capability
increases. Also note that the larger the angle of inclination of the underside of the bearing, the
larger the load. Of course, this increase in the angle has its limits before the assumption of a
small angle of inclination is violated and the theory breaks down.
Note also that Boogie boards operate on this principle. In the case of the Boogie board,
one has to throw the board to generate a velocity relative to the sheet of water before one jumps
on. If there is not sufficient velocity with the proper angle to the water surface, the board sinks
when the load is applied. A similar phenomenon applies to the case of a windshield wiper blade
sliding over the windshield of an automobile in the rain and to the case of an automobile
hydroplaning on a thin film of water on a wet road surface. From Figure 9E.4c, it is not
surprising that a 2000 kg automobile can be easily lifted (hydroplane) on a thin sheet of water

Ch. 9 Pg. 53
at turnpike speeds. The faster the speed of the vehicle, the greater the force and the more likely
the phenomenon will occur.
9.9.1.5 Fully-developed Laminar Flow in a Circular Conduit: One of the most
common geometries for internal flow in thermal-fluid systems is that of a pipe or tube of circular
cross-section. For our purposes here, we shall consider the case of steady flow of a fluid in a
horizontal pipe with gravity aligned with the vertical, normal to the principal flow direction as
shown in Figure 9.16.
Conduit of circular cross-section
r-i

r0.)z>

Flow direction )

Figure 9.16 Fully-developed Flow in a Circular Conduit

For this geometry, circular coordinates (r, 0, z) are most useful for determining the
velocity profile. The z-axis is aligned with the centerline of the pipe and the r-axis is radially
outward. We wish to determine the velocity profile for fully-developed steady flow. Under these
conditions, there will be no dependence on the z-coordinate so dIdz = 0. In addition, fullydeveloped flow will be axially symmetric so /3 0 = 0. Then if there is no swirl, l 0, and the
continuity equation, equation (9.71), becomes

(9.124)
=0
Thus, from equation (9.124) it is apparent that rC. = constant, but at the wall, r = R and i1 = 0 by
the boundary condition, equation (9.74). Then it follows from equation (9.124) that rtl. = 0 and
thus i. = 0 everywhere. Then there is only one velocity component, Y, and it is a function of r
only, z = 1(r). Then the r-component of the Navier-Stokes equation, equation (9.73a) becomes

(9.125a)
=0
Thus the pressure is hydrostatic across a plane perpendicular to the z-axis; however, since this
dimension is small compared to the axial dimension, the pressure is usually considered uniform
over this plane. The 0-component of the Navier-Stokes equation, equation (9.73b) becomes

Ch. 9 Pg. 54

]
4
=__+P+fl[_(__(r%)D+_/__+

(9.125b)

Thus from equations (9.125a) and (9.125b), it follows that the pressure is a function of z only.
The z-component of the Navier-Stokes equation, equation (9.73c) becomes

(9.125c)

rr
3r
z
This is the now familiar result for fully-developed internal flow, namely that the viscous
force (per unit volume), the left-hand side of equation (9. l25c), is balanced by the net pressure
force (per unit volume), the right-hand side of equation (9.125c). Equation (9.125c) also presents
the interesting result that the left-hand side is a function of r only and the right-hand side is a
function of z only. The only way that this can be true is if equation (9.125c) is equal to a constant.
It follows, then, that the pressure gradient in the z-direction is a constant, (dP/az) = constant.
Then equation (9.125c) can be rearranged and integrated. Thus
( z9 dP
/t r-I=r-ar r)
z

r Idr=$rdr
J r 3r )
(9.126)
9
Pr
ir
z2
z9
3Pr _i_
C
+
ill
3r
r
z2
Equation (9.126) can be integrated to yield
3P fr
Idr
1 I
p dr= I dr+C
.3 r
.) 3r
izJ2
(9.127)
2 (3P C
r
79 =I
H--lnr+C2
4pzJ p
Since the velocity must be finite at the centerline of the conduit, r = 0, it must be true that C
1 = 0.
Alternatively, we could have noticed in equation (9.126) that if the velocity profile is to be
axially symmetric about the centerline of the conduit, r = 0, it must be true that d i
Idr = 0 at the
2
centerline. Then it again follows that C
1 = 0. By the no-slip boundary condition at the wall of
the conduit, r = R, the velocity must vanish, i2(R) = 0. Then
-

Ch. 9 Pg. 55
_)f

C2

=1--

(9.128)
4pz}
Then substituting the boundary conditions into equation (9.127), we get the velocity profile for
fully-developed laminar flow in a circular conduit.
9

_R2)

4pldzJ

4
I
iz,)

4pz,)

1
=_!_
_
IL(1r
1
4iildzJ[ KR,)

(9.129)

This velocity profile is a famous result in thermal-fluids engineering and is named Hagen
Poiseuille flow after the two men who first studied it. In Germany in 1839 G. L. Hagen (1797
1884) conducted some very meticulous measurements of the flow of water in small-diameter
tubes, using the water temperature instead of the viscosity as one of the parameters. A few years
later the French physician Jean Louis Poiseuille (1799 1869) repeated the experiments
independently, using oil and mercury in addition to water. Although neither Poiseuille nor Hagen
really understood the mathematics of the phenomenon, they did appreciate the importance of the
pressure drop over the length of the tube (pressure gradient) in determining the magnitude of the
flow. It was Hagen who generated and correlated the data in the form of resistance plots similar
to Figure 9.8 that showed the linear dependence of pressure drop upon the average velocity at
low velocities. Hagen even anticipated the work of Osborne Reynolds when he noted in 1854
that the flow was not always laminar, the effiux jet sometimes being clear and sometimes
frothy. Similarly, he found that sawdust suspended in the water sometimes moved in straight
lines and sometimes very irregularly. In the latter instances he noted that his linear resistance
equation no longer applied. Based on this early work and the subsequent work of Reynolds, we
now know that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a circular conduit occurs for 2300
Ret, < iOn. As a conservative estimate for design purposes, the critical value of the Reynolds
number for this flow configuration is generally considered to be
2100.
The shear stress distribution for Hagen-Poiseuille flow is given by equation (9.72), viz.
-

(9.130)
=
=

Thus the shear stress is zero at the centerline and maximum at the wall of the conduit.
The volumetric flow rate is given by
IRR2
R
1aP
2
1r
V=z92yrrdr=I I-I 1iI 2irrdr=--l-I
4p\dz}
0
J
\R)
p\z)
8

(9.131)

Notice that since the pressure gradient is negative (meaning that the pressure decreases in the
direction of flow, a condition known as a favorable pressure gradient), the volumetric flow rate
is positive even though there is a negative sign on the right-hand side of equation (9.131).
The average velocity is given by
Z3,

A irR
8dUz}
Then the velocity profile of equation (9.129) can be written
=

9ae[l_(L
z 2

(9.132)

(9.133)

Ch. 9 Pg. 56
The maximum velocity can be determined by taking the derivative of equation (9.129) and
setting it equal to zero and then solving for the appropriate value of r. Then
dt9,
r
(9.134)

Substituting this value of r into equation (9.129), we get

N

1)

On?aV

=i
4p

H27rne

(9.135)

Then the velocity profile can be written in the form

nax[1_(21

(9.136)

This velocity profile is plotted in Figure 9.17 which shows the parabolic nature of the
distribution. (The physically meaningless negative values of the parameter r/R are used to show
the symmetry of the profile about the centerline, r = 0, of the conduit.)

0.5

-0.5

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

V/Vmax

Figure 9.17 Velocity Profile for Fully-developed Laminar Flow in a Circular Conduit
Typically, a thermal-fluid system consists of an assembly of specialized devices of
various types, each of which processes the working fluid in some way. These devices are
interconnected by circular conduits (pipes) that facilitate the movement of the working fluid from
one device to the other. The devices and the pipes are usually, but not always, arranged in a
closed circuit so that the working fluid starts out in one location and then passes through all the
devices and their interconnecting pipes in succession, and ultimately returns to the starting point.
From equation (9.130) it is apparent that in fully developed laminar flow, the amount of
incompressible fluid that we can transport, i.e., the volumetric flow rate, through a pipe of fixed
dimension is directly proportional to the pressure gradient imposed on the conduit. From the

Ch. 9 Pg. 57

point of view of a closed circuit of fixed length, this pressure gradient translates into a drop in
pressure of the fluid from the beginning of the circuit to its end. Thus, in order for the fluid to
flow through the circuit on a continual basis, it is necessary to insert at the start of the circuit a
device that increases the pressure of the fluid by the right amount to compensate for the pressure
drop around the circuit. The thermal-fluid device that accomplishes this is a pump, but in order to
specify the pump required for a given system design, it is necessary to know the magnitude of the
pressure drop in the circuit.
To facilitate this design process, thermal-fluids engineers have introduced the concept of
a dimensionless parameter known as the friction factor and denoted by the symbol f, that
contains the essence of the viscous behavior of a fluid flowing in a conduit. In equation (9.91),
we showed that the pressure gradient (expressed in non-dimensional form) in a laminar flow
system could be related to the Reynolds number in that system. As we shall now show, for
laminar internal flow that relation depends upon the friction factor. Since the pressure gradient
appearing in equation (9.13 1) for the volumetric flow rate for laminar flow in a circular conduit
is a constant, it can be integrated for a pipe of length L. Then
(IF
= constant = a
(Iz
cii = a

dz

P
2
J =a(LO)
(9.137)

2
1
P
=
aL
F
P-P
L
dP
7
F-P
L
dz
Then we can write equation (9.13 1) in the form
a=

(J-F7CR AP
4
7rR
84 L J8pL

7CR
z\P
L

ICR

32/th,e
2
D

4(le

ICR

ave7C1?

32z
2
D
P
1
ve
t

AP = 1 64
LReD
(9.138)
-

64

The term on the left-hand side of equation (9.138) is the dimensionless pressure gradient of
equation (9.91) and the term on the right-hand side of equation (9.138) is the dimensionless
parameter defined as the friction factor. Then

Ch. 9 Pg. 58

2
Pave
/
/
2

9139
L/
/D
This formulation can be generalized for all internal flows so that the pressure drop can be written

=f

[Pve

(9.140)

where for each particular flow configuration specified by the hydraulic diameter, D
, the friction
1
factor takes on a unique value. For the case of fully-developed laminar flow in a circular conduit
Re
For the case of fully-developed laminar flow between infinite parallel flat plates, equation
(9.115) gives

2
f=
Re

(9.141)

(9.142)

Table 9.3 gives the value of the friction factor for fully-developed laminar flow in conduits of
different cross-sections, such as triangles, rectangles, and ellipses. In each case, the value of the
friction factor has been obtained by solving the Navier-Stokes equation with the appropriate
boundary conditions. (Table 9.3 also contains some additional data that we will make use of in
Chapter 11.) In the design of thermal-fluid systems, the pressure drop for fully-developed laminar
flow in a conduit of particular cross-section and known length is determined by substituting into
equation (9.140) the appropriate values forf and D,
1 obtained from Table 9.3. The value of the
critical Reynolds number for the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in these non-circular
cross-sections can be conservatively assumed to be the same as that for the circular cross-section
with the appropriate value of D,
7 used in the Reynolds number.
The friction factor used in equation (9.140) is known as the Darcy friction factor in honor
of the French engineer Henry Darcy (1803 1858) who was an early pioneer in the field fluid
dynamics. Henry Darcy is credited with the invention of the modern style Pitot tube, was the first
researcher to suspect the existence of the boundary layer in fluid flow, contributed to the
development of the Darcy-Weisbach equation for pipe flow resistance (to be introduced later),
made major contributions to open channel flow research, and developed Darcys Law for laminar
flow in homogeneous, porous media. Darcys Law is a foundation stone for several fields of
study including ground-water hydrology, soil physics, and petroleum engineering.
In the thermal-fluids engineering literature there is another friction factor, known as the
Fanning friction factor, that is sometimes used, especially in the United Kingdom and Europe. In
the United States, the literature devoted to heat transfer phenomena also makes frequent use of
the Fanning friction factor. The Fanning friction factor is related to the Darcy friction factor in
the following way:
(9.143)
fijarcv
fFanning
4
-

In utilizing tabulated data for the friction factor found in the literature, one must always check to
see which friction factor is represented. If the data do not specify, one can always check to see
how the friction factor for fully-developed laminar flow in a circular conduit is related to the
Reynolds number. If the relationship is that of equation (9.14 1), the data are for the Darcy
friction factor. If the constant of proportionality is 16 and not 64, the data are for the Fanning
friction factor.

2
A/a

31.42

15.71

6.28

3.14

2.83

2.51

2.20

1.88

1.57

1.26

0.94

0.63

0.31

b/a

10.00

5.00

2.00

1.00

0.90

0.80

0.70

0.60

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

4.06

4.20

4.39

4.60

4.84

5.11

5.38

5.67

5.97

6.28

4.84

4.20

4.06

p/a

Dp

77.26

74.41

71.58

69.18

67.29

65.92

64.98

64.39

64.09

64.00

67.29

74.41

77.26

Ellipse
fRe

5.12

4.96

4.80

4.67

4.56

4.48

4.42

4.39

4.37

4.36

4.56

4.96

5.12

Nu

3.70

3.77

3.78

3.76

3.74

3.72

3.69

3.67

3.66

3.66

3.74

3.77

3.70

NUT

0.40

0.80

1.20

1.60

2.00

2.40

2.80

3.20

3.60

4.00

8.00

20.00

40.00

2
A/a

4.40

4.80

5.20

5.60

6.00

6.40

6.80

7.20

7.60

8.00

12.00

24.00

44.00

p/a

84.68

76.28

70.05

65.47

62.19

59.92

58.42

57.51

57.04

56.91

62.19

76.28

84.68

Rectangle
fRe

6.78

5.74

4.99

4.47

4.12

3.89

3.75

3.66

3.62

3.61

4.12

5.74

6.78

11
Ntt

5.91

4.83

4.12

3.67

3.39

3.21

3.09

3.01

2.97

2.98

3.39

4.83

5.91

NUT

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

2.00

5.00

10.00

2
A/a

4.01

4.04

4.09

4.15

4.24

4.33

4.44

4.56

4.69

4.83

6.47

12.20

22.10

p/a

where D
,
1
and go is the wetted perimeter
It
go
go
, is the Nusselt number for constant heat flux and
1
Nu
NuT is the Nusseft number for constant wall temperature

Re

48.31

48.63

49.12

49.81

50.49

51.06

51.45

51.84

52.22

52.61

53.28

51.62

50.17

Triangle
fRe

Table 9.3 Friction Factor and Nusselt Number Data for

Laminar Flow in Non-circular Conduits

2.63

2.49

2.71

2.85

2.99

3.06

3.10

3.11

3.12

3.10

2.88

2.51

2.29

NU

1.37

1.72

2.02

2.18

2.34

2.41

2.45

2.46

2.47

2.46

2.22

1.70

1.34

NUT

Ch. 9 Pg. 59

Ch. 9 Pg. 60
For the fully-developed flow inside the circular conduit, one of the important effects of
the fluid friction embodied in the friction factor can be seen from the application of the first law
of thermodynamics. For a control volume consisting of a length L of the conduit, there is no heat
transfer or shaft work transfer. Furthermore, once the velocity profile becomes fully-developed,
the average kinetic energy of the fluid is the same at every location along the axis of the conduit.
Then the steady-flow form of the first law becomes
(9.144)
0 h
h
11 0
If we substitute the constitutive relation for the enthalpy for the incompressible fluid model into
equation (9.144), we get
.f v
0
v
0
U
=

Out

(,,

,i

ut
=

Itt) =

ave2

(9.145)

Thus for this adiabatic, incompressible flow, the effect of the fluid friction manifests itself as the
flow work transfer in the conduit which, in turn, results in an increase in the stored thermal
energy of the fluid. If we substitute the energy constitutive relation for the incompressible fluid
model into equation (9.145), we see that the fluid friction produces a temperature increase in the
fluid. Thus,
-7)
=

T -T
OUt

(9.146)

f1L
2
J 2
1
cD

If we substitute equation (9.14 1) into equation (9.146), we see that the temperature increase is
directly proportional to the fluid viscosity and the average velocity of the fluid.
T

-T

64 1L
cefl
Re c D,
2 ) 1 2 ,)

32PeL

pD

D,,)

(9.147)

From the second law of thermodynamics we can calculate the rate of entropy generation for this
flow configuration.

T
nwlnI;,,

32pLt
ave

(9.148)
pc1D, j
This rate is clearly positive and shows that fluids with higher viscosity generate more entropy for
a given flow geometry. Also, the greater the average velocity in a given flow geometry, the
greater the rate of entropy generation. Note that this rate of entropy generation is due to the flow
work transfer and not the dissipation of kinetic energy in the flow. The kinetic energy of the flow
is constant throughout the length of the conduit.
9.9.1.6 Laminar Flow in the Entry Region of a Circular Conduit: The development of fullydeveloped laminar flow in the circular conduit is analogous to that in the case of infinite parallel
flat plates. The only exception is that the entry region in the circular conduit is three-dimensional
since the walls wrap around the undisturbed region forming a core of accelerating flow that
can be modeled as inviscid. For uniform velocity at the entrance to the conduit, the boundary
layer at the wall starts to grow at the mouth and eventually fills the entire conduit as the flow
0111 Within this length, the
L
progresses downstream a distance equal to the entry length, .
undisturbed flow accelerates until the maximum value of the velocity given by equation
00
Sg

0
s

pcV ml 1

Ch. 9 Pg. 61
(9.135) is achieved at the centerline. According to Shah and 3
London the entry length data for
,
laminar flow in a circular conduit can be best fit by the relation
0.60
+0.056Re
0.035Re+1

___

,) lanz mar

D,

(9.149)

Then for flow at the critical value of the Reynolds number, the entry length
attains its largest
value for laminar flow. Thus, fully-developed flow in a circular conduit
occurs within a length of
L 1 17.6 1D
11 depending upon the Reynolds number. The
4 accelerating flow in the undisturbed
core causes the pressure in the entry region to drop faster than it does in
the fully-developed
region. Using the dimensionless parameters given in equation (9.114), the
dimensionless pressure
drop is given by Shah and 4
London as
(AP

64x

developed

16+

(\p*)
appci

1.25
4x

3.44
(9.150)

rent

Figure 9.18 shows the axial pressure distribution for a sample flow of water
in a pipe with
Re = 2100 according to equation (9.150).
1

6
io

=117.608

9.995 10

9985

9.975I0

99710

20

40

I
60

I
80

I
100

120

140

xl D
Fully-developed Flow without Entry Region
Flow with Entry Region Included
Extrapolated Fully-developed Flow

Figure 9.18 Axial Pressure Distribution for Flow of Water in a Pipe, Re = 2100

R. K. Shah and A. L. London, op. cit., p. 99.

R. K. Shah and A. L. London, op. cit., p. 98.

Ch. 9 Pg. 62
. The solid line shows the
2
The pressure of the water at the inlet to the pipe is i,zIet 106 N/rn
axial pressure distribution assurning fully-developed flow throughout the flow field with no entry
region. The dashed line shows the pressure distribution with the effect of the entry region
included. This is referred to as the apparent pressure drop. The vertical line indicates the location
of the end of the entry region as defined by the full development of the velocity profile (Le,?t, =
117.608D, for Re 2100 for this flow configuration). Notice that the pressure with the entry
region included is always lower than the pressure without the entry region taken into account.
This is the case even though the pressure gradient is the same in both cases once the flow
becomes fully developed. This is a result of the acceleration of the flow in the undisturbed
region. Also notice that the pressure gradient becomes constant slightly before the velocity
profile becomes fully developed with the entry region included. This is a consequence of the fact
that the acceleration of the undisturbed region must be complete before the velocity profile can
be fully established.
The difference between the extrapolation of the fully-developed flow and the flow in the
entry region shows the rapid decrease in pressure due primarily to the acceleration of the
undisturbed flow in the entry region. Comparing Figures 9.12 and 9.18 we see that the effect of
the entry region on the local pressure is greater for the case of the flow in a pipe than for flow
between infinite parallel flat plates. This is a manifestation of the three-dimensionality of the
flow in the pipe. Equations (9.150) are plotted in Figure 9.19 for a flow with Re 2100. The
behavior of the data is similar to that for the case shown in Figure 9.13. The major difference is
the magnitude of the effect of the entry region in the two cases.

p
p
p
1)
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

xl D
1
Dimensionless Pressure Drop with Entry Region Included
Dimensionless Pressure Drop without Entry Region

Figure 9.19 Pressure Drop for the Flow of a Viscous Fluid in a Pipe, Re = 2100
Example 9E.5: The fuel injection systems on Diesel engines operate at very high
pressures since they inject the fuel directly into the cylinder when the pressure of the air inside
the piston-cylinder is at or near its highest level before combustion. Typically the fuel pressure in
. The fuel lines used
2
7 N/m
2 to 14.0 x i0
these injection systems is on the order of 1.4 x iO N/m

Ch. 9 Pg. 63
in these engines are relatively small compared to those in a gasoline engine. In a typical
application, the fuel line diameter is on the order of D = 5 mm.
(a) If the length of the fuel line is on the order of L = 1 m, determine the pressure drop in
the line if a typical average flow velocity is lVc = 1 mlsec.
(b) Estimate the mass flow rate of diesel fuel resulting from this pressure drop.
The properties of No. 2 Diesel fuel are: p = 920 kg/rn
, p = 3.96 x 10 kg/m sec
3
Solution: (a) Typically in solving these types of problems we calculate the Reynolds
number first. Then
D
0
pz,

Re=

(920 3
kg/m
)
(l mlsec)(5 x l0- rn)

= 1161.6
p
3.96 x io- kg/rn sec
In this case the flow is clearly laminar. The entry length is
Le,ztrv =
0.60
0.60(1161.6)
+0.056Re=
0.056(1161.6) = 81.782
D
0.035Re+1
0.035 (1 16l.6)+1

=81.782Dz=81.782(5 x io- m)=0.40891 m

Thus, approximately 40 percent of the length of the fuel line is entry length; therefore, it will be
necessary to account for entry region effects in computing the pressure drop. We then make use
of equation (9.145).
1.25

(Ape)
appa rent

3.44

=4x
2
l+2.lxl
0(xj

where
+

x=

x
DI Re

im
(0.005 m)(1161.6)

0.17217

Then
1.25
4x

16
(AP)

apparent

=4(0.172)

i;

apixerent

16+
(AFj

3.44

J0.l72
2

AP = 12.223
= 12.223
2J

1.25
4(0.172)

3.44
0.l72

_____

2
1+2.1x10-(0.
l72)

(920 3
kg/m
)
(1 2
rn/sec)
2

=12.223

5.623 x i0
3 N/rn
2

If we had assumed fully developed flow, the pressure drop we would have calculated would have
been
11111
(AP)

=64x =64(0.172)=11.019

developed
2

,
1
AP
de eloped

L
9
=

(920 3
kg/m
)
(l rn/sec)
2

ave

,,j=
1
O
11
9

= 5.069 x io N/rn
2

Ch. 9 Pg. 64
Then the percent error in assuming fully-developed flow would have been
5.6235.069(100%) 9.86%
5.623
In this case the fully-developed flow solution would have underestimated the pressure drop by
nearly 10 percent. As we shall see in Section 9.9.2.1, there is a way of eliminating this error
without resorting to the tedium inherent in equation (9.145).
(b) To estimate the mass flow rate we must recognize that the pressure drop including the
entry effects is not the appropriate one to determine the volumetric flow rate since a portion of
the pressure drop is associated with accelerating the undisturbed flow in the entry region and
does not contribute to the volumetric flow rate in the sense of equation (9.131). Rather, we
simply calculate the mass flow rate from the continuity equation. Then
Error

3
m=pAc?3a,e =(92o kg/rn

2
ir(0.005rn)

(1 m/sec)=0.0181 kg/sec

Had we used equation (9.130), we would have obtained

.7r(O.005)

dz,)

5.623 x io 2
N/rn
1=2.1782 x l0 rn
/sec
3
1 m
128(3.96 x l0 kg/rn sec)
)

th=pV =(920 3
kg/m
)
(2.1782 x l0 m
/sec)=0.0200 kg/sec
3

which would have overestimated the mass flow rate by approximately 11 percent. The correct
result could have been obtained by applying equation (9.131) over that portion of the flow which
was fully-developed (approximately the last 0.6 m).
Example 9E.6: In a classroom demonstration of fully-developed flow in a circular
conduit, a student immerses a common drinking straw in a bottle of castor oil and fills the straw
with castor oil by sucking on the end of it. By quickly placing her finger over the end of the
straw, the student is able to hold the castor oil in the straw. The straw is then raised over the
mouth of the bottle with its axis aligned vertically, and the finger is removed to allow the castor
oil to drain from the straw back into the bottle. By measuring the amount of time required for the
straw to empty, the student can actually determine the viscosity of the castor oil if the flow is
indeed fully-developed.
(a) If the dimensions of the straw are D = 6 mm and L = 20 cm and the properties of
castor oil are p = 956.1 kg/rn
3 and p = 0.650 kg/rn sec, how long does it take to empty the straw
of castor oil if the flow is fully-developed?
(b) Is the assumption of fully-developed flow justified?
Solution: (a) At first glance this would appear to be an unsteady flow situation since we
are measuring the amount of time required to empty a control volume, the straw. However,
because of the large viscosity of the castor oil, fully-developed steady laminar flow is established
almost immediately upon removing the finger. To see that this is the case, first note that with the
finger removed, the pressure acting on the oil trapped in the straw is the same at both ends of the
straw, namely atmospheric pressure. Then there is no pressure gradient imposed on the flow.
Now assume that the flow is indeed steady and solve the appropriate form of the Navier-Stokes
equation, viz.

_______

Ch. 9 Pg. 65

2/

_+pg+p
/cJZ

Ir
r or
or )

2/

J2+
2
+

r ,M?

/OZ

pg =t --j r
L1d ar
Since g = g, the above equation says that in fully developed flow with straw aligned with the
z
axis, the body force (per unit volume) due to gravity is just balanced by the viscous force (per
unit volume). Notice that this expression is identical to equation (9.125c) except that the
pressure force is now replaced by the body force. The process of integration is exactly the
same, and we end up with an expression nearly identical to equation (9.129) except that the
constant pressure gradient is now replaced by the constant body force per unit volume, namely

pgR
2
2
_(
4.p
In a manner similar to equation (9.13 1), we have for the volumetric flow rate

irRpg
8u
Since the volumetric flow rate is constant, the amount of time it required to empty the straw is

=V
V

irR
p
4
g/8p

= 8pL =

8(0.650 kg/rn sec)(0.20 m)

2
pgR

(956.1 3
kg/m
)
(9.81 rn/sec)(0.003 rn)
2

12 32 sec

Thus the time interval is of such a magnitude that it could be measured easily in the classroom.
The question remains, however, as to whether the flow is truly fully-developed.
(b) The average velocity for this flow is given by equation (9.132) with the replacement
of the pressure gradient by the body force per unit volume.
2
ngR

(956.1 kg/m
)(9.81 mlsec2)(0.003 2
3
rn)

8p

8(0.650 kg/rn sec)

=1

1.6233 cm/sec

The Reynolds number for this fully-developed laminar flow is then

)(0.016233 m/sec)(0.003 rn)

3
= PiveD = (956.1 kg/m
= 00716
0.650 kg/rn sec
p
The flow is clearly laminar and the viscous forces dominate. The entry length for this flow is
given by equation (9.144). Then
Le,zt,.y =
0.60
0.60
+0.056Re=
+0.056(0.0716)=0.603
1
D
0.035Re+l
0.035(0.0716)+1
Re

=(0.603)(0.006 m)=3.62 x i0 m=3.62 mm

The entry length is only a small fraction (1.81 percent) of the total length of the straw (3.62 mm
vs. 200 mm). The time required for the fluid to travel this distance is about 0.223 sec. Thus the

flow does indeed become fully-developed relatively quickly, and this method could then be used
to determine the viscosity of a highly viscous fluid like castor oil in the classroom.

Ch. 9 Pg. 66

Example 9E.7: A computer chip fabricated on a silicon substrate is cooled by passing

water through many small square channels machined in parallel in the silicon. The channels are 1
mm on each side and are 20 cm long. The pressure drop for the water flowing in a typical
channel is LP = 1.25 x io N/rn
. Determine the mass flow rate of the cooling water for this flow
2
configuration. The thermal-fluid characteristics of water are: p =996 kg/rn
, p = 8.67 x iO- kg/rn
3
sec.
Solution: Normally the starting point in the solution is the calculation of the Reynolds
number; however, in this case we are unable to do this because neither the velocity nor the mass
flow rate are known. If we can determine the velocity, we can get the mass flow rate. Since L/D
11
= 200, let us assume that the flow is fully developed and laminar. Then the pressure drop is given
by

=
For a square channel D
11 is the length of one side, and for fully developed laminar flow in a
square channel, Table 9.3 gives

fReD = 56.91
56.91
Re

56.91(8.67 x 10 kg/rn sec)

.9lp
56

Pcn,eDi

)(0.001 m)
3
(996 kg/m
,
1

4.9539 x 10
ve

Then

L\P

0.049539

mJsecLj,e2

ve

AP
1
2D

ave

pL(0.049539

(996 kglm
)(0.2 m)(0.049539 rn/sec)
3

rnlsec)
dave

2(0.OOlm)(1.25xl03N/m2)

0.1588 rn/sec

Then the Reynolds number is

ave

)(O.1588 rn/sec)(O.OOl m)
3
D h_ (996 kg/rn

18189
8.67 x 10 kg/rn sec
p
The flow is clearly laminar. If we assume that the entry length is on the same order as that for a
circular conduit at the same Reynolds number, we have
D,

0.60
11
D

0.035Re+1

+0.056Re=

0.60

+0.056(181.89)10.195

0.035(18l.89)+1

Thus the entry length is only 5 percent of the length of the channel, and the assumption of fully
developed flow for this case is a reasonable one. Then the mass flow rate of cooling water is

th

(996 kg/rn
3 )(0.00i rn)
2 (0.1588 rnlsec)

1.577 kg/sec

Ch. 9 Pg. 67

9.9.2 Laminar External Flows

Unlike internal flows, external flows never become fully developed in the sense that the
effects of the fluid viscosity are dominant throughout the entire flow geometry as they are in the
case of an internal flow, e.g., fully-developed laminar flow in a pipe. In these external flows, the
effects of viscosity are confined to small regions near the solid surfaces that bound the flow.
These boundary layers continue to develop and grow in thickness as the flow proceeds
downstream but they never really extend throughout the entire flow field. This means that the
nonlinear acceleration terms appearing in the Navier-Stokes equation cannot be neglected as they
were for internal flows. Furthermore, within these boundary layers, the fluid velocity changes
rapidly in a direction normal to the surface, from zero at the surface to the free-stream value at
the outer edge of the boundary layer. This velocity gradient may produce a steep gradient in the
shear stress in the fluid. As a result, some of the viscous terms are equally as important as the
acceleration terms. Because of the presence of these viscous terms as well as the nonlinear
acceleration terms, the solution of the Navier-Stokes equation becomes even more challenging
for external flows than it was for internal flows.
The notion that the effects of fluid viscosity can be modeled as being localized to this
small region known as the boundary layer was a novel one introduced by Ludwig Prandtl (1875
1953) in 1904 and implemented for flow over a flat plate by his student H. Blasius (1883 1970)
in 1908. For external flows, the introduction of the boundary layer concept represented a major
breakthrough that facilitated widespread advances in understanding the effects of fluid viscosity
on flow over all sorts of solid bodies.
In the typical external flow situation, a solid body, such as an aircraft or a ship, is moving
relative to a fluid which may have a motion of its own. This motion of the fluid in the boundary
layers adjacent to the solid surfaces can be described by the Navier-Stokes equation. Outside the
boundary layers where the fluid viscosity has no influence on fluid motion, the fluid behaves as
though it were inviscid. In this region, the flow can be described by the Euler equation. In the
boundary layer, however, the action of fluid viscosity on the solid body results in a velocity
gradient in the fluid due to the no-slip boundary condition of the Navier-Stokes equation. The
net result of this velocity gradient and the action of fluid viscosity leads to a shear stress imposed
on the solid surface by the fluid. This shear stress integrated over the surface of the body results
in a viscous drag force, sometimes called skin-friction drag, that tends to slow the movement
of the body as momentum is transferred from the body to the fluid through this action of
viscosity. Initially, the flow in this boundary layer is laminar, but as the boundary layer grows in
thickness in the direction of flow, it becomes unstable and the flow undergoes a transition from
laminar to turbulent flow. Depending upon the shape of the body, the flow may eventually
separate from the body, producing a region of reverse flow or of stagnant fluid. Downstream of
this region there is a relatively large wake of disturbed flow that results in further momentum
transfer between the body and the fluid. This produces an additional component of drag known as
profile drag or wake drag. At this point in our development of the subject, we are going to
focus on the skin friction drag.
Our approach is to first divide the flow into two regions: (1) the boundary layer flow near
the surface of the body where all the viscous effects are confined and (2) the inviscid flow in the
free stream outside the boundary layer remote from the surface of the body. We then develop
special forms of the components of the Navier-Stokes equation called the boundary layer
equations, that apply in the boundary layer. The solution of the boundary layer equations
provides us with the velocity profile of the fluid in the boundary layer. From the velocity profile
-

Ch. 9 Pg. 68
we can determine the shear stress at the surface of the body, and hence, the skin friction
component of the drag on the body. We then determine the shape of the boundary layer so that
we can solve the Euler equation for the inviscid flow outside the boundary layer.
In the process of developing the solution for the velocity profile in the boundary layer, we
will match the velocity at the outer edge of the boundary layer to the fluid velocity in the
mainstream. This is problematic on two counts: (1) we do not really know the location of the
outer edge of the boundary layer, and (2) we do not really know the mainstream velocity. In order
to resolve this dilemma, we assume that the mainstream velocity is unaffected by the presence of
the boundary layer, and we apply this boundary condition by requiring the velocities in the two
regions match as the boundary layer thickness becomes infinite. After obtaining the solution for
the velocity profile in the boundary layer, we then arbitrarily define the outer limit of the
boundary layer as the location at which the fluid velocity in the boundary layer attains 99 percent
of the mainstream velocity; however, there is no physical basis for this definition and this choice
is arbitrary. We could have just as easily used 95 percent or 90 percent as our definition.
This presents a difficulty when we attempt, after the fact, to determine the effect of the
boundary layer on the inviscid flow outside of it by solving the Euler equation in the mainstream.
We do not really know the location of the inner boundary of the mainstream. However, closer
examination of the physics of the flow in the boundary layer reveals that the retardation of the
flow in the boundary layer has the same effect as if we had displaced the streamlines in the
mainstream outwardly from the surface of the body by an amount known as the displacement
thickness which is related to the boundary layer thickness . This displacement, which is a
function of x, in turn affects the local velocity and the local pressure in the mainstream since the
streamlines are no longer straight but now have some curvature. Thus the inviscid flow in the
mainstream sees the body and the attached boundary layer as a solid streamlined body. Then
knowing this displacement thickness, we can determine the flow field around this streamline
body by solving the Euler equation. We shall demonstrate this approach by considering the
example of the flow of a viscous fluid over a flat plate, but first we must develop the boundary
layer equations.
9.9.2.1 The Boundary Layer Equations: By its very nature, in its simplest form the
boundary layer is a two-dimensional phenomenon. The fluid is flowing in one direction, say the
x-direction, and the gradients in velocity and shear stress are occurring in a direction normal to
this, say the y-direction. fri the laminar boundary layer, the Reynolds number is large but not
infinite. Our approach will be to use this fact to simplify the Navier-Stokes equation so that we
might develop a solution that describes this two-dimensional situation.
In two-dimensions, the continuity equation and the Navier-Stokes equation in Cartesian
coordinates become
at9

a.

ax

ay

(9.151)

and
p

at

ax

ay

--+--9
-+

at

ax

dx

ax

a)

=--+p

ay

ax

z
2
a

(9.152)

ay

(a2

(az.

P1

Ia29

2
a
+

ay

(9.153)

Ch. 9 Pg. 69
respectively, where we have neglected the effect of the gravity body force. (In Chapter 11 we
shall see how to deal with this effect.) Let us now non-dimensionalize these three equations in a
way that displays the Reynolds number explicitly since the Reynolds number quantitates the
relative importance of inertial and viscous effects which are both present in the boundary layer.
We can do this by introducing dimensionless parameters in a manner similar to equation (9.85).
If L is a characteristic length, , a typical speed, and Re = pL i2 /p the corresponding Reynolds
number for the flow as a whole, we can introduce the following set of dimensionless parameters:

y\/

t_L

(9.154)

9*VJ

p4
2
If we substitute equations (9.154) into equation (9.151), we get the non-dimensional continuity
equation, viz.

dt*

dx

dz3
+

=0

(9.155)

dy

If we substitute equations (9.154) into equations (9.152) and (9.153), we get the component
Navier-Stokes equations in non-dimensional form, viz.
d3*
dt9*
dP
i d
2
+z2,
(9.156)
=--+
+
dt
dx
dy
dx
Re dx
2
2
dy
*

1
I
Re di

+z2.

dL9*
dx

.
9
+z

dL*

dy

2
dP
i d
I=---+Re- dx
dy
2

*
2
1 d
+
Re dy>

(9.157)

We now assume that all the derivatives in equations (9.155) through (9.157) are of the same
order of magnitude. For the case in which the inertial effects are relatively more important than
the viscous effects, the values of Re are large and the limiting forms of equations (9.155) through
(9.157) are
d* d*
=0
(9.153)
dx
dy
and
U
+z
dx
dt

dy

d
dx

Th20*

(9.154)

0=dy
If we now transform these equations back to their dimensional form, we get the boundary layer
equations in two dimensions, viz.

dx

dy

dz9
dP
(d
t9.
2
d
-+t-+4- I=---+p
P1 2
cix
cix
dy)
oy
dy

(9.160)
(9.161)
(9.162)

Ch. 9 Pg. 70
Equation (9.162) simply says that the pressure in the boundary layer is uniform at the value in the
mainstream flow across each plane x = constant, but not necessarily constant in the direction of
flow. It is really equations (9.160) and (9.161) that need to be solved subject to the boundary
conditions at the surface y = 0
(no slip boundary condition)
z. = 0
(9.163)
=0
(no flow through the wall boundary condition)
It follows that at the wall, we also have
and

=0

(9.164)

At the other extreme, the boundary layer must join the main flow smoothly. The nature of the
solutions of the boundary layer equations is such that the mainstream flow is considered to be at
infinity. Then
yoo
as
(9.165)
(X)
0
9rt
where 2
1
(
x) is the velocity in the main flow and is in general dependent upon the location x.
The solution of equations (9.160) through (9.162) together with boundary conditions
(9.163) through (9.165) provide a description of the flow in a laminar boundary layer. The
solutions derived for these equations are not unique in general and may actually provide values of
12. away from the surface that are not physically meaningful. Nevertheless, the solutions of these
equations, whose accuracy in many cases varies depending upon the location along the direction
of flow, have provided considerable insight into the nature of boundary layer flows. We shall
now consider one of these, namely laminar flow over a flat plate, in detail.
9.9.2.2 Laminar Flow Over a Flat Plate: In what has become the classic example of the
application of the boundary layer equations, H. Blasius treated the case of steady laminar flow
over a flat plate in the absence of a pressure gradient. The fact that the pressure gradient is zero in
the boundary layer can be seen by applying the Bernoulli equation in the mainstream flow and
invoking equation (9.162). As shown in Figure 9.20, in Blasiuss treatment, the flat plate is
immersed in a uniform flow of a fluid with constant thermal-fluid properties.
Mainstream
Boundary layer
Flat plate
Figure 9.20 Uniform Flow Over a Flat Plate
The uniform velocity is z
b, the density of the fluid is p, and the viscosity of the fluid is p. Under
2
these conditions, the boundary layer equations become
3x

ay
ay

(9.166)
(9.167)

In equation (9.167), the term p/p is given a special name, the kinematic viscosity. As we shall
soon see, this ratio, represented by the symbol v, plays precisely the same role in momentum
transfer that the thermal diffusivity a = k/pc plays in heat transfer. Physically, the kinematic
viscosity v = p/p is the momentum diffusivity of the fluid and has the units of m
/sec.
2

Ch. 9 Pg. 71
In an attempt to simplify equations (9.166) and (9.167) mathematically, Blasius proposed
a coordinate transformation that would reduce these two partial differential equations to a single
ordinary differential equation. Prior to Blasiuss time, the dynamical behavior of the inviscid
model had received extensive study from a mathematical point of view. One of the mathematical
techniques used was based upon the premise that there exists a single function, fr, called the
stream function, that satisfies the continuity equation, equation (9.167), exactly if defined
properly. If we define the velocity components in the x- and y-directions in the following manner,
r2

and

(9.168)

t
,
9
,

then it follows that equation (9.167) is satisfied exactly. Blasius adopted this approach and then
argued that the velocity profile in the boundary layer should have the same shape at every
position x provided it is scaled in some appropriate manner to account for the fact that the
boundary layer is growing in thickness as the fluid moves down the plate. That is, the velocity
profile is similar at all locations along the plate.
If this is the case, we should be able to express the velocity profile in terms of a
dimensionless similarity parameter i7 that would have the proper scaling built into it. Blasius
proposed that the velocity profile in dimensionless form should be a function of this parameter i
and that the similarity parameter should be related to the thickness of the boundary layer also in
dimensionless form. That is,
and

(9.169)

i7oc

wheref is the first derivative of a functionf. Clearly, from equation (9.169) it follows that the
functionf is the dimensionless form of the stream function. The reason that the derivative is used
instead of the function itself is that the velocity is expressed as a derivative of a stream function
in equation (9.168).
Based upon an idea proposed by Stokes in 1851, Blasius argued that the boundary layer
thickness should grow like the square root of the position x. Then, in dimensionless form we
have
1
6
cc
(9.170)
x
Then from equation(9.169), the similarity parameter should be of the form
(9.171)
Blasius then combined the notion of a stream function as presented in equation (9.168) with his
proposed similarity parameter to get the dimensionless stream function, viz.

f(,7)=

(9.172)

Jvxzo

By formulating the functionf in this manner, Blasius was able to get the velocity profile in
dimensionless form as he had proposed in equation (9.171), viz.
J7 ay

f d?7 y

t
1
/=

di V vx

di7

(9 173)

Ch. 9 Pg. 72
For the y-component of velocity, we have
,

t9

=[jL_f1

(9.174)

From equations (9.173) and (9.174), we can form the partial derivatives appearing in equation
(9.167). Then
=

2x

dr/

--f
2x

vx di

Jy
=

vx

f
3
d

vx di
3

(9.175)

vx

and equation (9.167) becomes

2+f=2f+ff=O
di
di

(9.176)

with boundary conditions

(1)
(2)

f=O

at

di

(3)

=O
at

i=O

as

17oo

(9.177)

Given the nonlinear nature of equation (9.176), Blasius expended considerable effort to devise a
method to solve it. His method involved formulating infinite series that were evaluated using a
recursive scheme. Today, equation (9.176) can be solved numerically rather easily to yield the
results shown in Table 9.4. The resulting velocity profile is plotted in Figure 9.21.
There remains the matter of determining the boundary layer thickness from these results.
Establishing the outer limit of the boundary layer is a bit ambiguous since the velocity of the
fluid in the boundary layer approaches the mainstream value in asymptotic fashion. By
convention, we arbitrarily define the boundary layer thickness to be the value of y for which the
velocity attains a value equal to 99 percent of the value in the mainstream. Then from Table 9.4,
we have
=f=O.99

at

i=4.9

(9.178)

Ch. 9 Pg. 73
Table 9.4 BLASIUS SOLUTION FOR FLOW OVER FLAT PLATE
Ti

o
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.0
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.0

f
0
1.66077E-3
6.64296E-3
0.01495
0.02657
0.04151
0.05975
0.08130
0.10614
0.13425
0.16562
0.20022
0.23802
0.27898
0.32308
0.37025
0.42044
0.47361
0.52967
0.58857
0.65021
0.71453
0.78142
0.85079
0.92255
0.99659
1.07281
1.15109
1.23132
1.31339
1.39719
1.48261
1.56952
1.65783
1.74742
1.83819
1.93004
2.02287
2.11659
2.21111
2.30635
2.40223
2.49868
2.59564
2.69305
2.79084
2.88897
2.98740
3.08609
3.18499
3.28408

0
0.03322
0.06643
0.09963
0.13280
0.16593
0.19900
0.23196
0.26479
0.29744
0.32988
0.36204
0.39389
0.42536
0.45639
0.48693
0.51690
0.54626
0.57492
0.60284
0.62994
0.65618
0.68150
0.70585
0.72918
0.75146
0.77266
0.79275
0.81172
0.82956
0.84626
0.86183
0.87630
0.88967
0.90198
0.91326
0.92355
0.93289
0.94133
0.94893
0.95573
0.96179
0.96717
0.97191
0.97608
0.97972
0.98289
0.98563
0.98799
0.99002
0.99174

0.33216
0.33215
0.33208
0.33191
0.33157
0.33101
0.33018
0.32902
0.32748
0.32553
0.32310
0.32016
0.31668
0.31262
0.30795
0.30266
0.29674
0.29019
0.28300
0.27520
0.26681
0.25787
0.24840
0.23847
0.22813
0.21745
0.20649
0.19532
0.18403
0.17269
0.16137
0.15017
0.13913
0.12835
0.11788
0.10777
0.09808
0.08885
0.08012
0.07190
0.06422
0.05709
0.05051
0.04447
0.03896
0.03397
0.02947
0.02545
0.02186
0.01869
0.01590

Ch. 9 Pg. 74
8

17

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

z9
Figure 9.21 Boundary Layer Velocity Profile for a Flat Plate Due to Blasius
Then
49

(9.179)

4.9

where R = 1
b x/v is the local Reynolds number and x is measured from the leading edge of the
2
plate. From equation (9.179) it is apparent that the laminar boundary layer thickness increases as
the square root of x.
Our original motivation for studying the laminar boundary layer on a flat plate was to
determine the drag force due to skin friction. To this end we compute the shear stress at the wall,
z where
(dz9

TV

P1

=0

dy

17O

(9.180)

Using the data from Table 9.4, we get

0
/pp2
=

O.332

2
O.332p

(9.18 1)

If we define the friction coefficient, C, as

=
C, f
1

pto

(9.182)

Ch. 9 Pg. 75
the Blasius solution for the flat plate in laminar flow gives
0.664
1
C

(.

For flow on one side of the flat plate, the drag force for a plate of width b and length L is given
by
2
FD =bW dx=0.332bp
FD

/ J01

0
pz9

(9.184)

Jppz9
0
=0.664bc9
L

The drag coefficient, CD, for one side of the plate is

FD
bL
2
0
+piY

0.664bY
.
0
Jppt5L
pz
b
2
L

1.328

/pzL

1.328

(9 185)

It

All of the results above apply only so long as the flow remains laminar, but unfortunately none of
these results tells us when the boundary layer becomes turbulent. For this information, we have
to rely upon experimental measurements. These experiments show that there is no specific value
of the local Reynolds number, Ret, at which the transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs.
The data show that the boundary layer on a flat plate in a uniform flow starts out laminar and
remains laminar as the flow proceeds down the plate up to a critical value of the local Reynolds
number,
that depends upon the particular flow situation. In a very rough flow Rex criticai
can be as small as 8 x io whereas in a very smooth flow Re c,jtjcil can be as large as 3 x 106.
For design purposes, Rex critical is usually taken to be 5 x iO.
As we shall see, the results above can be applied to many situations in thermal-fluids
engineering for which the surfaces can be modeled as flat plates. However, in doing so, we must
be mindful of the conditions under which they were formulated. First, in deriving the boundary
layer equations, we non-dimensionalized the component Navier-Stokes equations and then
neglected certain terms that contained the reciprocal of the Reynolds number. This is valid only
insofar as the Reynolds number is large; however, we saw in equations (9.179), (9.181) and
(9.183) that the appropriate value of the Reynolds number for these correlations is the local
Reynolds number for which the appropriate characteristic length is the distance from the leading
edge of the plate. Thus, in the neighborhood of the leading edge, this value of the Reynolds
number is not large and the Blasius solution is no longer valid in this region because the
boundary layer equations on which it is based do not contain the appropriate terms. (This issue
has been subsequently addressed in the thermal-fluids engineering literature.) On the other hand,
as the flow progresses downstream, the value of x increases, and we can expect the Blasius
solution to become more accurate as long as the flow remains laminar.
Second, in postulating a similarity solution, we implicitly assume that the plate extends to
infinity in the positive x-direction. If this were not the case and the plate were of finite length L,
the trailing edge of the plate would cause a disturbance in the flow that would propagate
upstream at the speed of sound by means of pressure waves. The net result would be a change in
the velocity profile within the boundary layer that would cause it to be no longer a similarone
that maintains a fixed shape throughout the length of the plate (assuming that the flow is laminar
everywhere). Thus, strictly speaking, the Blasius solution does not apply to a plate of finite
length. It is necessary in this case to introduce a set of boundary conditions that apply specifically

Ch. 9 Pg. 76
to the trailing edge. However, despite this limitation, the Blasius solution in the form of equation
(9.184) does provide an estimate of the drag force due to skin friction on one side of the plate. In
fact, experimental evidence confirms the validity of equations (9.184) and (9.185) for a plate of
length L.
Finally, now that we have obtained a description of the boundary layer, we need to
examine our assumption that the uniform flow in the mainstream is not affected by the presence
of the boundary layer. This requires a determination of the displacement thickness.
9.9.2.3 The Displacement Thickness: As we have just seen, one of the ways that the
boundary layer affects the mainstream flow is the way it affects the continuity of the flow. To see
this consider the control volume shown in Figure 9.22. The dimension of the control volume in
Control volume
A
Boundary layer

Z////Z7/Z7,7//////Z

/////%7/////////////A
Flat plate

>1

Figure 9.22 Boundary Layer Control Volume

the y-direction is and b in the z-direction normal to the plane of Figure 9.22. The fluid velocity
entering the control volume is uniform with a value of and that leaving the control volume is
the boundary layer velocity profile shown in Figure 9.21. If we apply continuity in the x-direction
we have for the entry and exit planes, respectively
=
(9.186)
thexi =pb?(y)dy
Then combining these two expressions we have
thentru

thexit =

)dy >0

(9.187)

since i> z everywhere in the boundary layer except at the outer edge. Then in order to satisfy
continuity, it must be the case that there is some mass flowing through the top area of the control
volume, ,.
101 If we had instead selected a streamline as the top boundary of the control volume,
A
there would be no mass flow through this boundary since by definition a streamline is
everywhere tangent to the fluid velocity. As shown in Figure 9.23, consider a location L
downstream from the leading edge of the plate.

--

9.

Figure 9.23 Boundary Layer Control Volume

Ch. 9 Pg. 77
At this location, the boundary layer thickness is . At the leading edge, we select a streamline
offset from the surface of the plate by a distance . At the distance L downstream from
the
leading edge, this streamline will be displaced from the edge of the boundary layer
by an amount
. We now consider the control volume shown in Figure 9.23. Notice that the entry plane
extends a considerable distance beyond the boundary layer at the leading edge itself since
the
Blasius solution is not valid there and hence, we could not define the boundary layer
thickness at
the leading edge. Then if we apply continuity to this new control volume, we have
iii

01
th

0
pb5i9
(9.188)

ifl

Evaluating the integrals of equation (9.188), we get

pb64

pb(y)dv

pbr (y)dy + pb

0 =pbzrdy =pbrjy)dv+pb6
pbz
pbzS =PboJ[1_Y

(9.189)

r1l-1y
Jo

oJ

Physically, the displacement thickness represents the extent of the influence of the viscosity
as
far as the mass flow rate is concerned. Outside the distance from the surface of the plate,
the
flow can be modeled as inviscid as far as mass flow rate is concerned. This distance is
a
physically meaningful, but not unique, boundary layer thickness. If we substitute the Blasius
solution into equation (9.189), we get
5

lim(f)

t9

(9.190)

5 =1.719
where we have extended the upper limit on the integration to infinity since the outer edge
of the
boundary layer is located there in the Blasius solution. Equation (9.190) can be cast in the
same
form as equation (9.179) in order to reveal the relative magnitudes of the conventional
boundary
layer thickness and the displacement thickness.
5*
1.719
(9.191a)
=

Thus the displacement thickness also grows as the square root of x, and for the Blasius solution
(9.191b)
so that the boundary layer thickness is much greater than the displacement thickness.

Ch. 9 Pg. 78
Example 9E.8: As shown in Figure 9E.8, air at a temperature of I = 20 C and a pressure
of Pm 1 o N/rn
2 enters the space between two infinite parallel plates separated by a distance of
2a = 20 cm. The uniform velocity at the entrance to this parallel plate duct is lYb = 0.1 mlsec. A
boundary layer grows on each of the two sides of the duct. As the boundary layer grows, the flow
in the undisturbed core is accelerated. Since the Mach number is so low, the flow can be
modeled as incompressible throughout. Then we can use the Blasius solution for flow over a flat
plate as a model of the flow in the entry region of the duct by using the displacement thickness
as a measure of the boundary layer thickness in the duct. From this model of the boundary layer
thickness, we can determine the behavior of the flow in the undisturbed core and, in turn, make
some estimates of the behavior of the flow in the entry region of the parallel plate geometry.
Keep in mind that the results that we obtain here are only estimates since the Blasius solution
applies only in the case of no pressure gradient in the direction of flow and there is clearly a
pressure drop in the entry region of this configuration. We shall also compare these estimates
with the accepted models given in Section 9.9.1.1.
For air: p 1.8 x io kg/rn sec, R = 287 I/kg K, c, = 716 J/kg K

Boundary layer

r/w/z
0
U
Undisturbed core

)1I

-.

L..._Flat plate
Figure 9E.8
Estimate
average
velocity
(a)
of the flow at a location x = 3 m downstream from the
the
entrance to the duct.
(b) Estimate the average pressure P_
31 in the undisturbed core at this same location.
(c) Use the result of part (b) to compute the apparent friction factorfq)J, for this 3 m length
of the duct where
4x
1:
Japp
1
2

ave

and D,
7 is the hydraulic diameter. Recall that for this geometry, D
1 = 4a where a is the half
distance between the plates. Compare this result with the value calculated from equation (9.115).
(d) Estimate the entry length L of this duct, i.e., the length of duct at which the boundary
layer just fills the duct. Compare this estimate with the value calculated from equation 99.112).
Solution: (a) Since we can model the flow as incompressible and the plates are parallel,
the average velocity of this steady flow is constant throughout the length of the duct. Then at a
distance of 3 m downstream from the entrance,
= 0.1 mlsec. The Reynolds number is
90 D = 4(1.189 ka/m) (0.1 m/sec) (0.1 m)
= z,
2643
ReD
1.8 x 10 kg/rn sec
p
The flow is laminar since ReD,l <2800.
(b) If we take the displacement thickness as the boundary layer thickness in the entry
region, continuity in the entry region gives
-

__

Ch. 9 Pg. 79
pt5
2
0
a

Po,e2(6t3)
a

a -3
but from equation (9.186)
1719
.
3
l.7l9x

Ip__

/1

Ipzx

V/I

The velocity appearing in this expression according is supposed to be the mainstream velocity
which according to the Blasius solution is constant. However, in this case the velocity varies
because of the acceleration in the undisturbed core. Then the displacement thickness can be
written
l.719x/

/
PcoreX

Then from continuity we have

(I

al.719x
Solving this expression for

i,

i_
7
.
1
19

PcoreX

JIX

we get
t9core_719/=L9O

If we let z =

1I2

we can solve this expression by the quadratic formula. Then at x

=

3m

0.144 rn/sec

Since the flow in the undisturbed core can be modeled as inviscid, we can apply the Bernoulli
equation there. Then the pressure drop from the entrance to the location x = 3 m is
kg/m3)[(0.144 mlsec)
2 (0.100 m/sec)21
9) (1.189
pin p=3rn P(core
2
2
P F_
37 = 6.375 x i0 N/rn
2
In order to compare this result with equation (9.115) we first calculate the dimensionless
coordinate x, viz.
x
=
3m
3
=2.838xl0
4(0.1 m)2643
D,ZReD
Equation (9.115) gives

24+
(AP
=4x
apparent
1

Then

0.674
4x

3.44

1 + 2.9 x I o (x

)_2

Ch. 9 Pg. 80
24+

(zv)

344

=4(2.838x10-)

0.674
4(2.838 x lO-)

1+ 2.9 x 10 (2.838 x iO-)

(2.838 x iO-)

(p)

0.779

/(2.838 x lO-)

(AP)

3.44
___________

al?parent

0.779

(1.189 3
kg/rn
)
(0.1 2
rn/sec)

= 4.634 x 1 o- N/rn
2
2
2
Thus the pressure drop calculated using the flat plate model is about 50 percent greater than that
determined from a solution of the Navier-Stokes equation. This is due to the fact that the velocity
in the undisturbed core is constantly changing throughout the entry length and the Blasius
solution cannot accommodate either that or the pressure drop itself.
(c) The apparent friction factor is given by
apparui =

UI???

apparent

In _F
3

p4
2
2

4x

)
2
(6.375 x io N/rn

4(0.1 m)

(1.189kg/m
)
3
(0.l rn/sec)
2 4(3 m)

0036

Similarly,

()

apparent

4x

(0.779)(o.4 m)
4(3m)

0 026

Obviously since the pressure drop is greater by the flat plate model, the friction factor using that
model is greater.
(d) From equation (9.106) it is apparent that when the velocity profile becomes fullydeveloped the maximum velocity, i2,, which is on the centerline of the flow, is 1.5 i2. Then
from continuity (part b above) we again have
1.71 9Jre

But now ore = 1.5 z. Then

1.54

1.71 9Jl .54

=

i:::=

1.5_1.719
a
p4
Since at the entry length x = L,,
y, we have
11
0.5

11
= 1.719Ji /PL
=
a
J p4

1.719Ji

/PLenrrrl)h

DI

1
p4D

LefltR
=

D,

4(1.719)h

3.525 x i0

Equation (9.112) gives for large values of the Reynolds number

L.
CU!??
x i0
7
D,

/Lentt

Dh

JReD

Ch. 9 Pg. 81
Thus the flat plate model underestimates the entry length because it has the displacement
boundary layer growing as the square root of x whereas the acceleration in the core of the planar
Couette flow makes the boundary layer grow at a much slower rate. Thus it takes a greater
distance for the core velocity to accelerate to the value
ax than the flat plate model predicts.
However, for a simple estimate of the entry length with no other information available, this
would not be an unreasonable result.
The purpose of this example is to show that lacking other information, simple models can
often give useful, if approximate, information about flow geometries encountered in thermalfluids engineering practice.
9.9.2.4 Momentum Thickness: Another effect that the boundary layer has upon the flow
is to reduce the momentum flow at any given location along the plate compared with the uniform
inviscid flow. This momentum deficit is, of course, the origin of the drag force exerted on the
plate by the flow. Theodore von Karman (1881 1963), another student of Ludwig Prandtl and
the founder of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory during World War II, suggested that there exists a
momentum thickness, 6, due to this momentum deficit that is analogous to the displacement
thickness associated with the deficit in the mass flow due to the presence of the boundary layer.
Von Karman defined 8 such that the drag force, FD, is equal to the flow of the deficit of
the momentum in the boundary layer and could be calculated according to
-

2
FD=pb
z9o

(9.192)
Consider once again the control volume of Figure 9.22 for a flat plate of width b. If we apply the
x-component of the equation of linear momentum to this control volume, we have
pz

.)dA

_pb

2 dv + pb 9
0
z9
z
9
Lr + pb i9
dy
2

(9.193)

where FD is the drag force exerted on the plate by the fluid stream. The three terms on the righthand side represent the momentum flows through the left, top, and right faces of the control
volume, respectively. To eliminate the term for the momentum flow through the top face, we
apply the continuity equation to the control volume. Then
0 + pbf iYdx + pb
pbi5

If we multiply equation (9.194) through by

get
FD

pb
2
0
dy +pb

t9dy =0

and subtract the result from equation (9.193), we

0
dx+pb
2
z92dy+pb

(9.194)

0
pb

t\dxpbz
(9.195)

FD

Combining equations (9.192) and (9.195), we get

(9.196)
Then solving for the momentum thickness 6, we get
6=Jl-iJdv

(9.197)

If we substitute the Blasius solution in equation (9.197), we have

6

J2f

0.664f

or in the form of equation (9.191)

6

0.664

(9.198)

Ch. 9 Pg. 82
Superimposed on the velocity profile, Figure 9.24 shows the relative magnitudes of the various
definitions for boundary layer thickness. Each has its own particular physical significance.
8

0.2

.
. .
-

0.4

0.6

0.8

Velocity Profile
Boundary Layer Thickness
Displacement Thickness
Momentum Thickness

Figure 9.24 Relative Magnitudes of the Boundary Layer, Displacement,

and Momentum Thicknesses for Flow Over a Flat Plate
Von Karman also pointed out that the drag force could also be determined from the shear stress
on the flat plate. Then
FD

=b(x)dx
dFD
dx

(9.200)
=

From equation (9.192) we also have

= pb}
0
dx
dx
Combining equations (9.200) and (9.201), we get

---

(9.20 1)

(9.202)
dx
Equation (9.202) is known as the momentum integral relation. The local skin friction coefficient,
Cf, is defined as
=

0
pt

Cf

(9203)
2
p
0
For the Blasius solution for laminar flow over a flat plate, we can substitute equations (9.199)
and (9.202) into equation (9.203) to get
Cf

(9.204)

Ch. 9 Pg. 83
While the displacement thickness, the momentum thickness, and the momentum integra
l
relation seem interesting for the way in which they tie much of the dynamic behavior of
the
Newtonian fluid model together, they appear at this point to have limited utility since we derived
them after we had already developed the Blasius solution for the flat plate. Their value howev
er,
lies in the fact that they are integral methods that tend to average properties in the bound
ary
layer, and, hence, are less susceptible to the details of the flow. This averaging nature makes
them particularly useful for turbulent flows since the solution of the Navier-Stokes equatio
n for
turbulent flow is extremely complicated. In the case of turbulent flow, it will be necess
ary to
resort to a semi-empirical determination of the velocity profile in the boundary layer. Then,
armed with this velocity profile and the integral methods we have just developed, useful
information can be derived for the turbulent flow situation without ever really solving the
Navier-Stokes equation. Example 9E.9 illustrates the procedure for a particular laminar
velocity
profile. As we shall see in Chapter 11, once we can fully describe the momentum transfe
r
process, the description of the energy transfer process follows in a relatively straightforwa
rd
manner.
Example 9E.9: Because the Blasius solution for the flat plate in laminar flow is
numerical and cannot be expressed in closed form, it is a bit unwieldy to employ in practice.
For
this reason, over the years several different approximations to the Blasius velocity profile have
been developed for laminar flow over a flat plate. One such approximation is the parabo
lic
velocity profile originally due to von Karman. For y , the velocity in the x-direction is given
by
8,)

Lo

S}

and for y>

=1
The parabolic velocity profile satisfies the boundary conditions
(1)
zI=O
at y=O
(2)

at

y=
As shown in Figure 9E.9, the approximation is quite good through out the thickness of the
boundary layer.
(a) For a flat plate of width b, use this parabolic profile to obtain the drag force,
FD, the
drag coefficient, CD, the boundary layer thickness as a function of the position x on the plate,
and
the skin friction coefficient, C.
(b) Estimate the rate of entropy generation in a boundary layer of length
(c) Compare the results obtained in part (a) with those obtained from the Blasius solution.
Solution: (a) From equation (9.187), we have
FD

O
2
0
pbt5

Then from equation (9.192) we have

FD
=6= r11LdY
2
0
pbt
0
J

Ch. 9 Pg. 84

0.8

0.6

z9

4
0.4

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

rofile
4
Parabolic Velocity
Blasius Velocity Profile

Figure 9E.9 Comparison of the Blasius and Parabolic Velocity Profiles for a Flat Plate
We now substitute the parabolic velocity profile in the integrand. Since the profile is a function
of y/, let this now become the variable of integration. Then

FD
6
2
pb4
FD
5
2
pb4

4J

JO4

I 2(_1
sJ sJ
0

FD
8
2
pb4
From the definition of the shear stress in the fluid
=

15

j
y=o

but if we set

y/
_29v*)-

y
Then
=
w

sJ

FD _2Jd_5J
d(+4J(d
5
2
pb4
OJ

sJ sJ

dI

l2+(

2p4(1_y*)

2/14

5
)

=0

4sJ sJ
3D fCN

Ch. 9 Pg. 85
From equation (9.190) we have
ldFD2IuhYQ
U

bdx

Then
F

dF

9
0
t
2
4pb
2ubt9
0
pbz926__ 3

15
6 15)

Integrating this expression, we get

CL4b2z
3
dF,,
1
I Fdx I
dx
Jo
0 15
J
2
FD

L
4,ib

0
i
2

15

dx

/8pb2z3L

15
Then the drag coefficient for one side of the plate as defined in equation (9.185) becomes
L
8pb
4
2
FD

cD

/pi9L

L
--pz3
b
2
0

L
--pz
b
2
0

1.461

1.461

/k

1p
4
Then
p2bL

26
0
FD =_pb2

and

Equating these last two expressions, we get

6

5.477

and it follows that

6

5.477

For the skin friction coefficient Cf, we have from the definition
1
C
2p /k
0 I
2pz
6 pz9
2
2 5.477x 9
0
2
0
pz9
pz,
0
0.730

1
C

(b) In order to estimate the rate of entropy generation in this boundary layer based on the
incompressible Newtonian fluid model, we must first apply the first law of thermodynamics in
order to assess the rate of dissipation of kinetic energy of the fluid in the boundary layer. To do
this we employ the control volume shown in Figure 9.22. Since there is no pressure gradient in
this steady flow and since the flow is also adiabatic with no shaft work transfer, the first law
reduces to
o=(h,,

Ch. 9 Pg. 86
If we now substitute the enthalpy constitutive relation into this expression, we get

0= c (7,

1 +
T(flf

= 1

(2

It must be remembered that the kinetic energy terms appearing in this expression are the mass
flow rate averaged values over the entry and exit ports. For the entry port the averaging process is
trivial since the flow rate is constant over this port, but for the exit port the velocity varies
according to the parabolic velocity profile given above. Then

)
2
(

iiz

= pM
0

ave

(2

(2)

ave

= pb

9
d
3
v

)ave =

where for the parabolic velocity profile

1
6
-W

-l2(D +6(D

If we change variables by letting y = y/, we have

dy = Yj9i3dy*
J3
Substituting for zY and integrating, we get

i
d
3
y

and
/

2
ave

1 l6
i3dv=-ot9
35

16

=4
35

Then the temperature increase becomes

L(

2c

2)

= .

2c

=
c70

35

From the second law, we have

s ) = mc In T

Sgeti =

_QL

S &efl

= pcVln1 +
.

TT

cI 70

Thus the rate of entropy generation varies linearly with the boundary layer thickness. Then for a
boundary layer of length 4 we have
0
= 5.477Cpcz.9
gen

in1i+-_--2
L\ c7 70

Thus, for the flat plate, the rate of entropy generation varies as the square root of the length of the
boundary layer.
(c) From these results, it appears that the error associated with the use of the parabolic
velocity profile introduces an error of approximately 12 percent. For example,

Ch. 9 Pg. 87
B1asius

parabo1ic

0. 12

4.90

BIazu,
6

Perhaps more importantly, the parabolic velocity profile gives the proper dependence on x for the
growth of the boundary layer, namely, the square root of x. There are other analytical forms for
the velocity profile that give even greater accuracy, but the method of employing them is
precisely the same as that above.
Example 9E.1O: As shown in Figure 9E.lOa, a flat plate is immersed in a uniform flow
of air with a velocity 1
b and zero pressure gradient. The plate is porous with a very large number
2
of uniformly-spaced small holes drilled through it. Air flows through these holes in a direction
normal to the plate with a velocity z9 that is the same everywhere, independent of the values of
xandy.
(a) Determine the velocity profile of the air for this flow geometry.
(b) Find an expression for the boundary layer thickness of the air flowing over the plate
for which the outer limit of the boundary layer is defined as that value of y for which i = 0.99 i.

Boundary layer
Y

Mainstream

Air flow, t
Figure 9E. 1 Oa
Solution: (a) We first note that the boundary condition i. = 0 at y = 0 does not hold in
this case even though the boundary condition i2 = 0 at y = 0 does hold. Thus we cannot use the
Blasius solution to describe the flow in this case, and it will be necessary to solve the boundary
layer equations specifically for this geometry. We further note that i2. =
= constant
everywhere. Then d OJdx 0 and from continuity
x

Then it follows that

i =

t(y). Then the momentum equation, equation (9.156), becomes

j/
Th V
+Z
+

+ I
2
t

iy

C1Z/JdZ
dy
pdy 2
where we have made use of the fact that the y-component of velocity is aIl everywhere and that
the x-component of velocity is a function of y only. We have also introduced the kinematic
viscosity, v. The solution of this second order, ordinary differential equation must satisfy the
boundary conditions
(I)
=0
9
t
at y=O
(2)
at y*oo
=t
t
9
wall

Ch. 9 Pg. 88
The solution of the differential eqLlation is of the form
i3 ==Ae+B
Then
IflV

Cl))
d

2
2
=Aine

dv
2
Then substituting these expressions into the original differential equation, we get
1

Arne ,, =Am 2 e nrv

ZVa11

Then
i9=Ae

+B

From the second boundary condition, it is apparent that only negative values of i,
11 are
allowable if the solution is to remain bounded as we move to the outer edge of the boundary layer
where y
This means that there is suction under the plate. (As we shall see shortly, this is a
means of controlling the behavior of the boundary layer.) Applying the second boundary
condition, we get the result that B = i. Then
-

z9=Ae

+Y

Applying the first boundary condition, we get

0= A + z2
0
Then the solution becomes
IIY

-=1e

lYwall<O

(b) The boundary layer thickness is given by

I-

=0.99=1e

=0.01

=lnO.0l
=

4.605

Then the boundary layer thickness becomes

4.605v
5
ZVa11

Hence, the boundary layer has the same thickness at all locations on the plate, and for a given
value of the kinematic viscosity v, i.e., a given fluid, the thickness of the boundary layer is
determined solely by the suction velocity l(j//

Ch. 9 Pg. 89
Thus, we now have at our disposal a means of controlling the thickness of the boundary
layer. The problem is that for a given mainstream velocity, as the boundary layer becomes thinner
with an increase in suction velocity, the fluid shear and the skin friction increase. Thus boundary
layer suction may not be all that worthwhile as a means of reducing skin friction drag. However,
the real reasons that boundary layer suction is of interest are: (1) that it delays separation of the
boundary layer from the solid surface thereby reducing profile drag; and (2) that it exerts a
stabilizing influence on the laminar flow thereby delaying the onset of the transition to turbulent
flow. These are two important flow phenomena that we shall consider in greater detail shortly,
but suffice it to say at this point that boundary layer suction is in fact used in some thermal-fluid
systems to control the flow configuration. Figures 9E. lOb and 9E. lOc (from L. Prandtl,
Essentials of Fluid Dynamics, Hafner Publishing Co., New York, 1952, p.l
3) show just how
4
dramatic the effect can be.

Figure 9E.lOb Flow in a Channel with a Sudden Enlargement

Notice in Figure 9E.lOb that the flow is separated from the wall in the enlarged section of the
channel, but when boundary layer suction is introduced in the portion of the channel where the
enlargement occurs, the
lOc.
-

I.
Figure 9E. lOc Flow in a Channel with a Sudden Enlargement and Suction at the Wall

Ch. 9 Pg. 90
9.10

Turbulent Flow

Up to the present time we have been considering flows that are described as
laminar in that any perturbation to the flow due to some infinitesimal disturbance is damped out
by the action of viscosity. However, we would intuitively expect that if the disturbance became
sufficiently large, the flow field could assume another character. As mentioned previously, the
experiments of Osborne Reynolds confirmed that this is indeed the case. The Reynolds number
provides a good measure of this possibility since it represents the ratio of inertia forces to viscous
forces. Thus, at large values of the Reynolds number, we would expect the inertia forces to
dominate the flow with the viscous forces exerting little influence on the flow field. At these high
Reynolds numbers, perturbations to the flow are no longer subject to the damping action of
viscosity. It is now possible, then, for these perturbations to grow in magnitude and thereby
destroy the laminar nature of the flow. Such flows are termed turbulent, and in fact, most flows
commonly encountered in thermal-fluids engineering practice are of this type in which an
irregular fluctuation (mixing or eddying motion) is superimposed on the average mainstream
flow.
As shown schematically in Figure 9.25, the velocity continually fluctuates about some
average value in a manner such that the amplitude of this fluctuation is, in general, of the same
order of magnitude as the velocity itself. Not only does the velocity at one point in the flow field
fluctuate with time, but also the velocity varies in an irregular fashion from point to point at a
particular instant in time. Due to this irregular nature of the velocity, the paths of motion of the
fluid particles are highly random which results in an extensive mixing of the fluid and a
significant enhancement of the transport of momentum and energy between the fluid and the
solid surfaces that bound it. In fact, the effects produced by this mixing motion are such that the
viscosity and the thermal conductivity of the fluid appear to have been increased by several
orders of magnitude. Unfortunately, the fluctuations in the velocity are so complex that they
render the problem inaccessible to mathematical treatment which makes the modeling of
turbulent flow one of the major challenges of thermal-fluids engineering.

Ux

Ux

t
Figure 9.25 Instantaneous Velocity of Fluid in Turbulent Flow at Some Point in Space
The random nature of the motion of the fluid that prevails in turbulent flow fields is
similar to that which prevails in the motion of the molecules that make up any physical body. In
principle, we could describe the behavior of a macroscopic body by specifying the initial values

Ch. 9 Pg. 91
of the coordinates and velocities of all the molecules and then integrating the equatio
ns of motion
for each molecule. This determines the coordinates and velocity of every molecu
le as a function
of time and thereby describes the behavior of the body composed of these molecu
les. However,
since the number of particles making up such a body is incredibly large, the metho
d described is
virtually impossible in practice. The resolution of this dilemma lies in the compl
ex and irregular
nature of the motion of the molecules themselves. It follows that after a suffici
ently long period
of time the velocities and coordinates of the molecules assume all possible values
so that the
effect of the initial conditions is smoothed out and disappears. This condition then
permits the
use of statistical mechanics to describe the behavior of a macroscopic body
in terms of its
microscopic components. The situation in turbulent flow is similar to that describ
ed above with
the fluid particles serving as the analog of the molecules of the body. It follow
s then that the
theory of turbulent flow must be of a statistical nature. Several attempts have been
made in this
direction; however, to date no complete quantitative theory has been developed.
Nevertheless,
several important worthwhile results have been deduced using a technique similar
to that
described below.
At any point in a three-dimensional, fully developed turbulent flow field, the fluid
velocity varies with respect to both time and direction. The instantaneous velocit
ies and pressure
are i,, i, z, and P while the time averages of these quanti
ties are iY, 2., C, and P where
--e
1
1
I +o
1 ()+0
=
It }. .dt,
i3 =
.dt,
=
t dt,
I
P=
Pdt (9.205)
I
J()
6
6
o
6 Jt,,
By virtue of the equations (9.205) it is possible to separate a turbulent flow into
a mean motion
described by (9.205) and into afluctuating or eddying motion which represents
the amount of
fluctuation of the instantaneous quantity from the average quantity. Thus, if z, i2,
O, and P
denote the fluctuating components, we have

P=P+P

(9.206)
It should be pointed out that the mean values are to be taken over a sufficiently
long interval of
time, 6, so that they are completely independent of time for a steady flow. Thus,
it follows that
7 1 ,+o

I
+o
I
+0
I
t9 dt=0, t
I
.
9
3dt=0, m3.
I
m9dt=0, P= I
I
Pdt=0 (9.207)
6 o
6 o
6 0o
6 o
That is, the time average of each of the fluctuating components is zero. By analogy
to equations
(9.207), the mean square of the velocity fluctuations is defined as
i=+

=+,

,2
,2
1 +o ,2
,2
1 . o
1
r9x di, z, =I
=I
mY,
dt,
mY
mY
di
=I
(9.208)
0
6 JO))
6 t
6 0
The turbulent shear components (The reason for this name will become apparent shortly
.) are
I o
1 0+0 ,
0+0
1
mYmYdt, t9
9 =j
c
0
t9z9
z9mYdt,
mYm3dt
(9.209)
=j
6
6 to
6 o
Note that when the mean flow is in one direction, e.g. the x-direction, the mean
velocities in the
other two directions (y and z) are zero but the fluctuating quantities defined in equatio
ns (9.208)
and (9.209) are all finite, including those in the y- and z-directions.
Even though the flow is turbulent, the Navier-Stokes equation is still applica
ble if the
instantaneous values of the velocity and pressure are used. For an incompressibl
e Newtonian fluid
the relevant component equations are equations (9.67). We shall now show the
form that the
Navier-Stokes equation takes for the turbulent flow field. For example in the absenc
e of body
forces the x-component of the Navier-Stokes equation becomes
,2

m3

=f

Ch. 9 Pg. 92
a.

(az9V.

X1

p1

+9

Xl

It

aX

(a2,

az

Z.l

I=---+pI

ay

ax

2
a
ay

2
a

az 2

(9.210)

and the continuity equation, equation (9.70) becomes

+

aVV

Xl

at..

ax

a.

=0

az

ay

(9.211)

Notice that the convective terms in equation (9.210) can be written

li

ax

X.I

+z

2
a()

an..
li

V
a.

aV.

VV
aV

Xl

ax

5.!

a.XX.o.
Z.l

ay
az
Substituting equation (9.2 12) into equation (9.2 10) and collecting like terms, we obtain

a.Xi

a.Xi

V
aV

li

(9.212)

i,
pz9
1

(9.213)
1
pz,
az
) az
Now substitute in equation (9.2 13) the appropriate value for the instantaneous velocity given by
equations (9.206). Form the time average in the resulting equation term by term taking into account
the following rules in whichf and g are two dependent variables whose mean values (denoted by
the superscript bar) are to be formed. Let s denote any one of the independent variables x, y, z and t.
Then,
p

ax

at

ax

dii

ax

a)

ay

$fds=$fds
(9.214)
as as
In performing the time averages, we make use of the relations (9.207). For example, making the
+ z in the first term of (9.2 14), we obtain
substitution i =

f=f,

f+g=f+,

a,
az2,
1
az

at

at

(9.215)

at

Taking the time average, we get

a,

(9.216)
at

at

at

at

at

at

at

at

Applying this technique to each of the other terms, we obtain

ax
V
V

ax

VU.

(9.217)

ax
2

1 =u-p -pz9
-p

(9.218)

ax

V
a.

di

PVtII

=-pz5

ay

az

9 t9
Pt

(9.219)

ay

PXVI.I =

az

p-

pt9

pt9

(9.220)

Substituting equations (9.2 17) through (9.220) into equation (9.2 13), we obtain
at9.

(at9.

PI

9
+Z

ox

t9,
V

at9

az
i-

with similar equations for the y- and z-directions.

(9.221)

Ch. 9 Pg. 93
Comparing equation (9.22 1) with equations (9.67), we see that for turbulent flow, the
Navier-Stokes equation is satisfied provided the mean velocity is used and three additional terms
involving the fluctuation components are included in each component equation. These three
additional terms have the units of stress and are referred to as the Reynolds stresses in honor of
Osborne Reynolds who first derived them. It is customary to group these terms with the viscous
terms in the Navier-Stokes equation. In all, there are six independent Reynolds stresses:
three normal stresses

2
pz3

and three shear stresses, pz9t,

pz,.
The result of this grouping is that the velocity fluctuations can be regarded as responsible for
producing an increase in the shear stress in the fluid.
While the appearance of these Reynolds stresses in the Navier-Stokes equation seems to
lend mathematical credence to the notion that they are stresses, we have not yet presented a
physical interpretation to confirm this notion. On the one hand, we need to show that physically
they are responsible for the transfer of momentum due to turbulence, and on the other hand, we
need to show that they affect the flow in much the same manner as the viscous stresses. In this
regard, Prandtl in 1925 proposed the following very simple model of turbulence based upon the
similarity between the random nature of turbulence and the random nature of molecular motion.
Consider the case of a two-dimensional, parallel turbulent flow in which the average
velocity varies only from streamline to streamline. The principal direction of flow is assumed
parallel to the x-axis with i, = 0, i2 = 0, and z = i(y) with di5/dy> 0. Then there exists in the
flow a velocity profile something like that shown in Figure 9.26.

y
y

1
y

YYi
1
y=y

Ux

Figure 9.26 Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow

As the fluid passes along the solid wall that bounds it, a fluid particle traverses some
distance in both the x- and y-directions while retaining its momentum parallel to x. Focusing our
attention on the plane y = Yi we note that the fluid particle that comes from a layer (y 2), and
therefore has i2. > 0, carries with it velocity l(yj ) and is displaced transversely a distance
known as the Prandtl mixing length. The fluid particle now has an average velocity that is smaller
than the average velocity of other fluid particles at its new location. This gives rise to a negative
component iY. in layer y
1 given by

1
(y
-

(y) =

(9.222)

dy
.

Ch. 9 Pg. 94
The transverse component i. can be determined from the assumption that two fluid particles that
enter the layer at the plane y = y
1 from opposite sides approach one another with relative velocity
29di/dy and that this gives rise to transverse fluctuation velocities of the same order of magnitude
as the longitudinal fluctuation velocities. Thus
(9.223)
A similar argument can be applied to a fluid particle that enters the layer from above with
<0 only now iY> 0. Then the product of the two velocities associated with the turbulence is
always negative and the relevant Reynolds stress becomes
i

(9.224)

Equation (9.224) bears a striking similarity to equation (9.13) with the mixing length playing a role
analogous to the mean free path and the fluid particles analogous to the molecules of a gas. Thus
momentum transport by eddying particles of fluid is analogous to momentum transport by
molecular motion.
One must be careful not to push this analogy too far, however, as there are distinct
differences in the underlying physics that limit its validity. In the kinetic theory model, molecules
travel a clear path with no interactions occurring between collisions whereas the fluid particles do
exchange momentum with surrounding particles during their movement from one location to
another. Thus the mixing length is not as well-defined as the mean free path. In addition, with the
exception of rarefied gases, the mean free path of the molecules is small compared to typical
distances over which the velocity gradient can be viewed as non-linear whereas in the turbulent
flow, the size of the typical eddy, as yet undefined, is on the same order as the mixing length
Nonetheless, this simple model has met with considerable success, particularly for simple shear
flows as in the case of turbulent flow in a pipe or turbulent flow over a flat plate.
Equation (9.224) enables us to write the total shear stress in the fluid as the sum of the
laminar shear stress and the turbulent or Reynolds shear stress, viz.
(9.225)
= riaminar + ZtltrbtfIe,t
which for two-dimensional flow is
dz
d9.
(9.226)
1 IPT
9
PP
dy
dy
dy
where IT is the apparent increase in the viscosity, called the eddy viscosity, due to the turbulence
1
in the flow. Since it depends upon the velocity fluctuations which are characteristic of the
particular flow field, the eddy viscosity is a property of the flow and must not be regarded as a fluid
characteristic like the shear viscosity. It may even vary over the spatial region occupied by the
flow. Equation (9.226) can also be written in the form

(9.227)
dy
where 8
M is the eddy diffusivity of momentum analogous to the momentum diffusivity
characterized by the kinematic viscosity v. In dimensionless form, the eddy diffusivity is written
where

dy

dy

(9.228)

Ch. 9 Pg. 95

9.10.1 Eddies and the Structure of Turbulent Flow

Although eddies are the fundamental reason for enhanced transfer of momentum and
energy in turbulent flow, the concept of the eddy is not sharply defined. Basically, an
eddy of
size I represents some sort of coherent motion with a characteristic velocity of i(l) over
this length
scale. The characteristic frequency of the eddy is of the order of U(l) Ii. Then the irregul
ar motion
of turbulent flow can be thought of as a superposition of eddies of different sizes on the
mean flow.
The process of eddy formation is central to the transport process and can be thought in
of the
following way. The largest eddies have the largest amplitudes and appear first with charac
a
teristic
length I that is of the same order of magnitude as the characteristic length of the flow
L. These
large eddies have a characteristic velocity i that is comparable to the mean velocity of the
flow
The characteristic Reynolds number of these large eddies is Re
1 = i lp/p which is of the same
order of magnitude as the Reynolds number of the mean flow ReL. Since this Reynolds numbe
r is
typically very large in turbulent flow, the effects of viscosity in these large eddies is relativ
ely
small and the motion of these eddies can be modeled as inviscid and can be describ
ed by the Euler
equation. Since an inviscid fluid possesses no dissipation mechanism, it follows that
there is no
appreciable dissipation of kinetic energy in the large eddies.
However, the large eddies tend to be unstable so they break up into small eddies, thereby
transferring kinetic energy from the large eddies into these small eddies in a manner
independent of
the viscosity of the fluid. These small eddies undergo a further break-up resulting in
a transfer of
kinetic energy into still smaller eddies. Thus, by means of a practically dissipationles
s cascade
process, momentum and energy pass from the large eddies to the small eddies. In this model
, the
small eddies, which correspond to high frequencies, participate in the turbulent flow with
much
smaller amplitudes. They contain only a small part of the total kinetic energy of the fluid,
and,
therefore, may be regarded as a fine detailed structure superimposed on the large turbulent
eddies.
It follows that for distances large compared with 1, the variation of the fluctuation velocity
component is given by the variation in the velocities of the large eddies, namely i. Over
distances
small compared with 1, the fluctuation velocity component is determined by the small eddies
and is
therefore small compared with i.
Throughout this cascade process, the Reynolds number characteristic of the eddies is
decreasing as the characteristic size of the eddies decreases. This process continues until
the
Reynolds number becomes so small that the viscous effects become the dominant mecha
nism for
dissipating the kinetic energy. The kinetic energy dissipated in this manner ultimately appear
s as an
increase in the stored thermal energy of the fluid. In order to maintain a steady state the
in
flow
field, it is of course necessary to have some external energy source present to continually
supply
energy to the large eddies. For the case of an incompressible fluid, this energy is supplied
by the
flow work transfer to the fluid as manifested in the pressure drop in the direction of
the average
flow.
Although the dissipation is ultimately due to the viscosity, the rate of dissipation is limited
by the first step in the cascade. Then its order of magnitude can be determined only by those
quantities which characterize the large eddies, namely the fluid density p. the dimension
1, and the
velocity i. The kinetic energy of the large eddies scales according to i2. Then if represe
nts the
rate of energy transfer from the large eddies to the small eddies, it should scale according
to the
product of the kinetic energy and the frequency of the large eddies, viz.

which is independent of the viscosity as confirmed by experiment.

Ch. 9 Pg. 96
In our discussion, we have taken the eddy diffusivity 8
M to be the embodiment of the
turbulence. Then if the eddy diffusivity is to characterize the properties of the turbulent flow, its
order of magnitude must also be determined by p, 1, and 1 as per the above discussion. According
to equation (9.228), the eddy diffusivity 8
M must have the same dimensions as the kinematic
viscosity v, namely (length)
/time. The only quantity with these dimensions that can be formed
2
from the combination p. i, and 1 is the product 1 i. Then
(9.229)
lz3
EM
In point of fact, equation (9.229) gives only the manner in which the eddy diffusivity scales with
the characteristics of the large eddies. There is a numerical factor of considerable magnitude that
would need to be included in equation (9.229) in order to determine the magnitude of the eddy
diffusivity. From equation (9.229) the ratio of the eddy diffusivity to the ordinary kinematic
viscosity is
-

--

= Re
1

(9.230)

so that this ratio scales as the Reynolds number of the large eddies. In light of the large numerical
factor in equation (9.229), equation (9.230) is more appropriately written
1
Re
e
(9.231)
v
Recrjtjcai
where Recritica, is that critical value of Reynolds number for which the transition from laminar to
turbulent flow occurs. Equation (9.23 1) shows that for Re, << Recritiec,,, the eddy diffusivity is
insignificant and the shear viscosity dominates; consequently, equation (9.227) reduces to the
customary laminar flow relation. On the other hand, for Re, >> Rec,jtjca,, the eddy diffusivity
dominates the flow; consequently, under these conditions it is quite often possible to neglect the
laminar contribution entirely.
By now it should be obvious that the primary objective of the analysis of turbulent flow is
the determination of the eddy diffusivity (or equivalently, the mixing length) that characterizes the
flow, preferably in the form 8 given by equation (9.228). Once 8 is known, the Navier-Stokes
equation can be solved to give the average velocity field and the shear stress at the wall. To effect
such a solution it is necessary that the boundary conditions be specified. The boundary conditions
to be satisfied by the mean velocity components are identical to those of laminar flow, namely all
velocity components must vanish at the wall. In addition, all fluctuation velocity components must
vanish at the wall which implies that the fluctuation components are very small in the immediate
neighborhood of the wall. It follows, then, that immediately adjacent to the wall the only stresses of
any consequence are the viscous stresses of laminar flow. Thus in turbulent flow there exists a very
thin layer next to the wall that can be modeled as a simple laminar shear flow. In this thin layer
known as the laminar sublayer, the viscous forces dominate the inertia forces; consequently, there
is no turbulence in the laminar sublayer. Any perturbations that occur are quickly damped out by
the viscosity. It follows, then, that in this simple shear layer 8
1. The
M << v or equivalently e
velocity profile in this region is a linear one similar to equation (9.4). Tn spite of the fact that the
laminar sublayer is so thin, it plays a significant role in determining the shear at the wall, and hence
the viscous drag on the wall, as well as being the major resistance to heat transfer. The shear stress
is constant in the laminar sublayer because of the linear velocity profile typical of simple shear
flows. Then z= z and equation (9.228) becomes
dt9
-=pVE -=pvE i
dy
dy
(9.232)
r
-E V
dy
p
-

Ch. 9 Pg. 97
The term on the left-hand side of equation (9.232) has the dimensions of a velocity square
d. Then
we can define a pseudo-velocity,
known as the friction velocity such that
,

(9.23 3)

Then with the aid of equation (9.233), equation (9.232) can be written in dimensionles
s form, viz.
rlz9
r9 =ev
dy
i
ev

dy

(9.234)

dy

=+

dz
d
where we have introduced the dimensionless distance from the wall,
velocity, 2, such that
5
+Y

y,

and the dimensionless

(9.235)

From equation (9.235) it can be seen that the quantity y is like a Reynolds number. In
the laminar
sublayer where e 1, equation (9.234) becomes

dy
which can be integrated with the boundary condition
profile that we expected, viz.

(9.236)
i =

0 at y

0 to give the linear velocity

=
+
(9.237)
which has been shown by experiment to be valid for y < 5.
Adjacent to the laminar sublayer is a transitional region known as the buffer layer. In
the
buffer layer the velocity fluctuations are large enough so that the turbulent stresses are
comparable
to the viscous stresses. The buffer layer provides a smooth transition from the lamina
r sublayer
next to the wall to the fully turbulent layer located far from the wall. In this third region
, the actual
turbulent boundary layer, the Reynolds stresses completely dominate the flow so that
CM>> V or
C>> 1. In the fully turbulent layer, the shear stress is
equal to the Reynolds stress. Then from
equation (9.224), we have

rrurhflleflt

PZX dv

dy)I

(9.238)

dy
Based upon the experimental evidence, Prandtl suggested that the shear stress could
be modeled as
being constant across the laminar sublayer, the buffer layer, and the fully turbulent layer
as shown
schematically in Figure 9.27.

Ch. 9 Pg. 98

1
\tlaminar
tturbulent

t/tw

10

100

1000
y+
Figure 9.27 Shear Stress Distribution in Turbulent Flow

This is known as the law of the wall since the shear stress appearing in equation (9.238) is
actually the shear stress at the wall. Then equation (9.238) becomes
dyJ

(9.239)

where we have made use of equation (9.233). Prandtl then suggested that the mixing length is
proportional to the distance from the wall consistent with our description of the turbulence given
above. This suggestion is well supported by the experimental evidence. Then equation (9.239)
becomes
(9.240)
dy
where the constant of proportionality, ic, known as the von Karman constant, is to be determined
from the experimental data. Then if we re-arrange equation (9.240), we get
=

d()/)=dt9+

==1_

(9.241)

Equation (9.241) can be integrated to give

+

(9.242)

where the constant of integration, C, is to be determined from the experimental data as shown in
Figure 9.28 for both flow in a circular conduit as well as flow over a flat plate.

Ch. 9 Pg. 99

Figure 9.28 Generalized Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow

(From Figure 1, NACA Technical Report 1210, Analysis of Turbulent Heat Transfer, Mass
Transfer, and Friction in Smooth Tubes at High Prandtl and Schmidt Numbers, R. G. Deissler,
1954.)
40

I
+

30

30

20

laminar

buffer

sublayer

layer

fully turbulent
layer

10

0
1

10

100

1 10
y+

Laminar Sublayer
Layer
Fully Turbulent Layer

Figure 9.29 Velocity Profiles in Turbulent Boundary Layer

Ch. 9 Pg. 100

The values that fit the data best are

0.41 and C = 5.0. Then equation (9.242) becomes

=2.44lny+5.0
(9.243)
where equation (9.243) is most accurate for y 30. In the buffer layer, 5 y < 30, the velocity
profile is best represented by
(9.244)
9 =5lny3.05
t
ic=

However, as shown in Figure 9.29, this correlation introduces only a small correction to equation
(9.243) so it is often neglected. It must be kept in mind that the shear at the wall completely
dominates the velocity profile for turbulent flow.
The general structure of turbulent flow discussed above holds for both internal and external
flows with some relatively minor differences in each case. Now that we have established the
velocity profiles for turbulent flow in the neighborhood of a solid wall, we can use them to
determine the characteristics of some turbulent flow geometries, both internal and external, that are
important in thermal-fluids engineering.
9.10.2 Turbulent Internal Flows
For obvious reasons, the vast majority of the research in turbulent internal flows has been
devoted to studies of flow in a circular conduit. Following this example, we shall consider this case
in greater detail than any other. For these internal flows, events at the wall so dominate the flow
that even though the flows are driven by a pressure gradient in each case, the velocity profiles are
essentially coincident with those developed above for the case of zero pressure gradient. For fullydeveloped turbulent flow in a circular conduit, the boundary layer extends across the crosssectional area. The flow consists of a laminar sublayer, a buffer layer, and a fully-turbulent core.
In the laminar sublayer, the velocity profile is the linear one given in equation (9.237)
which is valid up to
<5. In order to gain a sense of magnitude of the dimensions of this laminar
sublayer in the case of fully-developed turbulent flow in a circular conduit, let us estimate its
thickness, L.
5
+

(9.245)

where we have made use of the definition of the friction velocity, equation (9.23 3). The shear
stress at the wall is given by equation (9.130). Then
W

=11
1-
2
}rR

aZ ),=R

4 L

(9.246)

From equation (9.140)

L

D2J

(9.247)

Substituting equation (9.247) into (9.246), we get

f2
lve
9
t

(9.248)
2
ave

p8
Then substituting equation (9.248) into equation (9.245), we get

__

Ch. 9 Pg. 101

L_aveL

_5
48

veD

=-ReD

48

D
5

L_

=5
48

(9.249)

ReD\j

We have not yet developed a means of determining the friction factor for turbulent flow. However,
for the purposes of an estimate, suppose that the laminar friction factor given in equation (9.141) is
still valid for Reynolds numbers close to the laminar-turbulent transition. Then for
ReD = 4000, we
have
ReD

64
=0.016
4000

(9.250)

and
=

ReDZ

=0.02795

(9.251)

4000/0.016

A common size for a circular conduit is D = 25 mm. Then

= 0.02795D = 0.02795(0.025 m)
0.7 mm
(9.252)
Clearly the laminar sublayer is quite thin and in fact gets thinner as the Reynolds number increases.
It is possible, then, that the asperities on the conduit wall due to casting defects in the case of cast
iron pipe or due to scale formation on the wall due to the corrosive nature of a fluid are actually
large enough to extend through the laminar sublayer. These asperities can then affect the flow by
triggering further turbulence or produce additional friction in the flow. For this reason we then
divide our study of turbulent flow in a circular conduit into two domains: (1) flow in a conduit
considered hydraulically smooth because the inherent roughness of the conduit wall is much less
than the thickness of the laminar sublayer as might be the case for flow in a drawn metal tube or a
plastic pipe, and (2) flow in conduits whose walls are inherently so rough that the size of the
asperities on the wall are of the same order of magnitude as the thickness of the laminar sublayer.
9.10.2.1 Turbulent Flow in Hydraulically Smooth Conduits: For hydraulically smooth
conduits, von Karman proposed what Prandtl called a middle law for which the difference
between the maximum velocity, i, found at the centerline of the conduit and the velocity at the
distance y = R r from the wall of the conduit is the product of the friction velocity i2 and a
universal function g of the ratio y/r. Then

rnax

(y)

(9.253)

If we use equation (9.243) for the universal function g, we have

-=2.44ln----+5=2.44ln
9
t

(R-r)

+5

(9.254)

If we now evaluate equation (9.254) at the centerline of the conduit, we have

=2.44ln+5
V

If we now subtract equation (9.254) from equation (9.255), we have

(9.255)

Ch. 9 Pg. 102

Ik!V

(9.256)
ii
R-r
which is now known as the universal defect law rather than the middle law. Note that by defining
the velocity profile in this manner, we have forced the velocity profile to assume the value ii at
the centerline with the condition for symmetry, di2/dr = 0, satisfied at the centerline as well.
If we now compute the average velocity, 1,e, for this flow geometry using equation (9.256)
as the velocity profile, we have
iYaVe

J[IRt92;1rdr1=

__L

2.44 in

2yrrdr

t9

ne = nax

JR{(

(2.44)z

r)}2lrrdrl
(9.257)

Combining equations (9.257), (9.255), (9.233) and (9.248), we get

)=
_
5
fZ+
4
.
2
4
( 48fZ
2

2.44in2 48
=

(9258)

0.8623in(ReDJ7)l.0200

Equation (9.25 8) is traditionally presented using the base 10 for the logarithm. Then
=

1.9856 log
10 (ReD

J7) 1.0200

(9.259)

The result of equation (9.259) is based upon measurements of the velocity profile in the
neighborhood of the wall from which the velocity in the center of the conduit is inferred. Prandtl,
together with von Karman, and Nikuradse, decided to improve upon this result by using velocity
data actually determined at the center of the conduit. Based on these experimental measurements,
the average velocity derived in equation (9.257) becomes
_4.0719*
(9.260)
tave
=

rnax

Then equation (9.259) becomes

1

2.0 log
10 (ReD q7)o.8

(9.261)

which is limited by the experimental data to 3 x l0 <ReD < 3 x 106.

Thus, the effects of the fluid viscosity and the turbulence of the flow are manifest in the
friction factor used to determine the pressure drop over a given length of conduit according to
equation (9.140). Unfortunately, equation (9.26 1) is a transcendental equation that is rather
awkward to use. It is necessary to first guess at a value off which can be substituted on the righthand side of equation (9.261) to solve for a new value off. The process is repeated until the values
off converge.
In an effort to provide the friction factor data in a more tractable form, H. Blasius in 1911
made a critical survey of the then existing experimental results and arranged them in dimensionless
form consistent with Reynolds law of similarity. He presented his survey in the form of the
coefficient of skin friction, Cf. Thus,
0.0791
Cf
==

Re

0.3 16
=

25
ReD

(9.262)

Ch. 9 Pg. 103

Subsequent experiments have shown that the validity of this correla
tion is limited to 3 x iO <ReD
< iOn. More recently, Petukov has suggested that the available data
can be better correlated by
_l.64)2
f =(0.7901n ReD
(9.263)
in the range iO <ReD < 5 x 106.
9.10.2.2 Turbulent Flow in Hydraulically Smooth Non-circular Condu
its: As an
example of the case of turbulent flow in a non-circular conduit, consid
er the familiar geometry of
flow between infinite parallel flat plates as shown in Figure 9.9. If in
this case we take y = a
we can write the velocity profile of equation (9.243) in the form

-=2.441n

(ay)Y

23

+5

(9.264)

Following the procedure used in the case of a circular conduit, we

compute the average velocity
we according to
1e

=c23d(a_Y)=_c

dv=_!J[2.44in
a

ive

From equations (9.233) and (9.248)

Y)

+5]dv

(9.265)

=[2.441n+2.561]

we have

=2.441n+2.56I
(9.266)
z9
\!f
v
where we have substituted equation (9.265). Since the hydraulic diamet
er for this geometry is
-=

4a, we can write

ReD,
(9.267)

Then we can substitute equation (9.268) into (9.266) to get

=

0.86233 in (ReD, J7)1.1874

I0
.9856iog (ReD

J7)

(9.268)
1.1874

Since equation (9.268) is nearly identical to equation (9.258), we conclu

de that the dominance of
the events in the neighborhood of the wall is so strong, the friction
factor data obtained for circular
conduits can be applied to non-circular conduits if the diameter D
is replaced by the hydraulic
diameter D
= 4A/p where p is the wetted perimeter and A is the cross-sectiona
1
l area. This is in
distinct contrast to the case of laminar flow where it was necessary
to develop a unique solution of
the Navier-Stokes equation for each geometry. The error associated with
this replacement is on the
order of 10 percent which is adequate accuracy for design purposes.
Before moving on to take up the matter of rough circular conduits, it
is worth reflecting for
a moment on what we have just accomplished in describing this incredi
bly complex thermal-fluids
phenomenon that we call turbulence. Based upon the randomness
of the events in turbulent flow,
we proposed a statistical model that we used in the Navier-Stokes equatio
n to identify the effect of
the turbulence on the viscous behavior of the fluid. Without solving
the Navier-Stokes equation
with these new effects included, we then proposed a simple model,
based upon the kinetic theory

Ch. 9 Pg. 104

of gases, to describe these new effects, the Reynolds stresses. We then identified three different
regions in the turbulent flow field based upon the degree to which these effects manifest
themselves. For each region, we were able to present physical arguments for the nature of the
velocity profile in that region. We then made experimental measurements of these velocity profiles,
and from the empirical correlations of these data, we were able to determine the effects of both the
viscosity and the turbulence embodied in the friction factor. With the aid of the friction factor data
we are now able to determine the pressure drop for turbulent flow in a smooth circular conduit.
Interestingly enough, we accomplished all this without ever solving the Navier-Stokes equation.
9.10.2.2 Fully-developed Turbulent Flow in Hydraulically Rough Conduits: Despite
which relation is used for the friction coefficient, it must be remembered that equations (9.26 1),
(9.262), and (9.263) apply to smooth tubes only. Drawn metallic tubing is considered to be smooth
when it is new; however, after it has been in service for sometime, the internal surface of the tube
becomes quite rough due to the formation of scale deposits. Furthermore, the inner wall of
standard pipe is generally quite rough even when new. Since the average roughness of these
surfaces is large enough to penetrate through the laminar sublayer, it is worthwhile to develop
relationships similar to equations (9.261), (9.262), and (9.263) which will be valid for rough
tubes. To do this we must formulate a method for determining the degree of roughness of the inner
tube wall. The average height of the roughness projections is denoted by k, while the radius of the
tube is taken to be the average distance from the tube centerline to the inner wall. Therefore, the
relative roughness of the tube wall is given by kjR. In deriving a general expression for the
velocity distribution in rough tubes, Prandtl proposed that the dimensionless distance from the wall
be replaced by the relative roughness y4.
Following this suggestion, in 1933 Johann Nikuradse (1894 1979), another student of
Prandtl, performed an elaborate set of experiments in which he glued grains of sand, sifted
according to size which he denoted by k, to the inner walls of otherwise smooth tubes. Nikuradse
found from his data that for values of the relative roughness in the range 15 R/! 507, the
velocity profile for large values of the Reynolds number can be written
-

(9.269)
=2.5ln+8.5
k
Computing the average velocity by integrating this profile over the cross-sectional area of the tube,
Nikuradse obtained

2.5 In

4.75

(9.270)

Von Karman then substituted this result into the combined equations (9.233) and (9.248). Then
g
10
2.03lo
+l.68

(9.271)

Following this example, Nikuradse found that his friction factor data could be best correlated by

f =[2.0loio+1.74

(9.272)

This correlation holds only in the fully rough regime at large values of the Reynolds number in
excess of the value for which
200
(9.273)
ReD
I,7

Ch. 9 Pg. 105

Notice that in the fully rough regime, the friction factor is independent of the Reyno
lds number.
Between the fully rough regime bound by equation (9.273) and the laminar flow regime
bound by equation (9.141) there is the transition regime. For this regime, in 1939 Colebr
ook
combined equation (9.272) and equation (9.26 1) into a single expression that is the
accepted
correlation for friction factors for turbulent flow in circular conduits using D and non-ci
rcular
conduits using .
11 The resulting transcendental equation,
D
1
*2.
j
0log k.
1
3.7D

2.51

ReD

(9.274)

J7

proved to be rather inconvenient to use at the time. To help simplify the design proces
s, in 1944
Lewis Ferry Moody (1880 1953) plotted the correlations for all three regimes (lamin
ar, fully
rough, and transition) on a single graph of friction factor,f,versus Reynolds numbe
r, ReD. This
graph has come to be known as the Moody Diagram or the Moody Chart in honor
of its author.
Prior to the advent of programmable calculators and personal computers, this was
a very important
tool for the thermal-fluids engineer in the design of fluid piping systems. Figure 9.30
is the most
comion form of the Moody Diagram and is presented here more for its historical interes
t than for
its utility since the computational power of computers now facilitates the use of the correla
tion
equation itself.
More recently, Zigrang and 5
Sylvester proposed an explicit correlation of friction factor
data that covers all regimes and lends itself more readily to design of turbulent flow system
s than
the Moody Diagram, viz.
-

(9.275)
In order to use the various correlations of friction factor data or the Moody Diagram for therma
lfluids design, it is necessary to have information regarding the equivalent sand grain
roughness k
of conduits fabricated from various materials by various means. Table 9.5 is just such a
compilation of data from various sources. The data of Table 9.5, together with the correla
tions of
equations (9.272) and (9.275), can be used most effectively if we make use of Nikura
dses
definition of the dimensionless sand grain size k.
k

= Yeks

[7

8
The data for the friction factorf can then be classified according to the value of k7:
0<
5
hydraulically smooth
V

5 <k

<60

60< k

transitionally rough

(9.276)

(9.27 7)

fully rough,f independent of ReD

The only problem with using this classification is that the friction factor and the averag
e velocity
appear as parameters, and they are often the information we seek.

Zigrang, D. J. and Sylvester, N. D., A Review of Explicit Friction Factor Equations,

Trans. ASME, J. of Energy Resources Technology, 107, 280-283 (1985).

0.01

!M3

DD9

: ::

1+
IH

IJJ1L

MiWOdl

ti

low

Ifl

tUItTT111t

11ttHtt:
I 1l

Xiokit aun1 R- VD/

i1L1
6

11[

:i:iiittttfl:

:[fl I I]
rrrlrr

ri

: :U[LtUll 11= : :

Figure 9.30 Friction Factors for Flow in Circular and Non-circular Conduits
[from Moody, L. F., Friction Factors for Pipe Flow, Trans. ASME, 66, 67 1-684 (1944)1

: : :: I rmII

z:

1 F
fl

11

0.000,05

.IX2

00004

o,cn

tIJXII

fl tYIA

O.cki

D.0UP

ool

0(115

Ch. 9 Pg. 106

Ch. 9 Pg. 107

Table 9.5 Roughness, ks., of Various Pipe Configurations
Pipe Configuration

k (mm)

Asphalt coated cast iron

0. 12

Bituminous lined cast iron

0.0025

Brass

0.0015

Cast iron

0.25

Cement lined cast iron

0.0025

Cement-asbestos

0.3-3

Centrifugally spun cast iron

0.0031

Clay

0.3-3

Commercial steel

0.046

Concrete

0.3-3

Copper

0.0015

Corrugated steel

0.9-9

Drawn tubing

0.00 15

Galvanized surface

0.06-0.25

Glass

0.0015

Lead

0.0015

Plastic

0.0015

PVC

Smooth

Riveted steel

0.9-9

Sewer bnck

0.3-3

Tin

0.0015

Wood Stave

0.18-0.9

Wrought iron

0.046

Source: Johnson, R. W.(editor), The Handbook of Fluid Dynamic.c, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1998, p. 5-67.

Example 9E.11: As shown in Figure 9E. 11, very large cistern is filled with water of
density p =
3 to a depth of h = 10 m. Because the water level in the cistern is maintained
kg/rn
at a constant level by a well, the water flows from the cistern at a constant rate through a
commercial steel pipe of circular cross-section with a diameter of D = 2.5 cm and a length of L
100 rn.
(a) Estimate the volumetric flow rate of water from the cistern by modeling the fluid as
inviscid.
(b) Estimate the volumetric flow rate of water from the cistern by modeling the fluid as a
viscous fluid with a viscosity of p = 8.67 x io kg/rn sec.

Ch. 9 Pg. 108

Waterflo

L
Figure 9E.1 1
Solution: (a) We begin the solution by assuming that the flow in the discharge pipe is
inviscid flow, but we recognize that this is the simplest of all approximations for this flow. This
approximation does provide a convenient starting place, however, for more complex models.
Consider a streamline that runs from the free surface to the discharge of the pipe. The Bernoulli
equation for this streamline is given by

Since t

1
0 and P

2
2
++gz 2
1
=++gz
p2
2
p
P, we can write

2
P

1
g(z
z

z
)
2
= gh

=J(.8l mlsec2)(l0 m)

14.07 rn/sec

Then the volumetric flow rate for this inviscid fluid model becomes
2
VzA.t

2r(0.025m)
=

(14.07 m/sec)=6.907 x 10 3
m
/
sec

(b) If we now take viscosity into account, we can use the above calculation to estimate the
Reynolds number of the flow.
iDp
ReD=

(14.07 rn/see) (0.025 m/sec)(l0 kg/rn

)
3
=

=4.057xl0

8.67 x
p
kg/rn sec
Although we know that the effect of viscosity will be to reduce the velocity of flow considerably,
the flow does appear from this estimate to be clearly turbulent. Then from equation (9.140), we
have
2

II

II

p Lf

The pressure of the water at the inlet to the pipe is given by simple hydrostatics. Then

Ch. 9 Pg. 109

AP
ve

pgh)

J((DC

FTm = pg/i

=(g17)((2

We know all of these quantities except for the friction factorf. From Table 9.5, we have for
commercial steel pipe, k = 0.046 mm. Then k/D (0.046 mrn)I(25 mm) = 1.84 x iO-. As a first
approximation tof, we can assume that the flow is fully rough since this gives a value off that is
independent of the Reynolds number which we do not yet know. From equation (9.272) we have

f = [2.0lorn[+1.74
2
10
f=[2.O
lo
1.84x10
}
3
L

+l.741

=0.0164

Then
ave =

rn 2
/81 sec2)(10 m)I25
lOOm }0.0l64,)

1.73 sec

and
ReD

nave J3
r

(iO )kg
3
(1.73m/sec)(0
/m
.025rn)

= 4.987 x
p
8.67 x io kg/rn sec
Based on the new value for the velocity, the flow is still clearly turbulent. The question now is
whether it is fully-rough as we had assumed. From equation (9.273), the boundary between
transition flow and fully-rough is
200
200
Re D =
=
=6.628x10 6
(O.0l64)(I.84xlO
)
3
=

Since the Reynolds number is well below this value, we are in the transition region for which
equation (9.272) does not hold. Then
(k/)
4.518

10
log

ReD

f=

2.OlocvbIG

3.7

4.518
ba
4.987 x i0
4

3.7

I
l.84x1
0

1.11

6.9

3.7

f = 0.02616
Since this new value of the friction factor is considerably greater than the value off= 0.0 164 that
we computed above, we must re-calculate the average velocity. Thus
UVL

2
/(9.8lsec2)(1Om)(0.025m1
=l.37mIsec
lOOm ,R0.026l6}

Ch.9Pg. 110
and with this value of the velocity, the Reynolds number becomes
ReD=

(1.37 m/sec)(0.025 m)(10

3 kg/rn
3

i5VDp

3.949

8.67 x i0 kg/rn sec

Alt

io

Then the new value for the friction factor becomes

(1.84 x iO-)
3.7

(E(1.84 x

4.518

10
log

3.949 x i0

LL

io)f

3.7

6.9
3.949 x

0.02684

f
Then the new value of the velocity becomes

ave

= /(9.81m/sec2)(1Om)0.025m

=1.35m/sec
lOOm }0.02684}

and the process has converged. Then the volumetric flow rate becomes

r(0.025 rn)
2

2
,rD
ave

(1.35 m/sec) = 6.63 6 x 1 0 m

3 / sec

Thus, by neglecting the viscosity, we obtain a volumetric flow rate that is approximately an order
of magnitude greater than the estimate that takes the fluid viscosity into account. Notice also that
the turbulent viscous flow analysis requires a trial and error solution that does converge after two
trials.
9.10.2.3 Velocity Profile Power Law: Let us return for a moment to equation (9.248). If
we now substitute into that expression the result from equation (9.262), we get

= 0.316 Pave
2
8

D
v
4
oo395p

(9.278)

ReD

From equation (9.278), it is apparent that the flow resistance in turbulent flow is proportional to
the 1.75 power of the velocity as Hagen s data in 1854 suggested for large values of the flow
velocity (large values of the Reynolds number). (See Section 9.9.1.5 and Figure 9.8.) If we
substitute equation (9.239) into equation (9.278) and rearrange the terms, we get
7/

1ave /4
I

0.0395 v
1

(9.279)

rne = 6.3 379

Equation (9.279) is the first appearance of any kind of a power law for the velocity profile in
turbulent flow. Using a power law such as equation (9.279), it can be shown that over a
reasonable range of exponents n the mean bulk velocity lve is approximately 80 percent of the
maximum velocity in the tube 1Jfl Then

dave

08OZ9nax

(9.280)

Then substituting equation (9.280) into equation (9.279), we get

maX794

vJ

4RV
=8.747

(9.28 1)

Ch.9Pg. ill
We now assume that equation (9.28 1) is valid for any distance y, from the tube wall, not just for
the tube centerline where y = R. Then equation (9.281) assumes the form
t

8.747

(9.282)

Thus we have succeeded in deriving the power velocity profile law from the Blasius friction
formula [cf. Equation (9.262)1. Since the Blasius formula is valid only over a limited range of
Reynolds numbers, we would expect the 1/7- power velocity distribution law to be similarly
restricted.
Encouraged by the result of equation (9.282), Nikuradse conducted an extensive
experimental study of the velocity profiles in smooth pipes over a much larger range of Reynolds
numbers (4 x10
3 Re 3.2 x 106) than those that define the limits of the Blasius formula. He
found that the results could be correlated by means of the empirical relation
z

1
(9.283)
R
where the value of n in the exponent was a function of the Reynolds number. At the lowest value
of Reynolds number studied, n = 6 and at the highest value of Reynolds number n = 10. Although
the power velocity profile law is provides a convenient closed form description of the velocity
profile for turbulent flow in a pipe, it does have its physical limitations. It predicts infinite
velocity gradient at the pipe wall and, hence, cannot be used to evaluate the wall shear stress.
Furthermore, it does not produce zero slope at the centerline of the pipe, so it fails to show
symmetry about the centerline. Nevertheless, the power velocity profile law does have some
utility.
Recalling that the average velocity for flow in a pipe of radius R is defined as
mav

KR,)

rR

j0 p2nrdr

(9.284)
pirR
we can use the empirical velocity profile of equation (9.283) to show that in turbulent flow
=
2
2n
(9.285)
(n+l)(2n+l)
Table 9.6 shows that as the value of n increases, the ratio of the average velocity to the maximum
velocity approaches one. Thus, we conclude that as the Reynolds number of the flow increases,
the velocity profile becomes flatter. Although it applies only to flows at Reynolds numbers of
approximately ReD = io, the value ii = 7 is commonly used as a representative value in equation
(9.285).
Table 9.6 Ratio of Average Velocit to Mean Velocity for Turbulent Flow in a Pipe
n
..

10

0.79 1

0.8 17

0.837

0.852

0.865

9.10.2.4 Turbulent Flow in the Entry Region of a Circular Conduit: Example 9E. 11
has not really addressed the issue of the development of the turbulent velocity profile in the entry

Ch.9Pg. 112
region of the conduit. As we saw in the case of laminar flow, there is an entry region for each of
these internal flows in which the influence of the viscosity makes itself known across the crosssection of the conduit. Over the distance of the entry length, the boundary layer that forms on the
wall at the entrance grows until the boundary layer completely fills the conduit. For the case of
turbulent flow, the boundary layer grows more rapidly than in the laminar flow case and the entry
length is much shorter.
For the case of turbulent flow in fully-rough circular conduits, Zhiqing
6 combined
equations (9.28 1) and (9.282) to form a power law for the velocity profile in the entry region. He
proposed a simple velocity profile in the form
foroy6
1

(9.286)

for5yR

2
ei1+1m

4R}

max

(9.287)

l5R)

where is the boundary layer thickness which varies with the axial coordinate x according to
X
=

D/,ReDZ

1.43091
R)

1+0.15771

10.17931
I 0.01681
R}

0.00641
I
R}

(9.288)

The dimensionless pressure drop defined in equation (9.114) then becomes

(pe)

i
2
Lmax
entry

e
9
Z

(9.289)

The hydrodynamic entry length for turbulent flow in a fully-rough circular conduit is then given
by
=
/1

l.359ReD

(9.290)

turbulent

By way of comparison, consider two flows in a circular conduit with a Reynolds number
of 2300. One of the flows enters a smooth conduit in a laminar fashion while the other enters a
fully-rough conduit in a fully-developed turbulent state. In the laminar case, according to
equation (9.149), the flow requires approximately 128.8 diameters to become fully-developed
Hagen-Poiseuille flow with a parabolic velocity profile while in the turbulent case, according to
equation (9.290), the flow requires only 9.4 diameters to become fully-developed turbulent flow
with a velocity profile given by equation (9.286). This is clear evidence of the enhanced
momentum transport that results from the eddy diffusivity.
9.10.3 Piping Systems
In complex thermal-fluid systems, the working fluid is usually transferred from one
system component to another through a piping system consisting of lengths of pipe and various
fittings such as elbows, tees, unions, and valves that join these lengths of pipe together. Usually,
but not always, the flow in these piping systems is turbulent flow, and these piping systems
represent one of the most common applications of the concepts presented in the previous section.
In all piping systems, in order to maintain steady flow of the working fluid, it is necessary to
provide sufficient flow work transfer in order overcome the viscous dissipation that occurs in the

Zhiqing, W., Study on Correction Coefficients of Laminar and Turbulent Entrance

Region Effects in Round Pipe, Appi. Math. Mech., (3/3): 433-446, 1982

Ch.9Pg. 113
various elements of the piping system. This is usually accomplished by means
of some sort of
pumping apparatus, and in the design of these systems, it is the responsibility
of the thermalfluids engineer to specify the requirements that must be met by this device.
In the present section,
we shall describe the methods by which the thermal-fluids engineer can determ
ine these
requirements.
9.10.3.1 Total Head Loss: Consider the case of a circular conduit of varying cross-s
ection
oriented as shown in Figure 9.31. Let us apply the first law of thermodynam
ics in the form of
equation (8.34) to the control volume shown in Figure 9.31.

...--.-

..

.--

pc

p.

Control surface

Figure 9.31 Flow in a Circular Conduit of Varying Cross-section

According to equation (8.34), we have
+_+gzdV

_Jptt ++_+gz(.H)dA

(9.291)

In the present case we are interested in steady, adiabatic flow of an incompressib

le fluid. Through
the action of viscosity, there is a shear stress exerted on the lateral surface the
of
control volume,
but since the mass points at this location are not in motion,
Then equation (9.29 1)
becomes
c/ear

2
Pt9
I PZU
( +;++
ZfA_JI

A2

(9.292)

7 u
th(u
)+th
1

2
_L+
thg(z zi)+Jpz

dAJp7 dA=O

Then
2
A
2
_
)
+J
_J
z
pA
=
p th(u
2

itt)

(9.293)

Ch.9Pg. 114
The left-hand side of equation (9.293) is the sum of the rate of flow work transfer (the first term)
and the net rate of change of gravitational potential energy and the net rate of change of the
kinetic energy of the flow. The right-hand side of equation (9.293) is the rate of increase of stored
thermal energy of the flow as a consequence of the viscous dissipation in the control volume. If
the flow could be modeled as inviscid and, hence, reversible, the right-hand side of equation
(9.293) would vanish. In reality, this is not the case so the right-hand side of equation (9.293)
represents the rate at which energy must be supplied to the flow (per unit mass flow rate) by the
pumping device in order to maintain steady flow conditions.
For historical reasons that originated with the earliest days of the design of municipal
water supply systems, the left-hand side of equation (9.293) is known as the total head loss of the
flow denoted by the symbol hI,(,IU
. It is the quantity that must be determined in order to specify
1
the pumping requirements. In evaluating the head loss, the kinetic energy terms are somewhat
more troublesome than the other terms in that the velocity of the fluid at the port varies over the
port area. This means that the integral for the kinetic energy term must be evaluated in each case.
It would be considerably more convenient if we could use the average velocity instead. This can
be accomplished by introducing the kinetic energy coefficient, a, defined as

= ath
(9.294)

dA
3
fpt
2

For the laminar flow case, we can use equation (9.133) for the velocity profile. Then

JRpL2,el_4132rdr
R

(pt9avehlR2

=-!-f i_L_J
R

2
R

2
R

rdr=2

(9.292)

where R is the radius of the conduit. For the turbulent flow case, we can use equation (9.283).
R
1

[izax i

2rdr
2
2n

2
(Pave711?2)t5ave

t9ave j (3+i)(3+2i)

(9.293)

Table 9.7 shows the values of a for the typical values of n. Recall that n is a function of Reynolds
number so a, too, is a function of Reynolds number. However, we observe from Table 9.7 that
the dependence of a on n, and by inference on Reynolds number, is rather weak. Moreover, the
values of a are only slightly greater than one so that in the case of turbulent flow, a can be taken
to be unity with minimal error, particularly in light of the fact that the kinetic energy terms in the
expression for total head loss are small compared to the flow work transfer term.
Table 9.7 Dependence of the Kinetic Energy Coefficient on the Value of n
6

10

1.077

1.058

1.046

1.037

1.031

Ch.9Pg. 115
Then the expression for the total head loss becomes
1 total
h

+a
1(

)2

)2

1
gz

2
a

(oe
-

(9.294)

2
gz

Thus the task of determining the pumping requirements for a piping system becomes one of
evaluating equation (9.294). To aid in this process, the total head loss can be rewritten in a
slightly different, but equivalent form.
h, total

I
\p

(
+I a
,O)

()2

()2
ae 2

1
(gz

(9.295)

)
2
gz

For a unit mass flow rate, the terms on the right-hand side of equation (9.295) represent
respectively, the flow work transfer, the change in kinetic energy, and the change in gravitational
potential energy of the flow. Of these, the flow work transfer, which embodies the viscous
dissipation, typically dominates.
The total head loss is typically divided into two components, one due to the effects of
viscous dissipation in the lengths of pipe of constant cross-sectional area in the piping system,
the other due to viscous dissipation in the fittings and valves in the system. Since piping systems
commonly have extremely long lengths of piping in total (a total length of kilometers is not
unusual), this component of the head loss can be quite large so it is referred to as the major head
loss, denoted by the symbol hitttajr. The other component due to the fittings and valves is usually
the smaller of the two so it is referred to as the minor head loss, denoted by the symbol h
1111 ititir
with a minor head loss contribution from each fitting and valve. Then the total head loss for a
piping system with N fittings and valves is given by
)2

1 total
h

1 major
h

( h1 minor ) =

[ai

2
a

1
(gz

) (9.296)
2
gz

We now determine the form for each of the two head loss terms.
9.10.3.2 Major Head Loss: To determine the form for the major head loss term, we consider a
special case for which we know the head loss. In particular, consider the case of fully developed
turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid in a horizontal conduit of constant cross-sectional area.
For this flow configuration, a = a
2 1 and the second term on the right-hand side of equation
(9.296) vanishes since the average velocity remains unchanged. Furthermore, for a horizontal
conduit, the third term also vanishes. Then for a pipe of diameter D and length L carrying a flow
with an average velocity i,
, only the pressure terms remain and the major head loss can be
0
calculated with the aid of equation (9.140), viz.
=

PJ

hintajor

1.LJ

J
2
[o

(9.297)

piping

where the friction factor must be determined from the Reynolds number of the flow. For laminar
flow in a conduit of circular with ReD 2100, the friction factor is given by equation (9.141),
viz.

f=---

(9.298)
ReD
For laminar flow in conduits of non-circular cross-section, the hydraulic diameter must be used
in evaluating the Reynolds number and the friction factor can then be determined from Table 9.3.

Ch.9Pg. 116
For turbulent flow in smooth pipes of either circular or non-circular cross-section, the friction
factor can be determined from equation (9.263), viz.

(0.790 In ReD _l.64)2

(9.299)

with the hydraulic diameter used in the evaluation of the Reynolds number.
For rough pipes, the friction factor can be determined from equation (9.275) and the data of
Table 9.5, viz.
2

(9.300)

9.10.3.3 Minor Head Loss: For the minor head loss, the necessary information, with a few
exceptions, is usually provided by the manufacturer of the component of interest. There are two
methods of reporting the data. In one approach, the minor head loss is taken to depend on the
kinetic energy of the flow in a manner similar to the major head loss term, viz.
1
(hi,iii,ar)j = K

(9.301)

where the value of K

1 is specific to the component at hand. In the second approach, the minor
head loss is evaluated by an expression more closely analogous to the one used in the evaluation
of the major head loss with the relevant head loss data expressed in terms of equivalent lengths
of straight pipe of the same diameter as the component, viz.
.
1
(h

)=

(),

(9.302)

Equations (9.301) and (9.302) each have their advantages and disadvantages and are used with
about equal frequency in thermal-fluids engineering practice. In this discussion, we shall use
equation (9.30 1) simply because it provides a sharper contrast between the major and minor head
loss terms.
In the following discussion, we present values of the head loss coefficient K
1 for a select
number of components under turbulent flow conditions. These data are a small sample of the
information available in the thermal-fluids engineering literature and are drawn primarily from
the comprehensive compilation by R. D. Blevins, Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, Krieger
Publishing Co., Malabar, FL, 1992, Chapter 6. The list of components for which data are
presented here includes pipe entrances, enlargements and contractions in pipe cross-sections, and
standard fittings.
Pipe Entrances:

F1e

K=0.5

Figure 9.32a Minor Head Loss Coefficient for Square-Edged Entrance

Ch. 9 Pg. 117

R

RID
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.12
0.16
>0.16

K.
0.50
0.43
0.36
0.31
0.26
0.22
0.20
0.15
0.09
0.06
0.03

Figure 9.32b Minor Head Loss Coefficient for Rounded Entrance

A
Flow,

AID

0.100
0.500
>0.500

ave

...

1
K

0.86
1.00
1.00

Figure 9.32c Minor Head Loss Coefficient for Sharp-edged Re-entrant Entrance

Abrupt Enlargements and Contractions:

h
Flow,

K,

IUave)1

Flow,

l/A177777777777m

Figure 9.24a Minor Head Loss Coefficient for Abrupt Enlargement

Ch.9Pg. 118

(ave)22

K
Flow,

()

Flow,
(e)2>

2
77777777777
0
7
/
Ai)
.51-A
77777T
Figure 9.24b Minor Head Loss Coefficient for Abrupt Contraction

Table 9.8 Minor Head Loss Coefficients for Various Fittings and Valves
Nominal Diameter of Fitting, cm
Valve or Fitting

2.5

5.0

10

15

20

25

Globe valve, fully open

Screwed

5.5

Flanged

12

0.24

0.18

0.13

0.35

0.16

5.5

5.5

0.11

0.08

0.06

2.1

2.1

2.1

0.28

0.26

0.25

0.18

0.15

0.14

Gate valve, fully open

Screwed
Flanged
Foot valve, fully open

0.08 for all sizes

Swing check valve, fully open

Screwed

3.0

2.3

Flanged

2.1
2.0 for all sizes

Angle valve, fully open

Screwed

4.5

Flanged

2.1

1.0

2.4

2.1

Regular elbow, 90
Screwed

1.5

1.0

0.65

Flanged

0.42

0.37

0.31

0.75

0.4

0.25

0.3

0.22

Long-radius elbow, 90
Screwed
Flanged

Source: M. Kutz, Mechanical Engineers Handbook, John Wiley, New York, 1998, Table 40.10, p.1321.

Ch.9Pg. 119
Table 9.9 Dimensions for Steel Pipe (American National Standards Institute, ANSI B36.1O)
Nominal Size

Pipe OD (in)

1/4

0.540

3/8

0.675

Schedule No.

Wall Thkness (in)

ID (in)

Flow Area (in

)
2

40

0.088

0.364

80

0.119

0.302

0.072

40

0.091

0.493

0.191

80

0.126

0.423

0.141

0.109

0.622

0.304
0.234

0.104

1/2

0.840

40
80

0.147

0.546

3/4

1.050

40

0.113

0.824

0.533

80

0.154

0.742

0.432

1-1/4

1-1/2

1.315

1.660

1.900

40

0.133

1.049

0.864

80

0.179

0.957

0.719

40

0.140

1.380

1.50

80

0.191

1.278

1.28

40

0.145

1.610

2.04

80

0.200

1.500

1.77

0.154

2.067

3.36

1.939

2.95

2.375

40
80

0.218

2-1/2

2.875

40

0.203

2.469

4.79

80

0.276

2.323

4.24
7.39

10

12

3.500

4.50

6.625

8.625

10.75

12.75

40

0.216

3.068

80

0.300

2.900

6.60

40

0.237

4.026

12.73

80

0.337

3.826

11.50

40

0.280

6.065

28.89

80

0.432

5.761

26.07

30

0.277

8.071

51.16

40

0.322

7.981

50.03

80

0.500

7.625

45.66

30

0.307

10.136

80.69

40

0.365

10.020

78.85

XS

0.500

9.750

74.66

9.564

71.84

80

0.593

30

0.330

12.090

114.8

ST

0.375

12.000

113.1

40

0.406

11.938

111.9

XS

0.500

11.750

108.4

80

0.687

11.376

71.84

Table 9.9 Notes: Nominal Pipe Sizes (NPS) 1/8 through 12 are known by their nominal diameters in inches.
SI standards have not been
established as of this writing. The nominal diameter does not indicate a true dimension. All sizes of
pipe with NPS 1/8 through NPS 12 have a
standardized outside diameter (OD) regardless of Schedule Number or weight. This OD was originally
selected so that pipe with a standard wall
thickness would have an inside diameter approximately equal to the nominal pipe size. As the
Schedule Number or weight changes to
accommodate higher working pressures, the wall thickness changes; however, wall thickness
affects the inside diameter only. The thicker the
wall, the smaller the inside diameter.
In the past, pipe was produced basically in three weights: standard (ST), extra strong (XS), and
double extra strong (XXS). In recent
years the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) assigned schedule numbers to classify wall
thickness for different pressure applications.
For NPSI/8 through NPS 10, Schedule 40 is identical with standard weight (ST) pipe. Schedule
80 is identical with extra strong (XS) pipe in
nominal NPS 1/8 through NPS 8. Schedules 40 and 80 can vary greatly from standard (ST)
and extra strong (XS) pipe in the larger diameters.
See ANSI B 36.10.
Useful conversion factors for Table 9.8: To convert from inches to meters, multiply by 2.54 x 10-2.
To convert from (inches)
2 to
2 multiply by 6.456 x l0.
(meters)

Ch. 9 Pg. 120

In an attempt to establish some correspondence between SI units and the outdated engineering
units, diametre nominel (DN) has been set as the metric equivalent of Nominal Pipe Sizes
(NPS) according to Table 9.10.
Table 9.10 Metric Equivalents (DN) of Nominal Pipe Sizes (NPS)
NPS
DN

1/al%%

10

15

20

25

1141

22

1012

32

50

80

10

15

20

25

40

65

30

9.10.3.4 Analysis of Piping Systems: The application of equation (9.296) to a given piping
system to determine the pumping requirements embodied in the total head loss is not as
straightforward as it might seem on the surface. The difficulty lies in the fact that in a given
physical situation, the data for the various head loss terms in equation (9.296) usually depend
upon the Reynolds number of the flow, but the Reynolds number depends upon flow velocity
which often is not known at the outset. Thus, the analysis of piping systems often requires an
iterative procedure in which the thermal-fluids engineer must first guess at a trial solution and
then iterate to find the true solution. In the analysis of piping systems there are four different
possible situations that present themselves depending upon the information that is known at the
outset. We now describe these four different scenarios and offer a plan for approaching each one.
1. L, D, and n (or V) are known but P is unknown: In this scenario, the layout of the
piping system and the necessary flow rate have been proscribed by the physical configuration of
the other systems being connected by the piping. The pump necessary to deliver the working
fluid at the specified flow rate must be determined. The dimensions, both length and diameter, of
the pipe required together with the fittings and valves necessary to accomplish the connections
are known from the piping layout. The performance characteristics of the connecting systems
specify the flow rate, either the mass flow rate or the volumetric flow rate. From this information,
the flow velocity and the Reynolds number can be determined. Then the friction factor for the
pipe and the minor head loss coefficients for the fittings and valves can be determined from the
data presented above. Finally, the total head loss and, hence, the pumping requirements can be
determined from equation (9.296).
2. LIP, n (or 17), and D are known but L is unknown: This scenario is typical of the case
in which one of the systems connected by the piping is to be relocated, and it is necessary to
determine the length of the new piping configuration to aid in the siting of the component. From
the flow rate and the diameter of the pipe, the flow velocity and, hence, the Reynolds number can
be determined. From this result and the pressure drop for the configuration, the total head loss
can be determined from equation (9.296) and the friction factor can be determined from the
correlations. Then equation (9.297) can be solved for the new length of the piping.
3. P, L, and D are known but n (or 17,) is unknown: In this scenario, a pumping device
and a piping system exist, and the objective is to determine whether this combination is adequate
to meet the flow rate requirement of some other system connected to it. This situation is a bit
more complicated than those previously considered since the flow rate and, hence, the flow
velocity are unknown. Thus, the Reynolds number is unknown so the friction factor cannot be
determined. Without the friction factor, the flow rate cannot be determined. Thus we are faced
with making an educated guess at the final result that can then be iterated to obtain the true
solution for the flow rate. Two approaches are available to make the educated guess. In the first
approach, the total head loss can be set to zero. Then equation (9.296) can be solved to find the

Ch. 9 Pg. 121

flow velocity in the absence of friction. This velocity can be used to calculate a Reynolds number
that can be used in the appropriate friction factor correlation to obtain a friction factor that can, in
turn, be used in equation (9.297) to obtain the new estimate of the major head loss. The new
estimate of the minor head loss can be made with the frictionless estimate of the velocity. These
estimates of the two head loss contributions can now be used in equation (9.296) to obtain a new
estimate of the velocity. This new estimate of velocity that now includes frictional effects can be
used to obtain a new estimate of the friction factor, and the whole calculation process can be
repeated until the solution for the velocity converges, typically in two iterations. When
convergence is obtained, the flow rate can be readily calculated.
In the second approach, the effect of friction can be assumed to be that of the fully
rough frictional limit for which the friction factor is independent of the Reynolds number [cf.
Equation (9.272)]. This estimate of friction factor can be used in equation (9.297) to estimate the
velocity provided the minor head loss term is small and that the pressure drop is entirely due to
pipe friction. This estimate of velocity can be used to determine a value for Reynolds number
that can be used to estimate a new value for the friction factor. The calculation process is then
repeated until convergence on the correct value of velocity results.
4. F, L, and n (or V,,) are known but D is unknown: In this scenario, a given pumping
device is to be used to pump an incompressible fluid at a predetermined flow rate over a known
distance. The diameter of pipe necessary to achieve this is to be determined. This case is similar
to case 3 above in that an iterative solution is required because the flow velocity necessary to
establish the Reynolds number is unknown. Begin the iterative solution by assuming frictionless
flow with zero head loss. Then solve equation (9.296) to determine the flow velocity. Use this
flow velocity and the flow rate to determine the educated guess at the diameter and the
Reynolds number. This estimate of the diameter is the lower bound. Use this Reynolds number to
determine the friction factor and then use this friction factor to determine the major head loss
from equation (9.297). The minor head loss can be determined from the frictionless velocity and
the data for the fittings and valves. Use these results in equation (9.296) to determine a new
velocity and subsequently a new Reynolds number. Repeat the analysis as before. Convergence is
rapid.
The following examples illustrate the application of the methods of analysis of piping
systems.
Example 9E.12: An air impact wrench such as the ones used by NASCAR pit crews to
remove the lug nuts from the wheels of race cars, requires a volumetric flow rate of V = 5.4 CFM
at a minimum supply pressure of
= 40 psi (V = 2.5485 x iO m
/sec at
3
= 3.77 x iO
) at a temperature of 60 F (288.89 K). The air is supplied through a smooth walled hose
2
N/rn
with a nominal pipe size of NPS 3/8 and a length of 30 m. It is necessary to determine the
pressure drop JP through this hose to insure that there is sufficient pressure at the tool for
normal operation. The inlet pressure to the hose from the air compressor is in1er
For air under these conditions p = 2.0 149 x iO kg/rn sec and R = 287 J/kg K.
Solution: This is an example of case 1 above. Let us assume that the flow can be
modeled as incompressible even though the working fluid is a gas. We will need to check this
later. From Table 9.9 and the conversion factor given in the footnote, the flow area of this pipe
is
A = 0.191 in
2 = (0.19 1 in
)(6.456 x io 2
2
/in = 1.2331 x iO rn
m
)
.
2
Then from continuity, the velocity of flow is

Ch. 9 Pg. 122

V

2.5485 x l0_2 rn
/sec
3

20.667 rn/sec
A
1.2331 x io- m
2
This is well below a Mach number of 0.3 since the speed of sound in air under these conditions is
on the order of 350 rn/sec. Thus we are justified in assuming that the flow can be modeled as
incompressible. We need to calculate the density of the air before we can calculate the Reynolds
number. Then

P
3.7711 x
2
N/rn
=4.5484kg/m3
p==
RT (287 J/kg K)(288.89 K)
Re=

(20.667 rn/sec)(1.2522 x 10_2 rn)(4.5484 kg/rn

)
3

=58,419
2.0149 x 10 kg/rn sec
For this value of Reynolds number for flow in a smooth tube, we can use equation (9.263) to
calculate the friction factor, viz.

f (0.790 In ReI .64)2 =[0.7901n (58,419) 1.6412

=

0.02023 1

Then from the Darcy-Weisbach Law

2
IL
(20.667 rn/sec)
2
1
30 m
kg/rn
)
(0.020)
AP=pfl
I--=(4.5484 3
I
D} 2
1.2522x lO_2 rn)
2

L\P=4.7082 x
2
N/rn
Since the discharge pressure from a typical compressor used to provide compressed air to power
these tools is on the order of j,llej = 7.908 x iO N/rn
, this pressure drop is only about five
2
percent of the available pressure. Thus a hose of 30 m in length is acceptable for this application.
Example 9E.13: For the tool described in Example 9E. 12, determine the maximum
length of compressed air hose L,,ir that could be used if the pressure at inlet to the hose is inlet =
2 and
= 3.77 x l0 N/rn
2 is the minimum pressure at the tool that will still
7.908 x iO N/rn
permit the tool to operate.
Solution: This is an example of case 2 described above. The volume flow rate specified
by the operational requirements of the tool, V = 2.5485 x iO m
/sec, is the same as Example
3
9E. 12. The pressure required at the tool is
3.77 x io N/rn
. The inlet pressure to the hose
2
. Then the maximum allowable pressure drop is
2
is i,ljet = 7.908 x i0
5 N/m
2 3.771 x 1 o N/rn
2
2 = 4.137 x 1 N/rn
nax = nler
suppiy = 7.908 x 1 o N/rn
13

Since the inside diameter of the hose is the same as Example 9E. 12, the velocity and the
Reynolds number are the same as those calculated in that example. Thus the friction factor is also
the same. Then from the Darcy-Weisbach Law
L

2DAP

2(1.2522 x l02 m)(4.l37 x l0 N/rn

)
2
=
=

pf

)(0.020)(20.667 rnlsec)
3
(4.5484 kg/rn
2

266.65 m

Example 9E.14: A young child has an aquarium that holds 30 gallons of water. At 8.33
lbmlgal, the weight of the water alone is 250 lbm. Since the child herself weighs only 45 lbm,
this tank is hardly something for her to lift when the water needs changing. To draw the dirty
water out of the tank she uses a siphon with a geometry as shown in Figure 9E.l4. We wish to
estimate the maximum flow rate through the smooth-walled siphon tube (ID. = 8 mm) for the
geometry shown taking into account viscous effects. The water can be modeled as an
incompressible fluid with a density p = 1000 kg/rn
3 and a viscosity of p = 8.67 x io kg/rn sec.
How does this flow rate estimate compare with that for the case in which viscosity is neglected?

Ch. 9 Pg. 123

127 m

1.4 m

////////////
Aquarium

I.D. =8 mm

Siphon tube
Bucket

Figure 9E. 14 Aquarium Siphon

Solution: The total head loss for this geometry is given by equation (9.296), viz.
N

total = hi,jor

(hi,,, Ion.

(
HI a

)2

hi,,
a
1
jor
and the minor head loss is given by

P)
The major head loss is given by equation (9.297)

IL

7
a

(dave )22
gz
1
+(gz
)
7
2

2N

J --J
dave

1
ihin
1
non = K

where K
1 is the head loss coefficient for the re-entrant entrance of the submerged inlet to the
siphon tube. If we take location 1 to the free surface of the water in the aquarium, the inlet
velocity is effectively zero, and if we also assume turbulent flow (to be checked later), a
2 = 1, the
total head loss becomes
D
1
But P

2
P

- 7
z
1
I+g(z
)

p,)

i,, Then
1
P
.
1
)
2
-Z
=rf+K

+1l

2
If we assume that the siphon tube is submerged to a depth of one tube diameter, Figure 9.32c
shows that K
1 = 1.0. The difficulty that we now face is that in order to evaluate the friction factor,
we need to determine the Reynolds number, but the velocity is as yet unknown. We can make a
first guess at the velocity by assumingf= 0 in the above expression and solve for i. Then
ae

1
=jg(z

2)

=J(9.81 2
rn/sec
)
(1.4 m0.127 m0) =3.534 rn/sec

Then for this value of velocity, the Reynolds number is

(3.534 mlsec)(0.008 rn)(1000 3
kg/rn
)
9 Di
L
Re= ale
=
= 32,609
IL
8.67 x l0 kg/rn sec

Ch. 9 Pg. 124

From equation (9.299), the friction factor is

f = (0.7901n ReI .64)2 = [0.79Dm

(32,609)I .6412 = 0.023

We can now use this value off to calculate a new value of ve Then
2(9.81 m/sec2)(1.273
cave

0 0232.527_rn
0.008rn1+I

= 1.977 rn/sec

21

The new value of Reynolds number is

Re=

(1.977 mlsec)(0.008 rn)(l000 kg/rn

)
3

z9 Dn
ave

8.67 x

p
and the new friction factor is

kg/rn sec

18,242

f = (0.790 in Rei .64)2 = [0.790 In(1 8,242)I .6412 = 0.0267

The third iteration on the velocity gives

1 z
2g(z
)
2

2(9.81 m!sec
)(l.273 m)
2

cave

1.527 m
1+1+1
0.008 m

= 1.874 rn/sec

and the third iteration on the Reynolds number gives

Re

= (1.874 rn/sec)(0.008 rn)(i000 kg/rn

)
3

= 17,292

8.67 x I o kg/rn sec

p
and the third iteration on the friction factor gives

f = (0.790in ReI .64)2 = [0.790in (17,292)i .6412

0.0272

and finally the velocity is

= 1.864 rn/sec

Then the flow rate is

V =AiJ
iii

(0.008 rn)
2
=i

(1.864 rn/sec)=9.37 x i0 m
/sec
3

)(9.37 x i0 m
3
3 Isec) = 0.0937 kg/sec
PAL9,C = pi = (1000 kg/m

For the inviscid case

1 z
=j2g(z
) =J2(9.81 rn/sec2)(1.4 m0.127 m0) =4.998 rn/sec
2

=Az3

2
=(0.008m)

(4.997 rn/sec)=2.5118x i0 m
/sec
3

th=pV=(1000kg/m)(2.5118x

io

m/sec)=o.25i kg/sec

Thus the effect of viscosity reduces the maximum flow rate substantially, by a factor of 2.68.

____

Ch. 9 Pg. 125

Example 9E.15: A pumping station for a municipal water system delivers water to a
holding reservoir. The pumping station consists of a pump fitted with a globe valve on its
discharge followed by a length of pipe of 1250 m followed by a second globe valve at the
holding reservoir. The pump characteristics are expressed in terms of the total head loss that it
can pump against, in this case (
11 550 2
h
/
f
1
/sec and the volumetric flow rate at that head loss,
m
,
in this case V = 200 m
/hr. The pipe and fittings are made of cast iron, but for a pump of this size,
3
the diameter of the pipe is likely to be large enough that the asperities due to the casting process
will be so small relative to the pipe diameter that the pipe can be modeled as smooth. For the
water: p = io kg/rn
3 and p = iO kg/m sec. Determine the pipe diameter (flanged) appropriate
for this pumping station.
Solution: In this case, we have the total head loss so we can write
I.tOta1 =

[f

K}

The difficulty is that we need the velocity, as yet unknown, to determine the friction factor used
in this equation to solve for the pipe diameter. Thus we are faced with making an educated guess
at the velocity (or the pipe diameter) to start an iterative solution. To avoid excessive head losses,
these water pumping systems typically use flow velocities such that
8 mlsec. Then as a
first try, let us assume
= 5 mlsec. Then from continuity

I 4V

D
=

4(200 ms/hr)
0.119 m

(3600 sec/hr)(5 nsec

From Table 9.10, this is midway between the 4 in and 6 in NPS. Let us choose the larger since
this will reduce the velocity and enable us to stay within the typical range for velocity. Then from
Table 9.9, D 6.0625 in = 0.154 m. and the Reynolds number becomes
4
Re==
7rDp
p

()(g)

r(3600 sec/hr)(0.154 m)(10

3 kg/rn see)

=4.5932x io

Then the friction factor becomes

f = (0.7901n Re I .64)2 = 0.0133

The average velocity is

3
4(200r
/
hr)
n

4V
=

2
IITD

r(3600 sec/hr)(0.154 m)

=2.983 rn/sec

Then using this result and the data in Table 9.8 for a fully open globe valve for 6 NPS pipe, we
get
h
1
11

[f

2
Kj1e

2
[O
3
2m
1
)
6
(
.O
3
2
+
l (2.983 rn/sec)
=

533.7 m /sec
2

This value of the total head loss is within three percent of the specifications for this pump which
is probably within the error limits of the measurements of pump characteristics. Thus the design
pipe size for this pumping station would be 6 NPS.
9.10.3.5 Pump Characteristics: Thus far in our discussion of the analysis of piping systems, we
have stated that the objective of the analysis is to determine the pumping requirements for the
system, but we have not yet explained what those characteristics might be. The object of the
pump is to provide the flow work transfer necessary to overcome the total head loss of the piping

Ch. 9 Pg. 126

system downstream of the pump discharge. Then if we establish a control volume coincident
with the walls of the pump and apply the first law to the control volume, we obtain for steady
flow operation of the pump

, +
1

++-+

gz _[thu ++_+

z]

(9.303)

Typically, a pump for an incompressible fluid operates in an adiabatic manner. There simply is
insufficient residence time of the fluid in the device to establish any significant heat transfer that
would enable the fluid to approach thermal equilibrium with the device. Then equation (9.303)
becomes

i;i[u

Uth

)+

g (z
,,
0

Zin)]

(9.3 04)
Whaft

(2

in c(1

011
g(z

where we have substituted the energy constitutive relation for the incompressible fluid model.
On the right-hand side of equation (9.304), the second term in the square brackets
represents the flow work transfer associated with the transfer of the fluid into and out of the
pump. This is the reason for the existence of the pump, i.e., to make the outlet pressure of the
fluid higher than the inlet pressure of the fluid so that the higher outlet pressure can subsequently
be used to drive the flow through the frictional elements (lengths of pipe, fittings, and valves)
downstream of the pump. Thus this second term is positive. The third and fourth terms, the
kinetic and gravitational potential energy, respectively, are usually small compared with the flow
work terms and are often neglected.
On the other hand, the first term in the square brackets on the right-hand side of equation
(9.304) represents the increase in stored energy of the fluid due to the irreversible operation of
the pump resulting from the viscous behavior of the fluid. This can be seen most easily by
applying the second law to the control volume, viz.
,
1
+th(s

So)+ge,z

=0
(9.305)

gen = iii

(s

011 =
S
)

thc In

where we have substituted the entropy constitutive relation for the incompressible fluid model.
Since the rate of entropy generation will be positive for irreversible operation, the temperature of
the fluid, and, hence ,the stored thermal energy, will increase as the fluid passes through the
irreversible pump. Thus, like the second term, the first term is also positive for irreversible
operation. Clearly, for reversible operation this term is zero.
The net result of these two major energy contributions to the flow is that the shaft power
must be negative, i.e., into the pump and, hence, the fluid stream. It follows that the shaft power
input to the pump is greater in magnitude for irreversible operation than for reversible operation.
Then we can define a pump efficiency to be

g (z(,
,
11

=
shaft

irreversible

]
z
)
1

(9.306)
irreversible

Ch. 9 Pg. 127

In the pump industry, the numerator in equation (9.306) is usually referred to as the fluid power
and the denominator is referred to as the brake horsepower or shaft power of the drive motor. A
typical value for the efficiency of a centrifugal pump is 75 percent.
If we divide the numerator of equation (9.306) by the mass flow rate, we get an
expression for the change in stored mechanical energy of the flow through the pump per unit
mass which is known as the total dynamic head of the pump, viz.
+

,
0
(z

(9.307)

)
1
z

Note that equation (9.307) also represents the reversible shaft power added to the flow per unit
mass flow rate. If we now subtract equation (9.307) from equation (9.296), we get an expression
for the total net head loss for the piping system including the pumping device, viz.
h/,,z(ijor

h/,((fl?J,

2
a

g (z
1

)
2
z

(9.308)

where plane 1 refers to the pump inlet and plane 2 refers to the farthest plane of the piping
system.
In thermal-fluids engineering practice, the total dynamic head of the pump is usually not
the expression given in equation (9.307). Tn the early days of municipal water systems, the flow
was usually driven by gravity alone rather than by mechanical pumps. Based upon this historical
practice that dates back to the nineteenth century when the fluid mechanics of water supply
systems were first being developed on a rational basis, the term pump head usually refers to
equation (9.307) divided by the acceleration of gravity g. Then
2
= ,
111
h
=
+
+ (Z
(9.309)
,,
0
zm)
2g
g
pg pg
g)
2
which has the units of meters, the height of a column of water that caused the flow. The total
head loss then becomes

Hitotai

=1
,
1
h
10
g

f(
D

g
2

g
2

pg

pg

g
2

2g)

z
,
1
)

(9.310)

which has the units of meters.

The pump characteristics that are usually most Liseful in the design of piping systems are
the volumetric flow rate, V (m
/hr) and the total dynamic head,
3
(m). There are other pump
performance characteristics that are useful, but we shall delay our discussion of these until
Chapter 15.
9.10.3.6 Piping Networks: Thus far we have considered only those piping systems for which the
components are arranged in series fashion. However, in thermal-fluids engineering practice, it is
common to encounter piping networks in which the various components are arranged in both
series and parallel configurations simultaneously. The analysis of such configurations can be
accomplished by applying the techniques of network analysis except the components in this case
are non-linear. In piping networks, all parallel branches have the same pressure drop but different
flow rates depending upon the elements that they contain. All elements arranged in series have
the same flow rate but different pressure drops depending upon their individual head loss terms.
Example 9E.16: The piping system shown in plan view in Figure 9E.16 consists of two
parallel circuits flowing water between two manifolds. The two circuits are in the same
horizontal plane. Circuit A is fabricated from 4 NPS cast iron pipe with a flanged globe valve

Ch. 9 Pg. 128

used to shut off the flow if necessary. Circuit B is fabricated from the same cast iron pipe as
circuit A and contains a pump that delivers a volume flow rate of V = 125 m
/hr at a head of 33
3
rn. For the water: p = i0 kg/rn
and
=
io
3
kg/rn sec. Determine the volumetric flow rate of the
p
two circuits together.
Manifolds
-

NL

500m

4NPS

Flow

Flow

Figure 9E. 16 Parallel Piping System (Plan View)

Solution: The pressure drops for the two circuits shown in Figure 9E. 16 are the same
since they are connected in parallel to the same manifolds. Let the circuit with the pump be
circuit A. For this circuit the pressure drop is given by

!tL_i_ [f --+ 1
H
K
7
,
1
D
pg pg
g
2
where K
1 is the loss coefficient for the entrance to the pipe assumed to be square edged. The flow
velocity in circuit A can be determined by the pump through-put (volumetric flow rate). Then for
pipe size 4 NPS, D = 4.026 in = 0.1023 rn and A = 12.73 in
2 = 8.2185 x iO m
.
2
(125 ms/hr)
A

4.225 rn/sec

(3600 sec/hr)(8.2185 iO m)

Then the Reynolds number for the flow in circuit A is

ReA

ADP

(4.225 mlsec)(0.1023 m)(1000 kg/ms)

p
For cast iron pipe, Table 9.5 gives .
factor is given by equation

1 0 kg/rn sec
0.25 mm. Then l/D

4.3222

2.4438 x 10-6 and the friction

2

6.9
1
ReD

f=

3.7

4.518
log
4.32 x io

f =0.0136

)
6
(2.44xl0
3.7

6.9
4.32 x

___________
____
_____

Ch. 9 Pg. 129

Then the pressure drop becomes

[ (]

Ki] AP

,/,pg
11
HJ,

rnlsec) (iO kg/rn

1 500 m
1(4.225 2
)
3
=10.01361
1+0.51
t0.1023rnJ
2

(33 rn)(10 3
kg/m
)
(9.81

m!sec2)

]P =2.7401 x io N/rn
2
Then for circuit B, in order to determine the velocity, we need to have the friction factor which
requires the Reynolds number; however, we cannot compute the Reynolds number until we have
the velocity. Thus, an iterative solution is required. We then assume as a first estimate thatfB
=fA
so that the velocity becomes

2(P-P)
2
i

P[f (__+K
1 +K
]
2

(iO

2(2.7401 x iO N/rn
)
2
=

0
kg/m3
m
+6+0
)[0.0l3
.5]
6

2.7404 rn/sec

Using this value of velocity we can compute a new value of Reynolds number and a new friction
factor. After two iterations we arrive at the result
2.637 rn/sec

and

Re

2.6976 x i0
5

Then the total flow rate for this parallel circuitbecomes

Viotai

VA+VB =(zA+YB)A=(4.225 rnlsec+2.637 mlsec)(8.2185 x iO

Vtotai =

m2)

0.056395 3
/rn
sec=203.02 2
m
/
hr

9.10.4 Turbulent External Flows

As we have already discussed in Section 9.9.2.2, in the vicinity of the sharp leading edge
of a smooth flat plate, viscous damping ensures that the flow in the boundary layer is laminar
even if the flow in the mainstream is turbulent. However, as the laminar boundary layer grows in
thickness as the flow proceeds downstream, the flow eventually reaches a location where the
characteristic amplitude of the fluctuations inherent in the flow has become so large the viscous
forces are no longer able to damp out these disturbances. At this point, the flow in the boundary
layer becomes unstable and undergoes a transition to turbulent flow that continues over the
remaining length of the plate. In point of fact, the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in the
boundary layer is not a sharp one. What happens is that there is a transition region at the end of
the laminar region where the laminar boundary layer tries to continue its growth but is constantly
being broken up by the instability that derives from the limited damping capabilities of the fluid.
Because of this continual destruction and recreation process, transition from laminar to turbulent
flow in the boundary layer occurs over a region of the flow rather than at a definite location on
the plate. In this transition region, shear stress at the wall increases and the velocity profile
undergoes changes in shape as the fully turbulent boundary layer tries to establish itself. Once
this occurs, the turbulent boundary layer grows at a much faster rate than that in the laminar
region. Of course, as we have already seen in the case of turbulent internal flows, there is a
laminar sublayer imbedded in this now fully turbulent boundary layer.

Cit 9 Pg. 130

Experimental measurements of this transition phenomenon for a flat plate with zero
pressure gradient have reported a range of values of the local Reynolds number at which the
transition occurs, typically 6 x10
4<
< 5 x10
. Since these data usually have been
5
obtained in laboratory settings where the conditions are precisely controlled, some investigators
believe that these data are artificially high. Kays and Crawford (W. M. Kays and M. E. Crawford,
Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, 2 edition, McGraw-Hill, N. Y., 1980, Chapter 10) argue
that the results obtained from viscous stability theory might be more appropriate in practice
where conditions are not quite so closely controlled, viz. Rev t,a,zsjtjo,1 = 60,000. The location of the
transition can also be expressed in terms of the momentum thickness. From equation (9.199),
(9.311)

0.664
where Ois the momentum thickness and then
l3vO..qIRertra,zvjtjon

extrapsition

0.664v
=

6 rmncirion
Re

6 ranition
Re

(9.312)

162.65

Figure 9.31 shows the fluctuating nature of the outer part of a turbulent boundary layer on
a flat plate 3.3 m long suspended in a wind tunnel. Streaklines from a smoke wire near the sharp
leading edge are illuminated by a vertical slice of light. (A streamline is the locus of points that
are everywhere tangent to the instantaneous velocity vector and cannot be observed directly by

:
Figure 9.31 Side View of a Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate, Re
6 = 3500
(From Figure 157, p. 92 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke, Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)

Ch. 9 Pg. 131

flow visualization. A pathline is the trajectory of a fluid particle expressed as a function of
position and time and is obtained by injecting a dye or some other indicator and observing
continuously or photographing with a long exposure time. A streakline is the locus at any instant
of all fluid particles that have at some previous time passed through a fixed point in the flow
and
is obtained by injecting an indicator continuously and observing or photographing
instantaneously. In steady flow, all three lines are identical, but in unsteady flow, the
streamlines, streaklines, and pathlines are all different so that care must be exercised in
interpreting the images obtained by various methods of flow visualization. In Figure 9.31,
outside
the turbulent boundary layer where the flow is steady, the streaklines are identical with the
streamlines.) The Reynolds number of the flow in the photograph of Figure 9.3 us 3500
as
determined by using the momentum thickness as the characteristic length. According to the
criterion expressed in equation (9.3 12), the flow of Figure 9.31 clearly is well into the turbulent
regime.
Despite the seemingly chaotic nature of the flow field shown in Figure 9.31, there really
is a structure to it. Figure 9.32 shows an image of the laminar sublayer of a turbulent boundary
layer on a flat wall. The image was created by introducing a suspension of aluminum particles
in
a stream of water. The lower portion of the image shows the streaks that result when the sublayer
is viewed normal to the wall while the upper portion of the image is a simultaneous side view
of
the boundary layer formed with the aid of a mirror. The laminar sublayer is clearly evident as
is
the fully turbulent outer layer.

Figure 9.32 Laminar Sublayer of a Turbulent Boundary Layer

(From Figure 159, p. 93 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke, Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)

Ch. 9 Pg. 132

In internal flows, we focused our interest on the pressure drop required to drive the flow.
In contrast, for external flows we are interested in the shear stress that acts on the surface. It is
this shear stress that is responsible for the skin friction drag experienced by the object. For
external flows, the flow is usually driven by the flow external to the boundary layer rather than
being driven by a pressure drop in the direction of the flow.
In an attempt to describe the boundary layer on the surface of an object immersed in a
flow, we are led to an interesting application of the power velocity profile law developed in
Section 9.10.2.2. In that section we showed that the data for the velocity profile in the turbulent
boundary layer can be fit approximately with a 1/7th power law. In the analysis of the flow over a
flat plate, Von Karman has suggested, in the interests of simplicity, that the similarity solution
for the turbulent boundary layer that results for such an external flow can be written in the form
(9.313)
where is the bounday layer thickness. Although in the present case we are dealing with the flow
over a flat plate, we now borrow some results from turbulent flow in a circular conduit. Recall
from equation (9.248) that the shear stress at the wall for turbulent flow in a circular conduit was
related to the friction factor by
(9.314)

pave

In 1911 Blasius fit all the data then available for the friction factor for turbulent flow in a circular
conduit by the expression

ae D

I!

(9.315)

f=O.31641
Combining equations (9.3 14) and (9.3 15), we get

(9.3 16)
If we rewrite this result in terms of the radius R of the conduit and recognize that for turbulent
we get
flow in this geometry
= 0.8
=

Iv

=O.O225p13 I
k..

R}

(9.317)

Applying equation (9.317) to the case of the flat plate in turbulent flow, we obtain
2

=0.0225[

(9.318)

In our prior discussion of the momentum thickness, we derived the result [equation (9.202)]
6
2
d

(9.319)

dx

where 6 is the displacement thickness given by equation (9.197), viz.

6=JL[1_LJdY

(9.320)

Substituting equation (9.3 13) into equation (9.320) and carrying out the integration, we get

72

(9.321)

Ch. 9 Pg. 133

Substituting this result into equation (9.319), we obtain a differential equation for the boundary
layer thickness based upon the 1/7th power law similarity solution of equation (9.313), viz.
I

(
225
_Z_o.o

(9.322)

72 dx
Integrating equation (9.322) from the leading edge of the plate to the location x, we get
I
O23l43v
I Sd5=
jdx
Jo
I

(9.323)

5(x) = O.37x(

Then from equation (9.32 1) we get

-y
6(x)

O.O36x-

(9.324)

We can express the local shear stress on the surface of an object in an external flow in nondimensional form by defining the local skin friction coefficient
as
Cf =

(9.325)

Combining equation (9.325) with equation (9.3 19), we get

CfX =

(9.326)
dx
Differentiating equation (9.3 19) and substituting the result into equation (9.326), we get an
expression for the local skin friction coefficient on a flat plate, viz.
CfX =O.O576

=O.O576Re

(9.327)

Then
= O.O288Re
2
but the experimental data have been found to be better represented by changing the constant
slightly so that

C
k- = O.O296Re

(9.328)

which is the commonly accepted correlation in the literature for the local skin friction coefficient
for turbulent flow over a smooth flat plate (one side).
The total drag force FD on one side of a flat plate of length L and width b can be
determined by integrating the shear stress on the surface over the area of the plate, viz.
ED
which is usually expressed in dimensionless form as the drag coefficient CD such that
FD
=JCfd
CD
=
L
bL
2
pz
Substituting equation (9.328) into equation (9.330), we get

(9.329)

(9.330)

Ch. 9 Pg. 134

I

0.05921 Re X dl=O.O592

CD

LJ

I5V1(,3

1IIx-

-I
p J

CD=0.0592j-II

dI
L

JjtJ
IlI

L)
0
J

Ix

dlJ

(9.331)

L)

CD 0.074ReL
After equations (9.328) and (9.33 1) had been developed, Prandtl pointed out that they
were actually derived on the assumption that the turbulent boundary layer started at the leading
edge of the plate. Clearly, this is not the case since there exists a laminar region over a
considerable portion of the leading edge even in the case for which the free stream flow is
turbulent. The friction force over this leading edge is then considerably less than if the boundary
layer had been turbulent from the outset. Prandtl suggested that the turbulent friction force from
the leading edge to the to the point of the laminar-turbulent transition be replaced by the laminar
friction force over this region. If we use the Blasius solution, equation (9.204), for the laminar
region, the integration of the shear stress over the surface of the plate takes on a different form.,
viz.
L
i r
(C.)
dx+f
clx
(C)
CDI I
laminar

LLo

1 r
CD

CD
=

tpL

0.664Re/2dx

turbulent

0 664Re[d(Re)

I!

0.0592Re

0 O592Re[c1 (Ret

where we have changed the variable of integration from x to Re for simplicity. Carrying out the
integration and rearranging the result, we get
CD

1.328 (Reitr

xJr

0.074ReL

xJr

(9.332)

Of course, the difficulty in applying equation (9.332) in practice is that the transition from
laminar to turbulent is not sharply defined because of the continual creation and destruction of
the turbulent boundary layer in the transition region. This due in part to the level of turbulence in
the free stream. Lacking any other information, it is common practice to assume that the laminar
turbulent transition occurs at a transition Reynolds number of Rextr = 5 x iO.
When the Reynolds number becomes extremely large, ReL> iO, the laminar portion of
the boundary layer becomes insignificant. Then using data obtained specifically for this situation
and employing the momentum integral approach used above, there results
=

0.013 lRe
4

(9.333)

0.03 4
j
1
lRe

(9.334)

and
CD

Ch. 9 Pg. 135

The foregoing analysis applies to the case of a smooth flat plate. For the rough flat plate
there is no analysis except for the case of the fully rough flat plate for which Mills and Hang
[Mills, A. F. and Xu Hang, On the Skin Friction Coefficient for a Fully Rough Flat Plate, J.
Fluids Engineering, 105, 364-365, (1983)1 suggest
/

=1 3.476+0.707ln

v4
.
2
6

ks,)

for

I50<<l.5 x i0
7
k

(9.335)

for

l50<<l.5 x l0

(9.336)

and
257

CD

2.635+0.6l8ln

where as described in section 9.10.2.2 k is the average height of the roughness projections with
typical values given in Table 9.5.
Example 9E.17: The trailer part of a tractor-trailer highway transport for hauling freight
is basically a large box mounted on wheels. The largest size trailer presently allowed on U.S.
interstate highways has a length of L = 16 m, a width of W 2.6 m, and a height of H = 2.9 m.
Estimate the engine power required to overcome the just skin friction drag on the trailer alone for
a vehicle traveling at a speed of = 100 kmlhr (27.778 mlsec).
For air: p= 1.189 kg/rn
3 and p = 1.825 x io kg/rn sec
Solution: We can model the surfaces of the box of the trailer as flat plates. Then the
Reynolds number based upon the length of the box is
z.1Lp (27.778 mlsec)(16 m)(l.189 kgIm)
ReL=
=
=2.8956x
1.825 x 10 kg/rn sec
p
For a Reynolds number this large, the laminar portion of the boundary layer can be neglected.
Then the drag coefficient can be evaluated from equation (9.334), viz.
-

)A
CD =0.031
4
ReL =0.031(2.8956 x 107
For a typical side of width b and length L, the drag force is

0.08591

FD = CD [ip 2bLl = (0.0859 1)[(1 .189 kg/rn)(27.778 2

sec)
2 )bL
bLl = (34.409 N/rn
In estimating the drag due to skin friction, we consider only the two vertical sides and the top of
the box since the bottom has a number of structural elements and the axle assemblies that affect
the character of the flow in this region. Then for the top b = 2.6 m and L = 16 m, and
)(2.6 m)(16 m) = 1639.4 N
2
(FD) U)/) = (39.409 N/m
For each of the sides, b = 2.9 m and L = 16 m, and
(FD);icle =

(39.409 N/m2)(2.9 m)(16 m) = 1828.6 N

Then the total skin friction drag for the two sides and the top is
(FD),(,I(, _(FD),,+2(FD)SI(/ =(1639.4 N)+2(1828.6 N)=5296.6 N
Then the power required to overcome just this component of the drag is given by
go =(FD)tofal r9=(5296.6 N)(27.778 N)= 147.13 kW = 197.22 hp
As we shall see in section 9.11 this is only a fraction of the total drag on the vehicle. A
substantial portion of the total drag is associated with the wake of the vehicle.

Ch. 9 Pg. 136

9.11

Drag

9.11.1 Drag on a Cylinder Immersed in a Flow of an Inviscid Fluid: dAlemberts Paradox

Perhaps the most dramatic manifestation of the effect of fluid viscosity on the motion of a
fluid is evidenced in the production of a drag force acting on bodies immersed in a flowing fluid.
(In this discussion of drag we shall make frequent reference to the flow past a cylinder with the
axis of the cylinder oriented normal to the direction of the flow since this flow configuration
embodies many of the features central to the phenomenon of drag.) If the fluid possessed no
viscosity, i.e., were inviscid, there would be no drag. Figure 9.33 shows a physical simulation of
a steady, uniform flow of an inviscid incompressible fluid past a cylinder. (The precise manner in
which this simulation was achieved is interesting in its own right since it involved the use of a
viscous fluid, but since the details are not essential to the present discussion, the reader is
referred to the reference from which Figure 9.33 was taken.) The streamlines of the steady flow
are visualized by injecting dye into the flow. Note the nearly perfect symmetry of the streamlines.

Figure 9.33 Simulation of Flow of an Inviscid Fluid Around a Cylinder

(From Figure 1, p. 8 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke, Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)
As the flow encounters the obstacle represented by the cylinder, the flow in the
neighborhood of the cylinder must accelerate in accordance with the continuity equation since a
portion of the flow area is taken up by the cylinder. This causes the streamlines to bunch up
near the surface. The closer together the streamlines, the faster the flow. Clearly, from Figure
9.33 it is apparent that the location of maximum fluid velocity lies at the equator, a position on
the surface of the cylinder oriented at an angle 900 to the direction of the free stream. Thus as the
fluid travels up the forward facing portion of the cylinder, it accelerates until it reaches its
maximum velocity at the equator and then decelerates as it proceeds down the rearward facing
portion of the cylinder, eventually reaching the free stream velocity at the rear of the cylinder.
(See Figure 9.34.)
From inviscid flow theory, it can be shown that the magnitude of the local velocity
of
the fluid on the sutface of the cylinder is given by
sin6

(9.337)

Ch. 9 Pg. 137

where
is the free stream velocity upstream of the cylinder. (The no-slip boundary condition
does not hold in this case since the fluid is being modeled as inviscid.)
Uniform flow, U

Equator

Stagnation point
Figure 9.34 Cylinder in Uniform Cross-flow
Since the flow is inviscid and, hence, reversible, the distribution of pressure on the
surface of the cylinder is given by the Bernoulli equation
(9.338)

p2
p2
If we combine equations (9.337) and (9.338) and solve for 6
F we get
,
2
p (2t9,sin6)
2 P
z9
-+

p
=

p
2
(l4sin

(9.339)

o)

There are two observations that can be made from equation (9.339): (1) the pressure on the
surface of the cylinder decreases as the flow moves up the forward facing portion (0 6 rtI2)
and increases as the flow moves down the rearward facing portion (tI2 6 rt), and (2) the
pressure distribution over the surface of the cylinder is symmetric with respect to the forward
facing portion and the rearward facing portion with the minimum pressure at the equator. The
pressure distribution can be expressed in dimensionless form as the pressure coefficient C, viz.
O
2
l4sin

(9.340)

This distribution is shown in Figure 9.35. The symmetry of the pressure distribution means that if
we integrate the x-component of it over the entire surface of the cylinder to determine the x
component of the net force exerted on the cylinder by the flow, the result is zero. There is no net
force; hence, there is no drag on the cylinder.
I

21

PP
10

9
s6c/6=[2RsinO] _8R[isin6i =0
RcosOd6=2J (14sin26)Rco

(9.341)

Ch. 9 Pg. 138

l2

0
2

6
Figure 9.35 Pressure Distribution Over the Surface of a Cylinder Immersed in an Inviscid Flow
In the early days of the study of fluid mechanics, it was thought that this analysis would
lead to the correct value of the drag force. When it did not, it was considered a paradox which
eventually became known as dAlernberts paradox. In light of our present knowledge of the
behavior of fluids and the role that viscosity plays in the development of drag, the result hardly
seems paradoxical. In fact, if the result had predicted a drag force for the flow of an inviscid fluid
around a cylinder, that would have been a true paradox! In any case, the name is still used today
for historical reasons. It should be noted that this result of zero drag for an inviscid flow applies
only to the case of steady flow, If the flow is unsteady, a drag results even for the inviscid model.
9.11.2 The Influence of the Pressure Gradient: Separation of the Flow from the Surface
From our study of the flow of a viscous fluid over a flat plate, we know that in the case of
a cylinder with a viscous flow normal to its axis, a boundary layer will develop on the surface of
the cylinder beginning from the stagnation point and working its way over the forward facing
portion, growing in thickness as the flow progresses toward the equator. As we have discussed
before, the flow outside the boundary layer behaves as though it were inviscid and satisfies the
Bernoulli equation. All of the influence of viscosity is confined to the boundary layer by
definition. For the flat plate the fluid velocity at the outer edge of the boundary layer was the free
stream velocity, but in the case of the cylinder, the situation is quite different.
On the cylinder, the boundary layer is quite thin, and the flow velocity at the outer edge of
this thin layer is not the free stream velocity but is in fact the velocity that results from the
inviscid behavior described above in Section 9.11.1; namely, acceleration of the flow over the
forward facing portion and deceleration over the rearward facing portion of the cylinder. Most
importantly, as predicted by the Bernoulli equation, the effect of this continual change in the
local velocity causes the pressure on the curved surface of the cylinder (actually the pressure on
the outer edge of the boundary layer on the curved surface of the cylinder) also to change in the

Ch. 9 Pg. 139

direction of flow. Since the pressure across the boundary layer is constant, this results
in a
pressure gradient in the boundary layer in the direction offlow. This pressure gradien
t can exert
a profound influence on the behavior of the boundary layer and produce a notable differe
nce in
the growth of the boundary layer on the curved surface of a cylinder compared with the growth
of
the boundary layer on a flat plate for which the pressure did not change in the directi
on of the
flow.
This behavior can be illustrated rather simply by writing the Bernoulli equation in
differential form for the flow outside the boundary layer, viz.
(9.342)
dx
pdx
where i. is the local velocity just outside the boundary layer at its outermost edge which
changes
with x. From equation (9.342), it is apparent that as the flow accelerates in the x-direc
tion, the
pressure must decrease, and, conversely, as the flow decelerates, the pressure must increas
e.
Inside the boundary layer, the boundary layer equations must be satisfied on the surface
of the
object immersed in the flow. At the surface, the boundary conditions of no slip and zero
flow
through the surface result in
=0 and
= 0
at y 0
(9.343)
Then at the sitrface, equation (9.167) becomes
X

ldP
dx

2
p
2

(9.344)
dv

p dx

Thus the pressure gradient established by the flow outside the boundary layer determines
the
curvature of the velocity profile at the surface.
The situation is similar in many respects to the case of planar Couette flow with a
pressure gradient as depicted in Figure 9.15. In the general case of an external flow of
a viscous
fluid over a surface, there are three cases of interest:
1. Zero pressure gradient: dP
dx

f2

and

}yO

In this case, the forward drag of the fluid in the external flow at the
outer edge of the boundary layer is sufficient to overcome the retarding drag
(shear stress) exerted on the fluid by the surface, and the boundary layer grows as
the flow progresses down stream. The flow over a flat plate is an example of this.
For the flat plate, note from Figure 9.21 as well as equation (9.176) and the data of
Table 9.4 that, indeed, the curvature of the velocity profile derived by Blasius is
zero at the surface. This is shown schematically in Figure 9.36a.
y

Figure 9.36a Schematic Representation of Velocity Profile with Zero Pressure Gradient

Ch. 9 Pg. 140

(2

2. Favorable pressure gradient:

ax

<0

and

<0

In this case there are two factors that help to overcome the
retarding drag of the surface on the fluid in the boundary layer: the forward drag
exerted by the fluid in the external flow at the edge of the boundary layer and the
favorable net forward pressure forces within the boundary layer. These
boundary layers tend to be thinner than the boundary layers that develop without a
pressure gradient. For this case, the velocity profile has negative curvature at the
wall as shown in Figure 9.36b. Flow over the forward facing portion of a cylinder
is an example of a boundary layer with a favorable pressure gradient.
<o

(iJ
W//// /////////Z
Figure 9.36b Schematic Representation of Velocity Profile with Favorable Pressure Gradient

3. Adverse pressure gradient:

>

ax

and

>

In this case there are two factors attempting to retard the flow in
the boundary layer: the retarding drag of the surface and the adverse net pressure
forces within the boundary layer which are acting against the direction of the
flow. If the forward drag of the fluid in the external flow at the edge of the
boundary layer is sufficiently large, it can overcome these retarding influences and
the boundary layer will continue to grow in the direction of flow; however, if the
drag of the external flow is not sufficiently large, the retarding influences
dominate and the flow attempts to reverse direction in response to these retarding
influences. It is this latter phenomenon that ultimately causes the boundary layer
to separate from the surface. For this case, the velocity profile has negative
curvature at the wall as shown in Figure 9.36c. A necessary, but not sufficient,
condition for flow reversal is when the velocity gradient at the wall becomes
negative. When flow reversal occurs, the velocity profile itself has negative slope
at the wall. Flow over the rearward facing portion of a cylinder is an example of
flow with an adverse pressure gradient.
yA

(L>

Figure 9.36c Schematic Representation of Velocity Profile with Adverse Pressure Gradient

Ch. 9 Pg. 141

The latter two conditions above are operative in the case of the cylinder in cross flow.
As
described in equation (9.340) and shown graphically in Figure 9.35, the flow accelerates
over the
forward facing portion of the cylinder and the pressure decreases in continuous fashion
up to the
equator according to the Bernoulli equation. This produces a negative (favorable) pressu
re
gradient in the boundary layer on the forward facing portion. The pressure attains its minim
um
value at the equator and the pressure gradient reverses sign as the fluid decelerates down
the
backward facing portion. The question then becomes one of determining where the bound
ary
layer separates from the surface of the cylinder.
Meksyn developed a solution for the boundary layer equation for flow over a cylinder.
7
He assumed that the pressure at the surface of the cylinder could be predicted from the
results of
the case of an inviscid fluid flowing under the same conditions as the viscous fluid. Follow
ing
the example of Blasius and other early investigators, he defined a similarity parame
ter i and a
stream function t such that
i7=y --sin(irO)

where 6is defined in Figure 9.34 and

yr

1
y=2
R
+y
R+
+

R
2
cos(8)
R+v)

where R is the radius of the surface of the cylinder and y is measured normal to it, and
t= g2vt9ycb(ii,y)
Then the boundary layer equation, equation (9.167), becomes

(9.345)

(9.346)

(9.347)
(9.348)

where the primes denote derivatives with respect to ii and

cos(KO)
2
2[-0
sin
2
Then the velocity profile at any location defined by 6 is

(9349)

(9.350)
The analysis parallels that for the flat plate and equation (9.348) must be solved numerically
in a
fashion similar to equation (9.176). Comparison of the results of such a numerical solutio
n with
the experimental observations for the velocity profile reveal excellent agreement.
The local coefficient of frictionf can be determined from the shear stress on the surface
which, in turn, can be determined from the velocity gradient at the surface. Meksyn showed
that
the coefficient of friction is given by______

f =16

2
(0)s
in 0
8
c
os
(9.351)
2
2
which agrees well with the experimental data. Equation (9.35 1) is valid up to the point of
separation which occurs when the velocity gradient and, hence, the value of becomes
zero.
f
From equation (9.35 1), separation should occur approximately when 6= 95. Measured
values
of the location of the point of separation fall in the range of 85 < 6< 105, depending
upon the
Reynolds number.
Meksyn, D. The laminar boundary layer equations: I Motion of an elliptic and circula
r
cylinders [sic], Proc. Royal Society of London, Series A, vol. 192, No. 103 1,1948,
pp. 545-567.

Ch. 9 Pg. 142

Figure 9.37 shows a circular cylinder in crossflow with a value of Reynolds number of
ReD = 2000. The flow visualization is revealed by the introduction of air bubbles in water. The
separation of the boundary layer is clearly evident in the photograph as is the turbulent wake.

Figure 9.37 Laminar Flow Around Circular Cylinder, ReD = 2000

(From Figure 47, p. 31 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke, Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)
Measurements of the pressure in the wake of a cylinder with ReD = 2000 show that the pressure is
essentially uniform across the wake (cf. Figure 9.38 for data at higher values of the Reynolds
number) with a pressure coefficient of approximately C
1 where [cf. Equation (9.340)]

C=Pl

p
2
2
i::L,

Figure 9.38 Pressure Coefficient for a Cylinder in Crossflow

(From NACA Tech. Note 2960, Drag of Circular Cylinders for a Wide Range of
Reynolds Numbers and Mach Numbers, F. E. Gowen and E. W. Perkins, 1953, Figure 5.)

(9.352)

Ch. 9 Pg. 143

Since the pressure varies up to the point of separation according to equation (9.340), it follows
that the integration of the pressure distribution over the entire surface of the cylinder yields a net
force acting in the direction of flow. This force is a major portion of the drag force that acts on
the cylinder. The other contribution to the drag force is, of course, the skin friction resulting from
the shear stress at the surface of the cylinder which can be calculated from equation (9.351).
The boundary layer on the surface of the cylinder exhibits a behavior that might not be
expected at first glance; namely, as the flow undergoes a transition from laminar to turbulent, the
turbulent boundary layer proves to be more stable than the laminar boundary layer and the
phenomenon of separation is delayed to a point further along the surface than occurs in laminar
flow. Figure 9.39a shows a laminar flow over a convex surface with separation occurring near
the apex of the curvature. Figure 9.39b shows a turbulent flow over the same convex surface as
Figure 9.39a. In the turbulent case, the boundary layer is thicker than the laminar case, but the
boundary layer remains attached far downstream of the point of separation observed in the
laminar case.

Figure 9.39a Laminar Flow Past a Convex Surface

Figure 9.39b Turbulent Flow Past a Convex Surface

(From Figure 156, p. 91 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke, Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)
In the case of flow about a circular cylinder, the observations of Figure 9.39 imply that
the wake behind the cylinder will be smaller in turbulent flow than in laminar flow;
consequently, wake drag is dramatically reduced in the turbulent case. This phenomenon is
shown quite dramatically for the case of flow past a sphere in Figure 9.40. A trip wire has been
used to trigger the laminar/turbulent transition in the boundary layer in Figure 9.40b. Note the
substantial difference in the size of the wake for the turbulent flow case shown in Figure 9.40b
compared with the laminar flow case of Figure9.40a. The small wake in the turbulent case leads
to a significant reduction in the drag. We shall return to this point a bit later, but suffice it to say
here that this reduction in drag under turbulent flow conditions has implications of considerable
practical importance.

Ch. 9 Pg. 144

Figure 9.40a Mean Flow Past a Sphere, ReD = 15,000

(From Figure 56, p. 34 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke, Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)

Figure 9.40b Mean Flow Past a Sphere, ReD = 30,000,

with Boundary Layer Trip Wire Forward of Equator
(From Figure 58, p. 35 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke, Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)

Ch. 9 Pg. 145

The behavior of the drag for a smooth cylinder of diameter D and length L in crossflow
over a wide range of values of the Reynolds number is summarized in Figure 9.41 where the drag
coefficient CD is given by
F
(9.353)
D
1
DL
2
p
_

Note the dramatic change in drag coefficient in the range 3.5 x

io <ReD < 6 x

i0.

100
CD
p417

4O-

20

10-

8642-

0.1

_-

--

1-0.8-0.60.4-

0.1

---

--

.---

..-

2 4 9

$_

2
10

468

2
io

46 8

:
--

7Q4

4 68

--

4 68

10

Re

Figure 9.41 Drag Coefficient of a Smooth Cylinder in Crossflow

th
(From Boundary Layer Theory, H. Schlichting and K. Gertsen, Springer, 8
Ed., 2003,
Figure 1.12, p. 19. Circles indicate experimental data.)
There are several different flow regimes that can be identified in Figure 9.40, each of which
embodies a unique characteristic of the flow that arises not only in the case of flow around a
cylinder, but in the flow around other blunt bodies as well. Following the example of Schlichting
th
and Gertsen (H. Schlichting and K. Gertsen, Boundaiy Layer Theory, Springer, 8
Ed., 2003, p.
22; and R. D. Blevins, Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, Krieger Publishing Co., Malabar, FL,
1992, p. 340.), these are summarized in Table 9.10.

<

90

ReD

supercritical regime

re-establishment of
turbulent vortex street

0.25

<

Sr

<

0.30

CD

>

CD> 1.59

0.3

< CD <

Sr=-

wheref is now the frequency of oscillation of the vortices in units of Hertz.

(9.354)

0.8

1.17> CD> 0.3

CDZ 1.17

1.3> CD> 1.17

1.59> CD> 1.3

12.8

ReD (2.002 In Re,,)

8r

Drag Coefficient, CD

The Strouhal number appearing in Table 9.10 is the dimensionless frequency of the vortices shed by the cylinder after the boundary
layer separates in various flow regimes. In certain regimes, these vortices are stable and are commonly visible. For example, they
show quite clearly in satellite views of flows in the atmosphere and in the oceans.
(For example, see http ://daac gsfc.nasa.gov/CAMPAIGN_DOCS/OCDST/vonKarman_vortices .html)
The Strouhal number for a cylinder of diameter D immersed in a flow of velocity iis given by

<

3.5 x 106

critical regime

no organized
frequency

<

<

transition from laminar to

turbulent boundary layer
with narrow wake

3.5 x 106

Sr=0.21

laminar boundary layer with

fully turbulent vortex street

subcritical regime

1.3 x io
Figure 937

0.14 <Sr< 0.21

Figure 9.44

laminar Karman vortex

street

<

<

NA

NA

pure Karman vortex

street

steady symmetric separation

NA

Strouhal Number, Sr

400

Figure 9.43

steady with no wake

Flow Characteristic

laminar but unstable wake

vortex pairs in wake

40

Figure 9.42

illustration

onset of Karman vortex

street

creeping flow

Flow Regime

90

<

<

ReD

1.3 x l0

<

ReD

ReD

Re

ReD

Re

<

40

<

<

400

<

Reynolds Number Regime

Table 9.10 Flow Regimes for a Circular Cylinder in Crossflow

Ch. 9 Pg. 146

Ch. 9 Pg. 147

Figure 9.42 Creeping Flow Around a Circular Cylinder, ReD = 1.54

(From Figure 24, p. 20 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke, Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)

Figure 9.43 Flow Around a Circular Cylinder, ReD = 26.

Note Twin Fixed Fppl Vortices in Wake.
Upper Vortex Rotates Clockwise; Lower Vortex Rotates Counterclockwise.
(From Figure 42, p. 28 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke, Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)

Ch. 9 Pg. 148

Figure 9.44 Flow Around a Circular Cylinder, ReD = 140.

Note Well-developed Karman Vortex Street
(From Figure 94, p. 56 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke, Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)
At this point in our discussion, it should be apparent that there are two contributions to
the drag on a stationary object immersed in a flowing fluid (or conversely, an object moving
through a stationary fluid): (1) skin friction drag due to the shear stress acting on the surface of
the object as a consequence of the viscosity of the fluid, and (2) wake drag due to separation of
the boundary layer as a consequence of the pressure gradient in the direction of flow imposed on
the boundary layer by the inviscid flow external to the boundary layer. If we wish to reduce the
drag on an object, there is little that we can do to reduce the skin friction component. Even the
few changes that can be made may not be worth the effort since this component is the smaller of
the two. However, there is a great deal that we can do to reduce wake drag. This is one of the
principle objectives of the field of aerodynamics.
In their evolutionary process, fish long ago discovered that one of the principle changes
that they could make to reduce the energy expended in swimming while increasing speed
markedly, was to alter their body shapes so that the pressure gradient on the downstream portion
of their bodies was much smaller in magnitude than the pressure gradient on the upstream
portion of their bodies. The result is the characteristic shape of fish that we have all observed in
nature. This aerodynamic shape is imitated in the cross-section of aircraft wings. There is one
important difference between fish and airfoils. The purpose of the airfoil is to produce a lift force
to keep the aircraft in the air while at the same time minimizing the drag force on the wing. This
requires the airfoil cross-section to be a asymmetric rather than symmetric as most fish are.
Airfoil design is the result of a good deal of analysis and considerable wind tunnel testing
using the principles of dimensional analysis set forth in Chapter 10. The National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the predecessor of the current National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA), pioneered the design of aircraft wing sections in the United
th
States in the early part of the 20
century. Many of these early designs are in use to this day.
Figure 9.45 shows the streamline flow around one such airfoil shape (NACA 64A015). No
separation is evident in this photograph.

Ch. 9 Pg. 149

Figure 9.45 Symmetric Plane Flow About NACA Airfoil 64A015

(ReL 7000)
(From Figure 23, p. 19 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke,
Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)
As streamlined and aerodynamic as these airfoil designs may be, the flow
about them can
be made to separate as evidenced in Figure 9.46. This is usually done
by changing the orientation
of the airfoil to the principal direction of flow. This maneuver is known
as changing the angle of
attack. Note the separation of the flow on the upper surface near the trailing
edge. The result of
this separation is an increase in drag and a loss of lift. The wing on a
typical aircraft contains
control surfaces known as flaps located in the region where the flow
is separating in Figure 9.46.
The purpose of the flaps is to increase or decrease the drag and lift of
the wing during take-off
and landing.

Figure 9.46 Flow About NACA Airfoil 64A015 at an Angle of Attack 50

of (ReL 7000)
(From Figure 34, p. 25 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke,
Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)
As the angle of attack is increased, the point of separation on the upper
surface of the
wing moves further and further forward until it finally reaches the nose
of the wing. (See Figure
9.47.) At this angle of attack, the flow over the upper surface is comprised
almost entirely of low
velocity eddy flow. The wing is then said to be stalled, and the lift
of the wing drops

Ch. 9 Pg. 150

precipitously even though the flow on the underside of the wing is relatively unchanged. In
effect, at the stall angle, the wing is about as effective a lifting surface as a flat plate at the same
angle of attack. Clearly, stall is an operating condition to be avoided except during landing when
it can be used to advantage to return the aircraft to the ground.

Figure 9.47 Flow About NACA 64A015 Airfoil at Angle of Attack Near Stall
(From Figure 72, p. 41 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke, Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)
Aircraft are not the only vehicles employing aerodynamics to improve performance.
Automobiles have shown a trend throughout their history of improving aerodynamics (reducing
drag) to improve performance. (See Figure 9.48.) This trend has become more important in
recent years as automotive manufacturers have begun employing wind tunnel testing to an ever
greater degree in an attempt to improve fuel economy to the highest possible levels for a given
body style. Drag coefficients have reached their lowest values ever (CD z 0.3) as thermal-fluid
engineers in the automotive industry strive for the greatest possible fuel economy. One
manufacturer has even resorted to covering the under-carriage with a belly pan covered with
turbulence promoters in an effort to minimize this contribution to vehicle drag. One danger in
this process is that as drag is reduced, lift can improve to the point that it becomes difficult to
prevent the vehicle from becoming an aircraft and becoming airborne. Thermal-fluid engineers
then work to decrease drag while at the same time maintaining negative lift (down-force) to keep
the vehicle on the road, particularly during cornering.

Y&ur of Desigr
Figure 9.48 Historical Trend of Aerodynamic Drag of the Automobile
(From Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, R. D. Blevins, Krieger Publishing Co.,
Malabar, FL, 1992, Fig. 10-32, p. 348.)

Ch.9Pg. 151

PROBLEMS
9.1 The flow of an inviscid fluid around a circular cylinder of radius a centered on the origin is
given by, in polar coordinates,
=

-cos

and

z3

+
=

where z2. is the free stream velocity, a constant.

(a) Check that these forms satisfy the correct boundary condition on the surface of the
cylinder and find the velocity at large distances from the cylinder.
(b) Express the pressure on the surface of the cylinder as a pressure coefficient, C,, and
sketch the variation of C around the cylinder. Note that in this case
-

Ip2

where P is the local pressure and P,. is the free stream pressure.
(c) Find the maximum speed of the flow over the surface of the cylinder.

9.2 Figure 9P.2 shows a cross-section through the gap between two solid surfaces (which is
independent of the direction perpendicular to the page). The fluid flowing in the gap is inviscid
and the effect of gravity is negligible.
(a) Sketch the pressure and velocity distribution along the centerline of the gap and along
the upper and lower walls.
(b) A short pulse of dye is injected by a rake of probes so that it initially marks a line of
fluid particles at AA. Sketch the change in shape of this line of particles as it convects
downstream.
VI

Figure 9P.2 Flow in a Gap Between Two Curved Surfaces

9.3 As shown in Figure 9P.3, a viscous, incompressible fluid is flowing in a laminar fashion
between two infinite parallel plates.
(a) Starting with the Navier-stokes equation in Cartesian coordinates, show that steady,
laminar, incompressible flow of a Newtonian fluid between two parallel plates satisfies the
expression
d dP
u
2
dx
2
dy
Deduce that, if the plates are separated by distance T, the volumetric flow rate per unit width is
given by

12p dx

Ch. 9 Pg. 152

u(y)

,,,J,, w

Figure 9P.3 Plane Poiseuille Flow

(b) A horizontal crack forms across a wall of thickness L = 1 m separating two tanks
containing water at 20 C. The water surface on one side of the wall is 3m higher than that on the
other. The crack is 0.0 1mm wide and is completely submerged. Find the leakage per unit width
of the wall, assuming that the flow is laminar. (Pcite,= 1x10
3 kg/rn sec)

9.4 As shown in Figure 9P.4 below, a Couette flow configuration consists of two infinite parallel
plates separated by a gap of height 2h. The gap is filled with two layers of fluid comprised of two
immiscible, incompressible fluids A and B with densities p
4 and PB (PB = 0.8 PA) respectively,
and viscosities PA and PB (PB = O.
PA) respectively. The two fluid layers are of equal thickness h.
5
The flow of the fluids between the plates is induced by the motion of the bottom plate with
constant velocity i relative to the top plate. The pressure gradient in the x-direction is zero.
(a) Derive an expression for the fully-developed velocity profile 2
(y) in the gap. Use the
coordinate scheme shown in Figure 9P.4. On a carefully proportioned sketch, show this profile.
Pay particular attention to the magnitude of the fluid velocity at the rnidplane of the gap relative
to the magnitude of the velocity i of the bottom plate.
For parts (b), (c), and (d), neglect any effects at the edges of the plates.
(b) Derive an expression for the total mass flow rate of fluid for a gap of width b
measured normal to the plane of Figure 9P.4.
(c) If the width of the plates is b and the length is L, derive an expression for the power
necessary to drive the bottom plate at the constant velocity i relative to the top plate.
(d) If the width of the plates is b and the length is L, derive an expression for the rate of
entropy generation in the gap.
Top plate (stationary)
h

)i

h
X

Flow of fluid B
Flow of fluid A
bottom piate (moving)

Figure 9P.4 Couette Flow of Two Immiscible, Incompressible Fluids

_______

Ch. 9 Pg. 153

5. The analysis of Section 9.9.1.4 can be applied to the case of a stepped bearing shown
diagrammatically below. The pressures at the left and right hand ends on the bearings may be
taken as atmospheric, Pa, (which can be taken as the pressure datum).
(a) Show that, for the flow rates to match in the two parts of the bearing, that the pressure
at the step is given by P where
uU(Hh)
1
6

h H
3
3
1
L
L,
(Hint: Use a frame of reference moving with the bearing.)
(b) Hence show that the bearing is capable of sustaining a load given by
+I)
1
P*(L
F
2
F

Fixed

Figure 9P.5 Stepped Bearing

9.6 A viscous liquid flows between two concentric cylinders of radii R

, K, where R
1
1 <K,. The
inner cylinder is at rest and the outer moves parallel to the common axis at speed U. Assuming
that the pressure at inlet and outlet to the pipe is atmospheric, show that the velocity profile in the
pipe is given by

9.7 The velocity in the laminar boundary layer on a flat plate in an unbounded stream is often
modeled by the form
z9z-

3_3J

for

Oy

and

z=z

for

where i is the free stream velocity and the height of the edge of the boundary layer above the
plate. This form is assumed to be valid at each value of x along the length of the plate with
varying with x.
(a) Explain why the static pressure is approximately uniform throughout the flow and
sketch ias a function of y.

Ch. 9 Pg. 154

(b) Using the result derived in Chapter 9 for mass flow in the boundary layer, find the
vertical displacement of the streamline that passes the plate leading edge at a height h in terms of

o.

(c) Again using results from Chapter 9, calculate the total drag force per unit width on the
upper side of the plate and the boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge for a plate of length L
= 1 m in a stream with a uniform velocity i. of 5 mlsec.
The fluid properties are: v

/sec and p= i0
2
1.0 x l0 m
3 kg/rn
3

9.8 Water flows through a sudden expansion in a pipe shown in Figure 9P.8. The flow separates
from the sharp rim of the smaller pipe, enclosing an almost stagnant region, before mixing in a
turbulent manner over a short distance to form a uniform stream at (3).
(a) Explain why the pressure in the stagnant regions marked (a) & (c) on the diagram
should be approximately uniform at the same value as that in the region (b).
(b) By applying conservation of mass and conservation of momentum to the control
volume shown (because of the short length of (2)-(3), the effect of shear stress on the walls of the
larger pipe can be neglected), show that
2\
2
(
I
where P
01 and P
03 are by definition the stagnation pressures at locations (1) and (3), respectively,
and K

AJ

3 are the cross-sectional areas of inlet and exit.

and where A
1 and A
Cortro v&urn

Figure 9P.8 Sudden Expansion

9.9 As shown in Figure 9P.9, two parallel streams of an incompressible fluid each having the
same static pressure A and a velocity profile that is uniform come together at the location AA.
The two streams mix over a short distance due to the turbulence generated by the unstable shear
layer between them.
(a) Assuming that viscous shear stress on the solid surfaces can be neglected, calculate
the velocity and static pressure at location BB, where the mixing is complete.
(b) What is the loss of mechanical energy due to the mixing? Where does this energy
go?

Ch. 9 Pg. 155

A
h

B
-

Li

Min

____

region

Figure 9P.9 Mixing Streams

9.10 A simple hydrostatic thrust bearing is shown in the Figure 9P. 10. Unlike slider bearings, this
type of bearing can support a load under static (no motion) conditions. The lubricant is supplied
under pressure and fills the recessed region at essentially the supply pressure P. The lubricant
then slowly flows out between the rotor and the stator as its pressure decreases to atmospheric
pressure. Such bearings are useful for supporting very large thrust loads of rotating machinery
even under low-speed conditions. The load is determined primarily by the supply pressure that
can be maintained in the recess.
For a fixed flow rate of lubricant, the pressure P depends upon the film thickness h.
Hence, if the lubricant pump flow rate is fixed, the film thickness will decrease as the load F is
increased. On the other hand, if a given film thickness must be maintained as the load increases,
the lubricant flow rate must then be increased.
In the present analysis, the lubricant is incompressible with density p and viscosity p. The
rotor rotates slowly enough that inertial effects can be neglected. Furthermore, we seek a solution
for the steady-flow velocity field that is axially symmetric so that aia 6 = 0 and for which P =
P(r). Also the forces due to shear in the radial direction are assumed negligible. That is, the only
shear of consequence is due to relative motion of the rotor and stator, and the fluid is in solid
body rotation about the z-axis.
(a) Starting with the Navier-Stokes equation and the continuity equation in cylindrical
coordinates, show that the r-component equation reduces to
p
dr
iPiz
Similarly, show that the 6-component equation reduces to

Also show that the z-component equation vanishes.

(b) Show that
=

z
rU)
h

and show that for b> r> a,

I dP
1
z =iz 2 hz
2pdr
(c) Show that the volumetric flow rate in the radial direction is given by
3 (f
ip yzh

6i dr

6pln-J

Ch. 9 Pg. 156

(d) From the expression for the volumetric flow rate, show that since the pressure is a
function of r only, the pressure distribution is given by
(r

P-P_
ifm

In!

in-J

and sketch the pressure distribution in the oil film on the P-r plane.
(e) Show that the load carrying capability of the bearing is F where
F=

2 _a
Yr(b
)(F..
2

it!fl)

(b
21n1

(f) Develop an expression for the frictional torque in the bearing due to fluid friction.

ci)

atm
1

H>> h

Lubricant flow in

Figure 9P. 10 Hydrostatic Thrust Bearing

9.11 A viscosity pump is a simple device for pumping viscous fluids such as lubricating oil. As
shown in Figure 9P. 11, a typical pump consists of a rotating element of radius R called the rotor
mounted in a housing called the stator. These two elements are separated by a narrow gap of
dimension h. In operation, oil flows into the gap through the inlet port and is swept around the
housing to the outlet port by the viscous drag of the oil acting on the rotor. As a result, the
pressure of the oil at the outlet port is higher than the pressure of the oil at the inlet port. In a
typical design, h <<R.
(a) Neglect any leakage due to flow directly from the outlet port to the inlet port and due
to flow around the ends of the rotor and determine the following performance parameters as
function of the volumetric flow rate through a pump of dimension b normal to the plane of the
sketch:

Ch. 9 Pg. 157

(1) pressure rise in the pump, P -P
(2) torque on the rotor, T
(3) shaft power required to run the pump, WIlafl
(4) efficiency of the pump, ii
(b) For a pump of dimension R = 2 cm with an angular velocity of & = 1000 rpm and
pressure rise g
01 P = 4 x iO N/rn
P
, determine the maximum value of the gap dimension h for
2
which the flow in the gap between the rotor and stator can be modeled as Couette flow between
two infinite flat plates with a maximum error of one percent. Determine the Reynolds number for
this flow which will remain laminar if the Reynolds number in the gap is less than the critical
value of Recrjt = 1500 where
= uvehP
Re
/1

where the density of the oil is p 883 kg/rn

3 and its viscosity is p = 5030 x i0
4 kg/rn sec.
(c) The oil for which the properties are given above enters the pump (b = 3 cm) at a
temperature of 1 = 300 K. For the conditions determined in part (b) above, estimate the
temperature at exit and calculate the rate of entropy generation in the oil if c = 1900 J/kg K for
the oil.

Figure 9P. 11 Viscosity Pump

9.12 As shown in Figure 9P.12, a circular disk of radius R is immersed in a fluid of density p and
viscosity p. By means of applying a constant force F, the disk is forced down at velocity O(t)
onto a flat parallel surface. At any instant of time, the separation of the surfaces is h(t). The
motion of the disk is sufficiently slow so that the acceleration and kinetic energy of the fluid can
be neglected. The outward viscous flow of the fluid between the surfaces can then be assumed to
have the same velocity distribution as a fully developed two-dimensional laminar flow.

Ch. 9 Pg. 158

(a) Formulate an expression for the pressure distribution in the fluid as a function of the
radius r with the boundary condition P(R) 0. Express the result in terms of r, p,
and h.
(b) Calculate the force F in terms of the same variables.
(c) Find the time t required for the disk to move within a distance h of the lower surface.
Assume that for the purposes of this calculation, h(0) = co.
,

2R
F

4
h(t)

9.13 Figure 9P.13 shows a simple water distribution system. The system is fed by a reservoir
connected to a plenum of negligible dimensions by a pipe of diameter D
1 = 0.5 rn and length L
1 =
150 m. Branching out from the plenum is a horizontal pipe of diameter D
2 = 0.10 m and length L
2
= 100 m and another pipe of diameter D
3 = 0.15 rn and length L
3 = 150 m inclined at an angle of
30 above the horizontal plane. The fourth pipe connected to the plenum is also horizontal and
consists of two pipes connected in series. The pipe connected to the plenum is of diameter D
4=
0.20 rn and length L
4 = 100 rn. At its outlet, it is joined to another pipe of diameter D
5 = 0.10 rn
and length L
5 = 100 m. The junction of pipes 4 and 5 is a sudden contraction with loss coefficient
K = 0.3 based upon the kinetic energy of the smaller diameter, (19ve)52/2. Find the height of the
free surface of the water in the supply reservoir so that the velocity of the water at the outlet of
pipe 5 is (ave)5 = 20 mlsec.
For water: density p = 1000 kg/rn
, viscosity p = io kg/rn sec.
3

5
Figure 9P. 14 Water Distribution System

Ch. 9 Pg. 159

9.14 In the cleanup of oil spills from oil tankers on large bodies of water, the oil floats on the
surface of the water and is swept into a containment pond by large booms mounted on the bow of
another ship. A moving vertical belt, much like that of a belt sander, is used to transport the oil
from the water into barges in which it can be processed for safe disposal. In a particular
application, it is observed that the belt picks up a layer of oil of thickness h. The belt moves
upward with a velocity and the oil has viscosity p and density p.
(a) Estimate the net volume flow rate V of oil per unit of width of the belt.
(b) Determine the minimum belt velocity necessary to have a net flow of oil upward, and,
hence, to keep the fluid on the belt.
(c) For a fixed belt velocity, what thickness h maximizes the volumetric flow rate?
9.15 As shown in Figure 9P.15, a solid cylinder of mass M, length L, and diameterD is falling in
a fluid-filled cylinder of diameter d = D + 2c and length t. The fluid can be modeled as a
Newtonian fluid with density p and viscosity p. The solid cylinder is made of material with
density p. The ratios c/D and L/are very small. The solid cylinder has reached terminal velocity
1in its descent.
(a) Specify the conditions under which the flow of the fluid in the gap between the two
cylinders can be modeled as flow between infinite parallel flat plates.
(b) Using the model of part (a) above, determine the terminal velocity in terms of the
geometric parameters and the properties specified.

2c

Fluid
D

LtWA

Figure 9P.15 Falling Cylinder

9.16 (a) Sketch the streamlines over the two (two-dimensional) bodies shown in Figure 9P.16
when they are inserted into a uniform ideal, inviscid flow from left to right. (The nose of the
streamlined body is circular with the same radius as the cylinder). Mark on the sketch the regions
of highest and lowest static pressure.
(b) By considering the likely size of any adverse pressure gradients in these ideal flows,
explain why the drag on the streamlined body is much less than that on the cylinder for flow at
high Reynolds number of a viscous fluid over them from left to right.
(c) Which body will have the least drag for low Reynolds Number flow (i.e. Re << 1)?

Ch. 9 Pg. 160

cyInder

streamlined body

Figure 9P. 16 Objects Immersed in a Flowing Fluid

9.17 The measured drag coefficient for a sphere as a function of Reynolds number is as shown in
Figure 9P.17a.

Figure 9P. 17a Drag Coefficient for Spheres

(a) Explain why you would expect the drag coefficient to be proportional to Re for low
values of Re.
(b) Explain why there is a pronounced dip in the value of CD at high values of Re.
(c) The following table gives typical speeds and sizes of balls used in various sports.
Assuming that the kinematic viscosity v= p/p of air is 1.5 x i0 m
/sec, calculate typical
2
Reynolds numbers for the various sports.
Golf

Cricket

Soccer

Tennis

Baseball

U (mlsec)

70

40

16

50

45

D (m)

0.043

0.068

0.19

0.064

0.075

(d) The effect of surface roughness (defined as the ratio of roughness height to diameter)
on CD is shown in Figure 9P. 17b for a particular Reynolds number range. Explain why roughness
has this effect.

Ch. 9 Pg. 161

Figure 9P. 17b Effect of Surface Roughness on Drag Coefficient

for Spheres
9.18 The blood circulatory system in the human body consists of large
a
diameter vessel (D = 25
mm), the aorta, that carries the oxygenated blood away from the heart
to the tissues of the body
through a continually branching network of vessels that finally becom
e the capillaries (d = 8
aim). In this particular problem we are concerned with the behavior
of the first branch of the aorta
under conditions of extreme cardiac output due to maximal exercise.
As shown in plan view in
Figure 9P. 18, the circular, smooth-walled aorta branches into two identic
al circular, smoothwalled vessels of equal diameter with equal blood flow rates.

1
L

=
2
L

Figure 9P.18 Plan View of Branch in Human Aorta

For this geometry, the aorta and its branches can be modeled as rigid
tubes with:
1 =0.025 m,
D

1
=
3
,
A

,
1
=5D

L ,
7
=
3
=L
5D

The minor head loss due to the branch is given by

1
h, =pt 2 K
12
where

2
K

0.28

=4.167 x i0
4 3
/m
sec

Ch. 9 Pg. 162

Although, in general, blood is a non-Newtonian fluid due to the presence of proteins and cellular
materials suspended in it, for the purposes here, we can model the blood as a Newtonian fluid
with the following properties:
3
p=lO5Okg/m
and u=3.5xl0
kg/msec
3
(a) Using the energy equation for fully-developed flow with the major and minor head
loss terms included, calculate the pressure drop LP between locations 1 and 2 and between
locations 1 and 3 for the case in which P
1 = 1.13 x 1 o N/rn
.
2
(b) The tissues surrounding this branch must exert a force on the branch itself to keep it
from moving within the body. What is the x-component of this force, F? Note the sign
convention in the sketch above.
(c) What is the y-component of the restraining force, F
?
1
9.19 (a) Figure 9P. 19 shows a water distribution system from a lower reservoir to two reservoirs
at higher level. If the stagnation pressures delivered by the pump to pipes 2 and 3 are equal, show
that
-

[2+2g(y
f
_
3
)
2
y

2
d

where t and i9 are the velocities of the flow in pipes 2 and 3.

(b) Find the total flow rate through the pump, V,,,, when that through the pipe 3 is V
3=
0.115 m
/sec.
3
(c) Find the rise in stagnation pressure across the pump and the power required, assuming
that the pump is adiabatic and reversible. (Ignore all losses except those caused by pipe friction.)
The density of water is p 995 kg/rn
.
3

1-

\. cc.
T

=
Figure 9.20 Water Distribution Network
9.20 Consider the case of air flowing at a steady rate through a horizontal pipe of constant crosssectional area. The fully-developed flow configuration is such that the bulk mean temperature of
the air is constant at Tajr = 27 C all along the flow direction. At point A the pressure is A = 3 bar
and the bulk mean velocity is z = 160 mlsec. At point B the pressure is B = 2 bar. The
temperature of the pipe wall is Twa
)
2
11 = 43 C. (1 bar = iO N/m
(a) Calculate the bulk mean velocity i at B.

_____

Ch. 9 Pg. 163

(b) Calculate

QIh

the heat transfer rate per unit mass flow rate of air between points A

and B.
(c) Assuming that the flow is from A to B, calculate the rate of entropy generation per
unit mass flow rate. Suggest a physical cause for the irreversibility, and comment on the validity
of the assumption that the flow is from A to B.

9.21 Air at a pressure of

= i0
5 N/m
2 and a temperature of Ta
in = 20 C flows along a flat plate
1
whose dimensions are length L and width b. The undisturbed velocity of the air upstream
of the
leading edge of the plate is
= 10 rn/sec. As a result of the action of the viscosity of the air, the
air in the neighborhood of the plate is slowed and a boundary layer develops and grows in
thickness downstream of the leading edge. At L 145 mm downstream from the leading edge
of
the plate the boundary layer thickness is = 2.3 mm. The velocity profile in the boundary
layer at
this location is
y
3

l(y
2J

where y is measured normal to the plate. Determine the x-component (horizontal) force per
unit
of width required to hold the plate stationary if the air can be modeled as incompressible. Note:
Only the upper face of the flat plate is exposed to the air flow.
U
Boundary layer
y
x

Flat plate
L
9.22 A dead-weight pressure gage tester is a device used to calibrate Bourdon-tube pressure
gages. The device shown in Figure 9P.22 consists of a cylinder with a closely fitting piston.
The
volume between the piston face and the cylinder head is filled with hydraulic oil. Attached
to the
piston is a pan upon which various masses are placed. By adjusting the mass for a known piston
diameter, any desired pressure may be obtained in the oil. In a typical design, the piston uses
no
piston rings in order to minimize solid friction that would lead to erroneous calibrations. As
a
consequence, there is some leakage of oil from the cylinder volume to the atmosphere past
the
piston which causes the piston to descend under the influence of gravity and the viscous drag
of
the oil in the gap.
In a particular design, the piston diameter is D = 10 mm and its length is L = 70 mm. The
radial clearance is h = 0.03 mm, and the oil has a viscosity of ,u
01 = 0.5 kg/m sec. Atmospheric
pressure isP(
, = iO N/rn
111
2 and g = 9.81 mlsec
.
2
(a) Assuming no leakage of oil, determine the combined mass of the piston, weights, and
pan necessary to produce a pressure of P
01 = 1.5 x 106 N/rn
2 in the oil.
(b) Since the gap thickness is much smaller than the radius of the piston, we can model
the leakage of the oil in the gap as a one-dimensional flow as the piston moves. Starting with
the
Navier-Stokes equations for this one-dimensional flow, show that if we neglect the effect of

Ch. 9 Pg. 164

gravity in comparison with the viscous effects, the fully-developed laminar velocity profile in the
gap is given by
tS

1 (dP(2h)
dx)
011
2p

where p
011 is the viscosity of the oil, h is the gap thickness, z is the velocity of the piston (Note
that this value is negative.), and dPldx is the pressure gradient in the flow.
(c) Show that as a result of the pressure gradient, the volumetric flow of oil past the
piston per unit depth b measured normal to the plane of the figure (Note that b tD.) is
b

1
dxJ
011
l2p

(d) For the mass determined in part (a) above, determine the rate of descent of the piston
if drag due to the shear stress acting on the surface of the piston can be neglected.
(e) Calculate the drag force on the piston due to the shear stress acting on the surface of
the piston as a result of viscous flow of oil in the gap. How does this compare with the normal
force due to the pressure of the oil acting on the face of the piston?
Mass
Pan

Piston

ii
Oil

%%

14D

Exploded view of gap

Figure 9P.22
9.23 As shown in Figure 9P.23, a method of coating photographic film with emulsion is to pass
the film stock at constant velocity through a bath of liquid emulsion and withdraw the film in the
vertical direction. As the film passes through the bath, one side of it becomes coated with liquid
emulsion. (The other side is coated with a non-wetting agent that prevents the photographic
emulsion from sticking to the film.) Gravity causes the liquid emulsion to drain down, but the
continuous motion of the film keeps the liquid emulsion from running off completely. (Note that
the coordinate axes are not in their usual orientation.)
The film velocity through the bath is zY; the thickness of the liquid emulsion layer on the
film is h; the density of the liquid emulsion is p; and the viscosity of the liquid emulsion is p.

Ch. 9 Pg. 165

Model the liquid emulsion as a Newtonian fluid. Furthermore, model the flow of the emulsion as
a fully developed laminar flow with zero pressure gradient in the x-direction. The viscosity of air
is small relative to that of the liquid emulsion.
There are two ways of developing an analysis of this physical situation: one has the
coordinate axes attached to the film; the other has the coordinate axes fixed in the room where
the film is being coated. Both coordinate schemes are inertial coordinate systems, but they will
give different answers for the velocity profile. State which coordinate scheme is to be used in
your analysis.
(a) For your coordinate scheme, specify the appropriate boundary conditions at the
film/liquid emulsion interface, y = 0, and at the liquid emulsion/air interface, y = h.
(b) Write the complete expression for the x-component of the Navier-Stokes equation and
show that for this physical situation it simplifies to
0=pg+p
where z is the velocity component in the x-direction in your coordinate scheme. In the
simplification process, give a reason for the elimination of each term that is dropped from the full
form of the Navier-Stokes equation.
(c) Use the simplified Navier-Stokes equation to derive an expression for the velocity
profile in the liquid emulsion layer, i= (x, y).
(d) Derive an expression for the shear stress exerted on the film by the liquid emulsion
layer, and determine the drag per unit length on the film of width b due to the emulsion layer.

h
Air,PPatm

Photographic film

Liquid emulsion layer

Liquid emulsion bath

Figure 9P.23
9.24 As shown in Figure 9P.24, a crude oil reservoir in the Bluebell field of northern Utah is
being tapped by drilling a well through the natural rock formation in which it is trapped. The
reservoir is located 3,000 m below the surface. The pressure in the reservoir at the time the well
is drilled is P
0 = 13.5 x iO N/rn
. The viscosity of this light crude oil is p = 4 x io kg/rn-sec
2

Ch. 9 Pg. 166

and its density is p
. The flow pipe inside the well casing has an inside diameter of
3
011 = 860 kg/rn
10 cm with a relative roughness of 1 x l0.
(a) Estimate the initial volumetric flow rate of oil from this well using the reservoir
pressure as the driving pressure to pump the oil to the surface where at,fl = iO N/rn
.
2
(b) If the crude oil is allowed to discharge straight up into the atmosphere in the form of a
jet (a gusher) when it reaches the surface, what is the maximum possible height of the gusher?
(c) This method of using the natural pressure of the oil in the reservoir to pump the oil to
the surface is called the primary recovery. Of course, as the oil is drawn from the reservoir, the
pressure in the reservoir will drop and the flow rate will decrease. At what value of the reservoir
pressure will the flow rate at the surface decrease to zero?
atm

iO N/rn
2

Delivery pipe, 10 cm diameter, 3 km long

Natural rock

Initial pressure

0
P

13.5 x iO N/rn
2

9.25 As shown in Figure 9P.25, a large cistern discharges through a smooth-walled circular pipe
with a diameter of D = 10cm and a length of L lOOm. The pipe is fitted with a globe valve
that is used to regulate the flow rate from the cistern. The water level in the cistern is maintained
at a constant value of 30 m above the centerline of the attached pipe.

Ch. 9 Pg. 167

Determine the maximum volumetric flow rate from the discharge end of the pipe. Include
the losses due to the square-edged entrance to the pipe, the globe valve, and the friction of the
pipe wall in your analysis. The following data will be useful:
For a square-edged entrance:
, )enrrance
1
(h

1
K

2
where 1
K 0.5 and U,e is the average velocity of flow in the pipe.
For a globe valve in the fully-open position:
ull

1
jrt

where K
2

For water:
For gravity:

}cIohe
aIve

ve

2
4.1 and lYe is the average velocity of flow in the pipe to which the valve is attached.

l000kg
,
p=
p= 3
Im lx 10
kg/msec
3
2
g = 9.81 mlsec

Square-edged entrance

9.26 It has been proposed to construct an inclined tube viscometer as shown in Figure 9P.26. The
inclined tube is connected to an infinite supply of the incompressible fluid of density p whose
viscosity p is to be measured. In operation, a beaker is to be placed at the discharge end of the
tube and the time necessary to collect a fixed volume of the fluid is to be recorded. From these
data, the viscosity can be determined.
(a) For the parameters shown in the sketch, show that for certain conditions (which you
must specify), the continuity equation in cylindrical coordinates reduces to

and use this result to show that there is only one velocity component

(r) of consequence.

Ch. 9 Pg. 168

(b) Using the arguments that you have put forth in part (a) above, show that the relevant
form of the Navier-Stokes equation reduces to
d
-(ri) = (Ppgz sin 6)
rr

where zis the shear stress and

(z9

(c) For the case in which the pressure is atmospheric at both ends of the tube, use the
result of part (b) above to derive an expression for the time Lt required to collect a volume V
0 of
fluid.
(d) This device cannot be used for just any fluid. What are the conditions that must be
satisfied in order for this method to be valid? Express your result in numerical format.

diameter D

Figure 9P.26
9.27 Consider the case of two concentric tubes for which the radius of the inside wall of the outer
tube is R and the radius of the outer wall of the inner tube is KR where K < 1. A viscous fluid with
viscosity p flows in a laminar fashion in the annulus between the two tubes.
(a) Show that for fully developed flow in the annulus, the velocity profile is given by
2
(J-J)R
4pL

_(LY_
1

1K2

(1?

RJ

ln()

where P
1 is the pressure at some location and P
2 is the pressure at some location a distance L
downstream.
(b) Show that the average velocity in the annulus is given by
ave

)R 4
(F-P
2
i-ic
8jtL
2
1ic

2
1-,v

In

()/)

(c) Show that the maximum velocity in the flow is given by

Ch. 9 Pg. 169

)
(_
)
1
[
2
(
12
R
22
l
P
2
4pL
where
22_l

iic

i2
n(Y)
(d) Sketch the velocity profile in the annulus and label 1j,,e and iYija.
(e) Show that the physical situation reduces to flow between parallel plates (plane
Poiseuille flow) when
R icR
<<1
R
What is the value of the above ratio for a one percent error associated with the plane Poiseuille
flow approximation to the annulus configuration?
-

9.28 As shown in Figure 9P.28, a viscous fluid is trapped between two parallel infinite flat plates.
The plates are separated by a uniform gap of h = 10 mm and are inclined at an angle of 450 to the
horizontal. The upper plate moves at a constant velocity of i5 = 1.5 mlsec relative to the bottom
plate, counter to the direction of the fluid flow. The gage pressures at points A and B are
=
250 x i0
3 N/rn
2 and B = 80 x iO N/rn
.
2
(a) Determine the velocity distribution i(y) of the fluid in the gap.
(b) Determine the shear stress distribution z(y) in the gap.
(c) Determine the average fluid velocity 1ve in the gap.
(d) Determine the maximum fluid velocity
in the gap and its location.
Determine
(e)
the power per unit area p that must be supplied to the upper plate in order
to maintain its velocity constant.
For the fluid: p = 1260 kg/rn
3 and p 0.9 kg/rn sec
y

im

Figure 9P.28

Ch. 9 Pg. 170

9.29 Consider the boundary layer on a flat plate shown schematically in the sketch below.
U
Boundary layer

Flat plate

The analysis of this boundary layer can be analyzed in approximate fashion by postulating the
form of the velocity distribution in the boundary layer and applying the momentum deficit
concept of von Karman. One such velocity profile is given by
zv

=osinJ

where zY is the free stream velocity and (x) gives the thickness of the boundary layer at any
location x measured from the leading edge.
(a) Show that this velocity profile satisfies the no-slip boundary condition at the surface
of the plate as well as the requirement that the velocity at the outer edge of the boundary layer
must be the free stream velocity, i.
(b) Use the momentum integral relation, equation (9.202),
=

p?92
0

dx
where Ois the momentum thickness of equation (9.197), viz.

1l-dy
?9 J
0
J

Together with the definition of the shear stress at the wall

=

to show that the friction coefficient

(di,
__L
dy

for this velocity profile is given by

0.655

lpt$k2

(c) Calculate the total drag force for one side of a plate of length L and width b.
(d) Show that the thickness of the boundary layer at any location x for this assumed
velocity profile is substantially larger than the corresponding boundary layer thickness for the
Blasius profile. How can this be true and yet the difference between the friction coefficients for
these two profiles be so small?

9.30 MEMS technology is used to fabricate a heat exchanger from silicon for a micro-turbine
system. Air at a temperature of Tair = 600 C flows through the passages of the heat exchanger at
velocities low enough to be modeled as an incompressible fluid. A design decision has set the

Ch.9Pg. 171
Reynolds number for the flow at ReD, = 1000. The flow channel dimen
sions are: H 2 mm,
W= 1 mm, and L = 1 m. The thermal-fluid characteristics of the air are:
3 Pair = 3.977 1 x i0
Pair 0.3988 kg/rn
5 kg/rn sec
= 1003 J/kg K c, 716 J/kg K
(a) Calculate the velocity of the air and show that this velocity results
in a Mach number
that is less than M = 0.3 which is the requirement for the incompressible
flow model.
(b) Calculate the pressure drop
for this flow passage. Use the friction factor
correlations for laminar flow in a non-circular conduit found in Table
9.3.

9.31 The aorta is the largest blood vessel in the human body with a diamet
er of D = 25 mm. For a
person standing erect, the axis of the aorta is vertical, and depending
upon the height of the
individual, the length of the aorta is approximately L = 0.5 m. The volum
etric flow rate through
the aorta is l= 4.167 x iO m
/sec. The thermal-fluid characteristics of the blood are:
3
p = 1050 kg/rn
3
and p = 3.5 x 10 kg/rn sec
(a) Calculate the Reynolds number in the aorta. Is the flow laminar or turbule
nt?
(b) Blood proteins and fat globules (drink a milkshake or eat a Krispy Kreme
) suspended
in the blood may actually be able to damp out disturbances in the flow
so that the flow is able to
remain laminar at values of the Reynolds number in the transition region
2100 <ReD < iOn. In
fact, one can advance a teleological argument that the flow wants to remain
laminar for two
reasons: (1) to reduce the pressure drop in the flow and thereby impose
a lower workload on the
pump (heart); and (2) to minimize the mechanical damage that might occur
to the fragile red cells
and platelets as a result of the turbulence if it were allowed to form. Assum
ing that the flow is
fully developed, calculate the pressure drop in the aorta for the two flow
regimes. For the
turbulent flow case, evaluate the friction factor from the Petukov correla
tion of equation (9.263),
viz.

f = (0.7904 In ReD 1 .64)2

How do the pressure drops compare? Does the first part of the teleolo
gical argument hold?
(c) If the flow is not fully developed, estimate the pressure drop for the two
regimes.

Ch. 10 Pg. 1
CHAPTER 10
Dimensional Analysis
10.1

Introduction

Thus far in our development of thermal-fluids engineering, we have focused on two

levels of the physical world. On the one hand, we have studied systems (or objects) and on the
other, we have studied their properties (or attributes). We now wish to explore in greater detail
the relationship between an object and its attributes, or from a thermal-fluids perspective, a
system and its properties. For example, a vehicle may be viewed as an object and some of its
many attributes might include its color, its model (sedan, truck, SUV, etc.), its mass, its velocity,
and its acceleration to name but a few. Objects have identity and we can use this identity to
answer the question, How many? As long as the identity is unambiguous, the answer to this
question is an unambiguous pure number. For example, consider the set of objects represented by
the vehicles in a parking garage. The answer to the question How many? can be determined by
simply counting the vehicles which results in a pure number, e.g., 27. However, we may also
wish to gain information about certain of the attributes of these vehicles. We then ask the
question How much (mass or volume or temperature or pressure, etc.)? In order to answer this
question, we need to make a measurement. In the case of the vehicles, for example, if we wanted
to know how much mass the vehicles represented in order to design the support structure that
would accommodate the vehicles, we would simply measure the mass of each vehicle and then
add the results of these measurements together to obtain the total mass.
Measuring is a very different operation from counting. The process of counting
results in a pure number, but the process of measuring results in an arbitrary number whose
value will depend upon the unit system employed in the measurement process. In the case of the
vehicles in the parking garage, we could express the mass in terms of kilograms, pounds-mass, or
tons. The number would be different in each case even though it represents the same mass. In
order to avoid any ambiguity in communicating the magnitude of an attribute (or a property), we
must give the number and the units associated with that number in the chosen unit system.
As an example more appropriate to our studies of thermal-fluid systems, suppose that we
were interested in the answer to the question How much pressure (the property) does a particular
gas (the system) exert on the walls of its container? We could obtain the desired information by
measuring the pressure with an instrument designed for this purpose. In reporting the result of
this measurement, there is a wide choice of units available: Pa, MPa, bar, N/rn
, lbf/in
2
, atm, and
2
mm Hg to name but a few. The number that specifies the magnitude of the pressure will be
different for each of these units, but it will still be the same pressure in each case. For example,
in different unit systems, a certain pressure would have the value l0 Pa, 0.1 Mpa, 1 bar, iO
, 14.5 lbf/in
2
N/rn
, 0.987 atm, and 749.88 mm Hg and still be the same identical pressure in every
2
case. Furthermore, if we wish to relate these attributes or properties to other attributes or
properties through mathematical relationships such as constitutive relations or fundamental
physical laws, we need to ensure that each term in the relationship is in the same system of units.
At times, this can be cumbersome and prone to error. On the other hand, if we could somehow
remove the units from the parameters appearing in the relationship, we could then remove the
arbitrariness from the process and thereby simplify the description of the situation. Our objective
in the present chapter is to develop a means of doing just that, i.e., removing the unit system from

Ch. 10 Pg. 2
our description of physical situations. This process is known as dimensional analysis, and it can
be a very powerful tool in thermal fluids engineering. As we shall soon see, dimensional analysis
has many other benefits, not the least of which is reducing the number of parameters required to
describe a physical situation.

10.2

Measurements, Units, and Dimensions

We begin by first examining the measurement process in some detail. As should be

obvious from above, the first step in the measurement process is to select the system of units to
be used. By international agreement, Le Systme International dUnits (abbreviated SI) has been
established as the unit system of choice for science and international commerce. This is the unit
system used in this presentation. The choice of unit system determines the base quantities of the
system, which for the SI unit system, are: mass (m), length (1), time (t), thermodynamic
temperature (I), electric current (1), amount of substance (n), and luminous intensity (Iv). For the
thermal-fluid systems of interest at this time, only the first four of the base quantities are relevant,
namely mass, length, time, and thermodynamic temperature, and the units of these four base
quantities are kg, m, sec, and K, respectively.
All other quantities are deemed derived quantities and are obtained by the mathematical
operations of multiplication and division of the base quantities. Examples of derived quantities
are density, force, pressure, area, velocity, acceleration, specific volume, energy, entropy, and
power. Then any derived thermal-fluid quantity Q in the SI system can be expressed in terms of
the thermal-fluid base quantities by an expression of the form
Q=mlfit7Tak

(10.1)

where the exponents a ,6, y, and are rational numbers that have no units as are the factors ak.
Thus, the SI derived unit of Q becomes kg
sec Ko.
The choice of unit system also determines the dimensions of the base quantities. The
dimensions are the attributes that need to be measured in order to obtain a numerical value for a
certain quantity. For the four base quantities of thermal-fluid systems in the SI unit system (mass,
length, time, and thermodynamic temperature), these dimensions are denoted by the symbols M,
L, T, and 9, respectively. Then the dimension of a derived quantity Q, denoted by the symbol
[QJ, is defined to be
[Q]=MaLflTYOo
(10.2)
where the exponents a, ,6, y, and are called dimensional exponents. If the dimensional
exponents are all identically zero, the quantity Q is dimensionless and can be expressed as a pure
number. This is, in fact, the fundamental concept in dimensional analysis. {Note that there is a
distinction between the dimensions of quantities and the units of quantities. The concept of
dimension is more fundamental because there are many different unit systems that will be
compatible with a given set of dimensions. For example, the now outmoded, but still widely used
(in the United States) Engineering Unit System with base units lbm, ft, sec, and Rankine is a
system that also has the same base dimensions M, L, T, and & as the SI unit system.
Alternatively, we could choose some other set of dimensions to describe a given physical
parameter. For example, the pressure could be described in terms of a set of dimensions
consisting of F, L, T, and & (force, length, time and thermodynamic temperature, respectively),
but of course, this would require a unit system other than SI. None of these alternatives will be
considered here because the SI unit system has now been accepted internationally (including in
the United States).

Ch. lOPg.3
Then for the example at hand, the pressure in the SI system of units is a derived quantity.
It is defined as the force divided by the area over which it is applied. {Following the
recommendation of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), this particular
choice of wording is preferred to the wording Pressure is force per unit area. in order to avoid
inferring the selection of a particular unit system. } Force itself is also a derived quantity
determined by the product of mass and acceleration with acceleration also a derived quantity
defined in terms of the second derivative of the position with respect to time.
Then the dimensions of pressure are given by
=

[F]

MLT

(10.3)

Then in this example, the dimensional exponents are a= 1, 6= -1, y= -2, and = 0.The units
of pressure in the SI system are then kg m sec
. (Note that in the SI system the units of
2
force, kg m sec
2 occur frequently and are given the special name Newton, denoted by the
symbol N. Then the units of pressure become N m
, but this, too, appears so frequently it is
2
given the special name Pascal, denoted by the symbol Pa.)
The second step in the measurement process is to determine the number assigned to a
particular quantity in the chosen unit system. This is done by noting that each of the base
quantities in a particular unit system has a particular definition. For example, the kilogram is
defined as the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram. This is a particular mass, in
,
0
housed at an internationally agreed upon location under specified conditions. Then in principle,
the number associated with the mass dimension of a quantity is determined by comparing this
mass dimension against the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram or a surrogate.
Then this comparison process would yield a result of the form
a

ai

(10.4)

m)

where mQ is the mass dimension of the quantity, the ratio mJm

0 is a number that represents the
number of units (hence the origin of the term) of the base quantity m
0 associated with the mass
dimension of Q, and a is the appropriate dimensional exponent. Similar operations could, in
principle, be carried out for the other dimensions of the quantity Q with results of the form
2
a

=J,

3
a

=[],

4
a

=[2J

Then the magnitude of the number associated with the quantity

given by
=

4
3
2
1
a

(10.5)

Q in the chosen unit system is

(10.6)

Clearly, in most physical situations this procedure would not be practical, so measurements are
carried out that determine the magnitude of certain convenient derived quantities by using
instruments that have been calibrated against agreed standards maintained by designated agencies
(NIST in the United States). The final result is of the same form as that given in equation (10.6),
however.
To further complicate matters, some derived quantities cannot be measured directly. In
such cases, it is necessary for us to determine the magnitude of the derived quantity by utilizing
physical laws (that frequently take the form of constitutive relations) that relate the unmeasurable

Ch. 10 Pg. 4
quantity to those quantities that can be measured. For example, the stored kinetic energy of an
object cannot be measured directly so we must use the constitutive relation derived from the first
law of thermodynamics that gives the kinetic energy of the object in terms of the measurable
quantities mass and velocity. In order for the result of the mathematical operation of multiplying
the mass of the object by the square of the velocity and dividing by two to be physically
meaningful, the mass and the velocity must be measured in the same system of units. Thus, in a
given physical situation, all the measurements must be carried out in the same system of units,
and all the terms appearing in the relevant mathematical relations must be in the same system of
units for the results of the mathematical operations to be meaningful.
10.3

The Value of Dimensional Analysis in Describing Physical Situations

As mentioned above, dimensional analysis is a process that examines the dimensions of

the physical parameters that are used to characterize a given physical situation in order to gain
insight into the details of that characterization. As will soon become apparent, this analysis is
both powerful and weak at the same time. Dimensional analysis is based upon the fact that a
given set of physical parameters can appear in the description of a given physical situation only
in a certain dimensionally consistent form, and the process of dimensional analysis provides a
method for finding that form. In general, however, dimensional analysis will not provide all the
information that we may seek about a particular physical situation, but it can provide insight into
the most productive manner in which to treat a given situation.
For example, most thermal fluid systems are far too complicated to be described simply
in terms of a solution of the fundamental equations that constitute the model of the situation.
Under these circumstances, it is often necessary to resort to experimental measurements made on
an appropriately scaled model of the system and to then scale up the results of those
measurements in the proper manner to the full size system. Dimensional analysis offers
insights as to the appropriate way in which to design the scale model as well as the proper
manner for scaling the experimental results up from the model to the full scale prototype.
As one of its greatest benefits, dimensional analysis reduces the number of parameters
necessary to characterize a system. This can simplify the analysis of the physical situation at hand
considerably. Furthermore, if an experiment is to be conducted, dimensional analysis can
significantly reduce both the number of parameters to be measured and the number of
measurements necessary to fully characterize a system. We will see that this reduction in the
number of parameters depends upon the number of dimensions involved.
The results of dimensional analysis also allow the compact (and elegant) presentation of
experimental data. Data presented in the proper non-dimensional form usually allow a more
general interpretation of the data. We have already seen an example of this in the Moody
Diagram in Chapter 9. The axes of the Moody Diagram are the dimensionless friction factor,f,
and the Reynolds number, Re, which is also dimensionless. If the pipe friction losses were
presented in a dimensional format, a myriad of graphs would be required for different size pipes
and different fluids instead of the single graphical presentation developed by Moody.
10.4

An Approach to Dimensional Analysis

We shall use two basic approaches to dimensional analysis. In the first approach, we write
all the relevant governing equations and then non-dimensionalize them. In the second approach,

Ch. lOPg.5
we list those parameters we believe important to the description of a physical situation and then
we use the dimensions of those parameters to aid in developing a relationship among them. We
have already made use of the first approach in Chapter 6 in our analysis of transient conduction
heat transfer and in Chapter 9 for a simple flow. In Chapter 6, the solutions of the timedependent conduction heat equation and Newtons law of cooling were cast in a non-dimensional
form, resulting in two governing dimensionless groups, the Biot number and the Fourier number.
In Chapter 9, the Navier-Stokes equations were cast in a non-dimensional form in which a
dimensionless number, the Reynolds number, was the critical parameter that insured dimensional
similarity. In the second approach, which we have not yet used, a mathematical formalism known
as the Buckingham fl-theorem will be used to establish a relationship among the dimensionless
parameters that can be formed from the physical parameters of a given situation.
In what follows, we present dimensional analysis by considering several examples. The
first will be a fairly intuitive discussion of the simple pendulum. Using only one or two
experimental observations and dimensional analysis, we will find the expression for the period of
the pendulum. Following this we find the equation of motion for the pendulum. We non
dimensionalize that equation and solve directly for the period of the pendulum, getting the same
result as before. We then introduce a more formal procedure for non-dimensionalizing a situation
and apply it to the same pendulum. In the second example, we then apply the Buckingham IItheorem to a simple spring-piston apparatus to infer the functional form of the solution. This is
followed with an explicit solution of that situation to show that the solution does indeed fit the
form required by dimensional analysis. The third example addresses the analysis of the drag on a
baseball followed by analyses of the drag on ships, the heat transfer rate from a cylinder in a fluid
flow, and the dynamic behavior of an electrical circuit. The chapter closes with a short
discussion of the dimensionless groups commonly found in thermal-fluid systems.
10.5

The Pendulum

A particularly important technological advance for the development of accurate clocks in

the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries has been described in an apocryphal story associated with
Galileo Galilei. In 1581 he observed the swaying of the long chandeliers in the Pisa cathedral
shown in Figure 10.1. As he watched amplitude of the swaying chandeliers decrease, he
measured the period of oscillation using his pulse as his timepiece. He observed that the period
of the swing of the chandelier was independent of the amplitude of the swing. If the length of the
chandelier is 16 m, Galileo would have observed a period of oscillation of 12 heartbeats or 8
seconds (assuming that Galileo had a normal heart rate of 72 beats per minute).
In the analysis of this physical situation, we are interested in developing a relation for the
period of oscillation of the pendulum in terms of the physical parameters necessary to
characterize it. In one approach, which we will discuss further in a subsequent section, we can
write the equations of motion and solve for the period. In this simple physical situation, this can
be done quite easily. For more complicated systems, this can be extremely difficult.
Another approach is to list all the physical parameters necessary to describe the situation
and try to arrange them in a dimensionally consistent functional form. In this simple example,
we will do this on a rather informal basis in order to motivate the more formal procedures that
will follow.

Ch. lOPg.6

Figure 10.1 An interior view of the Pisa Cathedral showing one of the chandeliers
observed by Galileo
10.5.1 Informal Non-Dimensionalization
A simple model of the Pisa Cathedral chandelier, shown in Figure 10.2, consists of the
chandelier of mass m on the end of a massless cable of length 1. Since the restoring force on the
pendulum is due to gravity, the acceleration due to gravity, g, is relevant to determining the
period of oscillation, Since the angle the cable makes with the vertical is 6, we shall define the
maximum angle the pendulum makes with the vertical as 8,. Following Galileos lead, we shall
presume that the period of oscillation does not depend on the particular angle the pendulum
makes at a particular time but only on the maximum amplitude of the oscillation.

Figure 10.2 A Simple Pendulum

Ch. 10 Pg. 7
We now have a candidate set of parameters that are relevant to determining the period of
oscillation, z of the pendulum namely in, 1,
and g. More formally,
zf(m,l,9,,,(,g)
(10.7)
wheref is the appropriate function relating these parameters. This relation can also be expressed
in dimensionless form as
(10.8)
where the bar above a parameter indicates the dimensionless form of that parameter and b is the
appropriate function relating the dimensionless parameters. Note that
(in radians) is already
dimensionless since angles are defined as the ratio of the circumferential length subtended by the
angle on a circle centered on the vertex of the angle divided by the radius of that circle.
It remains for us to non-dimensionalize each of the parameters. This can be done by
looking at all the parameters associated with the situation and combining them to form
dimensionless groups. The dimensions of the period of oscillation zare those of time. The only
other parameter that has the dimension of time in it is the gravitational acceleration, g, with
dimensions of length divided by time squared. Unfortunately, we need a parameter that has only
the dimension of time, not length over time squared. With a moments reflection, it becomes
apparent that if the length and the gravitational acceleration are combined appropriately, namely
as the square root of the ratio of ito g, a quantity with units of time can be generated, so that the
dimensionless group is

(10.9)

The dimensionless mass term in equation (10.8) is a problem. All the other parameters in
this equation, r, 1,
g do not carry the dimension of mass, and, hence, it is impossible to non
dimensionalize the mass with the chosen set of parameters. We must then reach one of two
conclusions: either the mass at the end of the pendulum has no effect on the period of oscillation
(and we included it erroneously in the list of relevant parameters) or we have missed other
relevant parameters that have the dimension of mass. In this analysis, we will assume that we
have included all the important parameters and that the mass was erroneously listed as being
important. Thus, there is no ui.
The length 1 can be non-dimensionalized only by using -rand g. Paralleling the procedure
for the non-dimensionalization of the dimensionless length becomes
Z

(10.10)
g

The dimensionless length is then directly related to the dimensionless period. Similarly, the
dimensionless gravitational acceleration is
2[2

(10.11)
Then the dimensionless gravity can be explicitly expressed in terms of the dimensionless period.
Finally the angular amplitude,
is already dimensionless and hence needs no further attention.
Incorporating our results into equation (10.8), we get

= (ii,T,8jar, ) c(T,6
,)=
11
=

(10.12)

Ch. 10 Pg. 8
Our result shows that the dimensionless period is a function of the angular amplitude of the
swing of the pendulum and the dimensionless period. Presumably, some algebra should allow us
to bring all the terms containing to the left-hand side of the equation allowing us to express the
relation as
=G(O,naj
(10.13)
where G is the function that relates to O,. Notice what has happened. Our non-dimensional
ization has resulted in an enormous simplification of the problem. Instead of five different
parameters (r, m, 1, 6 and g) the description now depends only on two ( and
If we
expand the function G in a Maclaurin series we conclude that the functional relation for the
period is
11 + C
2+
G(Oniar) = A+ BQ

(10.14)

...

where A, B, and C are coefficients in the Maclaurin series. This can be rewritten as
r+COa2+...)
1
=I(A+BOi

This is as far as we can go with dimensional analysis. We are now forced to look elsewhere to
determine the constants A, B, C etc. Here we have Galileos experimental observation, namely
that the period is independent of the angular amplitude. This leads us to conclude that the
coefficients that multiply a power of
must all be zero (B = 0, C = 0, etc.). If we assume that
the chandeliers have a length of 1 16 m and the period Galileo measured was -r= 8 sec, the
constant A is determined to be 6.28. We conclude that the relation for the period of oscillation is
Iax

(10.15)

=6.28

which is the accepted relation for a small amplitude oscillation of a simple pendulum.
10.5.2 Non-Dimensionalization of the Equations of Motion
A more formal approach to the dimensional analysis of this physical situation is to
consider the equations of motion that govern the situation and to non-dimensionalize those
equations. The free body diagram for the simple pendulum is shown in Figure 10.3. Gravity acts
on the mass in the downward direction with force mg. The angle the cable makes with the
vertical is 0. The unit vectors in the radial and angular directions are f and
respectively. The
component of the gravity force in the radial direction is countered by the tension in the cable T.
The component of the gravity force in the angular direction Fq is not countered by any forces in
the wire and has a value of Fq = mg sin 6. The acceleration of the mass in the angular direction
is
,

s
(
6
2
d
1
l0)
d
2
cit

2
dt

Hence, Newtons second law is

Fq =m1-mgsinO

(10.16)

This is a second order ordinary differential equation. To solve this equation fully, we
require two initial (or boundary) conditions. In this case, we will assume that at time t = 0 the
pendulum is released from a position 6,,, with angular velocity na,j At this point, all we have
.

Ch. 10 Pg. 9

Figure 10.3 A Free Body Diagram for a Simple Pendulum

to do is integrate the equation and apply the boundary conditions for a solution. Dividing
equation (10.16) through by in, we get
(10.17)
dt
2
Note that the coefficient of the sine function has the dimension of 1/time
. The angle 0 is
2
dimensionless. [As an aside, the arguments of functions like the sine, the cosine, the tangent and
the exponential must be dimensionless. This can be seen most easily by expressing these
functions in terms of power series. For example, the exponential function is given by the series
2

3
x

1! 2! 3!
Then if we were to suppose, for instance, that the argument x of the exponential were to have the
dimension of length L, the first term would have no dimension since it is a pure number, the
second term would have the dimension L, the third dimension L
2 and so on. Since adding objects
of different dimension has no meaning, we conclude that x must be dimensionless for the
exponential function to have meaning. For example, the argument x could be given by x = d/D
where both d and D have the dimension of length.]
Then since g/1 has the dimensions of time squared, equation (10.17) can be non
dimensionalized by dividing the equation through by g/l and incorporating it into a dimensionless
time t where I is defined as
tt

(10.18)

Equation (10.17) then becomes

d
0
2
=sin0
(10.19)
dt *2
All the parameters in the equation have been non-dimensionalized since both t and 0 are
dimensionless. What remains now is to non-dimensionalize the boundary conditions:
m is
6

Ch. lOPg. 10
already dimensionless; and,

jiat

can be non-dimensionalized by multiplying by

JJ

or
(10.20)

)2ax

The mathematical description of the physical situatjon has been simplified by non
dimensionalizing the equation of motion and the initial conditions. The original dimensional
form of the governing equation, equation (10.17), requires knowledge of four parameters t, g/l,
inax
6

and 6,na to determine 6. The solution has the form

6=

(10.21)

6, 6

wheref is the function we would get if we integrated equation (10.17). On the other hand, the
dimensionless equations [equation (10.19) and the non-dimensional initial conditions] depend on
only three parameters (t*,
&ax) rather than the four required by the dimensional one
maX
6

[equation (10.17)]. The solution to equation (10.19) will be of the form

6= F(t*,6max,6ma)

(10.22)

where F is the function we would get if we integrated equation (10.19). Once again, the reduction
in the number of parameters is the major benefit of converting parameters into dimensionless
form.
It remains to bring this equation-based analysis back to the result determined through the
less formal approach we used earlier. In particular, we are interested in determining the small
amplitude period for the pendulum. Making the small amplitude approximation by substituting 6
for sin 6 in equation (10.19) and assuming that the pendulum is released from rest at the
maximum angular displacement at time t = 0 (6 = 6I max =

e=

cos (i) = 6 cos

o), the solution is

(10.23)

In the absence of friction, the angular displacement must have the value 6) at the end of each
period or whenever the argument of the cosine function in equation has the value 2nn where n is
some positive integer indicating the number of periods that the pendulum has traversed. Then for
one period when the value of time is r, we have
2=T

(10.24)

v=2

(10.25)

or

which is identical to the result that was obtained through a combination of dimensional analysis
and experimental observation in section 10.5.1.
Perhaps a few comments are warranted here. In the initial treatment of the pendulum, we
depended on our physical intuition and experience to compile a list of the appropriate physical
parameters for the situation. By organizing the list into a set of dimensionless groups, we were
able to reduce the number of parameters and hence simplify the analysis. Using fairly few

Ch. 10 Pg. 11
experimental observations, we were able to infer the functional form of the solution. The
final
result depends very much on the quality of our initial list. In some sense, the choice of
our list in
the former example is akin to writing the governing equations in the latter.
A proper parameter list is a list of all the physical parameters that appear in the complete
set of equations that describe the physical system. It is not always apparent that a particu
lar
parameter should or should not be included in the list. For example, if the mass of the
supporting
cable was included in the above analysis, another dimensionless parameter, the ratio of cable
mass to the mass of the pendulum bob, would have appeared in the arguments of the functio
nG
in equation (10.13) or

G(6ma

(10.26)

At this juncture, we might well ask why does the non-dirnensionalization of the list (or
the equation) result in a reduction in the number of parameters? The answer lies in
the
measurement process. Recall from section 10.2 that a measurement is simply a compa
rison of the
dimension of the parameter with the definition of that dimension. For example, stating that
the
bob of a pendulum has a mass of two kilograms is really stating that the ratio of the mass
of the
bob to the mass of the international prototype kilogram is a pure number, e.g., two. The
period
calculated by equation (10.26) should not depend on such an arbitrary definition as the
international prototype mass. The non-dimensionalization of the mass in equation (10.26
)
removes the arbitrariness from the equation and replaces it with a reference mass that
is within
the physical system of interest; hence, there is a net reduction in the number of mass ratios
from
two (lnicah,e =
and = m/mprot(,I,e) to one ( 1nh,/m).

10.6

Dimensionless Groups and The Buckingham [J-Theorem

With the aid of a simple example, the simple pendulum, we have seen how dimensional
analysis can simplify the description of a physical situation. The essence of the proces
s is the
formation of dimensionless parameters from dimensional ones. Tn the example of Sectio
n 10.5,
we formed these dimensionless parameters, or as they are more commonly known, dimen
sionless
groups (denoted by the symbol II), in an heuristic way. There is, however, a formal proced
ure for
doing this. Consider first the case in which there are two quantities or physical parame
ters Q
1 and
2 that describe some physical situation. Let us now determine the circumstances under which
Q
we can form a dimensionless group II from the product of Q
1 and some power a of Q
. Then
2
=
[ri] [&2] = [Q j[Qal = 1
(10.27)
where we have made use of the fact that II is dimensionless. Then from equation (10.2),
it
follows that
[Q][Qa]

Ma1LflTOo1 (MLfl2T9

)( =

= 1 (10.28)
The only way that equation (10.28) can be true is if the exponents of the terms M, L, T, and
i9
vanish. Then
1
a

+ aa
2

=0

2
+
1
=
afl
0
2 =0
y +ay
+ a6
2 =0

(10.29)

Ch. 10 Pg. 12
and it follows that for this example, LI will be dimensionless if all of the dimensions of Q
2 are
directly proportional to the dimensions of Q
and
a
is
the
constant
of
proportionality.
1
Now suppose that we have a more complex situation in which the number of parameters
is the same as the number of dimensions which in the thermal-fluids case is four. Then for
parameters we have Q
,Q
1
,Q
2
, and Q
3
4 and we wish to know the circumstances under which we
can form a dimensionless group II. Then in the general case, we can write
QaQbQcQCI

(10.30)
where we have raised each of the parameters to some power so that we can apply Eulers theorem
for homogeneous functions. Then if II is dimensionless, we have
=4
bQ
2
[QJUQ
C
3
d
Q
= [a
bl[Q cl[Qd
1
[ni
(1031)
1 ha
24
2 +c/3
+b/3
+da
3
+ca
+1 4
3
4)
(a5 M
0
24
+4
3
+c3
)
2 +cy+dy
h
[nj = p (aa
=
fl

1[

Then in order for II to be dimensionless, the exponents in equation (10.31) must vanish. Then it
must be the case that
1 +ba
aa
2 +ccx
3 +da
4 =0

1 +bfl
a/3
+d/1 =0
3
+cfl
24

(1032)

1
ay
+
2
+
3
=
4
by
dy
cy
0
a6 +b6
24
+d6 =0
3
+c6
According to Eulers theorem, in order for there to be a non-trivial solution for a, b, c, and din
the set of equations (10.32), the determinant of the coefficient matrix must be zero. That is, if
aa
2
aa
4

1
fi

21

72

73

74

53

64

=0

(10.33)

there is a set of values of a, b, c, and d that will result in II being dimensionless. However, if the
determinant in equation (10.33) is non-zero, it is not possible to form a dimensionless group from
, and they are said to be dimensionally linearly independent. The coefficients
4
,Q
1
Q
,Q
2
, and Q
3
of the unknowns a, b, c, and d appearing in equation (10.32) are the dimensional exponents of
the parameters that describe the physical situation at hand and form what is known as the
dimensional matrix.
Now to generalize what we have shown above, suppose that we have a physical situation
with n parameters of which n 1 are independent. The dependent parameter is related to the
independent parameters through a function g such that
(10.34)
=
Q
,
2
,
3
)
1
...,Q,
Q
g(Q

where Q
1 is the independent parameter, and Q
,.. ,Q,, are the n 1 independent parameters.
2
Equation (10.34) can be expressed in the mathematically equivalent form
,
1
f(Q
,
2
...,Q,J=0
Q
(10.35)

wheref is an unspecified function different from g. Now for a given unit system, m will be the
number of base quantities. As noted previously, for thermal-fluid systems in the SI unit system,
m = 4. Then the dimensional matrix will be m x n in size. The rank r of the dimensional matrix is
the size of the largest square sub-matrix that has a non-zero determinant. Thus, there are r
linearly independent parameters, Q. Usually, r = m, but there are cases for which r < m.

Ch. 10 Pg. 13
Edgar Buckingham (1867 1940), an expert in screw and propeller systems, showed in
1914 that given a relation of the form (10.35), then parameters can be expressed inn r
independent dimensionless groups, II, that can be expressed in functional form by

F (fly, fl
,.
2

n,)

(10.36)

or
=G
,
2
,
...,fl,
11 3
1J
(10.37)
(fl
ir)
This result is known as the\Buckingham Pii oiem which we have stated here without proof.
Note that this theorem does not predic(fhe functional form of F or G. This must be determined
from other information about the physical situation. The n r dimensionless groups U. of
equation (10.37) are independent, but an individual dimensionless group 11, is not independent if
it can be formed from a product or quotient of other dimensionless groups.
The Buckingham Pi Theorem forms the basis of dimensional analysis, and there are
several different ways to apply it. Each has its own merit, but the following method has proven to
be successful for most students:
1. List and count the n parameters required to describe the physical
situation. If any important parameters are missing, dimensional analysis
will fail.
2. List the dimensions of each variable according to M, L, T, and

3. Find the value of r. Initially guess r to be equal to the number of different

dimensions present and then make sure the there are r parameters that do not form
a 11-group. If this is unsuccessful, reduce r by one and look again.
4. Select r parameters which do not form a fl-group among themselves. These
parameters are the repeating parameters that will appear in all the 11-groups.
5. Select one of the remaining parameters that is not one of the r repeating
parameters and non-dimensionalize that parameter using the r repeating
parameters. Repeat the procedure until all the remaining parameters are
non-dimensionalized. There should now be n r fl-groups.
-

6. Check to see that all proposed fl-groups are dimensionless and write the
functional relationship among them in dimensionless form.
As an example of the application of this procedure, let us revisit the pendulum example
of Section 10.5 to determine the period in dimensionless form.
Step 1: List and count the n parameters required to describe the physical situation. If any
important parameters are missing, dimensional analysis will fail.
For the pendulum, the relevant parameters are the period r, the angular amplitude 6, the
length 1, and the gravitational acceleration g. There are four parameters so that n = 4. Notice that
we have not included the mass in this analysis because our experience thus far in this chapter
has shown us that this is not an important parameter.

Ch. 10 Pg. 14
Step 2: List the dimensions of each variable according to M, L, T, and c9.
The dimension of the period, is time or symbolically,
[] = T
For the angular amplitude,

we have

[l

For the length of the pendulum, 1, we have

[ll_-L
For the gravity, g, we have
L
[gj=
Step 3: Find the value of r. Initially guess r to be equal to the number of different dimensions
present and then make sure the there are rparameters that do notform a H-group. If this is
unsuccessful, reduce r by one and look again.
There are two dimensions (L and 1) present in the four parameters listed in Step 2. We
now initially guess that r = 2. We now look for two parameters that do not in themselves form a
fl-group. Let us assume I and g to be those parameters. As stated previously, the general form of
a fl-group is a product of powers of parameters that is dimensionless.e now need to show that
no products of non-zero powers of 1 and g can be dimension1essFor this to be true, it must be
the case that

[iagb] = La

Lh

= LT
b =1
2

Then since the exponents of the dimensions must vanish, we must have
a+b=0
2b =0
and it follows that a 0 and b 0. Thus, we have found two parameters, 1 and g, that in
themselves do not form a dimensionless group; hence r 2.
Step 4: Select rparameters which do not form a Tf group among themselves. These parameters
are the repeating parameters that will appear in all the H-groups.
We have already shown in Step 3 that 1 and g will suffice.
Step 5: Select one of the remaining parameters that is not one of the r repeating parameters and
non-dimensionalize that parameter using the r repeating parameters. Repeat the procedure until
all the remaining parameters are non-dimensionalized. There should now be n r H-groups.
Of the original set of n parameters that describe the pendulum, only rand ,flax remain.
Then there must be n r or 4 2 = 2 dimensionless groups. Let us non-dimensionalize rusing
the repeating parameters 1 and g. This will result in the first dimensionless 11-group, 11.
Symbolically, we must determine the exponents c and d that satisfy the relation
-

[i = [rlcg(1
Then

[ [11

[g]d

= T (L)c

(/
2
LCT

=1

Ch. 10 Pg. 15
c+d =0
l2d =0
and it follows that d = and c

- Then
.

LI

which is the dimensionless group we determined earlier by heuristic means, equation (10.9).
Since the other parameter, 6
is already dimensionless, it becomes the second dimensionless
fl1(lt
group.
= max

Thus, we have determined the two dimensionless groups relevant to the physical situation of the
simple pendulum.
Step 6: Check to see that all proposed H-groups are dimensionless and write the functional
relationship among them in dimensionless form.
112 is clearly dimensionless. The dimension of 11 is given by
[n

1=

Thus 11 is also dimensionless.

[] []
=

[1

T(_2

=
=

According to the Buckingham Pi Theorem, there exists a function F such that

,11
1
F(fl
)
2
=0
or alternatively,
H, =G(1J
)
2
Then,
=

G ()

which is precisely the result obtained earlier, equation (10.13).

Note that we have arrived at the same dimensionless equation asserted in our earlier
heuristic discussion. This is as far as dimensional analysis can take us. From here, experimental
data, models, and theory must be used to gain further insight into the physical situation. For
example, in the earlier discussion, we used Galileos observations to determine the functional
form for the period of the pendulum, and those observations could be used here as well.
10.7

A Spring-Piston System

We now examine in detail a thermal-fluid system that involves three dimensions, M, L,

and T. Let us consider the spring-piston system shown in Figure 10.4 in which an ideal gas,
whose ratio of specific heats is is contained in an adiabatic piston-cylinder apparatus. In the
initial state, the spring, whose spring constant is k, is in its unstressed state (zero force position)
and the piston with mass M,,, and area A is supported only by the gas at pressure P. The gas has
an initial volume V,. If the frictionless piston is displaced from its equilibrium position and

Ch. lOPg. 16
released, the piston will oscillate at a resonant frequency, frec.

DXj
Adiabatic
cylinder

Figure 10.4 A Spring-Piston Apparatus

We are interested in using dimensional analysis to help relate the resonant frequency to
the other physical parameters of the system. The six-step procedure described above enables us to
achieve this end, and we now apply each step in succession.
Step 1: List and count the n parameters required to describe the physical situation. If any
important parameters are missing, dimensional analysis will fail.
The important parameters are the ratio of specific heats
the piston mass M,, the piston
area A, the initial gas pressure F
, the initial gas volume V. and the resonant frequencyf,. There
1
are seven parameters so that n = 7.
Step 2: List the dimensions of each variable according to M, L, T, and &.
The dimensions of the seven parameters are
[y]=l, [M1=M, [A,,1=L2,

,
3
[][] [V1

[k]=[=

[freslT

Step 3: Find the value of r. Initially guess r to be equal to the number of different dimensions
present and then make sure that there are rparameters that do not form a H-group. If this is
unsuccessful, reduce r by one and look again.
In the list above there are three dimensions present, namely M, L, and T, so as a first
guess, we assume that r = 3. We now must find three parameters that do not in themselves form a
flgroup. Clearly, yis not a candidate since it is already dimensionless and hence forms a
flgroup all by itself. Suppose we choose the piston mass M,, the spring constant k, and the area
of the piston A. We now must check to see if they form a flgroup. If this were the case,

Ch. 10 Pg. 17

1
[M,1k
,
c]
hA = M

2
(L

)C

=M b
(T = i
2
hL

and
a+b=0

2c=0
2b=0
Then we would have a = 0, b = 0, and c = 0, which would mean that the three chosen parameters
are dimensionally independent. Thus we have found the three repeating parameters.

Step 4: Select r parameters which do not form a 11-group among themselves. These parameters
are the repeating parameters that will appear in all the H-groups.
The parameters M, k, and A
, have been shown to be dimensionally independent, and thus
1
we can use them to non-dimensionalize the remaining four parameters. Note that if it is desired
to compare one specific parameter against another in a dimensionless manner, these parameters
should not be members of the set of repeating parameters, but rather they should be members
of
the set of remaining parameters of Step 5. In this manner, the 11-groups that are generated will
have each of these parameters of interest appear in only one dimensionless group.
Step 5: Select one of the remaining parameters that is not one of the r repeating parame
ters and
non-dimensionalize that parameter using the r repeating parameters. Repeat the procedure until
all the remaining parameters are non-dimensionalized. There should now be n r H-grou
ps.
In the present case, there are four remaining parameters:fres, y, F
, and TV. We now non
1
dimensionalize each one of them in turn.
-

[n 1

[fresM

]
1
[fl

: ]
k Af

T_IMd
2
T

[ire,

J[M
,
1
d [ke][A/] =

IT_
2
L
e
2 =M
L
1 12

Then
d+e=0
2f =0
2e1=0
The solution of this system of equations is d = , e = , and f = 0. Then the first dimensionles
s
group is

1Ji

fres

The second dimensionless group is trivial since yis already dimensionless.

=7
The third dimensionless group is obtained by non-dimensionalizing F,. Then
=
[n1 =
=

= (w
LT)

Then

}
2
T

Ch. 10 Pg. 18
l+g+h=0

1+2i=0
22h0
The solution of this system of equations is g = 0, h
1, and i = . Then the third dimensionless
group is

113=
The fourth dimensionless group can be determined by non-dimensionalizing T/. Then
= [][M[k[A
,=I
1
1=
[n

[n
1
1
=L3ML2s
2}
T

=1

Then
p+q=0
3+2s=0
-q
2
=0
The solution of this system of equations is p = 0, q = 0, and s =
dimensionless group is

3/2. Then the fourth

114

Thus, we now have four dimensionless groups. We started with seven parameters (n = 7) and
found that we had three dimensions in that set of parameters so that r = 3. We then reduced those
seven parameters to four dimensionless groups (7 3 = 4).

Step 6: Check to see that all proposed H-groups are dimensionless and write the functional
relationship among them in dimensionless form.
Each of the flgroups has been checked and is indeed dimensionless. According to the
Buckingham Pi Theorem, there exists a function G such that
2
rG(fl
,
3
)
4
fl
or more explicitly
fies\[

G[

We now have an expression for the form of the expected relationship amongst the relevant
parameters. Realize that the function G is the same regardless of the changes in the physical
parameters of the system. For example, doubling the volume of the piston-cylinder apparatus
does not change the form of the function G. In addition, if the apparatus is changed in a manner
such that the dimensionless groups 112, 113, and 114 remain unchanged, the dimensionless group
11 would also remain unchanged since the function G is unaffected by these changes in the
physical parameters. Under these conditions, if we denote the physical parameters of the altered
apparatus by a prime (), the resonant frequency of the altered apparatus would be given by

Ch. 10 Pg. 19
ni =

.frcs =

Let us explore the physics of this spring-piston apparatus in further detail. We now would
like to show that the detailed description of this system does indeed result in a relationship of
the
type given above. We can most easily demonstrate this by determining the form of the function
G
shown above. We consider the case of small-amplitude oscillations of the piston. The net force
F
acting on the piston is the sum of the body force due to gravity, the force due to the pressure of
the gas acting over the piston face, and the force exerted by the spring. Then if we take forces
acting in the upward direction to be positive as indicated on Figure 10.4, we have
F =Mg +PA
, kAx
1
where g is the gravitational constant, P is the pressure of the gas in the cylinder and Ax is the
displacement of the piston from the zero force position of the spring as shown on Figure 10.4.
Since the velocity of the piston is slow relative to the speed of sound in the gas, we can model
the
process in the gas as quasi-static with a pressure that is uniform, but changing with time. If the
dissipative processes in the gas are negligible because the amplitude of the oscillations is small,
we can model the process in the gas as being reversible as well as adiabatic. Then by the second
law, the entropy of the gas is constant. If we model the gas as an ideal gas, the isentropic
compression process in the gas obeys the relation
7
Pv

= jY

where V is the volume of the gas in the cylinder. This volume V is related to the displacement
of
the piston Ax by
V =V +A
,Ax
1
Combining these expressions results in an expression for the pressure of the gas for any position
of the piston.
P=

1
( +A&)

If we use the binomial expansion

(l+x) =lnx+

n(n+1)

x2

2!
for the term in the denominator, we get an approximate expression for the pressure in the gas
for
small displacements Ax.

Then the net force on the piston becomes

1
F=M
l

,,g+FA
y

(A2
AAx
)
JkAx=_Mj,g+FAp_ 7FH_-t?_,J+k Ax

but the initial position of the piston is one for which the force in the spring is zero. Then in this
position, the body force due to gravity is exactly balanced by the force due to the pressure of the
gas acting on the face of the piston. Thus

Ch. 10 Pg. 20
Mg

FA

and the net force on the piston is due to the inertia of the piston by Newtons second law of
motion. Then
F=M

(A2

(Ax)
2
d

Ax

dt

This is the equation of motion for a simple harmonic oscillator for which the bracketed term
serves as an effective spring constant, keff. Then the resonant frequency of oscillation for the
simple harmonic oscillator is

I
ie.

= 1
2.ir

1
2ir

This solution can be rewritten in the dimensionless form

/=

fresv

2yr

2r4

114

A)

Thus we have now determined the functional form of G. Note that the product of two
dimensionless numbers is also dimensionless as is the quotient of two dimensionless numbers.
Then we can define a new dimensionless number 115 such that
H

23

4
fl

= yIA
2
,
1
ki

Then
ni

If we take the natural logarithm of this expression we get

)
5
+ln(1+H
2) 2
Thus if were to plot this equation on a set of coordinates with in 11 as the ordinate and in (1+115)
as the abscissa, we would have a straight line of slope This is a common application of
dimensional analysis. The function G can often be determined by plotting the dependent
dimensionless group, or some function of it such as its logarithm, against some combination of
the independent dimensionless groups. The slope of such a plot gives the exponent of the
combination and the intercept gives the constant. Of course, knowing which combination of
independent dimensionless groups to use is not always obvious and is often a matter of trial and
error. For many experimentalists, the manipulation of dimensionless groups in this manner takes
on the nature of an art form. Clearly, there are some clues from the physics of the situation as to
the way to conduct these manipulations of the data, and we shall say more about this shortly.
111111=111

10.7

Drag on a Baseball
All baseball fans, to say nothing about batters, are familiar with the speed of a baseball as

Ch. 10 Pg. 21
it travels from the pitcher to the batter. The speeds of pitches as determined by radar guns are
routinely posted during baseball games. Speeds are generally posted to the nearest mile per hour
(Clearly, Major League Baseball has not embraced the SI units system.), with typical major
league pitchers posting speeds in the range of 80 to 90 miles/hour (mph) while others with good
arms reach 90 to 100 mph consistently. There are even extreme cases in which speeds as high as
104 mph are attained. These data prompt some questions, such as, Is the speed over the entire
trajectory of the baseball good to 1 mph? or How much slower is the baseball traveling when it
passes the batter compared to the instant it leaves the pitchers hand?
One way we could answer these questions is to measure directly the velocity of the ball
using a specialized radar gun, or, alternatively, we could use computational fluid dynamics codes
to calculate the drag force on the baseball. Unfortunately, we do not have the resources to do this,
but we can gain considerable insight to the situation through dimensional analysis.
We could make measurements in a manner that is more convenient by creating a situation
that is dimensionally similar to the actual situation. Then these measurements can be scaled to
the circumstances typical of a game. To carry out this approach, we decide to make some drag
measurements on a baseball by towing it through water. A friend is willing to take us on her
powered skiff so that we can make our measurements. We put weights inside a baseball to try to
make it as neutrally buoyant as possible so that the ball tends to float underneath the water
surface. A small hole is drilled into the baseball and a long line is glued into the hole. The line is
connected, in turn, to a spring scale that can be read from the skiff. The tests are conducted by
towing the baseball behind the skiff slightly to one side to avoid the propeller wash and to allow
the reading of the drag force on the spring scale. The velocity of the skiff can be determined by
measuring the time it takes to pass two landmarks that are separated by a known distance. The
procedure is shown schematically in Fig. 10.5.
Spring
scale

Figure 10.5 A Scheme for Measuring the Drag Force on a Baseball

The data collected for the drag force, Fd, as function of the towing velocity, t?, from such an
exercise might look like the data listed in Table 10.1. The data are shown graphically in Figure
10.6.

Ch. 10 Pg. 22
Table 10.1 Drag Force for a Baseball Towed at Different Velocities in Water
Towing Velocity, z (mlsec)

Drag Force, F(/ (N)

0.8

3.4

7.7

21

25

20

z
I)
C)

15

C
bf

10

Velocity (m/sec)
Figure 10.6 Drag on a Baseball Towed in Water
The drag forces in the water are substantial, but we need to know how they scale to the
drag forces on the baseball in the air. Dimensional analysis will enable us to do this scaling. The
geometry for both the air flow and the water flow are shown in Figure 10.7 in the frame of
reference of the ball. If we assume that the line attached to the baseball in the water does not
substantially alter the flow field, the situation can be modeled as a sphere of diameter D sitting in
a flowing fluid of density p and viscosity p. The uniform upstream velocity of the fluid as it
approaches the ball is z9 The drag force on the ball is F(
.
1

Ch. 10 Pg. 23

Diameter D

velocity v

Fd

Fluid
density p, viscosity m

Figure 10.7 The Flow Field from the Perspective of an Observer Located on the Ball
We now perform the dimensional analysis of this situation using the procedure described
previously.
Step 1: List and count the n parameters required to describe the physical situation. If any
important parameters are missing, dimensional analysis wi//fail.
We have essentially done this step by drawing Figure 10.7. The parameters necessary to
describe this physical situation are the drag force, F(
, the velocity of the flow, i2 the viscosity of
1
the liquid, p, the density of the liquid, p, and the diameter of the baseball, D. Then n = 5.
The mass of the ball and the gravitational constant are not important in this case and
should not be included in the dimensional analysis because our intuition tells us that the
measured drag force on the baseball in Figure 10.7 would not change if the baseball were made
of iron or any other material. The fluid is unaware of the mass of the ball. The fluid simply must
flow around some fixed rigid sphere.
The buoyancy and gravity forces are normal to the drag force and, hence, are not part of
that force. The spring scale does not measure them. Mass and gravity are important only in that
the gravity force must match the buoyancy force on the ball so that the ball is dragged under the
water and not along the surface of the water. However, if the mass of the ball is too large, the ball
will not follow the boat as shown but act as an anchor and hang from the boat almost vertically.
Step 2: List the dimensions of each variable according to M, L, T, and
The dimensions for the parameters are
M
L
M
[i]=_, [D]=L,

[pj=-,

ML
[pj=, [1=--

Step 3: Find the value of r. Initially guess r to be equal to the number of different dimensions
present and then make sure that there are r parameters that do not form a il-group. If this is
unsuccessful, reduce r by one and look again.

Ch. 10 Pg. 24
The dimensions M, L and T are present in the dimensions listed in Step 2. We then guess
that r = 3. We then select p, t, and D as the repeating parameters that do not form a Hgroup.
Checking this possibility, we find
[p =

(M (L)c
} T)
3
L
aT_b =
3
M aL C_

I
1

Then
a =

b+c

3a =0

b =0
The solution of this system of equations is a = 0, b = 0, and
are indeed dimensionally independent, and r = 3.

= 0. Then the selected parameters

Step 4: Select rparameters which do not form a il-group among themselves. These parameters
the repeating parameters that will appear in all the il-groups.
The obvious choice for repeating parameters is p, i and D.

are

Step 5: Select one of the remaining parameters that is not one oft/ic r repeating parameters and
non-dimensionalize that parameter using the r repeating parameters. Repeat the procedure until
all the remaining parameters are non-dimensionalized. There should now be n r il-groups.
There are two remaining parameters p and Fd that we need to non-dimensionalize.
Starting with p, we get
[ppdeDf

1=1

M (M
(L) =1
} T}
3
LTL
dT_l_e =
3
M lIdLe+f_I_

Then
1+d=0
e+

f3di =0

l--e=0
The solution of this system of equations is d = 1, e =
dimensionless group is

1, andf

1. The resulting

pi1D
We have included a prime in the notation because this is not the form of the dimensionless group
we would like. We would prefer to adopt a more traditional dimensionless group known as the
Reynolds number, Re, which is the reciprocal of ll or
= pvD
Re
It

Note that the dimensionless groups generated using these methods are not unique. As
noted previously, any power, product, or quotient of these dimensionless numbers is also an

Ch. lOPg.25
acceptable dimensionless group. The choice of which dime
nsionless groups are finally chosen is
often dictated by earlier work in the field or by the phys
ics of the situation. There are occasions
for which the earlier choices have not been the best way
to express the results, and in those cases,
the later authors do not follow their predecessors lead. They
usually express their results in
terms of a new set of dimensionless parameters more
appropriate to the situation.
The next parameter to be non-dimensionalized is the drag
force, Fd. Then
[F
p
1
zD,
]=
1

ML (M
(L)
2 L
T
} TJ
3
Ai

Then

h
2
_
2
1
l

1+g=O
I +h +i

=0

2 h = 0
The solution of this system of equations is g
1, h = 2, and i = -2, and the resulting
dimensionless group is
-

111=

(1

pc9
D
2
Once again we have included a prime in the notation beca
use this is not the final form of
the dimensionless group we will choose to use. With nod
a
to history, we would like to change
the denominator of 112. The quantity pz
2 appears frequently in fluid mechanics with the
quantity attached to it. The quantity pi
2 is physically meaningful in that it is the kinetic
energy per unit mass carried by a fluid particle. From the
energy equation for a control volume,
2 is the pressure that would result at the point wher
pi
e a fluid particle is brought to rest from
the velocity This is known as the dynamic pressure in
the flow. The dimension of D
2 in the
denominator of 117 is that of area. A more physically mean
ingful quantity than D
2 is the projected
area of the sphere, 2
(r/4)D This is the area that an upstream observer would
.
see of the object.
The product of a pure number, which is dimensionless
, and a dimensionless 11group is still
dimensionless. Then we can legitimately modify
112 by multiplying it by any pure number. With
this in mind, we propose that the appropriate form for
112 is
.

d
2

pz9
2
D

where Cd is known as the drag coefficient.

We have non-dimensionalized all non-repeating paramete
rs and in the process have
generated two flgroups. Initially we had n = 5 paramete
rs and r = 3 dimensions so that we were
expecting 5 3 = 2 11-groups.
-

Step 6: Check to see that all proposed li-groups are dime

nsionless and write the functional
relationship among them in dimensionless form.
Both flgroups have been checked and are indeed dime
nsionless. The functional form for
the relation of the flgroups is then
2 =G(fl)
fl
or

Ch. lOPg.26
1 =G(Re)
C(
This is as far as dimensional analysis can take us. We now need to rely on the data we
have taken on our wet baseball. The diameter of a baseball is D = 7 cm. For water
3
p=10 kg/rn sec
p =io kg/rn
Using these values, we can reformulate the data for the baseball towed in water into
dimensionless form and then generate a table of values of C
1 versus Re (See Table 10.2.).
Table 10.2 Dimensionless Drag Data for a Baseball Towed in Water
Velocity,

Drag Force, F(/ (N)

C(/

Re

0.8

0.415

7 x iO

3.4

0.441

14x 10

7.7

0.444

21 x io

21

0.436

35 x i0
4

(mlsec)

A plot of the dimensionless wet baseball data appears in Figure 10.8. Clearly, for Reynolds
numbers between 7 x io and 3.5 x io, the drag coefficient remains fairly constant at a value of
about 0.43. In symbolic form
Cd = G(Re) 0.43 for 7 x io <Re < 35 x i0

0.4

0.2

G
5

4
io

5
io

1.5

2.5

3.510

Re

Figure 10.8 Dimensionless Drag Data for a Baseball Towed in Water

In order to use this data to analyze the flight of the ball between the pitchers mound and
the batter, let us assume that a ball is thrown at a velocity of 100 mph or 44.7 mlsec (a very fast
3 and 1.8x10
5 kg/rn sec, respectively. The
ball). The density and viscosity of the air are 1.2 kg/m
Reynolds number for the baseball under these conditions is

Ch. 10 Pg. 27
Re=

(1.2 )
3
kg/
(44m
.7 rn/sec)(7 x

pz5D
=

102

m)

=2.1x10

p
1.8 x 10 kg/rn sec
which is right in the middle of the Reynolds numbers of our wet
measurements. Since the
Reynolds number for the pitched baseball is between 350,000
and 70,000, C must have a value
of 0.43. The force on the baseball can be calculated using the definit
ion of the drag coefficient,
C, =0.43=

-pz
f
2
D
9

or
D2)=(0.43)[(l.2 )
3
kg/
(44m
.7 rn/sec)
2 (0.07 m)2]=1.984 N
Assuming that the drag force and the velocity of the ball does
not change substantially during the
balls flight from the pitchers mound to home plate, the change
in velocity, A can be calculated
from
F,

=(0.43)(+pv2

I1
,a11

haII

where mh,I, is the mass of the baseball (-0.145 kg), t is the time
of flight, I is the distance from
the pitchers mound to home plate (60.5 feet or 18.44 m) and O
is the velocity of the ball as it
leaves the pitchers hand. The change in the velocity is
Az9

(1.984 N) (18.44m)
(0.145 kg) (44.7 mlsec)

5.64 rn/sec

Thus, a baseball that is thrown at 44.7 mlsec will slow to 39.1 mlsec
by the time it alTives at
home plate. In outmoded Engineering Units: a baseball that is thrown
at 100 mph will slow to 87
mph by the time it arrives at home plate. For the measurement
of pitch speed by a radar gun to
have meaning, it is important to measure the speed of the pitch at
the same point from pitch-topitch.
Although the foregoing discussion provides a reasonable estimate
of the effect of drag on
a thrown baseball, it simplifies a somewhat complex physical situatio
n. The data employed in the
example are data for a smooth sphere similar to a billiard ball. A
baseball has a more complex
surface due to the presence of the stitched seams. The seams act
as turbulence promoters which
change the drag characteristics markedly. For a smooth sphere, the
data for the drag coefficient as
a function of Reynolds number show a pronounced knee at a Reyno
lds number of about 3.8 x
iO for which the drag coefficient falls precipitously to a value of
about one-tenth its previous
value. This knee lies outside the physical capabilities of even the
very best major league pitchers.
However, the presence of any roughness on the surface of the ball
shifts this knee in the drag
curve to lower values of the Reynolds numbers that are within the
capability of good pitchers.
The difference between a good fast ball pitcher who can throw in
the high 80s and a great fast
ball pitcher who can bring it with some serious heat in the neighborhood
of 100 mph is a
matter of throwing with enough initial velocity to just clear the knee
of the curve so that the
drag force in the early stage of the flight of the ball is at its lowest
possible value. As the ball
starts slowing down due to drag, the drag force rises sharply as the
Reynolds number decreases
into the high drag regime. (See Figure 10.9)

Ch. 10 Pg. 28

Figure 10.9 Drag Coefficient for Smooth and Rough Spheres

(From A Physical Introduction to Fluid Mechanics by Alexander J. Smits, John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. ,2000, p. 317.)

In the early years of baseball, pitchers were not beyond introducing some additional
roughness of their own through the use of emery cloth concealed in their gloves. Although
these early hurlers were completely unaware of the fluid dynamics of the flight of a baseball, they
did know that this emery ball or scuffball, as it was called, gave them an advantage. This
practice was outlawed in 1919. In modern baseball with its liberal use of new baseballs, astute
batters, in an attempt to limit the advantage gained by the pitcher, frequently call for a ball to be
removed from play because it has become scuffed by the natural effects of play.
Junk ball pitchers who frequently throw a knuckle ball or flutter ball deliberately
throw at low velocity (60 to 70 mph) so that their pitch velocity produces a Reynolds number that
lies entirely in the high drag regime. This causes the flight of the ball to drop out of the strike
zone as the ball crosses home plate. These pitchers also try to enhance this effect by holding the
ball in a manner that minimizes the effect of the seams. If successful, the ball does not rotate, and
the flight of the ball is strongly affected by the vortices that are being shed behind the ball in an
alternating fashion, one side after the other. This causes the flutter effect of the knuckler.

10.8

Ship Design

From time immemorial, the hull design of ships had been largely a matter of rule of
thumb, complemented by the accumulated experience of the master shipwright. A number of
assertions have been made concerning the shape of a high-speed hull ranging from the assertion
that the shape of a vessel should have the shape of a cod to the assertion that a fast sailboat
should take an extreme plank on edge shape, i.e., have an extremely small beam to length ratio.
One ship that illustrated the need for a better understanding of the importance of drag on
a ship before it was built was the Great Eastern shown in Fig. 10.9. She was launched in 1858
with a displacement of 22,500 tons and a length of 693 feet, five times larger than anything else
afloat. She remained the longest steamship ever built until 1899 when Oceania surpassed her and
became the vessel with the largest displacement until 1906 when Lusitania surpassed her in that
category.

Ch. lOPg. 29

.*
i

Figure 10.10 The Great Eastern

(The drawing shows her configured for the laying of the Atlantic Cable.)
Great Eastern was built to serve as a steamer on the Britain to Australia route around
the
Cape of Good Hope. The company that had her built, the Eastern Steam Navigation
Company,
had decided they wanted a steamer that could carry passengers, substantial cargo,
and enough
coal to steam from Britain to Australia and back. In 1858, the Suez Canal had not yet
been built
so that the passage to Australia was around the Cape of Good Hope. The company had
determined that the cost of maintaining coaling stations along the route was not
economically
viable.
Great Eastern was ahead of her time and there was no experience sizing propulsion
systems for a ship as large as she was. She had two screw propellers and paddle wheels
as well as
auxiliary sails for propulsion, but despite all these, she was underpowered. She bankru
pted three
corporate owners before she was turned to the task of what was ultimately the succes
sful laying
the transatlantic cable. Because of her size, she alone could carry enough cable to span
the entire
distance between Newfoundland and Ireland.
With the dawn of ships that have the size and the cost of construction of Great Eastern
, it
became imperative to be able to predict the performance of a design before it was implem
ented
in the full scale. Tests on smaller scale prototypes could be made, but the scaling the
of
test
results from the model to the full scale ship remained an uncertainty. This is an ideal
role for
dimensional analysis. Figure 10.11 shows the basic geometry of a ship on the water.

Ch. 10 Pg. 30

Fd

>1
Fluid p, ii

Figure 10.11 Schematic Diagram of a Ship Moving on the Surface of a Large Body of Water
Let us now apply dimensional analysis so that we might determine the appropriate way to
scale test model results to the full size ship.
Step 1: List and count the ii parameters required to describe the physical situation. If any
important parameters are missing, dinzensional analysis willfail.
In order to determine the required propulsive power for the vessel, we are particularly
interested in the drag force on a ship Ff
. We believe that the velocity, C and the length, L, of the
1
vessel are important in determining the drag. We also believe that the density, p. and the
viscosity, ,u, of the fluid are also important in determining the drag. In addition, because the hull
will make waves on the surface of the water we believe that the gravitational acceleration, g,
should be included as one of the important parameters to describe the situation because the
restoring force for the long wavelength surface waves is gravity.
Presumably the model that we will be testing will be a scale replica of the full size ship.
Since we have already shown in equations (10.27) (10.29) that geometrical similarity results in
a common scaling factor for all physical dimensions of a model and a prototype, it is not
necessary to include the width and height of the vessel in the list of the important parameters.
We will then need only one length on the model to completely specify its size relative to the fullscale ship. We could have chosen the width or the height of the model or a specific diagonal
length across the vessel stern, but traditionally the length of the hull is used. If we had included
the width, W, and the height, H, as well as the length in the parameter list, we would have found
two additional flgroups that would appear in our analysis, namely W/L and H/L. The values of
these flgroups would be identical in the full-scale prototype and the scale model and their
presence in the functional relationship would add no new information.
Additionally, we could have included the surface tension of the water as one of the
important parameters. Here our intuition suggests that the drag force would not be influenced a
great deal by the surface tension of the fluid. In general, the surface tension affects the surface
waves only for short wavelength excitations (millimeter scale). The predominant waves that will
be generated by a meter-long scale model, or better still a 200m-long full-scale prototype, are not
likely to be on the millimeter scale. Hence we believe that surface tension will not be an
important parameter for our analysis.

Step 2: List the dimensions of each variable according to M, L, T, and

The dimensions for the parameters are

Ch. 10 Pg. 31
M
[p]-,

L
[z91=,

ML

[LJ=L, [pj,

[1=--

L
{g]=

Step 3: Find the value of i Initially guess r to be equal to the number of different dimensions
present and then make sure that there are rparameters that do not form a li-group. If this is
unsuccessful, reduce r by one and look again.
The dimensions M, L, and T are present in the dimensions listed in Step 2. We will then
guess that r = 3. We will select p. O and L as the possible r repeating parameters that do not
form a flgroup. Checking to see that these parameters are dimensionally independent, we find
[pa1?Lc] =

J T}
3
L

(L)c =1

aT_b
3
M aLh+c_

Then
a=0

3a = 0
b =0
The solution of this system of equations is a = 0, b = 0, and
L are dimensionally independent; hence, r = 3.
b+c

c =

0. Then the parameters p. 12 and

Step 4: Select rparameters which do not form a H-group among themselves. These parameters
the repeating parameters that will appear in all the H-groups.
We shall select p, i, and L as the repeating parameters since they have already been
shown to be dimensionally independent.
are

Step 5: Select one of the remaining parameters that is not one of the r repeating parameters and
non-dimensionalize that parameter using the r repeating parameters. Repeat the procedure until
all the remaining parameters are non-dimensionalized. There should now be n r H-groups.
We choose the viscosity as the first non-repeating parameter to non-dimensionalize, and
we follow exactly the same procedure as in our previous examples.

[ppdeLf

(d

Al
1 =1
(L)
J TJ
3
LTL
3
MdLe+
d
tT__
f_l_
e =

Then
1+d =0
le=0
fi3d =0
The solution of this system of equations is d = 1, e = 1, andf=
dimensionless group is then
e+

pzL

1. The resulting

Ch. 10 Pg. 32
This fl-group is the reciprocal of the Reynolds number based on the length of the vessel so,
bowing to convention, we choose LI
1 to be
= pz3L
Re
/1

The next parameter to be non-dimensionalized is the drag force, F(

. Then
1
[FdP/2L9DJI

(L) =1
2 3
T
L T}
J
hT_
3
+hL1+j_
_
i =I
M 2

Then
l+h=0

1+i+
The solution of this system of equations is Ii
dimensionless group is then

3h

2i = 0
= 1, i = -2, andj

2. The resulting

1-I,=
where Cd is the coefficient of drag. Note that we have inserted the factor of in the denominator
for the same reasons discussed in the previous example. For the moment, we use L
2 as a measure
of the surface area of the model.
The final fl-group is determined by non-dimensionalizing the gravitational acceleration,
g. Then
[gpk1Lfl
=

L
J T)
3
L
2
T

m =1
(L)

2
k
3
MkLl_
_
+mT_
/

Then
k=0

13k +1+ m =0
2i = 0
The solution of this system of equations is k = 0, 1 = 2, and m
group is then

1-I3

1. The resulting dimensionless

=-

This is a perfectly acceptable dimensionless number; however, in the literature, this

dimensionless group raised to the power is used or
3
LI

=!_Fr

This is the definition of the Froude number, Fr, named in honor of William Froude (1810
1879), who together with his son Robert Edmund Froude, refined the technique of testing ship

Ch. 10 Pg. 33
models as an adjunct to the practice of naval architecture.
According to the Buckingham Pi Theorem, there exists a functional relatio
nship of the
form
=G
,
1
)
H
(H
L3
or
C(/ =G(Re,Fr)
From this expression, it is clear that in order to derive meaningful results
from model tests
conducted in a towing tank, both the Reynolds number and the Froude numbe
r must be the same
in the model and the full-scale prototype. Unfortunately, this is not always
possible. For the sake
of argument, let us assume that the length model is L,
11 = 1 m and the length of the prototype is
= 100 m. From experience, ships at high cruisin
g speed generate significant surface waves as
they move through the water. This can be seen in the full scale in Fig. 10.12
and in towing-tank
tests in Fig. 10.13.

..._1

Figure 10.12 Surface Waves Generated by a Ship at Speed (Courtesy U.S.

Navy)

Figure 10.13 a) Test of a Model of a Submarine in a Towing Tank

b) Test of a Model of a Surface Ship Hull in a Towing Tank
(Photographs from Davidson Lab website)

Ch. 10 Pg. 34
The energy stored and ultimately dissipated in these surface waves comes from the engines of the
ship. The Froude number, which is related to the wave speed, should then be a very important
parameter in determining the drag on the ship at high cruising speed. Then the Froude numbers in
the model tests should match the expected Froude Numbers for the prototype operation. It
follows, then, that
Frmoaei

L=

z$,

= Frprot.pe

=o
/= V100

,
1
\L

As a consequence, a model that is 1/100 the size of the prototype must be towed at 1/10 the speed
of the prototype in order to match the wave making patterns of the model and the prototype.
Since typical velocities for surface vessels vary from ito 20 knots, i.e., 0.51 to 10.2 mlsec, the
model velocities then will be in the range of 0.05 to 1 mlsec. The highest model speeds will be a
walking pace which seems quite reasonable.
It now remains to match the Reynolds number between the model and the ship.
1 = Re
Re,
p i9 1.

p z9, L

1
V,

VI,

where v is the kinematic viscosity previously defined as jt/p. Note that we have already chosen
L,, and L
,. The velocity z, is chosen by virtue of the intended operating speeds of the vessel, and
1
the velocity of the model has already been determined by the Froude number restriction. The
kinematic viscosity of the fluid for the prototype (water) has already been chosen. The only
parameter left to be chosen is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid in the test tank. The kinematic
viscosity of that fluid is

J!L
VP

tP

L=1L=1__000l

, L
1
L

L)

l00J

We therefore seek a fluid that has one one-thousandth the kinematic viscosity of water. A list of
candidate fluids is shown in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3 Properties of Candidate Test Fluids at 20 C
Liquid

p (kg/rn sec)

3
p (kg/rn

v (m
/sec)
2

water

1 x iO

1000

1 x 106

gasoline

2.9 x iO

680

4.3 x iO

0.43

ethanol

1.2x iO

789

1.5x 106

1.5

refrigerant 12

2.6 x iO

1327

1.95 x 10

0.19

rnercury

1.56x iO

13550

1.15x iO

0.115

Ch. 10 Pg. 35
From these data, it is apparent that there are no real fluids that will fulfill our require
ments.
Mercury is the best with a kinematic viscosity ratio (iz,/i,) of 0.1, but even this
toxic fluid is far
short of the required ratio of 0.001. The other test fluids also suffer shortcomings such
as
flammability, toxicity, volatility, etc. We have little choice but to use water as the
fluid in the
towing tank. However, this presents us with a dilemma; the use of water in the
tank means that
the Reynolds number cannot be matched between the model and the full scale ship.
In 1872, Froude offered way of resolving this dilemma. He suggested that the viscou
s
effects on the hull of a ship do not significantly affect the hulls wave making action.
He also
suggested that the viscous effects, embodied in the Reynolds number, and the wave
making
effects, embodied in the Froude number, were uncoupled as far as the drag on a ship
was
concerned. (It should be noted that since Reynolds did not present his work concer
ning the
Reynolds number until 1883, we are taking some poetic license here in our interpretation
of
events.) Froudes assumption can be expressed mathematically in the form,
1 (Re, Fr) = C1(Re) + [(Fr)
C
where I and F are functions to be determined. This can be cast in a similar but differe
nt form
Cd = Cd + Cd
where C,
1 is the coefficient of drag due to viscous effects and C,
is the coefficient of drag due to
4
1
wave making. Froudes separation of these two effects in this manner can be argued
by realizing
that the length scale associated with the wave action is the length of the vessel (observ
e the
wavelengths of the waves in Figure 10.12); whereas, viscous effects are confin
ed to the boundary
layer in the immediate neighborhood of the surface of the hull, which according to
our previous
work in Chapter 9, is of the scale of the boundary layer thickness at the location
L which in the
case of turbulent flow is given by
=0.16 Re L
For a velocity of = 10 mIs and a length of L lOOm, the boundary layer thickn
ess is 0.008L or
0.8 meters. Thus the length scales between viscous and wave effects differ by a factor
larger than
100.
Froude determined Cd by towing a flat plate of length L with the same wetted surface
area as the ship model. Since the thin plate does not make significant surface waves,
Cf = I(Re)
can be determined as a function of Reynolds number. Following this, the model can
be towed in
the towing tank to determine 1
(C
Re,Fr)
,. With both sets of data, C,tw(Fr) can be determined by
taking the difference of Cd and Cf. Armed with the functional form of both Cf and
Cf, the
total drag coefficient can be calculated for the full-scale prototype.
In the foregoing discussion, we have presented the essence of ship model testing,
but
since this is one of the more intense applications of dimensional analysis, we have
included the
details of a standard method for scaling towing tank test data as an appendix to
this chapter. The
boat design illustrated in the appendix is an excellent example of both the method
ology of naval
architecture and the general technique of dimensional analysis. At this point, howev
er, it is
appropriate to continue our discussion of dimensional analysis by examining two additio
nal
examples drawn from two very different areas of engineering science.

Ch. 10 Pg. 36

10.9

Heat Transfer from a Cylinder Immersed in a Flowing Fluid

Dimensional analysis can also be a very powerful tool in analyzing physical situations in
which heat transfer is the dominant mode of energy transfer. An example of such a system is the
hot-wire anemometer shown in Figure 10.15. In the hot-wire anemometer, a wire is heated by
dissipating electrical energy by means of an electrical current passing through the resistance of
the wire. The current is adjusted by a feed-back mechanism so that its value is sufficient to
maintain the wire at a temperature T?vjre above the ambient fluid temperature
(The wire is
fabricated from a metal such as platinum that has an electrical resistance that is a strong function
of the temperature of the wire which serves as the feedback parameter.) The heat transfer rate
from the wire to the fluid can be related to the velocity of the fluid, z. Thus once calibrated, the
hot wire anemometer can be used to measure the fluid velocity.

Q
Heat transfer to fluid
Tamb

Figure 10.14 Heat Transfer Between a Heated Wire and a Fluid Flowing Past It
In order to design a hot-wire anemometer, we need to find a relation between the
convective heat transfer coefficient h and the fluid velocity. Recall that for a situation in which
the convective mode of energy transfer dominates
h

Ac

(vire

t,nb)

where A is the surface area of the wire in contact with the fluid. One approach is to go into the
laboratory and make physical measurements for several different fluids, cylinder diameters, and
fluid velocities. Our first set of measurements? is done with hydrogen gas at T,,
h = 300 K and a
1
wire with a diameter of D = 100 rim. The second set is done with hydrogen gas at TU,flh = 300 K
and D = 2 cm. The third set is done with carbon dioxide gas at Ta,,ih = 300 K and D = 2 cm.
Finally, the fourth set is with liquid water at TU,flb = 350K and a D = 2 cm. For these
measurements, the resulting values of h as a function of fluid velocity are plotted in Figure
10.15 and tabulated in Table 10.4. The measured values of the heat transfer coefficient vary over
a range of four orders of magnitude; and, it is not clear from Figure 10.15 how to predict the heat
transfer coefficient given a new fluid or a new diameter for the wire.

Ch. 10 Pg. 37

10
Group4 Water D=lcm

Group 1 Hydrogen

10

100

pm

Group 2 Hydroge
102

10

100
0.01

0.1

1
u(m/s)

10

Figure 10.15 Heat Transfer Coefficient for Gases Flowing Past Cylinders
Dimensional analysis can help us make sense of these apparently disparate measurements.
Following our well-established procedure, we can develop a dimensionless fuction that relates
the dimensionless parameters that describe this situation.
Step 1: List and count the n parameters required to describe the physical situation. If any
important parameters are missing, dimensional analysis willfail.
The first parameters of interest are the heat transfer coefficient h and the diameter of the
wire (cylinder) D. The other relevant parameters in this situation are related to the identity of
the fluid, namely the density, p, viscosity, p, heat capacity per unit mass (specific heat), cp and
the thermal conductivity of the fluid, k. With this choice of important parameters, we have
combined all the convective heat transfer parameters, namely the heat transfer rate, the surface
area of the wire, and the temperatures of the fluid and the wire temperatures into the heat transfer
coefficient. We have assumed here that they are not important in themselves but appear only as
the group
-h
A (Tivire amb)
in the set of equations that describe this situation. Hence, there are seven parameters that are
important in this case, n = 7.

Ch. 10 Pg. 38
Table 10.4 Results of the Heat Transfer measurements on Various Cylinders
Group 1: Hydrogen, 1 300K, D = 100 tm, P = latm

i (mIsc

5
10
20
50
70

1490
2600
424
4600
6940
8 100

fl909
4.546
9.093
18.19
45.46
6365

Group 2: Hydrogen, I,
i(mJsec

h (W/m
2 K)
66
150
210

1
5

10
20
50
70

h(W/m
K
2
)

Nii

0.7525
1.3 13
1.729
2.323
3.505
4.091

300 K, D

2 cm, P

Group 3: Carbon dioxide,

Pr

182

6.67
152
21
30
49.5
qq

0.67

,,,ih =
T

300 K, D

2 cm, P

i(mJsec

h (W/m
2 K)

Re

0.01
0.1
1
5

2.4
7.07
22
53
78
100

23.5
235
2352
11800
23500

Nit
2.65
7.81
24.31
58.56
86.2

S,0n

110 S

10
15

Group 4: Water, Ta,,h

i(niIsec

350 K, D

1 cm, P

Re

h2
(W1m K)
843
2709
4862
9610
43926

0.01
0.1
0.3
1
10

latm

Nu

1820
640
9090
1270

n0

0.67
0.67
0.67
0.67
0.67
0.67

Re
909

490
S92

Pr

257
2570
7700
25700
257000

067

0.67
067
0.67
067
=

latm

Pr
0.71
0.71
0.71
0.71
0.71
071

latm

Nu
12.60
40.49
72.68
143.65
656.59

Pr
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4

Step 2: List the dimensions of each variable according to M, L, T, and a

For the convective heat transfer case

{hj=

M
3
eT

[D]=L,

M
LT

[jt]=,

M
L
[p]=,
[]=,
3
L
T

2
L
c )j1=,
0
2
T

r
L

ML
[k]=
0
3
T

Step 3: Find the value of r. Initially guess r to be equal to the number of different dimensions
present and then make sure that there are rparameters that do not form a H-group. If this is
unsuccessful, reduce r by one and look again.

Ch. lOPg.39
Unlike our previous examples, in this case there are four dimensions present: M, L, T and
If we assume that r = 4, we should be able to reduce the seven variables down to three fl
groups, n r = 7 4 = 3. Let us choose D, p, k and p as the 4 potential repeating parameters.
We need to ensure that they do not form a fl-group themselves. Checking, we get
[Dapbkcp] =

La

(ivi

(Mic (Md

=1

LT} 3
T
O
} L
)
3
b+cd La_b _3dT_b3c 0
c

Then
b+c+d =0
a

b+c

3d =0

b 3c =0

c = 0
The solution of this system of equations is a 0, b = 0, c = 0, and d = 0. Then the parameters D,
p, k, and p, are dimensionally independent; hence, r = 4.
Step 4: Select r parameters which do not form a H-group among themselies. These parameters
are the repeating parameters that will appear in all the il-groups.
We shall select D, ,u, k, and p, as the repeating parameters since they have already been
shown to be dimensionally independent.
Step 5: Select one of the remaining parameters that is not one of the r repeating parameters and
non-dimensionalize that parameter using the r repeating parameters. Repeat the procedure until
all the remaining parameters are non-dimensionalized. There should now be n r il-groups.
There are three remaining parameters h, z9, and c to be non-dimensionalized. Starting
with h, we get
[h Daplkpd = i
M

3
0T

(M (MLC

(i_il

LT) 3
T
9
) L
)
3

1+b+e--d

La_b+

0
3dT_3
l
C
b_3C =

Then

l+b+c+d =0
ab+c3d =0
3b 3c

1c =0
The solution of this system of equations is a = 1, b = 0, c =
dimensionless group is then

1, and d = 0. The resulting

fl =!Ppiu

which is known as the Nusselt number, Nit.

The next non-repeating parameter is the velocity,

1
i

Non-dimensionalizing

we get

Ch. 10 Pg. 40
[Ddpekfp =

M1

ILl
Ld Mi
=1
LT} 3
T
O
J L
3
=I

Then
e+f+g =0
1+ ci e + f

3g =0

1e3f =0

-f =0
The solution of this system of equations is d = i.e
dimensionless group is then
II2

It

1, andf= 0, and g
R

which we recognize as the Reynolds number.

The final non-repeating parameter is the specific heat capacity,
thi.s parameter, we get
[c Dpkp

-f-e
2
T

c,,.

Non-dimensionalizing

LT} 3
eJL
T
}

Al L
2

1. The resulting

231

1
O
T
1

=1
=

Then
j+i+m =0

j +13m = 0
2 j 31 =0

2+ i

11= 0
The solution of this system of equations is i = 0, j = 1, 1
dimensionless group is then

1, and m

0. The resulting

II =--Pr
k
which is known as the Prandtl number, Fr. We now have reduced the original seven variables to
three fl-groups as expected.
Step 6: Check to see that all proposed il-groups are dimensionless and write the functional
relationship among them in dimensionless form.
The three groups we have are indeed dimensionless (we checked again). According to the
Buckingham Pi Theorem, the experimental heat transfer results we have presented above can be
expressed in the form
Na G(Re,Pr)
Once again, this is as far as dimensional analysis can take us. It is now necessary to use intuition,
observation, and analysis to find the functional form of G. The Reynolds, Nusselt, and Prandtl

Ch. 10 Pg. 41
numbers for each of the experimental flows are included in Table 10.4. The fluid physical
property values used to determine these dimensionless numbers are shown in Table 10.5. A plot
of the Nusselt number data (the non-dimensional heat transfer coefficient) versus the Reynolds
number data (the non-dimensional velocity) is shown in Figure 10.16.
Table 10.5 Values of Physical Properties Used to Calculate Data in Table 10.4
Group 1 and 2
Group 3
Group 4
Property
Hydrogen
Carbon Dioxide
Water
)
3
0.0812
p (kg/rn
1.788
973
8.93 x 10-6
p (kg/rn sec)
15.2 x 10-6
3.79 x i0
4
c (J/kg K)
14780
844
4190
k (W/mK)
0.198
0.0181
0.669

Group 4 Waler
100
Group 3 CO
2
Group2 H
2

z
10

10

10

10

Re

10

10

10

Figure 10.16 Dimensionless Heat Transfer Data for Flow Over a Cylinder
(Raw Data Shown in Table 10.4)
It is immediately clear that there has been an overall simplification in presenting the data.
Three of the four groups have collapsed onto a single curve. Unfortunately, the Group 4 water
data set does not lie on that same curve. This must be the effect of the Prandtl number since the
Prandtl number for the water data is 2.4 while that for the gases is substantially different at a
value of Pr 0.7. Clearly, there must be some way we can factor the Prandtl number into the
data, but in order to do this, we need more information. Problems 10.8 and 10.14 explore this
possibility so that we can determine the functional form of G in terms of both the Reynolds and
Prandtl numbers.

Ch. 10 Pg. 42

10.10 Electrical Systems

The use of dimensional analysis is not confined to thermal-fluid systems. We have
already seen in the case of the simple pendulum that it can be employed for mechanical systems.
In this section, we show that it can also be used for electrical systems. By way of example,
consider the simple RLC filter circuit shown in Figure 10.17. We are interested in the output

-AM/
p
Figure 10.17 A simple RLC circuit
voltage amplitude, V
. The input signal is assumed to be sinusoidal with frequencyf and
0
amplitude V. We now show the way that dimensional analysis can help us conveniently
characterize the relationship between the input and the output of this system.
Step 1: List and count the n parameters required to describe the physical situation. If any
important parameters are missing, dimensional analysis will fail.
The relevant parameters to describe the behavior of this circuit are the resistance, R, the
inductance, P, the capacitance, C, the input voltage amplitude, 14, the output voltage amplitude,
V,, and the frequency,f. Thus, there are six parameters (n = 6).
Step 2: List the dimensions of each variable according to M, L, T, and &.
In this case, the physics of the situation does not quite match with the thermal-fluid
situations we have been examining thus far. If we review the dimensions associated with the SI
unit system (See Section 10.1.), we discover that in the case of electrical systems, one of the
dimensions is the electrical current, I. Then instead of the appropriate dimensions being M, L, T,
and & as we had for thermal-fluid systems, we should use M, L, T, and I to describe this
situation. Then
[vJ=ML,
3
IT

[v]=ML,
0
3
IT

[RJ=

ML
2
3
T
2
1

ML
T
2
1

[C]

1
4
T
2
2
ML

Step 3: Find the value of r. Initially guess r to be equal to the number of different dimensions
present and then make sure that there are rparameters that do not form a H-group. If this is
unsuccessful, reduce r by one and look again.
There are four dimensions present in this set of parameters M, L, T, and I; consequently,
we will first guess r = 4 and try to reduce the six parameters down to two fl-groups. Let us
choosef, C, 14 and R as the potential r = 4 parameters. We need to check to see if they form a H
group by themselves. If they do, then it should be the case that

Ch. 10 Pg. 43
[fachvcRd] =

ia (I2T4(M2L2y(ML2 d

T ML2J
]l4

3
iT

I2T3J

1
-

h+2c+d d
L
b
2
2
dT
b
4
3

+
2
_
3
_
I
_ j 2hc2d

Then

b + 2c + d =0
2b+2c+2d =0
a+4b--3c--3d =0
2bc--2d =0
The first two equations of the set establish that b = d. The fourth equation shows
that c =
0. The third equation leads us to the conclusion that there are non-zero solutions
to this system of
equations. For example, choose a b = d 1 and the quantityJRC forms a dimen
sionless LIgroup. Thus, we conclude that the parametersf, C, V and R are dimensionally depend
ent.
Unfortunately, any choice of four variables from the set of parameters listed in step
1 forms a LIgroup. We are then forced to reduce the value of r to a value of 3 and seek three parame
ters that
do not themselves form a fl-group. Let us now choosef, C and V,. Then
[fickv1l

i iTfl
T

(M2L2

ML2J

3
IT

p_
l
k
I
2
k
4
I
3
k
_
_
_
J
+
k+
J+
_
l

0. Then the parametersf, C, and 14

Then
k + 21

2k + 21= 0
j+4k31 =0
2k 1 = 0
The solution of this system of equations isj = 0, k = 0, and 1
are dimensionally independent; hence, r = 3.

Step 4: Select r parameters which do not form a H-group among themselves. These
parameters
are the repeating parameters that will appear in all the il-groups.
We shall selectf, C, and 14, as the repeating parameters since they have already
been
shown to be dimensionally independent.
Step 5: Select one of the remaining parameters that is not one of the r repeating parame
ters and
non-ditnensionalize that parameter using the r repeating parameters. Repeat the proced
ure until
all the remaining parameters are non-dimensionalized. There should now be n r
H-groups.
There are three remaining parameters Vp,, R, and 2 that need to be non -dimensionali
zed.
Starting with 14,, we get

Ch. 10 Pg. 44
0
[v

L
2
M

(la

faCb,c1=1
M2L2

J2T4

3 TJML2JIT3
IT
ji,-

2_b+2cL2_2h+2cT_3_a+4h_3cI_1+2b_c

Then
2 b + 2c = 0
2 2b + 2c
3 a + 4b

3c

1+2bc=0
The solution of this system of equations is a = 0, b = 0, and c =
group is then

1. The resulting dimensionless

ni
I;

which we probably could have written just by inspection of the parameters without having to go
through the details of the dimensional analysis process.
The next non-repeating parameter to be non-dimensionalized is the resistance, R. Hence,
[R
2 (i
ML

3 TJ
T
2
1

f1CkV,.1]=1
k 22

J2T4

2
AlL

IT

]I4 3
l
l_k+
k
l
_
k
4
k
+
2
_
1
l
T_
L
]+
_l
+
_

Then
1k 21

22k21 =0
3 j +4k --31 =0
2+2k1=0
The solution of this system of equations is j = 1, k = 1, and 1
group is then
112 rrfRC

0. The resulting dimensionless

The final non-repeating parameter is the inductance,

Non-dimensionalizing this, we

get

[ fCV ]
2 (1
ML

1fl

T TJ
2
1

M2L2

(12T4

2
ML

3
IT

np
+
2
j

Al

Then
ln+2p=0

2 2n + 2
p =0
2m+4n3p = 0
2+ 2n

Ch. 10 Pg. 45
The solution of this system of equations is m
group is then

2,

1, andp

0. The resulting dimensionless

3 =if C
H
We have now reduced the original six parameters to three fl-groups (corresponding to n
3 = 3).

r=6

Step 6: Check to see that all proposed il-groups are dimensionless and write the functional
relationship among them in dimensionless form.
The three groups we have are indeed dimensionless. (We checked again.) According to
the Buckingham Pi Theorem, the response function for this circuit can be expressed in the form
1 =G(TT,,fT
H
)
3
=

2
G(fflC
C
)
,f

Dimensional analysis has revealed the important groups necessary to describe this physical
situation. From the second and third fl-groups, we infer that 1/RC and 1/(PC)w
2 have the same
dimension as frequency. The equation above tells us that the response of the circuit will
somehow be scaled by these two frequencies. The function G is known as the transfer function
for the circuit and can be determined by examining the circuit in detail.
The current through the resistor, R, can be related to the voltage across it by means of
Ohms law, viz.,
V(V(,
IR_

R
Similarly, the current through the inductance, i can be related to the voltage across it by means
of Amperes law, viz.,
dt
and for the current through the capacitor
C

dt
From Figure 10.17, we realize that Kirchoffs law for current requires that the current through the
resistor R must be equal to the sum of the currents through the capacitor and the inductor, or
+1
3f
V,V
0
1

R
dt
This latter equation is easily solved for the sinusoidal steady state case by assuming the
time dependence goes as e where j =
e1t,
We substitute V(
1 = V(,et and v
where V
0
and V are the amplitudes of the complex voltages. We do this with the understanding that the
meaningful solution is the real part of V
e We then perform the time integration and
0
differentiation, and after some algebra, we arrive at the result
I
.

1
V

jwRC

Ch. 10 Pg. 46
Note that the solution has naturally fallen into a dimensionless form. There are three
dimensionless groups in the above expression: (V/14), (R/&P), and (wRC). We have already
found two of these dimensionless groups in our dimensional analysis of the circuit. The third,
can be written as the quotient of two of the dimensionless groups we found earlier,
2 fRC R
n
H
3 f
n
C fl
2
The ratio of the voltage amplitudes can be made by taking the magnitude of the response
equation, resulting in
vo _Vo_

I
C
2
2icf

Ii+I 2z(fRC)

np=I
)-1
2
Il+2(fl
2ir
1

)
3
H

Clearly, the response function can be written in a form consistent with the form we determined
by dimensional analysis.
10.11 Physical Significance of Dimensionless Groups
From the examples examined above it would appear that the process of dimensional
analysis is purely a mathematical formalism; however, there is actually important physical
information conveyed by the dimensionless groups that result from this process. In virtually
every case, a dimensionless group represents the ratio of certain physical conditions, and the
magnitude of this ratio can be helpful in providing information about the behavior of a particular
system in several different ways. One of the most common uses of a dimensionless group is to
provide information about the system under limiting physical conditions.
For example, we have already seen in Chapter 6 that the dimensionless group known as
the Biot number represents the ratio of the internal resistance to conduction heat transfer to the
external resistance to convection heat transfer. Then just knowing the magnitude of the Biot
number in a particular situation is equivalent to knowing a substantial amount of information
about the physical situation. If the Biot number is small, we know a priori that any
irreversibilities that occur as a result of the heat transfer process between a solid and the fluid in
which it is immersed will occur within the fluid and not within the solid. The solid will behave as
though it is experiencing a reversible heat transfer process. Then if we wish to reduce the
magnitude of the entropy generated in the heat transfer process as a whole, we know that we need
to focus our attention on the fluid. Conversely, if the Biot number is large, our attention should
be directed to the solid since the dominant irreversibility will be located there. Keep in mind,
however, that in order to quantify the concepts of small and large we need additional
information about the physical situation. In the case of the Biot number, previous experience has
shown that any value of the Biot number less than 0.1 qualifies as small, and any value of the
Biot number greater than 3 qualifies as large.
Alternatively, this physical information embodied in a dimensionless group can be a
guide to the nature of the physical information that we may need to know about a situation in
order to characterize it properly. This can be especially helpful in formulating an analytical

Ch. 10 Pg. 47
description of a physical situation of interest. For example, we have already seen in Chapter 9
that the Reynolds number represents the ratio of the inertial forces acting in a flow field to the
viscous forces acting in that same flow field. Thus, when the value of the Reynolds number is
small, viscous forces tend to dominate, and when the Reynolds number is large, inertial
forces tend to dominate. In Chapter 9 we examined in detail a number cases for which the
Reynolds number was small and viscous forces were dominant. These examples included,
among others, flow of a liquid film down an inclined plane, fully developed laminar flow
between infinite parallel flat plates, and fully developed laminar flow inside a conduit of circular
cross-section. In each of those cases, we saw that because the Reynolds number was small, the
physical situation could be described by a solution of the Navier-stokes equation in which the
non-linear inertial terms could be neglected. It was the magnitude of the Reynolds number that
was the clue that such a simplification was possible. Unlike the case of the Biot number,
however, the value of the Reynolds number in the cases cited could be on the order of 2000 and
still be considered small. Such additional information becomes known only as a result of
experimental investigation or other experience.
Finally, the physical information embodied in the dimensionless groups can useful as an
aide to interpreting the results of experimental measurements. We have seen in Figure 10.16, for
example, that the heat transfer data for flow of gases over a cylinder resulted in a relatively
simple correlation between the Nusselt number and the Reynolds number. However, when we
replaced the flowing gas with a flowing liquid like water, the simple correlation broke down.
Somehow, it became necessary to incorporate the nature of the fluid into the correlation. The
dimensionless group known as the Prandtl number offers a means of accomplishing this. As we
will see in greater detail in Chapter 11, the Prandtl number represents the ratio of momentum
diffusivity to thermal diffusivity. This ratio is important in convection heat transfer because as
the flow field is developing, the velocity profile is developing at one rate while the temperature
profile is developing at another rate. The process of convection heat transfer is affected by the
relative competition between these two rates. For fluids with small values of the Prandtl
number, e.g., liquid mercury, the temperature profile becomes established almost imniediately
while the velocity profile will take much longer to develop. For these fluids, the heat transfer
process is dominated by simple thermal conduction down the temperature gradient that has
formed in the fluid.
Liquids like water and oil, on the other hand, have relatively large values of the Prandtl
number. For such fluids involved in convective heat transfer, the velocity profile develops
rapidly, but the temperature profile takes a good bit longer to develop. Since the velocity field
can have a strong influence on the transfer of energy by virtue of bulk motion of the fluid in
convection heat transfer, fluids with larger values of the Prandtl number tend to have enhanced
heat transfer by convection at any given value of the Reynolds number. Thus, the value of the
Prandtl number enables us to interpret the experimental data more easily in this case. Again, the
interpretation of what constitutes small and large is unique to this case. For convective heat
transfer, a value of unity for the Prandtl number is a rough guide to the demarcation between
small and large.
Clearly, dimensional analysis and the dimensionless groups that derive from the process
are useful tools in thermal-fluids engineering. The nature of thermal-fluid systems is such that
dimensionless groups are frequently used to characterize them. Some of these dimensionless
groups occur so frequently and have such special meaning in the history and practice of thermal
fluids engineering they have been given special names, often in honor of the research investigator
who first used them.
Some of the more commonly used dimensionless groups in thermal-fluids engineering are
listed in Table 10.6. Table 10.7 lists the parameters and their dimensions used in defining the
groups.

Ch. 10 Pg. 48

Table 10 6 Dimensionless Groups Frequently Used to Characterize Thermal-Fluid Systems

GROUP

DEFINITION

Biot number

Ec

Eu

Euler number

Grashof number

c(AT)

kinetic energy of flow

enthalpy difference in boundary layer

High-speed flows

AP
piY
2

pressure forces
inertia forces

Flow throurh an orifice

rate of conduction heat transfer

rate of thermal energy storage

Transient conduction

velocity
surface wave velocity

Flows with free surface

effects

(buoyancy forces)(inertia forces)

(viscous forces)
2

Natural convection

inertia forces
compressibility forces

High-speed flows

hL
k

wall temperature gradient

bulk temperature gradient

Forced and natural

convection

heat transfer by conduction

heat transfer by convection

Laminar internal flows;

creeping external flows

momentum diffusivity
thermal diffusivity

Forced and natural

convection

buoyancy forces
viscous forces

Natural convection

inertia forces
viscous forces

Forced flows

pc,,i9

wall heat transfer rate

convection heat transfer rate

Forced flows

p
L
2
a

inertia forces
surface tension forces

Two-phase flows

FD
A
2
rptY

drag force
dynamic force

External flows

externally applied force

dynamic force

Internal flows

lift force
dynamic force

External flows

loc pressure difference

dynamic pressure

External flows

2
v

Nusselt number

Nu

Prandtl number

pc,,
k

Ra

Weber number

We

Drag coefficient

Friction factor

St

Stanton number

CD

v
a

GrPr

Re =

Reynolds number

zL
a

Pr

Rayleigh number

at
2
L

z9

Fe

Gr

Mach number

Peclet number

Transient forced and

natural flows

Fr

Froude number

/XP
= (L)

Lift coefficient

CL

Pressure coefficient

,
1
C

Skin friction
coefficient

1
C

)
2
( pt

L
I
pY
A
2

p
=

2
pr
,

USE

internal resistance to conduction

external resistance to convection

ki
pcL
2

Fo

Fourier number

hL
k

Eckert number

INTERPRETATION

2
1pO
2

skin friction force

dynamic force

External flows

Ch. lOPg.49

NOTE:
In the context of our study of the hydrodynamics of vessels, the Froude number merits special
mention. The version of the Froude number expressed in Table 10.6 is technically known
as the first Froude
number. It is used both in the analysis of open channel flows and in the analysis of waves about
shapes
immersed in deep water. In the case of open channel flows, L is the depth of the channel and i
is the average
velocity of the flow. The Froude number then represents the ratio of the speed of flow to the
speed of a small
amplitude surface wave (See Section 5.3.). It should be noted that there are citations in the literature
that call the
square of this quantity, i9
/gL, the Froude number. This latter dimensionless group is technically known as the
2
second Froude number and represents the ratio of the inertial force to the gravitational force.

Symbol

Table 10.7 Parameters Used to Characterize Thennal-Fluid Systems

Description

Dimension {MLT&}

acoustic velocity

LIT

surface area or projected area of object

specific heat of an incompressible fluid or solid

2
L
/T
2
L
9

specific heat at constant pressure of a compressible fluid

inside diameter of pipe

c
c
D
FD
FL
g
h
k

drag force on an object

lift force on an object
acceleration due to gravity
convective heat transfer coefficient

2
MLJT
2
MLIT
2
LIT
3&
MIT

thermal conductivity of fluid

thermal conductivity of solid

3 61
MLIT

characteristic length

local pressure

2
MILT

P.

2
MILT

LP

fluid pressure in the free stream

pressure drop in the direction of flow

2
MILT

time

surface temperature

&

T.

&

fluid temperature in the free stream

T-T.

&

thermal diffusivity

L2
1T

/1

fluid coefficient of thermal expansion {J3= -(lIp)(8pI3T)T}

fluid viscosity

MILT

p
v
p
ci
z
it

3 61
MLIT

kinematic viscosity ( v= pIp)

density

3
MIL

surface tension

2
MIT

fluid shear stress acting on a solid surface

local or average fluid velocity

2
M/LT

L
I
2
T

LIT

Ch. 10 Pg. 50
Appendix 1OA
Design of a Sailboat with the Aid of Dimensional Analysis
To demonstrate the utility of dimensional analysis in greater detail, we elaborate here on
the methods developed by Froude for the design of the hulls of sailing vessels. In an attempt to
substantiate Froudes assertion that the drag on ships due to viscous effects could be treated as
uncoupled from the drag due to wave generation effects, the British Admiralty measured the drag
on full size ships. In 1871, the 172.5 ft long vessel Greyhound was towed off Portsmouth. Data
from these tests were compared to tests of a one-sixth scale model of Greyhound. The tests were
not conclusive in proving Froudes method of scaling the data since the drag on the ship was
larger than the drag predicted by the model. This disparity between the measurements was
ultimately attributed, in part, to the additional roughness of old copper sheathing on the ships
bottom.
Sometime later in 1950 and 1951, further tests were performed using the 190.5 ft Lucy
Ashton in Gareloch off the Firth of Clyde. To avoid the influence of a vessel towing her, jet
engines were used to propel the Lucy Ashton. These tests also showed some disagreement with
the results derived using Froudes methods. As a result, several sets of correlations for the skin
resistance (resistance due to viscous drag) have been developed. One particularly simple and
often used correlation of the viscous drag coefficient on a flat plate, C is the ITTC line, given by
0.075

10 (Re)
[log

212

Here C is defined not in terms of the length of the hull squared as suggested in our non
dimensionalization shown in Chapter 10, but rather in terms of the wetted surface area of the
hull, S, so that
flat plate

Note again that C

1 depends only on the Reynolds number and not on the Froude number. The
wave drag coefficient and the total drag coefficient are similarly defined.
wave drag
W

4pt9
S
2
where C depends only on the Froude number and not on the Reynolds number and

total

Unfortunately, the viscous drag on a flat plate does not completely capture the viscous
drag on a hull. The hull has a shape that will result in a behavior of its boundary layer that is
different from that of the flat plate. To compensate for this difference, a form resistance
coefficient, has been introduced into the simple additive expression for the total drag
coefficient that combines the flat plate viscous drag coefficient and the wave drag coefficient,
viz.,
Ctat = (1+ 1C)Cf + Cy
,

Ch. lOPg.51
The form resistance coefficient is assumed to be constant and the same for both the model and
the full-scale prototype. (Note that in the case of the flat plate, iC= 0.) The form resistance
coefficient can be isolated by dividing the above expression by the flat plate drag coefficient or
1
-=
v
)+-
(l+
1
C
Cf
At very low Froude numbers the vessel does not generate many waves and so the drag coefficient
due to wave generation,
will approach zero. It has been found that the ratio CJ C
1 approaches
zero as the fourth power of the Froude number or
Cf

Cf

for Fr<<l

where b is some coefficient. The value of iccan be determined from the y-intercept, (1 + x), of a
plot of the ratio Ct()/CJ versus Fr
.
4
This approach now enables us to scale test data measured on a model in the towing tank
to a full-scale prototype. The results of a towing tank test of a one-twentieth scale model of the
sailboat Boreus is shown in Table bA. 1. Boreus has a waterline length of 18.358 m, a waterline
beam (widest width of the boat at the waterline) of 3.263 m, and a draft (vertical distance from
the waterline to the keel) of 4.047 m. The total mass of the boat is 26857 kg. The total wetted
surface area of the vessel is 71.712 m
2 (These data were provided by Prof. Jerome Milgram of
the Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering MIT.) We will assume the
density of water is 998.178 kg, the kinematic viscosity of the water is 1.10x10
6m
/sec and the
2
gravitational acceleration 9.806 misec
. The length of the model is 18.358/20 = 0.9 179 m. The
2
surface area of the model is 71.712/(20)2 = 0.17928 m
.
2
,

Table 1OA.1 Drag Force on Model of Boreus in the Towing Tank

Model velocity
(mis)

Total drag force

on the model (N)

1.1898
1.9296
2.4495
2.8280
3.2671
3.4213
1.4856
2.2288
2.5278
2.8998
3.5689
1.6360
2.2992
2.5998
2.9713
3.7170
1.7804
2.3790
2.0790
2.6760
2.7498
3.1182

0.679
1.779
3.033
4.694
9.226
11.385
1.035
2.445
3.265
5.214
13.460
1.245
2.625
3.502
5.830
15.527
1.481
2.841
2.069
3.813
4.181
7.343

Ch. 10 Pg. 52
In applying this new approach to the scaling of towing tank test data, the first step is to
establish the total coefficient of drag, the Reynolds number and the Froude number for the model
tests. In Table 1OA.l, the first velocity is 1.1898 rn/sec so that the Froude number for this
particular test of the model is
=
1.1898 rn/sec
(Fr) niodel =
=0.3966
m/sec2)(0.9179
J(9.806
m/sec)
The corresponding drag coefficient for the model is
0.679 N
ota1
(Ctot)niociei
S (998.l78 kg/rn
2
p
3 )(l.1898 rn/sec)
2 (0.17928

=0.00536

m2)

The Reynolds number for this velocity is

= piYL
z9L (1.1898 m/sec)(0.9179 m)
(Re/ model
v
6 kg/rn sec
1.10x10

5
9.93 x i0

For a flat plate with the same length and wetted surface area as the model and towed at the same
velocity as the model, the viscous drag coefficient is
0.075
0.075
=
3
=4.69x10
) model =
1
(c
10 (Re) 212 [log
[log
10 (9.93 x l0) 21
These results and the results of similar calculations for the other data points from the model tests
are included in Table 1OA.2. The last two columns of this table include the ratio (Cto/C/)model and
.
4
Fr

Thble 1OA.2 Dimensionless Drag Data for the Model of the Sailboat Boreus
()4(

),
1
u
0
(F,
00661

1.1898
1.9296

0.679
1.779
3.033
4.694
9.226
11.385
1.035
2.445
3.265
5.214
13.460
1.245
2.625
3.502
5.830
15.527
1.481
2.841
2.069
3.813
4.181
7.343

2.8280
3.2671
3.4213
1.4856

1.6360
2.2992
2.5998
2.97 13
3.7170
1.7804
2.3790
2.0790
2.6760
2.7498
3.1182

(Fr)flodeI

(Re),

f),
0
(Cf
/
6
d
00

(Cf)model

(Cto/Cf),m)del

),flOdC/
4
(Fr

0.3966
0.6432
0.8165
0.9426
1.0890
1.1404
0.4952
0.7429
0.8426
0.9666
1.1896
0.5453
0.7664
0.8666
0.9904
1.2389
0.5934
0.7930
0.6930
0.8920
0.9166
1.0393

9.93 x io
1.61 x 106
2.04x 106
2.36 x 106
2.73 x 106
2.85 x 106
1.24x 106
1.86x 106
2.11 x 106
2.42 x 106
2.98x 106
1.37 x 106
1.92x 106
2.17 x 106
2.48 x 106
3.lOx 106
1.49x 106
1.99 x 106
1.73 x 106
2.23 x 106
6
2.29x10
6
2.60x10

0.00536
0.00534
0.00536
0.00656
0.00966
0.01087
0.00524
0.00550
0.00571
0.00693
0.01181
0.00520
0.00555
0.00579
0.00738
0.01256
0.00522
0.00561
0.00535
0.00595
0.00618
0.00844

4.69 x iO
4.24x l0
4.04x 10
3.92 x 10
3.81 x i0
3.78x i0
4.48x 10
4.11 x i0
4.01 x i0
3.90 x i0
3
3.75x10
4.39 x iO
4.09x 10
3.99 x iO
3.88 x iO
3.72x iO
3
4.31x10
4.06 x i0
4.17x 1O
3.97 x i0
3
3.94x10
3
3.85x10

1.142
1.260
1.400
1.673
2.534
2.87
.171
.337
.424
.776
.152
.186
.357
.452
.900
.379
1.211
.382
.282
.500
1.567
2.194

0.0247
0.1711
0.4444
0.7895
1.4063
1.6912
0.0601
0.3046
0.5040
0.8728
2.0025
0.0884
0.3449
0.5639
0.9621
2.3561
0.1240
0.3954
0.2306
0.6330
0.7057
1.1669

Cli. 10 Pg. 53
These values are plotted in Figure 1 OA. 1 for small values of the Froude number. The best fit to
these data is the straight line
Cf

=1.1262 + 0.6902 Fizojei

)4

)nwdel

Then the y-intercept of this line is 1.1262; consequently, for this hull, the form resistance
coefficient, ic, has a value of 0.1262.

1.22

1.2

Ic

\fJ,,oId

1.18

1.16
I

1.14k

I
L0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.14

(Fr) n,odl

Figure 1 OA. 1 Evaluation of the Form Resistance Coefficient, ic, from Dimensionless Drag Data
We are now in a position to determine
as a function of the Froude number. From the
expression for the total drag, we have for the results of towing the model with the lowest velocity
0 (l+1jCf =0.00536(1+0.1262)(0.00469)=7.31 x l0
C, =C,
which corresponds to a Froude number for the model of 0.3 966. The full-scale-boat velocity,
associated with this Froude number is
=

Fr.fJJ

0.3966J(9.806 rn/sec
2 )(18.358 m)

1.,

5.321 rn/sec

The Reynolds number corresponding to the full scale vessel traveling at this velocity is
iYL (5.321 mlsec)(18.358 m)
Ref.
= 8.88 x io
v
6 rn-/sec
l.10x10
Then the friction drag coefficient on the full scale vessel becomes
0.075
=
0.075
(Cf)=
3
=2.l2x10
2
2
10 (Ref) 21
[log
10 (8.88 x iO) 21
[log
The total drag coefficient on the full scale vessel traveling at this velocity (5.32 1 rn/see) becomes
==

Ch. 10 Pg. 54
(C)

) +C =1.1262(2.12 x 10)+7.31 x l0 =2.46 x i0

1
=(l+)(C

and the total drag force acting on the full scale vessel can be calculated from the definition of the
total drag coefficient,
(Ftotal)f

)(5.321 mlsec)
3
2 (71.712
)f(p2S)= (2.46 x lOj(998.l78 kg/m
0
=(C

m2)

2
(Fwtai )fs

2.49 x i0 N

These values and the corresponding values for the other velocities are entered in Table 1OA.3.

Fr
0.3966
0.6432
0.8165
0.9426
1.0890
1.1404
0.4952
0.7429
0.8426
0.9666
1.1896
0.5453
0.7664
0.8666
0.9904
1.2389
0.5934
0.7930
0.6930
0.8920
0.9166
1.0393

Table 1OA.3 Drag Force on the Full-Scale Vessel

i. (mis)
Rep,
C,,
(C)
7.31 x iO
5.68 x 1O
1.10 x i0
2.14 x i0
5.37 x i0
6.62 x i0
1.99 x i0
8.67 x iO
3
1.19x10
2.54 x iO
7.59 x iO
2.61 x iO
9.46 x 1O
1.30x i0
3.01 x i0
8.37 x i0
3.67 x i0
1.04x 10
6.50 x i0
1.48 x 10
1.74 x iO
4.11 x iO

5.321
8.630
10.955
12.647
14.611
15.301
6.644
9.968
11.305
12.968
15.961
7.3 17
10.282
11.627
13.288
16.623
7.962
10.639
9.298
11.968
12.298
13.945

x iO
1.44x 108
1.83 x i0
2.11 x iO
2.44 x 108
2.55 x i0
1.11 x i0
1.66 x 108
8
1.89x10
2.16 x 108
2.66 x 108
1.22 x 108
1.72 x 108
1.94x 108
2.22 x 108
2.77 x
1.33 x
1.78x
1.55 x
2.00 x
2.05 x
2.33 x

iO
108
108
108
108
108
108

2.12 x iO
1.98 x 1O
.91 x i0
.88 x 10-s
.84 x i0
.83 x 10-s
2.05 x iO
.94 x iO
3
.90x10
.87 x iO
.82 x 1O
:2.02 x iO
1.93 x iO
.90x iO
.86 x iO
.81 x iO
2.00 x iO
.92x 1O
.96 x iO
.89 x i0
.88 x iO
1.85 x iO

2.46 x 10
2.79 x i0
3.26 x iO
4.25 x 1O
7.44 x 10
8.67 x 10
2.51 x 10
3.05 x 10
3
3.34x10
4.64 x 10
9.64 x 1O
2.54 x iO
3.12 x iO
3.43x iO
5.10 x iO
1.04 x 10-2
2.62 x iO
3.20x 10
2.85 x iO
3.61 x 10
3.86 x iO
6.19 x iO

(N)
2.49 x iO
7.45 x 1O
1.40 x iO
2.44 x 1O
5.68 x iO
7.27 x iO
3.97 x 1O
1.08 x 1
4
1.53x10
2.79 x iO
8.79 x io
4.87 x iO
1.18 x io
1.66x i0
3.23 x io
1.03 x iO
5.94 x iO
1.30x iO
8.83 x io
1.85 x iO
2.09 x io
4.31 x i0

Figure 1OA.2 shows the relationship between the total drag force, (F
, and the velocity, 1$ for
1
)
0
the full scale vessel. The data are clearly nonlinear, but they could be used in graphical form to
determine the drag force at any velocity. For computational purposes, it is often more convenient
to develop an empirical relationship between these data. In the particular case at hand, one
convenient way to do this is to non-dimensionalize the drag force with respect to a specific
condition. For convenience, let us choose the condition of the vessel for which the velocity is i
8
= 5.321 mlsec and the total drag force is (F,
=
2490
N.
Figure
1OA.3
shows
the
dimensionless
)
0
values of force that result from dividing all values of force predicted by the modified Froude
approach by the selected value. The data are presented in logarithmic form as a way of
compressing the data and developing a simple curve fit. As shown in Figure 1OA.3, the data for
the dimensionless drag force can be fit approximately by the equation

Ik.2490N)=(0.l582)exp(0.3343z9

ft

Ch. 10 Pg. 55
l.2-10

-1+
z

81

1-

I)
Q

61

-I-

4-1

+
121

++++++
(34

10
12
Vessel Velocity (mlsec)

14

16

18

Figure 1OA.2 Total Drag Force Acting on the Vessel

I 06

0
C

0.1

10

12

14

16

18

vessel Velocity (mlsec)

Figure 1OA.3 Dimensionless Drag Force

We have chosen to nondimensionalize the force data in this manner rather than using
the drag
coefficient because the curve fit given above is simpler than the fit that would be require
d for the
drag coefficient data. The principle is the same in both cases.
As an example of the way in which these results could be used, we can determine the
power required to drive the vessel at some particular velocity such as
= 9 rn/sec. From the

Ch. lOPg.56
curve fit, we can determine the propulsive force (equal to the drag force at constant vessel
velocity) necessary to drive the full scale hull at the selected velocity.
0 )f
(F

(2940 N)(0.1582)exp[(0.l582)(9 m/sec)1

7983.5 N

The net power required to drive this hull at the selected velocity is simply the product of the force
and the velocity or
=

((?,

(L9fr)

(7983.5 N)(9 m/sec)

71.85 kW

Because there are many inefficiencies in the propulsion system (transmission and propeller
efficiency, additional drag due to appendages supporting the propeller, etc.), this power is
significantly smaller than the power output of the engine required to drive this hull at
= 9
mlsec.

Ch. 10 Pg. 57

Appendix lOB
Strouhal Vortices, the Karman Vortex Street, and the Myth of Galloping Gertie
In Chapter 9, we saw that the flow of a fluid like air past bluff bodies such as vehicle
s and
stationary structures generated a wake downstream of the object. We observed that
the shape of
the wake was a function of the Reynolds number of the flow based upon the inciden
t velocity, r
of the fluid and some characteristic length of the bluff body. For our purposes here,
we wish to
consider flow past a cylinder of infinite extent, oriented so that the axis of the cylind
er is
perpendicular to the plane of the page with the flow of the fluid from left to right.
We are
interested in flows with Reynolds numbers (based upon the diameter of the cylind
er, D) in the
range of 50 <ReD < iO, but especially in the range 600 <ReD < 6000. Figure lOB.
1 is a
photograph of such a flow at a Reynolds number of 120.

Figure lOB. 1 Karman Vortex Street Downstream of a Cylinder, Re

120

Consider a streamline that lies in the horizontal plane containing the axis of the cylind
er.
The point where this streamline contacts the cylinder is known as the stagnation
point. As a fluid
particle flows toward the front face of the cylinder, the pressure in the fluid particle rises
from the
free stream pressure to the stagnation pressure. The high fluid pressure near the stagna
tion point
drives the flow around the cylinder as the boundary layer develops on the forward face.
As the
flow proceeds away from the stagnation point, the pressure in the free stream
decreases as the
flow accelerates around the convex shape of the cylinder. When the flow reaches
the position
where the vertical plane containing the axis of the cylinder intersects the surface
of the cylinder
(at a point 90 from the stagnation point), the fluid velocity is at a maximum. As
the flow tries to
proceed down the back face of the cylinder, it decelerates and its pressure increas
es in an attempt
to recover the stagnation pressure at the point diametrically opposite the stagnation
point (180
from the stagnation point). However, the skin friction due to viscous shear in the
boundary layer
decelerates the fluid even faster than the flow geometry would dictate. This combin
ation of
retarding forces acting on the flow causes the boundary layer to separate from the
surface of the
cylinder surface and form two shear layers, one from the top of the cylinder, the other
from the
bottom.

Ch. 10 Pg. 58
These shear layers trail behind the cylinder and form the boundaries of the wake. The
fluid in the innermost portion of the shear layers that is in contact with the cylinder moves much
more slowly than the outermost portion of the shear layers due to the action of viscosity near the
surface. This causes the shear layers to roll into the near wake. In this region, they fold up on
each other and coalesce into discrete, swirling vortices that alternate positions from the top and
the bottom of the cylinder. As shown in Figure lOB. 1, a regular pattern of oscillating vortices,
called a vortex street, trails the cylinder in the wake. These vortices interact with the cylinder,
and because they alternate position from top to bottom, the pressure, and, hence, the forces acting
on the top and bottom halves of the cylinder alternate in magnitude causing the net vertical force
acting on the cylinder to be alternately positive and negative. This alternating force can cause the
cylinder to vibrate transverse to the flow direction depending upon the relative magnitude of the
restoring force produced by the elastic behavior of the material of the cylinder. These vibrations
can be in the audible portion of the spectrum producing a hum or singing of the cylinder as
in the case of wires stretched between poles in a wind. The vortex street is also the cause of the
chattering of Venetian blinds in front of an open window on a breezy day. Furthermore, these
vortex streets can occur on a global scale as the atmosphere moves over obstacles such as islands
as seen in the atmospheric cloud patterns photographed from satellites.
Vortex streets have been the subject of study for centuries. The audible sound induced by
a vortex street acting on the wires of an Aeolian harp has been known since ancient times.
According to legend, King David hung his harp in an open window and heard it played by the
th
century, as part of an effort associated with the design of a
wind. Around the turn of the 1 6
bridge, Leonardo da Vinci (1452 1519) sketched a row of vortices in the wake of a bridge pile
in a stream. In 1878, V. Strouhal found that the Aeolian tones generated by a wire in the wind
were proportional to the wind speed divided by the wire diameter. He noticed that the sound
greatly increased when the natural tones of the wire coincided with the Aeolian tones. In 1879,
Lord Rayleigh (1842 1919) found that a violin string in a chimney draft vibrated primarily
transverse to the flow, rather than in the direction of the flow. When the frequency of this
oscillation matched the frequency to which the string was tuned, an Aeolian tone resulted. (The
fundamental is never sounded, only the overtone series.) In fact, it was Lord Rayleigh who
coined the term Aeolian tones after the Greek god of the wind, Aeolus. In 1908, Henri Benard
observed that the periodicity of the wake of a cylinder was associated with vortex formation, but
it was not until 1912 that Theodore von Karman (1881 1963) developed a full quantitative
description of the stable street of staggered vortices that forms behind a cylinder in the wake of
its flow. The individual vortices are known as Strouhal vortices and the phenomenon of the
stable vortex street is known as a Karman vortex street.
A full analytical description of the Karman vortex street in the wake of a cylinder requires
the solution of the time-dependent form of the Navier-Stokes equation, and there are many
examples in the literature in which this phenomenon has been addressed by both analytical
methods and the methods of computational fluid dynamics. However, it is possible to investigate
the importance of the various parameters through dimensional analysis. Let us denote the
characteristic frequency of the appearance and disappearance of the vortices by o, and let us
apply the process of dimensional analysis to the description of this situation.

Step 1: List and count the n parameters required to describe the physical situation. If any
important parameters are missing, dimensional analysis will fail.

Ch. 10 Pg. 59
Iii addition to the frequency a, the first parameters of interest are the velocity of the fluid
iand the diameter of the wire (cylinder) D. The other relevant parameters in this situation are
related to the identity of the fluid, namely the density, p. and the viscosity, p. Temperature is not
relevant in this situation although it would be if we were concerned with the heat transfer process
associated with the shed of vortices from the cylinder.
Step 2: List the dimensions of each variable according to M, L, T, and i9.
[a]=,

[z91=,

[p1=-p-,

[D]=L,

=
1
-Ei-

Step 3: Find the value of r. Initially guess r to be equal to the number of different dimensions
not form a il-group. If this is
unsuccessful, reduce r by one and look again.
Since there are three dimensions present: M, L, and 7 we first guess r = 3, and we hope
to reduce the five parameters down to two fl-groups, n r = 5 3 = 2. Let us choose D, p, and
1as the 3 potential repeating parameters. We need to ensure that they do not form a fl-group
themselves. Checking, we get

present and then make sure that there are r parameters that do

[apbj

=i

=1

LT} TJ

M bLa_b+CT_b_c

Then
b=0

ab+c=0
b c = 0
The solution of this system of equations is a = 0, b = 0, and c
are dimensionally independent; hence, r = 3.

0. Then the parameters D, p, and

Step 4: Select rparameters which do not form a H-group among themselves. These parameters
are the repeating parameters that will appear in all the H-groups.
We shall select D, p, and i, as the repeating parameters since they have already been
shown to be dimensionally independent.
Step 5: Select one of the remaining parameters that is not one of the r repeating parameters and
non-dimensionalize that parameter using the r repeating parameters. Repeat the procedure until
all the remaining parameters are non-dimensionalized. There should now be n r il-groups.
There are two remaining parameters w and p to be non-dimensionalized. Starting with u,
we get

[dDepf

D(LDd (LL
1
(
MfLe_fTll_j

=1
1

Ch. 10 Pg. 60
Then

f =0
d+ef =0
ldf =0
The solution of this system of equations gives d = 1, e = 1, andf= 0. Then the first
dimensionless group is

11
This dimensionless group is known as the Strouhal number, Sr, and represents the ratio of the
vortex frequency to the characteristic frequency of the flow geometry.
The second dimensionless group can be written by inspection since we have seen it so
many times before. It is just the Reynolds number.
[pz D
? Pu = 1
1
g=l,

h=l,
z1Dp

i=l
=Re

P
Step 6: Check to see that all proposed il-groups are dimensionless and write the functional
relationship among them in dimensionless forni.
The two groups we have are indeed dimensionless (We checked again.). According to the
Buckingham Pi Theorem, the experimental results for the characteristic frequency of the vortex
street can be expressed in the form
Sr=G(Re)
Once again, this is as far as dimensional analysis can take us. It is now necessary to employ
experimental methods to find the functional form of G. Figure 1OB.2 shows the values for the
modified Strouhal number (frequency in Hz instead of radians/sec) determined by experiment
over a wide range of Reynolds numbers. Note that except for the lowest values of the Reynolds
number, the value of the Strouhal number is nearly constant at a value of approximately Sr
0.21. Then in the case of a wire stretched between two poles in the wind, the frequency of
vibration increases as the wind velocity increases.
0.24

0.22

0.2
z

2irt

0.18

O.14

+
I

0.12
10

ioo

3
io

Re

1 1o

1.106

It

Figure 1OB.2 Modified Strouhal Number for Flow Past a Circular Cylinder

Ch. 10 Pg. 61

Example 1OBE.1: Suppose we wish to make an Aeolian harp using a wire of diameter D
1 mm. If the audible spectrum is considered to be frequencies in the range of 20 Hz <f< 20
kHz, what wind velocity would be required to produce the lowest frequency sound in the audible
range? If the highest expected wind velocity is i= 22 mlsec (nearly 50 mph), what is the highest
note likely to be produced? Assume that the atmospheric conditions are p = 1.177 kg/rn
3 and p =
1.85 x iO kg/m sec.
Solution: The lowest value of Reynolds number at which the Karman vortex street can
exist is approximately Re 50 for which Sr = 0.13 (See Figure 1OB.2.). Then the air velocity
corresponding to this value of the Reynolds number is
=

(1.85 x 10 kg/rn sec)(50)

p(Re)
=

Dp

(0.001 m)(l.177 kg/ms)

=0.786 rn/sec

Then the frequency of the lowest note would be

3Sr (0.786 m/sec)(0.l3)
=102.18Hz
D
(0.001 rn)
This is well within the audible range and nearly corresponds to the note G 2
lAb For the highest
.
note, we have for the Reynolds number
Re=

z3Dp
p

(22 mlsec)(0.00l m)(l.177 kg/rn

)
3

=1399.7

(l.85x1O)

From Figure 1OB.2, this value of the Reynolds number corresponds to a Strouhal number of Sr =
0.21. Then the frequency is
Sr
D

(22 m/sec)(0.21)

(0.001 m)

=4620Hz

This frequency is within the audible spectrum and nearly corresponds to the note D
.
8
The vibrations induced in structural elements like cylinders, I-beams, and other shapes by
the Karman vortex street can be quite dramatic, even apart from the Aeolian tones. In some cases,
the vibration of the structure producing the Karman vortex can be catastrophic and lead to
ultimate failure if it corresponds to the natural resonant frequency of the structure. An example
often given, albeit erroneously, of this phenomenon is the destruction of the Tacoma Narrows
Bridge, euphemistically known as Galloping Gertie, due to gale force cross-winds (18.78
m!sec; 8 on the Beaufort Scale) on November 7, 1940. There are many websites such as:
http:l/cee .carleton.calExhibits/Tacoma Narrows/DSmithlphotos .html
http://www.nwrain. net/newtsuit/recoveries/narrows/gg.htm
http://www .enm .bris. ac .uklresearch/nonlinear/tacomaltacnarr.mpg
that show the breakup of the bridge (See Figure 1OB.2.), and there have been many references to
this spectacular failure both in physics and engineering texts as well as in articles on bridge
design.
Unfortunately, many of these treatments are misleading. The facts of the incident are
much more complex and quite different from what these reports claim. There has been a natural
tendency to oversimplify the situation and to view it as an example of forced resonance in which
the vibration of the structure is due to a Karman vortex street down-wind of the bridge deck. Von
Karman, himself, was a member of the board of inquiry convened after the failure, and he

Ch. 10 Pg. 62
showed that the final destructive oscillation atfd = 0.2 Hz was at a frequency quite different from
the characteristic frequency of the vortex street. The bridge deck was a simple rectangular box
like structure with dimension D = 2.438 m transverse to the flow in the vertical direction and L
11.887 m measured in the direction of flow. For this geometry, the Strouhal number is Sr = 0.12
(See Table 10-16, p. 313, Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, by Robert D. Blevins, Krieger
Publishing Co., Malabar, FL, 1992.) Thus for a wind velocity of Y= 18.78 mlsec, the
characteristic frequency of the vortex street,f, is
Sr (18 78 misec) (0 12)
D
2.438m
Thus, sincef 5f
, it is reasonable to conclude that the Karman vortex street was not the cause
1
of the failure. To be sure there was a vortex street that induced oscillations in the bridge deck, but
these were vertical in nature and began essentially from the day the bridge was opened to traffic
on July 1, 1940. In fact, these vertical oscillations were the reason the bridge earned the sobriquet
Galloping Gertie.
There is an excellent review of the aeroelastic behavior of the bridge by Billah and
Scanlan (American Journal of Physics, Vol. 59, No. 2, February, 1991, pp. 118-124.) They
attribute the failure to an aerodynamically induced condition of self-excitation or negative
damping in a torsional degree of freedom. This is a phenomenon known as flutter that occurs in
aircraft structures as well as in stationary structures subject to wind loading. In contrast to the
case of aircraft, the air velocities around stationary structures are relatively low and do not
influence the vibrational modes that are excited or the frequencies of the ensuing oscillations. As
the wind velocities around these structures increase, however, they can cause the normal damping
mechanism to reverse sign. This is the self-excitation phenomenon characteristic offlutter that
leads to an unstable oscillation that gradually grows in amplitude. In a sense, flutter is an accident
waiting to happen, and it is the job of the thermal-fluids engineer to determine the conditions that
will precipitate it. These conditions can be determined by a combination of analysis and
experimentation.
The span of the bridge was in three parts with two towers located 335.3 m from each
shore. The center span was 853.4 m in length. As Figure 1OB.2 clearly shows, it was the center
span that failed in a torsional mode. For the purposes of analysis, let us consider a unit length of
the center span of the bridge. If arepresents the angular displacement of the cross-section of the
deck from its equilibrium position, the equation of motion of a unit length of deck in torsion is
given by
z

2a}
1
Z(a,)= I{+2w?x+w,

(1OB.1)

where I is the moment of inertia per unit span about the center of rotation of the cross-section, (
is the damping coefficient (logarithmic decrement/2r),
is the natural torsional frequency, C is
the effective spring constant per unit span, and is the torque exciting the torsional oscillation
due to aerodynamic loading. Also
a
2
d
da
fr5
a = I
a=
dt
2
dt
In equation (1OB.1), the moment of inertia per unit span, I, is the analog of the mass per unit
span, and the angular displacement, a, is the analog of the linear displacement in Newtons
Second Law of Motion. The first term on the right-hand side of equation (1OB.1) represents the
inertia of the element, the second term represents the damping of the element, and the third term
a=

..

Ch. lOPg.63

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 1OB.2 Failure of Galloping Gertie, the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, Nov. 7, 1940

Ch. lOPg.64
represents the elastic restoring force that resists the motion. We assume that the aerodynamic
torque can be written
(a,) = A
+ A
2
a
3
(1OB.2)
If we combine equations (1 OB. 1) and (1 OB .2) and non-dimensionalize the result (See Problem
10.8.), we get
+ KA
=

(2L
1p
2

){ 2aO)n+

a}
2
a

I
(KA
p
)
2
2L L
3
+
2
+(o
)
a=0
K2A
+ 2w
a n
n

(1OB.3)

Ip2(2L2)

where p is the density of air, L is the length of the deck in the direction of flow, & is the circular
* are
3
frequency of oscillation, and K is a pseudo-Strouhal number (K = aLI z). A
2 and A
*
1
A
dimensionless flutter coefficients and are functions of K. Note that
0, a coefficient usually
related to vertical oscillations which are not relevant here.
The condition for flutter occurs when the damping vanishes, i.e., when the coefficient of
d is equal to zero. Then for the fundamental mode of vibration with a = &,, we have from
equation (1OB.3)
[P2(2L2)LL*

=0

2aW
or
*=
2
A

(1OB.4)

For the conditions at Tacoma Narrows, we have

p=1.23 kg/rn
, L=ll.887m, I=l.7773x iO kgm
3
Then substituting the appropriate values in equation (1OB.4), we get
=

l4.474

(1OB.5)

Further development of the flutter analysis requires wind tunnel testing of a model of the bridge
section. Following the example of Billah and Scanlan, we construct for incipient flutter the
* from equation (1OB.5), measured values of (i9/JL) from
2
following table of calculated values of A
the wind tunnel, and the calculated equivalent values of wind velocity on the bridge for the
known fundamental torsional frequency of 0.2 Hz:
Table lOB. 1 Conditions for Incipient Flutter
*
2
A
Z/L
1ncinient (mlsec)
0.003

0.043

3.20

7.60

0.005

0.072

3.50

8.31

0.010

0.145

4.30

10.24

0.015

0.217

5.15

12.25

0.020

0.290

5.75

13.68

Ch. 10 Pg. 65
Billah and Scanlan estimate the value of the damping coefficient for the torsional mode to
be = 0.005 which would give a wind velocity of 8.31 mlsec for incipient flutter. In the wind
tunnel tests, incipient flutter occurred at an equivalent wind velocity of 7.11 mlsec in the
prototype. It is interesting to note that if the data of Table 1OB.1 are plotted as in Figure 1OB.3
* = 0 for which the aeroelastic coefficient
7
and then extrapolated to a value of A
reverses sign, we
get a wind velocity of 6.54 mlsec. All of the values are consistent with the velocity for incipient
flutter. As the wind velocity increases beyond this range as it did on Nov. 7, 1940, the amplitude
of the torsional oscillations increases dramatically as seen in Figure 1OB.2 which in turn changes
the aerodynamic loading of the deck and further exacerbates the situation. Clearly, the conditions
leading to the demise of Galloping Gertie were not simply a result of the Karman vortex Street
shed by the bridge deck.
I

0.3

r
2

ai

H
.if

-o

2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

JL
Figure 1OB.3 Conditions for Incipient Flutter

Ch. lOPg.66

PROBLEMS
10.1 Small amplitude surface waves on fluids have been discussed previously in Chapter 5. In
these discussions, gravity has been the restoring force in both the deep water and shallow water
cases. We are now interested in using dimensional analysis to predict the phase velocity, z2 of
small-amplitude deep-water surface waves on a fluid of density p as a function of wavelength
2 as shown in Figure 1OP.1.

Dp1h

FkcJ

Figure 1OP.1
The restoring forces for the fluid are due to gravity, g = 9.81 mlsec
, and surface tension, o. We
2
believe viscosity and wave amplitude, to first order, are unimportant in determining the velocity
of surface waves.
(a) Develop a complete set of 11-groups to describe this physical situation. Choose the
physical parameters so that one of these 11-groups can be thought of as the dimensionless gravity
and another as the dimensionless surface tension.
(b) Table 1OP.1 shows measurements of the wave speed as a function of wavelength for
water surface waves. Plot these data on a graph using the 11-groups derived in part (a) above and
propose a functional relationship amongst the dimensionless groups.
Table 1OP.1
Wavelength (m)
0.001
0.01
0.02
0.06

Water Wave velocity (mlsec)

0.67
0.245
0.23 1
0.318

(c) If the surface wave speed of a wave of wavelength = 7 mm is

pure ethyl alcohol, what is the surface tension of the ethyl alcohol?

0.195 mlsec in

For water: p= 1000 kg/rn

; a= 0.071181/rn
3
.
2
For ethyl alcohol: p = 789.3 kg/rn
.
3
10.2 A fluid having density p and viscosity p flows with uniform velocity ibetween two plates
that are separated a distance D. A series of measurements are to be made of the pressure P at a
fixed point in the fluid. It is desired to plot the data in the form of a dimensionless pressure H
versus a dimensionless quantity H, that is linearly proportional to the velocity i9
(a) Find the dimensionless parameters H and H
, in terms of the remaining physical
1
quantities.
(b) Electric charge is now injected into the fluid and an electric field E is applied that
interacts with the charge. The resulting measured pressure in the fluid is now a function of the

Ch. 10 Pg. 67
applied field E and the dielectric constant in free space b as well as the remaining appropriate
physical parameters. The pressure data can now be plotted as a function of the dimensionless
pressure H, the dimensionless parameter lit, and a new parameter l] that is linearly proportional
to the electric field E. Determine the additional dimensionless variable ]] in terms of the
remaining physical parameters.

NOTE: The fundamental dimensions of the electric field and the dielectric constant are M, T, L
and I. Then the dimensions for E and e are:
{E]=ML
3
IT

and

[EQ]=IT

3
ML

10.3 Two alternative relationships for the drag force FD on a sphere of diameter D, moving with
velocity i
in a fluid, are
9
FD

(pz9D)

and

P2D2f1

FD

(pzD

/p

wheref andf
1
2 are two different functions of the parameter in the parenthesis.
(a) Show that there is no inconsistency between the two expressions.
(b) A sphere of diameter D = 10 cm is to be tested in a water tunnel, in order to simulate
the air flow around a spherical ornament 1 m in diameter, which is to be placed at the top of a
high building. The maximum possible water speed in the tunnel is 25 mlsec. What is the greatest
wind speed for which a dynamically similar test can be arranged?
(c) The force on the sphere in the water tunnel is 500 N when the speed is 25 mlsec. What
is the aerodynamic force on the ornament under dynamically similar conditions? Check
numerically that the same result is given whichever of the above two dependent dimensionless
groups is used for the prediction.
Assume that: prn,. = 1.225 kg/rn
, Pair = 1.79 x iO kg/m sec
3
, p,. = 1.18 x io- kg/rn sec
3
Pwaier 1000 kg/rn

10.4 A ship is 70 m long and is designed to travel at a speed of 7 mlsec. A model is made to 1/20
scale and is tested at the Froude number corresponding to that of the full-scale ship.
(a) Calculate the test speed.
(b) In the test, the measured drag is 15 N. Estimate the drag of the ship assuming that half
of the measured drag of the model is due to the wave motion and the rest is due to viscous shear
stress. Assume that the drag due to viscous shear stress is proportional to ReL
where ReL is the
11
Reynolds number based on length.
For water: Pwater = 1000 3
kg/rn Pvater = 1.18 x
,

io kg/rn sec

10.5 An aircraft is to fly at 275 mlsec at an altitude of 9 km (where the temperature and pressure
are Tat,,
). A 1/20 th-scale model is tested in a pressurised
2
1 45 C and at,fl = 30 x iO N/rn
wind-tunnel in which the air is at 15 C.
(a) For complete dynamic similarity, what pressure and velocity should be used in the
wind-tunnel?
(b) What is then the ratio between the lift on the model and the full-scale lift?
Air can be modeled as an ideal gas with
Jtoc

T
3
12
T+1l7

Ch. 10 Pg. 68

10.6 Two smooth horizontal pipes of circular cross-section carry air and water at velocities such
that the Reynolds numbers and pressure drops per unit length are the same for each. What is the
ratio of the mean velocity of the air in its pipe to that of the water in its pipe?
10.7 When a circular tube of small diameter is dipped into a pool of liquid, surface tension
causes a meniscus to form at the free surface of the liquid. This meniscus causes the free surface
of the liquid to be depressed or elevated an amount iXh depending upon the contact angle at the
liquid-solid-gas interface. Simple experiments show that iXh is a function of the tube diameter, D,
the density of the liquid, p, gravity, g, and the surface tension (surface force per unit length of
free surface), a.
(a) Find an appropriate set of dimensionless parameters that could be used to correlate the
experimental data of Lh vs. a.
(b) The Bond number is defined as the ratio of gravity forces to surface forces. Can one of
the dimensionless parameters in part (a) above be cast in a form similar to the Bond number?
Note that it will not be identical to the Bond number since the present physical situation is
slightly different from that for which the Bond number was originally derived.
10.8 Consider the physical situation of the Tacoma narrows Bridge undergoing a torsional
oscillation. (See Appendix lOB.) In particular, consider a unit length of the midspan subjected to
wind loading. There are three parameters necessary to describe the wind: the velocity, l; the air
density, p; and the viscosity, p. There are five parameters necessary to describe the unit length of
the bridge during the torsional oscillations: the mass moment of inertia (per unit length), I, of the
cross-section of the bridge deck about the axis of rotation; the aerodynamic moment,
acting on
the twisting deck; the length of the bridge deck in the direction of flow, L; the torsional spring
constant of the unit length of deck, C; and the circular frequency of the torsional oscillation, &.
Develop a set of dimensionless groups to describe this situation and compare your result
to the dimensionless groups appearing in equation (lOB.3).
10.9 In fully-developed, steady turbulent flow in a pipe of circular cross-section, the heat transfer
coefficient h can be argued to depend upon:
(1) a parameter that characterizes the flow, the bulk average fluid velocity i
(2) a parameter that characterizes the geometry of the flow, the diameter of the pipe D
(3) four parameters that characterize the fluid flowing
(a) the fluid viscosity, p
(b) the fluid density, p
(c) the specific heat of the fluid, c
(d) the thermal conductivity of the fluid, k
Use dimensional analysis to show that the appropriate dimensionless groups for this flow are the
Nusselt number, the Prandtl number, and the Reynolds number (See Table 10.6). Remember to
choose the repeating parameters such that the chosen parameters do not form a dimensionless
group. Use the chosen parameters to non-dimensionalize the parameters necessary to characterize
this physical situation. For example, consider the fluid velocity i, the thermal conductivity k, and
the heat transfer coefficient h to be the necessary parameters in this case.
10.10 According to the Buckingham Pi Theorem, the analysis in Problem 10.9 reveals a
relationship amongst the dimensionless groups of the form
Nit = f(Re
,Pr)
0

Ch. lOPg.69
In 1933, Prof. W. H. McAdarns of the Department of Chemical Engineering, MiT, suggested that
the functional form of this relationship should be
Nu = CReD ApB
where A, B, and C are constants. Experimental data for h collected for water, air, helium, and oil
under various conditions of flow velocities are given in the tables below. Use these data to
determine the values of A, B, and C.

For H
0 at T = 300 K:
2
Pr=5.9,D=5Omm,k=O.611 W/m K, p = 8.67 x 1O kg/rn sec, p

996 kg/rn
3

i (rn/see)

h (W/m
2 K)

0.2

1,049

0.4

1,891

0.7

3,121

1.2

4,108

2.5

9,038

5.6

13,539

8.3

23,118

9.7

21,553

11.8

27,366

12.9

25,173

For air at T = 350 K: Pr = 0.69, D

1.012 kg/rn
3

i(mJsec)

120mm, k = 0.03 W/rn K, p

20.54 x 106 kg/rn sec, p=

h (W/m
2 K)

7.58

4.3

15.37

7.4

30.32

10.9

31.24

12.7

37.01

15.8

49.80

18.2

51.46

25.4

61.04

33.2

72.79

41

102.84

Ch. 10 Pg. 70
Forheliurn at T= 400 K: Pr= 0.71, D= 200mm, k= 0.178W/rn K,p= 24.4x 10
kg/rn sec, p
6
= 0.1218 kg/rn
3
1 (mlsec)

h (W/m
2 K)

10

32.63

12.3

37.03

15.8

34.24

19.2

40.38

25.1

53.37

33.3

76.08

41.8

83.11

48.7

99.86

56.9

126.84

71.4

150.19

Foroil at T=400K: Pr= 154,D= 100mm, k= 0.1 34 W/mK,p= 88.4x 10

kg/msec,p= 826
4
3
kg/rn
iY (m/sec)
h (W/m
2 K)
1.2

388

2.5

667

5.1

1389

7.3

1519

8.6

2202

9.9

2555

12.4

2424

15.6

2908

18.4

3514

19.5

3006

10.11 As shown in Figure lOP. 1 la, a vertical flat plate of length L with a temperature T is
exposed to a fluid whose temperature remote from the plate is T. Since the temperature of the
plate is greater than the temperature of the fluid, a fluid particle in contact with the plate will
experience a heat transfer interaction with the plate and increase in temperature. As this fluid
particle increases in temperature, it expands and its density decreases. Thus it becomes buoyant
relative to the cooler, more dense, fluid particles that surround it. The resultant buoyancy force
causes the warmer fluid particles to move upward and the cooler fluid particles to move
downward. Thus, the fluid is set in motion and convection heat transfer results between the fluid
and the plate. This form of convection heat transfer is known as natural convection.
If we are concerned with maintaining the temperature of the plate constant, we need to
know the heat transfer coefficient between the plate and the fluid. We expect the heat transfer

Ch. lOPg.71
process to depend upon the temperature difference between the fluid and the plate, LiT T
T;
the density of the fluid, p; the buoyancy force per unit mass, FB; the viscosity of the fluid,
p; the
specific heat of the fluid, c; and the length of the plate, L. We wish to describe the natural
convection heat transfer phenomenon in dimensionless form so that we may apply the result
to
any physical situation regardless of size, temperature, or fluid composition.
-

T, temperature of plate
Ambient air, T

Boundary layer

Figure 1OP.lla
(a) Form three appropriate dimensionless groups; one each for the heat transfer coefficient
h, the buoyancy force per unit mass FB, and the specific heat c,,,. What are the names of these
dimensionless parameters?
(b) If we define the coefficient of thermal expansion, /, as the fractional change in density
that results as the fluid is heated at constant pressure, viz.

show that the buoyancy force per unit mass is approximately

g(T)/3gLT
FB
(c) Rewrite the dimensionless buoyancy force to include /1, g, and zlT.
(d) The data shown in Figure lOP. 1 lb were obtained for natural convection heat transfer
for air in contact with a hot plate. It has been suggested that the data can be correlated by a power
law of the form
1
ri,

=c(riF)

fl

In

(ri)

where C, n, and m are constants. From the data given, obtain the value of n.
For air: p= 3
1.177kg/rn p = 18.43 x 106 kg/rn see, c,,, = 1005 J/kg K, k = 0.0267 W/m K
,
(e) What additional data are required to obtain the value of m?

Ch. 10 Pg. 72
100

V
L)

0
1)

0
0

10
1

1 .108
1
Dimensionless Buoyancy Force

1 .1010

Figure 1OP.llb

10.12 One of the techniques often used to measure the viscosity of fluids makes use of an
instrument called a rotating cylinder viscometer. As shown in cross-section in Figure 1OP.12, the
device consists of two coaxial cylinders separated by a small gap filled with the fluid whose
viscosity is to be measured. The inner cylinder is suspended from a highly flexible rod (often a
wire) while the outer cylinder is set into steady rotational motion w by means of a motor. By
virtue of the action of viscosity of the fluid, a velocity field develops in the fluid such that the
fluid in contact with the inner surface of the outer cylinder has tangential velocity iY(R
) R
2

2
while the velocity of the fluid in contact with the outer surface of the inner cylinder has zero
velocity, i2(R
) = 0.
1
Rotating cylinder
Stationary cylinder

Fluid-filled gap

(i)

Figure 1OP.12

Ch. lOPg.73
The shear stress acting on the outer surface of the inner cylinder results in a torque acting on the
inner cylinder. Because the inner cylinder is suspended from a slender rod fixed at one end, the
rod is loaded in torsion and the inner cylinder is displaced some angle 0 such that the moment
imposed by the shear stress of the fluid acting on the surface of the cylinder is counteracted by
the torsional moment in the rod. Since the shear stress on the inner cylinder is proportional to the
viscosity of the fluid, we have an indirect measure of the viscosity of the fluid by measuring the
angular displacement 0 of one end of the rod relative to the other.
From the equations of static equilibrium of the rod,
GI,0
=o
=r
2ih
0

where z is the shear stress exerted by the fluid on the surface of the cylinder of radius R
1 and
height ii and G is the shear modulus of the rod of length L with 1. as the polar moment of inertia
of the cross-sectional area of the rod about its axis z. Then
GI0
10=
2.irRhL
All of the parameters on the right-hand side of this equation are known from geometry or are
measurable. We now need to determine the relationship between the shear stress on the surface of
the inner cylinder z.
0 and the fluid viscosity p.
(a) Using the methods of dimensional analysis, find the dimensionless parameters that
describe the shear stress in dimensionless form. The parameters that should be included are: r,
j, w, R
, K,, p. Take as the repeating parameters a, p. R.
1
(b) In cylindrical coordinates, simplify the continuity equation and the Navier-Stokes
equation. Assume the following:
1. Steady flow with a = constant
2. Incompressible fluid model is valid
3. i9.=0, zY=0,dIdz_O,andaIdO=0
Show that:

10.13 There are many examples that show if various objects are geometrically similar, their
dynamical properties may obey simple power-law relationships. A good example of this is the
mass/velocity relationship of winged objects such as insects, birds, and airplanes.
(a) In Table 10.6 we defined the lift coefficient, CL, for a typical wing. Wind-tunnel test
data show that for a typical wing of projected planar area A at a typical angle of attack (about 6),
the lift coefficient is CL = 0.6. Consider a winged object flying at constant velocity lin air at
atmospheric pressure (ajn, = 1.01325 x iO N/rn
) and temperature (Tat,n = 300 K)
2
= 1.1768
). From a force balance in the vertical direction, show that the mass M of the object and the
3
kg/rn
velocity are related by the expression

Ch. 10 Pg. 74
2
M =0.036At9
(1OP.13a)
If
the
physical
dimensions
winged
(b)
of all
objects can be characterized in terms of some
multiple of their length 1, we can express the projected planar area of the wing, A, as proportional
to 12 and the mass, M, as proportional to the volume, or i, show that the mass is proportional to
the sixth power of the velocity, viz.,
6
Mocz9

(c) Table lOP. 1 presents some typical data for winged objects of various kinds. Show that
the conclusion of part (b) above is correctfor these data by forming a Log-Log plot of M versus
Develop a power law relationship between the mass and the velocity in the form
M

=C(z6)fl

and determine the values of C and n.

Table lOP. 1 Parameters of Winged Objects

Winged Object

Mass, M (kg)

Lifting Area, A (m
)
2

Crane fly

30 x 10-6

Common starling

0.080

0.02

10.3

Canadian goose

5.7

0.28

23

Cessna Citation

2000

18.2

53.64

Boeing747

33.34x 10

511.0

248.11

7.5 x

Cruise Velocity, (mJsec)

3

(d) The Gossamer Condor is a human-powered ultra-light aircraft in which the pilot
pedals a mechanism that drives the aircraft at a constant velocity of i= 5 mlsec. With the pilot
on board, the mass of this airplane is 95.82 kg and it has a wing area of A = 70 m
. Add these data
2
to the plot of part (c) above to show that this aircraft does not satisfy the sixth power scaling law
of part (c). Why is this the case?
(e) Following the suggestion of equation (1OP.13a) above, form a new Log-Log plot of M
versus A 2 for the data of Table 1OP.1 .Using the data of Table 1OP.1, develop a new power law
using these parameters in the form
M

=a(Az2)

and determine the values of a and m. Do the data for Gossamer Condor fall on the new plot?
Why is this the case?
(f) Using the plot of part (e) above, estimate the wing area for a Boeing 767 with M =
179,170 kg and a cruise velocity of = 237 mlsec. How does this estimate compare with the
actual value of A = 283.85 m
?
2

10.14 A common method of removing unwanted energy and entropy from the surface of an
object whose temperature must be controlled, e.g., an electronic device that dissipates electrical
energy, is to cover the surface with an appropriate array of fins. (See Chapter 6.) A common fin
geometry is that of a flat plate exposed to a flowing stream of some sort of cooling medium such
as water or air. Our objective here is to develop a means of predicting the area necessary to

Ch. 10 Pg. 75
establish heat transfer at some rate predetermined from the electrical characteristics of an
electronic device such as the CPU of a personal computer.
One possible model for this situation is that of heat transfer from one side of a flat plate
exposed to a flowing stream of fluid. We could analyze this situation by solving the appropriate
form of the Navier-Stokes equation to determine the manner in which the boundary layer
develops from the leading edge of the plate. Iii the case of laminar flow, the result would be a
self-similar velocity profile of constant shape as we move down the plate from the leading edge.
The thickness of the boundary layer is scaled by the distance from the leading edge by means of
some sort of dimensionless parameter. This velocity profile is then used in the first law to
determine the temperature profile from which we can determine the heat transfer coefficient, h.
We shall see how to do this in Chapter 11. For the present, we want to develop a means of
utilizing experimental data to make such predictions of the required heat transfer area.
Specifically, we want to correlate these data in some useful form.
Consider a flat plate of surface temperature T aligned parallel to a steady flow of a fluid
with a uniform free-stream velocity. The approaching fluid has a uniform temperature T. The
heat transfer coefficient h can be argued to depend upon:
(1) a parameter that characterizes the flow the bulk average fluid velocity
(2) a parameter that characterizes the geometry of the flow the length of the plate L
(3) four parameters that characterize the fluid flowing:
(a) the fluid viscosity, p
(b) the fluid density, p
(c) the specific heat of the fluid, c
(d) the thermal conductivity of the fluid, k
(a) Use dimensional analysis to show that the appropriate dimensionless groups for this
flow are the Nusselt number, Nu; the Prandtl number, Pr; and the Reynolds number, Re (See
Table 10.6). Remember to choose the repeating parameters such that the chosen parameters
themselves do not form a dimensionless group. Use the chosen parameters to non-dimensionalize
the parameters necessary to characterize this physical situation. For example, consider the fluid
velocity i, the thermal conductivity k, and the heat transfer coefficient h to be the necessary
parameters in this case.
(b) Table lOP. 14a shows actual laboratory measurements of the heat transfer rate from
one side of a square flat plate of dimension L = 30 cm and surface temperature T = 40 C
immersed in a flow of water with temperature T, = 20 C.
Table IOP.14a

iYmIsec)

0.1

0.3

0.5

1.0

2.0

3.0

5.0

(W)

760

1400

1700

2600

3400

4300

6000

Use these data to plot on Log-Log coordinates Nu versus Re for this situation. Use linear
regression to develop a correlation of these data in the form
Nu =A(Re)
where A and n are constants. Determine the values of A and n.
(c) In order to determine the influence of fluid properties on the heat transfer coefficient,
measurements are made of the heat transfer rate from one side of a square flat plate of dimension
L = 30 cm and surface temperature T = 40 C immersed in flows of different fluids with

Ch. 10 Pg. 76
temperature T, = 20 C. The fluid velocity in each case is the same value
resulting data are shown in Table 1OP.14b.

l=

1 mlsec. The

Table lOP. 1 4b
FluidNo.

p(kg/msec)

3
l.08x10

3
3.00x10

2
1.00x10

1.00x10

4
9.00x10

)
3
p(kglm

1000

980

980

1020

880

k (W/m K)

0.598

1.20

1.20

2.00

1.30

c(J/kgK)

4184

2000

2000

1500

900

(W)

2460

2560

2100

1900

2400

Use these data to plot on Log-Log coordinates (Nit/Re) versus Pr for this situation. Use linear
regression to develop a correlation of these data in the form
=

Re,)
Nit

m
C(Pr)

C(Re) (Pr)

where C and m are constants and n is the value determined in part (b) above. Determine the
values of C and m.
(d) For a Pentium4 CPU running at 3.2 GHz, the maximum power dissipation is 82 W
with a maximum value of T = 70 C and a maximum value of T = 45 C. Use the correlation
determined in part (c) above to determine the required heat transfer area for an air velocity of iY=
1 mlsec. Keep in mind that the heat transfer occurs from both sides of the fin, not just the single
side used in the correlation, and that this area would be realized by a large array of small fins, not
just a single fin.

10.15 No discussion of dimensional analysis would be complete without relating a famous

anecdote about the renown British scientist G. I. Taylor. The account presented here is taken
from the article by M. P. Brenner and H. A. Stone (Modern Classical Physics Through the Work
of G. I. Taylor, Physics Today, May, 2000, p. 20). It seems that during the early years of World
War II, he [Taylor] was told by the British government about the development of the atomic
bomb and was asked to think about the mechanical effect produced by such an explosion. He
realized that the energy released from the bomb would quickly lose memory of its initial shape
and distribution, and would produce a strong shock [wave] in the air.
Taylor assumed that the velocity of the shock wave would be independent of the pressure
distribution immediately following the explosion and that the shape of the shock wave in the
atmosphere far from the ground would be approximately spherical. Since the shock wave
propagates at a velocity greater than the velocity of sound in the atmosphere ahead of it, the air is
unaware of the approaching wave. This means that the radius R of the shock wave at any time t
would depend only upon the energy that is driving the shock wave through the air, i.e., the energy
E instantaneously released by the detonation of the bomb at time t 0, and the inertia of the

Ch. 10 Pg. 77
atmosphere, i.e., the density p of the undisturbed air that has to be moved in order
to make room
for the mass of explosion products released by the explosion itself. The pressu
re of the
atmospheric air is not important since the pressure inside the shock wave is severa
l thousand
times greater than atmospheric pressure. Oniy the inertial effect of the atmosphere
is important.
Thus there are four parameters necessary to describe the physical situation: the energy
E released
by the blast, the density p of atmospheric air, the time t since the blast was detonated,
and the
radius R of the blast wave, which is a function of t.
(a) Using dimensional analysis, show that there is a single dimensionless group
characterizing the blast phenomenon.
pR
Since there is only one dimensionless group, according to the Buckingham Pi Theore
m it must be
a constant, C. This implies that the radius of the blast wave is given by
R=C(t3
where C is a constant. By applying the conservation equations for mass, momentum,
and energy,
Taylor was able to show that the value of C 1.033. Therefore, given a picture that
shows the
radius of the blast, a reference length scale, and the time since the blast, the energy
of the blast
can be determined. A sequence of such pictures taken at precise time intervals from
the instant of
the explosion was (publicly!) available and Taylor was able to confirm that the scaling
law
agreed with the data much to the chagrin of the U.S. military who had given the data
the highest
level of security classification.
(b) Figure 1 OP. 15 is a sample of the pertinent photographs used by Taylor in his
assessment. These are pictures of the blast wave from the first nuclear test labeled
Trinity and
held on July 16, 1945. The data of Table 1OP.15 have been derived from these photos
:
Table 1 OP. 15

Use these data to form a Log-Log plot of R

512 vs. t and show that Taylors correlation is correct.
Determine the energy yield of the blast and compare this with the reported value of
15 16
kilotons of TNT. One kiloton of TNT is equal to 4.184 x 1012 J.

Ch. 10 Pg. 78

(a) t

6 milliseconds

(b) t = 16 milliseconds

(c) t = 53 milliseconds
Figure 1OP.15 Time-lapse Photographs of the First Atomic Bomb Blast July 16, 1945

Ch. 11 Pg. 1

CHAPTER 11
Thermal Conductivity and Energy Transfer in a Fluid
11.1

Introduction

In Chapter 9 we saw that as a fluid moved over a surface in contact with

it, the viscosity
of the fluid caused the fluid adjacent to the surface to be slowed by the
presence of the surface.
We also noted that the fluid closest to the surface was more noticeably
affected by the presence
of the surface than the fluid that was further from the surface. This observ
ation led to the
introduction of the concept of the momentum boundary layer, a layer
of fluid moving at lower
velocity than the fluid in the free stream. In the momentum boundary
layer, the fluid velocity
relative to the surface increases from zero at the surface to the free stream
velocity at the edge of
the boundary layer as dictated by the boundary conditions of the situation.
In effect, the influence
of the surface propagates or diffuses outward from the surface into the
fluid in a manner that is
determined by the fluid viscosity. In a steady flow situation with a given
free stream velocity, at a
given location, the larger the viscosity, the thicker the momentum bound
ary layer. For example,
in the case of laminar flow of a fluid of density p over a flat plate, we
saw that the thickness of
the momentum boundary layer at a location x was given by the result

8=0.664

1
I
p

(11.1)

where i was the free stream velocity and p was the viscosity of the
fluid. The combination of
terms p/p was given the name kinematic viscosity and represented the
momentum diffusivity of
the fluid. Thus the boundary layer thickness grows in a manner propor
tional to the square root
of the momentum diffusivity.
It can be shown from physical considerations on a molecular scale that
a fluid that has
viscosity also has thermal conductivity, and that just as the viscosity
accounts for the transfer of
momentum in the flowing fluid, the thermal conductivity accounts for the
transfer of energy in
the flowing fluid. The thermal conductivity of the flowing fluid leads
to the development of a
thermal boundary layer in which the thermal influence of the boundi
ng surface is confined. As
dictated by the thermal boundary conditions shown schematically in Figure
11.1, the temperature
of the fluid varies from the temperature of the surface at the interface betwee
n the fluid and the
surface to the temperature of the free stream at the edge of the thermal
boundary layer. In general,
the temperature profile changes in a continuous fashion as we move throug
h the solid surface and
into the fluid; however, the slope of the temperature profile, i.e. the temper
ature gradient normal
to the surface, does not. Because of the typically substantial differences
in thermal conductivity
between fluids and solids, the temperature gradient is usually discontinuou
s at the interface
between the two media. Note, however, that at the interface between
the solid and the fluid, the
energy conducted down the temperature gradient in the solid to the interfa
ce is exactly equal to
the energy conducted away from the interface down the temperature gradien
t in the fluid. In a
manner analogous to the growth of the momentum boundary layer, we shall
see that the growth
of the thermal boundary layer depends upon the thermal diffusivity.

Ch. 11 Pg. 2
T=T

Flowing fluid

Thermal
layer thickness

T(y)
ytx

Old = Tflmd
5
T

Solid surface

(dT

Ii

di

ci) &id

(iT
dy
.

=1k1
(1) 1

Figure 11.1 Thermal Boundry Layer in Flowing Fluid

Recall from Chapter 10 that the dimensionless number known as the Prandtl number is
the ratio of the momentum diffusivity to the thermal diffusivity.
ppc v = momentum diffusivity
(11.2)
k
a
thermal diffusivity
p k
The range of possible values for the Prandtl number is quite large and depends upon the nature of
the fluid. Typically, highly viscous fluids like oils have large values of the Prandtl number and
fluids with large thermal conductivities like the liquid metals have small values of the Prandtl
number. Gases and water, on the other hand, have values of the Prandtl number on the order of
unity. Figure 11.2 shows the spectrum of possible values.

102

101

I4)I
Liquid metals

Prandtl Number, Pr
100
101

I( )I1(

102

io

I(

Gases
Water

F,I

Oils

Light organic
liquids

Figure 11.2 Prandtl Number Spectrum of Fluids

It follows, then, that the relative thicknesses of the momentum and thermal boundary
layers are determined by the Prandtl number. When the Prandtl number is large, the kinematic
viscosity, i.e., the momentum diffusivity, is much larger than the thermal diffusivity and the

Ch. 11 Pg. 3
retarding influence of the surface on the flow velocity penetrates more deeply into the flowing
fluid at any given location than the thermal influence of the heated surface on the temperature of
the flowing fluid. Thus, the momentum boundary layer is relative thick compared to the thermal
boundary layer. Conversely, when the Prandtl number is small, the thermal diffusivity is much
larger than the kinematic viscosity and the thermal influence of the surface penetrates more
deeply into the flowing fluid than its retarding influence. Thus, the thermal boundary layer is
relatively thick compared to the momentum boundary layer. Clearly, for fluids in which the
Prandtl number is of the order of unity, as it is for fluids like air, the two boundary layers are of
similar thickness.
In the present chapter, we shall examine in detail the nature of the interplay between the
processes of momentum transfer and energy transfer in a flowing fluid. In particular, we shall
explore the topic of convection heat transfer (both forced convection and natural convection)
between a flowing fluid and the solid surfaces that bound it. We shall consider first the case of
internal flows since they are the most common in thermal-fluid systems, and second, the case of
external flows. In each case, we shall take up the two flow regimes, laminar and turbulent,
separately. Where possible, we shall analyze the basic flow geometries in detail in order to derive
the expressions for the convective heat transfer coefficient and report the results in dimensionless
form, the Nusselt number, in each case. For more complex flow geometries, we shall simply
report the dimensionless correlations of Nit vs. Re as found in the thermal-fluids literature.

11.2

Forced Convection Heat Transfer to a Fluid in Flowing in a Conduit

As we have seen previously, in thermal-fluid systems the working fluid is usually

transported from one system component to another through a conduit such as a circular tube or
pipe. As the fluid moves through the conduit in a particular direction in response to a net force
imposed in that direction, it may experience interactions with the environment through the walls
of the conduit. These interactions may involve the transfer of momentum, energy, and entropy
and can have an important influence on the thermodynamic behavior of the thermal-fluid system
itself. In Chapter 9 we studied the mechanics of the transport process, i.e. the motion that
developed within the fluid in response to the imposed force. We now turn our attention to the
thermal interactions that can occur between the flowing fluid and the environment through the
solid surfaces of the conduit.
11.2.1 Thermal Entry Length Considerations for Laminar Flow in a Circular Conduit
We saw previously that as a fluid with uniform flow velocity entered the conduit, a finite
distance, called the entry length, was required to establish the fully-developed velocity profile
over the cross-section of the conduit. For conditions of laminar flow in a circular conduit of
inside radius R
, the fully-developed velocity profile is parabolic and is given by
1
-

(r)

[2]

2z [I

= nax

(11.3)

For the case in which the fluid and the tube wall are at the same temperature, the hydrodynamic
entry length, Le, necessary to establish this velocity profile is related to the Reynolds number by
the empirical relation of equation (9.149)
L
D.
I

/11

0.60
0.035Re +1

+0.056Re

(11.4)

Ch. 11 Pg. 4
On the other hand, if the laminar flow is fully-developed hydrodynamically, the velocity profile
is already parabolic at the entrance to the conduit. If additionally the temperature of the wall of
the conduit is different from that of the fluid, the entry length required for the temperature profile
to become fully-developed in the fluid is not only related to both the Reynolds number and the
Prandtl number as we might expect, but is also related to the thermal conditions of the wall. If the
wall of the conduit has a constant temperature along its length, the thermal entry length is given
by
L,
(ll.5a)
=O.O334RePr
Tc,nst

but if the heat flux at the wall is constant, the thermal entry length is given by

1 J,,,
D

O.O43RePr

(11 .5b)

q=caflst

Equations (11.5) have important implications for the design of heat transfer equipment
which frequently uses circular tubes as the major design element. For a given Reynolds number
in the flow, the velocity profile will develop very rapidly compared to the development of the
temperature profile for a fluid with a large Prandtl number (Pr>> 1). The significance of this
event is two-fold: (1) the flow will indeed be fully-developed hydrodynamically long before heat
transfer processes develop fully as equation (11.5) assumes, and (2) the developing thermal
boundary layer must be considered in designing equipment for these fluids since the thermal
entry length will typically be longer than the length of the equipment itself. Thus, in heat transfer
equipment that use some sort of oil as the working fluid, the thermally fully developed solutions
to be developed subsequently will be of little value in the design process; however, as we will
show shortly, there are ways of addressing this issue. For fluids with small Prandtl numbers (Pr
<< 1), the situation is reversed. The thermal entry length is much shorter than the hydrodynamic
entry length and the flow can be considered fully-developed thermally right from the entrance. Of
course, this means that the assumptions leading to equation (11.5) are violated, but as we will
soon show, this will have little impact on the design process.
11.2.2 Thermal Entry Length Considerations for Turbulent Flow
In the case of turbulent flow, the question of entry length is somewhat different from that
of the laminar flow case. Iii equation (9.287), we gave the hydrodynamic entry length for a fully
rough circular conduit in turbulent flow as
I
(L
(11.6)
=l.359Re
Thus the hydrodynamic entry lengths are typically much shorter for turbulent flow than for
comparable laminar flows. The behavior of the thermal entry length for a flow that is fully
developed hydrodynamically is more complex for turbulent flows than for laminar flows. The
influence of Prandtl number is small for large values of Prandtl number but much stronger for
small values of the Prandtl number. In nearly every case, the thermal entry length is less than 30
tube diameters.
Example 11E.1: Engines that are used to power vehicles such as snow-mobiles that
operate in extreme climates can be difficult to turn over after sitting for long periods in the cold
outdoors. Because the viscosity of the lubricating oil is so high at low temperatures, the friction

Ch. 11 Pg. 5
in the engine bearings is excessive. For this reason, engines designed
for this purpose often
require electric heaters in the tubing used to transport lubricating oil to the
engine. Consider the
case of a lubricating oil with the following properties at a temperature
of Te,z,, = 0 C:
p=90
,
3
c
3.6k
=
g/m 1980J/kgK,k=0.136W/mK,p=6.86kg/msec
In a particular application, the tube diameter is D = 10 mm, and the averag
e velocity of the oil is
i= 1 mlsec. The oil heater consists of a length of tube
with its circumference wrapped with an
electrical resistance heater. Current passed through the electrical resisto
r (wire) results in Joule
heating that transfers energy and entropy to the oil passing through the tube.
We wish to
determine the minimum length of heater-wrapped tube that will result in
the temperature of the
oil being affected across the entire cross-section of the flow in the tube.
Solution: The flow in the tube is already fully developed hydrodynamically
before it
enters the section of tubing wrapped with the heater. Thus we wish to determ
ine the thermal
entry length. For any length of tubing greater than this length, the entire
cross-section of the flow
will be thermally influenced by the action of the heater. Then from equatio
n (11 .5b)
= 0.O43DReDPr
Constant heat flux
The Reynolds number of the flow is
i3Dp
ReD=

(1 m/sec)(0.010 m)(903.6 kg/rn

)
3

=1.317
p
6.86kg/rn sec
This is an extremely low value of the Reynolds number, but not uncharacteris
tic of flows of
highly viscous lubricants. The Prandtl number of the fluid is
(6.86 kg/rn sec)(1980 J/kg K)
uc
Pr=-=
=9.987xl0
4
k
0.136W/mK
This is an extremely high value of the Prandtl number, but not uncharacteris
tic of highly viscous
lubricants. Then the entry length becomes
= 0.O43DReDPr = 0.043(0.0 10 m)(l .3 17)(9.987 x I o) = 56.568
This result illustrates the fact that entry lengths in flows of highly viscou
s fluids such as
lubricating oils can be quite long and can often exceed the physical dimen
sions of the thermalfluids equipment involved.
Le,!IT

11.3

First Law Considerations in Forced Convection Heat Transfer in Interna

l Flow

Before we attempt to develop the description of the fully-developed temper

ature profile
appropriate for the case of forced convection heat transfer for laminar flow
in a circular conduit,
it is worthwhile to examine the implications of the first law of thermodynam
ics in a more general
sense. From this analysis, we shall derive expressions for the bulk-mean temper
ature of the fluid
as it flows in the axial direction through the conduit.
The fact that the fluid velocity varies over the cross-section of the condui
t in both laminar
and turbulent flow means that the thermodynamic state of the fluid will
not be uniform over the
cross-section. This introduces a slight complication in the application
of the first and second laws
of thermodynamics for the one-dimensional bulk flow model of the open
system or control
volume since they are formulated on the basis of a uniform state at any cross-s
ection or port of
the system. It becomes necessary, then, to develop some sort of approp
riate averaging procedure
that will establish the bulk-mean values of the properties of interest. Since
the fluid velocity is a

Ch. 11 Pg. 6
function of the radial location of the fluid element in the conduit, the mass flow rate, n, is given
by
th= fp7327crdr

(11.7)

where p is the local fluid density, i2is the axial component of fluid velocity at the radial location
r, and R
1 is the inside radius of the conduit. In the context of the one-dimensional bulk flow
model, the mass flow rate is given by
(11.8)
m=P?3aveA
where the cross-sectional area is A
0 = 7tR
2 and 1Ve is the fluid velocity averaged over the cross1
section obtained by equating the equations (11.7) and (11.8).
rR

dave

J3

pt92icrdr
2

(11.9)

In a similar manner, we can define other bulk-mean properties appropriate to the onedimensional bulk flow model:
=

fR

h2.irrdr
0
pt9
m

T,=

(11.10)

1: pzT2icrdr

m
Equations (11.7) through (11.10) provide a means of accounting for the variation of
thermodynamic properties over the cross-sectional area of the flow provided that we know the
values of the appropriate properties as a function of the distance from the centerline of the
conduit. However, the heat transfer interaction that occurs between the fluid flowing in the
circular conduit or tube and the walls of the tube produces a variation of thermodynamic
properties in the axial direction as well. For example, consider the length of tube L shown in
Figure 11.3 with a differential control volume imbedded in it.
If the rate of heat transfer for this differential element is d, then
dx
1
dQ=ij27cR
(11.11)
where the heat flux at the inner surface of the tube q is defined as
(11.12)
For steady flow with no shaft work transfer, the first law of thermodynamics for the differential
control volume reduces to

dQ = thdh
For the appropriate model of the fluid, we now introduce the constitutive relation for the
enthalpy. For the case of the ideal gas model,
dh = cdT
and
dQ=thcdT
(ll.13a)

Ch. H Pg. 7

J J

J J, -. J,

J, J, J,

pc-I
.

T+dT

I
I

.1

dxI

x
L

Figure 11.3 Differential Control Volume for a Fluid Flowing in a Circul

ar Conduit
For the incompressible fluid model,
d
i
1
t+h
=c=
dT+d
d
p,)
\

but for heat transfer situations,

cdT

>>

(P
dI

Then for the incompressible fluid model we usually write (with very
small error)
dQ thcdT
(1 1.13b)
Because of the similar appearance of equations (11.1 3a) and (11.1 3b),
we write for the general
case
dQ = thcdI,
(11.13)
where it is understood that the relevant temperature is the one-dimensio
nal bulk flow average
temperature for the cross-section and that the incompressible fluid model
involves the
approximation of equation (11.1 3b). Then combining equations (11.11)
and (11.13), we obtain
dI =
(11.14)
dx
thc
where the product nc is known as the heat capacity rate or simply the
capacity rate.
Newtons Law of Cooling defines the coefficient for convective heat transfe
r between the
wall and the fluid, h, viz.
ij = h(I Tb)
(11.15)
Then combining equations (11.14) and (11.15), we obtain
2rR,h
dTb
(T Tb)
(11.16)
dx
mc
Equation (11 .16) can be integrated to determine the variation in the bulk-m
ean temperature along

Ch. 11 Pg. 8
the axis of the tube. In carrying out the integration, we note that for flow in a tube, the quantity
2rcR /mc is a constant and does not vary with x. The value of the heat transfer coefficient, he.,
does vary with x in the entry region but then becomes constant when the flow becomes fully
developed. The solution of equation (11.16) for T,,(x) will then depend upon the manner in which
the temperature of the surface of the tube, T, varies with x.
In engineering practice, there are two special boundary conditions with regard to heat
transfer interactions at the inner surface of the conduit that are important either because they
describe the physical situation exactly or because they represent reasonable models of the real
situation. These are the cases of constant surface heatflux and constant surface temperature.
Because of their importance, we will consider them separately.
11.3.1 Constant Surface Heat Flux
There are many situations in engineering practice for which the heat flux at the surface of
the tube is constant. This might occur, for example, if the tube wall were wrapped with an
electrical resistance heater and a constant electrical current were passed through it. Then for a
tube of length L, the total rate of heat transfer over the length of the tube is
Lij
1
Qr2yrR
(11.17)
and the expression for the axial variation of the one-dimensional bulk flow average temperature
becomes
dTb2RlV
(11.18)
dx
mc
Since the right-hand side of this expression is constant, the variation of Tb with x is linear and the
integration of this expression is straightforward.
=

fdx

(11.19)

2R,
x
mc

(11.20)

mcj,,,

or
(x) =

From Newtons Law of Cooling, it is apparent that when h becomes constant as it does in
the region of fully developed flow, the temperature difference (T T,,) also becomes constant.
Then the axial temperature distribution appears as shown in Figure 11.4 for Th,Z = 100 C and
= 50 C. Notice that Th(x) is indeed linear and that the temperature difference (T Tb) is
constant except in the entry region where the heat transfer coefficient is a strong function of the
axial coordinate x. Notice also in Figure 11.4 that in the entry region where the flow is not fully
developed, it is the bulk-flow average temperature of the fluid and not the conduit wall
temperature that varies in a linear fashion as required by equation (11.18). The developing
thermal conditions in the flow in this region manifest themselves in the changing radial
temperature distribution, not in the bulk average temperature. This means that the fluid
temperature at the wall changes as does the heat transfer coefficient. The first law of
thermodynamics and the constant surface heat flux require that the rate of change of the bulk
mean temperature be constant as the fluid moves down the conduit. Thus, the variation in heat
transfer coefficient in the entry region causes the surface temperature of the tube to vary in a non
linear manner in the axial direction until the flow becomes fully developed. From that point on,
the difference between the temperature of the surface and the bulk-mean temperature of the fluid
-

Ch. 11 Pg. 9
180

160
T
140

120

1000

x
0.6
0.8
1
L
Figure 11.4 Axial Temperature Distribution for Convection in a Circular Conduit
with Constant Surface Heat Flux
0.2

0.4

becomes constant since the heat transfer coefficient is now constant. Of course, the boundary
conditions on the flow require that the fluid temperature at the conduit surface be identical with
the surface temperature of the conduit, so this temperature tracks the conduit surface temperature
in the direction of flow. Notice that since we did not have to specify the character of the flow,
that is whether it is laminar or turbulent, the first law analysis of this situation applies to both
laminar and turbulent flow situations.
Example 11E.2: Water at a pressure of Pm 4 x i0 N/rn
2 flows in a heated section of
tubing of length L = 10 m and diameter D = 20 mm. In this section, the flow is fully developed
both hydrodynamically and thermally. The water flows at an average velocity of
1Ve = 1 mlsec
and enters this section with a bulk-mean temperature of T,,,
1 = 20 C. The constant heat flux at the
wall of the tube is j 250 kW/m
, and the constant heat transfer coefficient for forced
2
convection in this section is h = 6750 W/m
2 K. The tubing is made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
plastic with a melting point of
= 150 C. We wish to determine the maximum temperature
of
the tube wall in order to ensure that the PVC tubing can safely operate at the temperatures
achieved in this system. In this situation, the thermal-fluid characteristics of the water are:
977.76kg/rn c= 4190.1 J/kg K, k= 0.66313 W/m K,p= 4.0389 x iO kg/rn sec
,
p= 3
Solution: To calculate the maximum tube wall temperature, we first calculate the bulkmean temperature of the water at the end of the heated section. Since we have a constant heat
flux at the wall, we can use equation (11.20) to find the axial temperature distribution in the tube
flow, viz.

Ch. 11 Pg. 10
Tb Out

TbIfl + 7rDLi]
mc

We need to first calculate the mass flow rate through the tube. Thus,
(0.020 2
rn)
2
D
th = PACZ,e = p2rz2,e = (977.76 kg/rn
3 ),z
(1 mlsec) = 0.3072 kg/sec
Then
=

r(0.020 m)(10 m)(2.5 x

w)
rDLq
=20 C +
=142.04 C
mc
(0.3072kg/sec)(4190.1J/kgK)

The tube wall temperature can be determined from Newtons Law of Cooling, viz.
=h

TbO

=179.08 C
6750
h
Clearly this temperature exceeds the melting point of PVC and tube failure will result. Thus, if
the bulk-mean temperature at the outlet is a functional requirement, it will be necessary to seek
an alternative material for the construction of the tube. On the other hand, if the issue is one of
simply providing cooling to the heater, one could increase the mass flow rate through the tube
which will have the dual effect of reducing the bulk-mean temperature of the water at the outlet
and, as we shall see shortly, increasing the forced convection heat transfer coefficient, h. Both
effects will reduce Tmt.
Note that the bulk-mean temperature of the water at outlet from the heater section is
higher than the normal boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure. This is possible because
the pressure of the water is significantly higher than atmospheric pressure. The boiling point for
water at F = 4 x iO N/rn
2 is T = 143.61 C. The reasons for this behavior will be taken up in
Chapter 13.
11.3.2 Constant Surface Temperature
In many thermal-fluid systems, the surface temperature of the tube is constant (or nearly
so), usually by virtue of heat transfer to a second fluid medium flowing over the outer surface. A
typical situation is the change of phase of a fluid on the outside surface of the tube as in a
condenser. Under these conditions, the expression for the axial temperature gradient in the fluid
becomes
T

S.OUt

=Tb

OUt

2
R
ih(T_)
dx
mcp

(11.21)

In contrast to the constant heat flux case, the temperature gradient in the constant wall
temperature case is not constant because neither h nor (T Tb) is constant. Since T is constant,
dTb = d(T Tb). Then if we write liT = (T 1,,), equation (11.21) becomes a differential
equation for the new parameter liT, viz.
1
dI,d(AT)2irR
(1122)
hAT
C
dx
dx
thc

Then, separating variables and integrating from the inlet of the tube to the outlet of the tube, we
get an expression relating the temperature difference at the outlet of the conduit to the

Ch. 11 Pg. 11
temperature difference at the inlet of the conduit, viz.
d(AT)
1 JLhd
2R
AT
J,thc 0
or
L
1
2R

(11.23)

In

(11.24)

thc

where we have made use of the definition of the average heat transfer coefficient, viz.
=

hC.

Jh dx

(11.25)

Thus the axial temperature profile in the fluid can be written

T

,
011
AT
cj

511
the,.
AT
T T
For the axial temperature distribution we can rewrite equation (11.26) in the form
T,-l;,(x/L)
(DL(x
=expjp
lI
1 T,,,,,
T
[ .nc,. /)\L
which is plotted in Figure 11.5 for the case in which
KDL
= 2.5
and
100 C and 1 l;, = 10 C

(11.26)

CF

Clearly, the difference between the temperature of the surface of the conduit and the bulk-mean
temperature of the fluid varies along the conduit axis.
From the first law,

the,. (T,,,

T,)

the,.

[(l; l;
,)
011

(T

l;, )

(11.27)

or

thc,.(Al, Al;,,)

(11.28)
If we now rewrite equation (11.26) for the axial temperature profile to yield an expression for the
capacity rate, we obtain
=

2,irR.Lh,
AT
1 ti
Al
If we now substitute equation (11.29) into equation (11.27), we obtain an expression for
Newtons Law of Cooling for the whole tube, viz.
ATO,,,-ATth
= A.ATJ
Q = k2rRL
In
mc,.=

(11.29)

(11.30)

where, for this situation in which the temperature difference between the conduit wall and the
fluid varies along the length of the flow conduit, we have introduced the concept of the log mean
temperature difference, ATLM, as the appropriate temperature difference driving the heat transfer
interaction described by Newtons Law of Cooling, viz.
= Al;,,,,Al;,,
ATM,
(11.31)
ln on
Al;,,

Ch. 11 Pg. 12
105

100
T
95

90

85

L
Figure 11 .Axial Temperature Distribution for Forced Convection in a Circular Conduit
with Constant Surface Temperature
Note that equations (11.26) and (11.30) also can be applied to a slightly different heat
transfer situation from the one just described. As shown schematically in cross-section in Figure
11.6, instead of a constant tube surface temperature we have a fluid with constant temperature

-I

+
.L
Figure 11.6 Heat Transfer from a Fluid Flowing in a Pipe
to an External Fluid of Temperature T,
0

____

Ch. 11 Pg. 13
flowing over the outside of the tube with a corresponding average
heat transfer coefficient
and radial temperature gradient as shown. If the temperature of this
external fluid remote from
the external surface of the tube has the fixed value T,, Newtons
Law of Cooling becomes
QUASATLM

(11.32)

where
11,
TT
L\1

thc.

(11.33)

and the log mean temperature difference is calculated according to

equation (11.32). The overall
heat transfer coefficient U is calculated by recognizing that the
energy associated with the heat
transfer from the external fluid to the internal fluid must past throug
h three thermal resistances in
series:
(1) the convection thermal resistance between the internal fluid
and the inside of the tube
wall given by equation (6.14)
R

(11.34)
22T
L
1
h
R
(2) the conduction thermal resistance of the tube wall itself given
by equation (6.34)
R
in _ll
1
R
RCOfld(CfO,l
(11.35)
wall
L
(3) the convection thermal resistance between the external fluid
and the outside of the
tube wall also given by equation (6.14)
COIl VlCtlOfl

iwsicle

R.
at It Side

I
2fl R
0 Lhc.
0

(1 1.36)

Then upon combining equations (11.32) through (11.34), we get

I

R
in u

(11.37)

where U. is the overall heat transfer coefficient based upon the interna
l surface area of the tube
A, and U
0 is the overall heat transfer coefficient based upon the external surface area of
the tube
Example 11E.3: A moonshiner (a producer of illegal alcoholic
liquor known as white
lightening in a home still in a rural area of the U.S.) produces liquor
with the highest possible
concentration in a simple still 96 percent ethanol by volume (192
proof). [This is known as an
azeotrope which is the concentration for which the liquid and vapor
have the same concentration
of the more volatile component.] The liquor comes from the still
in vapor form at a pressure of P
2 x I o N/rn
2 and is condensed at constant pressure to the liquid form at
a temperature of 95.6
C. For bottling purposes, the moonshiner wishes to cool the liquor
in a simple heat exchanger

Ch. 11 Pg. 14
consisting of a length L of thin-walled copper tubing with a diameter of D = 10 mm formed into
a series of coils. By the time the liquor reaches the cooler, its temperature has reached Th = 90
C. The desired outlet temperature is Th(,Il = 30 C. The liquor flows through the tubing at an
average velocity of 9= 1 mlsec. The coils of copper tubing are immersed in a large water bath
contained in a surplus oil drum now filled with water at a constant temperature of T}, = 20 C. The
coils are cooled by the water by a process known as natural convection with a resulting average
heat transfer coefficient of h = 800 W/m
2 K. The forced convection heat transfer coefficient for
the liquor inside the tubing is h,
1880 W/m
2 K. The moonshiner wishes to determine the
length L of copper tubing required for this simple heat exchanger.
For the liquor:
, c= 2890 J/kg K, k= 0.167 W/m K, ,u= 0.588 x iO kg/rn sec
3
p= 738.55 kg/rn
Solution: The heat transfer experienced by the liquor as it flows through the tubing can
be determined by the first law, viz.

Q thc
=

where
th = pAz,

rn)
kg/m3)0010 2
(1 sec) = 0.0580 kg/sec
Pave = (738.55

Then
=(0.0580 kg/sec)(2890 J/kg K)(30 C90 C)= 1.0058 x

The negative sign indicates that the heat transfer is from the liquor to the cooling water. From
Newtons Law of Cooling, this same heat transfer rate is given by
Q=UAATLM
where UA is the overall heat transfer coefficient given by equation (11.37) and AT, is the logmean temperature difference given by equation (11.31). Then
=
T =90 C 20 C =70 C
Log Mean logic

A1 =1

T,, =30 C20 C=lO C

A1
AT(lit

ATLM

in

70 C 10 C
70 C
In
lOC

30.834 C

The overall heat transfer coefficient contains the unknown length L. Then we write
UA=
UA

1
jcDLh,

0
7cDLh

=1i
L

=L

1
rDh

IrDhC()

1
(0.010rn)(1880W/rn2 K)

rDh
1

7cDh,,

1
2 K)
K(0.OlOrn)(800W/m

17.63W/rn K
Notice that we have neglected the thermal resistance of the tubing since it is thin-walled and it is
fabricated from copper which has a very high thermal conductivity (k,
1 = 384 W/m K). Then
Newtons Law of Cooling can be written
ua

Ch. 11 Pg. 15

uaLAT

4
1.0058
W
xl0
=18.5m
(17.63W/rn K)(30.834 C)
uaATLM
This is the length of copper tubing required to provide sufficient surface area for the cooling of
the liquor.
L=

As we have mentioned previously, the velocity of the fluid flowing inside the conduit is
not uniform over the cross-sectional area of the conduit. In fact it varies from one radial position
to another. It now remains for us to determine the manner in which this velocity distribution
establishes the temperature profile for the laminar flow conditions in the conduit. Since the flow
velocity governs the amount of time available for any fluid element to experience a heat transfer
interaction with the wall or other fluid elements, we must use this velocity profile to determine
the temperature profile and the rate of heat transfer that results. Using Newtons Law of Cooling,
we can then determine the heat transfer coefficient, h.

11.4

Forced Convection Heat Transfer in Laminar Flow in a Circular Conduit

The basic approach is to determine the temperature profile in the fluid in the radial
direction in order to establish the temperature gradient in the fluid at the wall of the conduit.
From this temperature gradient and the Fourier Conduction Law, we can determine the heat flux
at the wall in the fluid. We can then use this heat flux together with Newtons Law of Cooling to
determine the convective heat transfer coefficient, h. Of course, the radial temperature profile in
the fluid is determined by the residence time of the fluid at any location. This, in turn, is a
function of the velocity profile in the fluid. Thus, it is necessary to first solve the momentum
equation to determine the velocity profile. For the laminar flow case, we have already done this
and obtained the result shown in equation (11.3).
11.4.1 Constant Surface Heat Flux in Forced Convection Heat Transfer
As before, we first consider the case in which the heat flux at the wall of the conduit is
constant. We now assume that the flow is laminar and is fully developed both hydrodynamically
and thermally. That is, we assume that we are examining the flow far enough from the entry
region that the temperature profile will be a function of radial position only, independent of the
axial coordinate. Thus, in all that follows, L >> Lf, where L
71 is given by equation (11.5).
Equation (11.20) gives the axial temperature profile for flow in a conduit with a constant
surface heat flux. While this result relates the heat flux at the surface to the axial gradient in the
one-dimensional bulk-flow average temperature, we can generalize it to any radial location in the
fluid. For example, consider the annular differential control volume shown in Figure 11.7.
The first law gives
1 [i]27crdx] = pz2h(x)2.nrdr ph(x + dx)2irrdr
[c2.irrdx]
(11.38)

where j is the local heat flux and h(x + dx) and h(x) are the specific enthalpies of the fluid at the
locations x + dx and x, respectively. Using the constitutive relation for the specific enthalpy
(mindful of the approximation involved in the case of the incompressible fluid), we have
h(x)=c T(x)
h(x+dx)=cT(x+dx)

(11.39)

Ch. 11 Pg. 16
Tube wall

Q(r + dr)

h(x)

h(x

dx)

h(x

dx)

z:

r + dr

h(x)

r/////////////Z///4f////////Af//////4////////////A

Q(r+dr)

x+dx
Figure 11.7 Differential Control Volume for Laminar Flow Heat Transfer in a Circular Conduit
If we expand the various terms in Taylor series, we get
[2rrdx]d

[2rrdx] +[27rrdx]dr

(11.40)

I2yrrdr
I pz3c,T(x) + pz9c T(x)dx
3x

pzcT(x + dx)27crdr

Substituting equations (11.40) into equation (11.38) and then collecting terms and dividing
through by 27tpcdrdx, we get
3x

(11.41)
pcr3r

but from Fouriers Law of Conduction

(11.42)
Then
(11.43)
3x

pc r 3r

3r,)

ar)

For the case of constant heat flux at the surface, we have already seen that even though T. and Tb
vary along the axis of the tube, the relative shape of the temperature profile (like the velocity
profile) does not change along the axis of the tube. That is, T(x) Th(x) and T(x) T(r,x) are
independent of x as we have already seen. Then, it follows that the dimensionless temperature
-

Ch. 11 Pg. 17
difference should also be independent of x, viz.
drT(x)_T(r,x) =0
dXL 1(x)-1(x)
dT
we obtain
dx
dTd.(TT)d(TT)dI,
dx
dx (T1,) dx (I1,) dx
but from Figure 11.5 it is apparent that beyond the entry length
If we carry out the differentiation and solve for

(11.44)

dx

dx

dx

dx

(1145)

(11.46)

Then it follows that

(11.47)

Then equation (11.43) becomes

r drk dr}
dx
Since the temperature difference T Tb is independent of x, we can write
TT,,=(r)
Substituting equations (11.3) and (11.49) into equation (11.48), we get for laminar flow

(11.48)

L-J

2?5ae[l

(11.49)

(11.50)

Our task of determining the temperature profile in the case of laminar flow in a circular conduit
with a constant heat flux at the surface is reduced to evaluating the function t(r) in equation
(11.50). To do this, we note that we have already shown in equation (11.18) that
dT,, 2nR.
.
1
2i
=
= constant
(11.51)
dx
mcp
PaveCpRi
Combining equations (11.50) and (11.51), we get

i1--i
k\ R ,}

1
kR

r dr

dr ,}

(11.52)

with the following boundary conditions

=1.2fl
1fl
dr
dr
}(r=O)

=0

(11.53)

)(r0)

and
)=T,(R
1
T(R
)
Integrating equation (11.52) once, we get

or

dR4[r

dr
By equation (11.53), C
1

kR
[
1
2

R(R
)
1
=TI

r31Cr

j
1
4R

(11.54)

(11.55)

0. Substituting this result into equation (11.55) and integrating, we get

Ch. 11 Pg. 18

2
4rr
L4
1
kR

l+2

(11.56)

J
2
l6R

By equation (11.54), it follows that

TT1
kR

2
r
16
4

4
r

2
1
16R

(11.57)

We can now substitute this result into equation (11.10) and integrate over the cross-section of the
tube to obtain the one-dimensional bulk-flow average temperature. There results
(11.58)
24 k
We can now combine equation (11.58) with Newtons Law of Cooling to obtain an expression
for the heat transfer coefficient, viz.
=
5
q
h
(11.59)
(T,I)
1
hR
liD
Equation (11.59) can be rearranged into a dimensionless form, viz.
Always for
= hD
1 =
= 4.3 64
(11.60)
NuD
k
11
constant heat flux
where we have introduced the dimensionless Nusselt number, NuD, which can be interpreted
physically in the following manner. The heat flux at the wall of the tube can be calculated in two
different ways: either by Newtons Law of Cooling or by evaluating the Fourier Conduction Law
from the temperature profile in the fluid at the wall. Since they must give us the same result, we
can equate them. Thus,
(11.61)
)
1
(rR

If we multiply both sides of equation (11.61) by D

1 and solve for the Nusselt number, we get
1
2R
= hD
1 =
(11.62)
NuD
k

Since (T T,,)1R
1 is a measure of the average temperature gradient in the fluid across the conduit,
the Nusselt number is the ratio of the temperature gradient at the surface to the average
temperature gradient in the fluid. The larger the value of the Nusselt number, the steeper the
temperature gradient at the surface in proportion to the average temperature gradient in the fluid.
-

11.4.2 Constant Surface Temperature in Forced Convection Heat Transfer

We have just shown that the ratio implied in the expression for the Nusselt number,
equation (11.62), is a constant for the case of a constant heat flux at the surface. This result is a
consequence of the fact that in the fully developed flow, the shapes of both the velocity profile
and the temperature profile do not change in the direction of flow along the axis of the conduit.
Since this is also true in the case of laminar flow in a circular conduit with an isothermal wall, we
would expect a similar result.
For the case of the constant surface temperature, equation (11.48) becomes
jTbJdx

rrdr,)

(11.63)

Ch. 11 Pg. 19
with boundary conditions
T(R
)
1
=T

(11.64)

and
=0

(11.65)

(r=O)

As before, substituting the velocity profile from equation (11.3), we get the
new form of equation
(11.63).
2t.

2
fl
R) TT,,) dx

(11.66)

r drar)

Equation (11.66) is usually solved by the method of successive approx

imations. Equation (11.57)
is substituted for T in equation (11.66) and the resulting polynomial expres
sion is integrated to
obtain a new temperature profile. This new profile is now substituted
back into the original
expression and the process is repeated. For each new temperature profile
, the Nusselt number is
calculated and the process of integration of equation (11.66) is repeate
d until the value of the
Nusselt number converges. The limiting value for this case of consta
nt surface temperature is
NUD=3.66
(11.67)
11.4.4 Developing Laminar Flows or Entrance Effects in Forced Conve
ction Heat Transfer
The results of the analyses embodied in equations (11.60) and (11.67) enable
us to
determine the heat transfer coefficients for laminar flow of incompressib
le fluids in two
important heat transfer configurations commonly encountered in engineering
practice. Equations
(11.60) and (11.67) are applicable as long as two important criteria are
met:
(1) the flow must be laminar, i.e. Re 2300, and
(2) the flow must be fully developed
While these two criteria are satisfied in many practical situations, there
are also many situations
for which they are not met, and the practicing thermal-fluids engineer
must be prepared to
address them. Let us consider these two criteria separately beginning
with the second.
In section 11.2.1 we touched briefly on the thermal entrance effects for which
the flow
was fully developed hydrodynamically but not thermally. Because the
heat transfer coefficient is
so large in the immediate vicinity of the thermal entrance to the conduit
(hL oo) relative to the
fully developed value downstream, the effect of the thermally developing
flow on the average
heat transfer coefficient for a long conduit is felt even for relatively large
values of L7D. This is
particularly troublesome in the case of the constant wall temperature
because the heat transfer
rate and the axial temperature profile for a single conduit both depend
upon the average heat
transfer coefficient h [cf equations (11.26) and (11.30).]. For this reason
, the case of the
constant surface temperature studied in Section 11.3 has been analyzed
in detail to determine the
effects of the thermal entry region. For example, see W. M. Kays, M.
E. Crawford, and B.
th
Weigand, Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, 4
Edition, McGraw-Hill, N. Y., 2005, Chapter 8.
However, these results, shown in graphical form in Figure 11.8, are unwiel
dy to work with in
closed form. Consequently, the results of the analysis have been fit with
a dimensionless
correlation, equation (11.68), that lends itself more readily to calculation
by the practicing
thermal-fluids engineer. This correlation is also plotted in Figure 11.8.
For a circular conduit with a constant surface temperature in hydrodynamic
ally fully
-

Ch. 11 Pg. 20
developed flow, the average Nusselt number is given by
NuD=3.66+

0.065(D/L)Re D Pr

(11.68)

2/

1+ 0.045[(D/L) ReDPrY

For the case in which the surface heat flux is constant, the situation is somewhat different
from the case of constant surface temperature. For a single conduit, the heat transfer for the
whole conduit can be evaluated directly from the heat flux so there is no need for the average
heat transfer coefficient. However, as we shall see in Chapter 12, in a two-fluid heat exchanger,
the average Nusselt number is required to determine the overall heat transfer coefficient as in
equation (11.37). Furthermore, there are physical situations where the flow is already fully
developed hydrodynamically but not thermally. Such might be the case, for example, for a
conduit with a heater mounted on the wall far downstream of the physical entrance to the
conduit. In the heated region, the Nusselt number and, hence, the heat transfer coefficient will no
longer be a constant, but rather, will be a function of position in the direction of flow.
Again, the aforementioned reference, W. M. Kays, M. E. Crawford, and B. Weigand,
Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, 4 Edition, McGraw-Hill, N. Y., 2005, Chapter 8, presents
an analysis of this situation in detail and the results are shown in Figure 11.8 along with a curve
fit to the analytical results. In this case, two curve fits are required:
NuD
NuD

1 .953[(D/L) ReDPr}
4

for

4.364 + 0.0722(7/L)ReDPr

for

(D/L) ReDPr

0.03
(11.69)

(9/L)ReDPr> 0.03

For the two limiting cases involving laminar flow that we have just considered, the
conduit length for which the thermal development is important is given by equations (11 .5a) and
(11.5b), and these cases have been studied in detail. Figure 11.8 shows in graphical form the
results of these analytical studies. However, there are other situations in which we must also
consider the possibility that the flow is not fully developed either thermally or hydrodynamically.
That is, both the velocity and the temperature profiles are developing simultaneously. As we
discussed in section 11.2.1, this is quite likely the case in the entrance region of flow in a tube for
fluids with large values of the Prandtl number. Again the Nusselt number and the heat transfer
coefficient are functions of position in the direction of flow.
While both thermal entrance effects and combined thermal and hydrodynamic effects can
be treated using the model techniques described above, the methods of analysis are beyond the
scope of this treatment. Instead we present the results in graphical form in Figure 11.8 drawn
from the work of Kays and Crawford (W. M. Kays and M. E. Crawford, Convective Heat and
Mass Transfer, 2 edition, McGraw-Hill, N. Y., 1980, Chapter 8). Note that the local Nusselt
number becomes infinite at x = 0 and the results are plotted as a function of the inverse of the
Graetz number, Gz, where
xID
(11.68)
=
1
Gz
ReD Pr

Note that the thermal entry length is independent of the Prandtl number, but the combined entry
length depends upon Prandtl number. Note also that the plots approach equations (11.60) and
(11.66) in the limit of large values of x/D, i.e. small values of the Graetz number.

Ch. 11 Pg. 21
I VU

H:.-.:

IC,

31 .11

0.01

0.1
I/Gz

.
.

thermal, Ts=const
thermal, qs=const
combined, Ts=const, Pr=5
combined, qs=const. PrzIO

Figure 11.8 Local Nusselt Number for Developing Flows

Example 11E.4: The rules for international hockey require that the rink must be 61 m
long by 26 m wide. Testing has shown that the ideal ice surface temperature for skating should be
Tice = 5 C. The temperature of the air immediately above the ice surface is to be maintained at a
constant temperature of Tair = 35 C.
As shown in Figure 1 1E.4, the ice is 2 cm thick and is formed on a concrete slab 12 cm
thick. The midplane of this concrete slab is also the midplane of an array of pipes carrying a heat
transfer fluid known as Dowtherm SR-i, consisting of 50% ethylene glycol (antifreeze) and 50%
water plus some anti-corrosion additive. This configuration enables us to model the midplane of
the pipes as an isothermal surface 6 cm below the bottom of the ice slab. Heat transfer analysis of
the ice surface shows that the temperature of the rnidplane of the concrete, which is also the
surface temperature of the pipes, is T = 18 C.
The ethylene glycol piping consists of thin-walled mild steel tubing with an inside
diameter of D = 10 mm. The piping is configured so that the supply and return headers are placed
across the middle of the rink with a typical tube running from the supply header to the end of the
rink and returning to the return header. The mass flow rate for each tube is ifle = 0.0656 kg/sec.
The bulk-mean temperature of the ethylene glycol solution at the inlet to each tube is Tb,
1 = -20

Ch. 11 Pg. 22
C. We wish to determine the exit temperature of the coolant and the heat transfer rate for each
tube.
For Dowtherrn SR-l: p= 1088.15kg/rn
, c = 3129 J/kg K, k = 0.3442 W/m K,
3
p = 2.2082 x 10-2 kg/rn sec, Pr = 200.7

Air, Tar
Ice,

3.5 C

-5 C
2 cm

Concrete
Adiabatic surface

Ethylene glycol pipes

Figure 1 1E.4
Solution: We first determine the Reynolds number.
4(0.0656kg/sec)
4th
=378
ReD=
rpD
r(2.2082 x 102 kg/rn sec)

Clearly, the flow is laminar. If we knew the value of the average heat transfer coefficient for the
tube, we could use equation (11.26) to determine the outlet temperature of the coolant. From
equation (11.69)

)
2007
)(
378
0.0650.010 m(
61m }

0.065 ReDPr
Nu=3.66+

=3.66

=4.311

1
)
2007
)(
378
10045 m(
r1o.olo
61m

+0.045[_JReDPr1

Then
3442
I
3
.
4
h=Nbl=
W/mK
lO. =148.39W/rn
2 K
0.OlOm
D

From equation (11.26)

TS

0
T

=T

TbOW

-(

exp

lrDLk
mc

)ifl)exP[.
inc

=18 c_[(_18 C)_(_2oc)lexP[_

Tb,

r(0.010 m)(61 m)(148.39 W/m

2 K)1
(0.0656kg/sec)(3129 J/kgK)

18.5 C

Ch. 11 Pg. 23
Then the heat transfer rate for each tube can be computed from the first law, viz.
0 i) = (0.0656 kg/sec)(3 129 J/kg K)[(l8.5 C) (20 C)]
Q = thc(i
We can also evaluate the heat transfer rate from Newtons Law of Cooling, viz.

307.69 W

Q = hAAT = hC7CDLATM
where the log-mean temperature difference is given by
(T. T,)(.
[(18 C)(18.5 C)]_[(18 c)(2o C)]
ATLW
1 082 C
C)(18.5 C)]
bout
S[(_18
1
[(-18C)-(-2oC)]
Then

H
1

(148.39 W/m
2 K)(0.010 m)(61 m)(1.082 C)
which is precisely the same result obtained from the first law.
=

11.5

307.69 W

Forced Convection Heat Transfer in Laminar Flow in a Non-Circular Conduit

There are many cases in the practice of thermal fluids engineering in which the working
fluid is transported through a conduit for which the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the
direction of flow is not circular, but the flow is laminar nonetheless. Such cases are common in
nanotechnology, for example, for which the fabrication processes of necessity often result in flow
channels of square, rectangular, or even triangular cross-section. Since the characteristic
dimension of these channels is extremely small, the relevant Reynolds numbers that characterize
the flow are small, thereby resulting in laminar flow. Provided that the requirements for
continuum conditions are fulfilled, the heat transfer process in these cases can be analyzed
utilizing the approach discussed above. However, the non-circular geometry of the channel
complicates the form of the Navier-Stokes equation somewhat so that the solution is less
straightforward than shown above for the circular case. Fortunately, these geometries have been
studied in great detail (see R. K. Shah and A. L. London, Laminar Flow Forced Convection in
Ducts, in Advances in Heat Transfer, Supplement 1, ed. By T. F. Irvine and J. P. Hartnett,
Academic Press, 1978.), and the results of these analyses have been cast in a dimensionless form
that readily lends itself to the application of a wide variety of thermal-fluid engineering
situations. Table 11.1 summarizes these results for both the friction factor,f, and the Nusselt
number for both constant heat flux at the wall, Nun, and constant wall temperature, NUT. Note
that in the case of the elliptic channel, the cross-section becomes circular for the case in which
b/a = 1.00. Thus, Table 11.1 contains results for conduits of both circular and non-circular cross
section.

74.41
77.26

4.84

6.28

5.97

5.67

5.38

5.11

4.84

4.60

4.39

4.20

4.06

6.28

3.14

2.83

2.51

2.20

1.88

1.57

1.26

0.94

0.63

0.31

2.00

1.00

0.90

0.80

0.70

0.60

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

aj

71.58

4.20

15.71

5.00

69.18

67.29

65.92

64.98

64.39

64.09

64.00

67.29

74.41

77.26

4.06

31.42

10.00

Ellipse
fRe

p/a

2
A/a

b/a

Re
p

where
Dh
=

4A

5.12

4.96

4.80

4.67

4.56

4.48

4.42

4.39

4.37

4.36

4.56

4.96

5.12

11
Na

3.70

3.77

3.78

3.76

3.74

3.72

3.69

3.67

3.66

3.66

3.74

3.77

3.70

NUT

0.40

0.80

1.20

1.60

2.00

2.40

2.80

3.20

3.60

4.00

8.00

20.00

40.00

2
A/a

NuT

4.40

4.80

5.20

5.60

6.00

6.40

6.80

7.20

7.60

8.00

12.00

24.00

44.00

p/a

, means constant heat flux and

1
Nu

84.68

76.28

70.05

65.47

62.19

59.92

58.42

57.51

57.04

56.91

62.19

76.28

84.68

Rectangle
fRe

6.78

5.74

4.99

4.47

4.12

3.89

3.75

3.66

3.62

3.61

4.12

5.74

6.78

11
Nu

5.91

4.83

4.12

3.67

3.39

3.21

3.09

3.01

2.97

2.98

3.39

4.83

5.91

NuT

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

2.00

5.00

10.00

2
A/a

and o is the wetted perimeter

means constant wail temperature

4k

4.01

4.04

4.09

4.15

4.24

4.33

4.44

4.56

4.69

4.83

6.47

12.20

22.10

p/a

48.31

48.63

49.12

49.81

50.49

51.06

51.45

51.84

52.22

52.61

53.28

51.62

50.17

Triangle
fRe

Table 11.1 Friction Factor and Nusselt Number Data for Laminar Flow in Non-circular Conduits

2.63

2.49

2.71

2.85

2.99

3.06

3.10

3.11

3.12

3.10

2.88

2.51

2.29

11
Nu

1.37

1.72

2.02

2.18

2.34

2.41

2.45

2.46

2.47

2.46

2.22

1.70

1.34

NuT

Ch. 11 Pg. 24

Ch. 11 Pg. 25
11.5

Forced Convection Heat Transfer to a Fluid in Turbulent Flow in a Conduit

For hydrodynamically fully developed turbulent flow in a circular conduit with ReD> l0,
the thermal entry length for fluids with Prandtl numbers on the order of unity is typically short
with (L
/D) < 15. For fluids with small values of the Prandtl number, the thermal entry length is
1
somewhat longer (L
1D) <40. In the present section we shall develop the appropriate
111
relationships that describe the energy transfer that results for fully developed turbulent flow in a
circular conduit.
Note that the results of section 11.3 hold for the turbulent case as well as the laminar case
since at no time during the derivations of the relevant equations of those sections did we specify
the character of the flow. Thus the axial temperature profiles are of the same form for both
laminar and turbulent flow for each separate case of flow with constant heat flux at the wall and
flow with az constant wall temperature. The laminar and turbulent cases differ in detail, however,
since the values of the relevant convection heat transfer coefficients depend markedly upon the
nature of the flow. We now proceed to develop the appropriate expressions for the Nusselt
number in turbulent flow in a circular conduit.
The complicated nature of turbulent flow defies an analytical treatment of energy transfer
analogous to the treatment of the laminar flow case. The source of the complexity is the fact that
even though the first law in the form of equation (11.43) is applicable to both laminar and
turbulent flow, in turbulent flow the energy transfer process involves both convection, i.e., mass
motion due to eddy transport, and simple conduction down the temperature gradient. Thus, a
detailed description of energy transfer in turbulent flow requires a knowledge of the velocity
fluctuations introduced previously in our study of momentum transfer in turbulent flow. To
address this matter, we follow the example of Reynolds. The velocity fluctuations of turbulent
flow produce a vigorous exchange of momentum between fluid layers and the boundaries of the
fluid. This momentum exchange which is manifested in an increase in both the wall shear stress
and the velocity gradient at the wall is characterized by an apparent increase in the viscosity of
the fluid. However, in addition to enhancing the transfer of momentum, turbulent mixing due to
the motion of eddies in the flow field enhances the transfer of energy as well. This increase in the
rate of heat transfer which is manifested in an increase in the temperature gradient at the wall can
be characterized (by analogy with momentum transfer) by an apparent increase in the thermal
conductivity of the fluid.
We could follow a procedure similar to that used to solve the first law, equation (11.43),
for the laminar flow case. For turbulent flow, equation (11.43) is first modified to account for the
enhanced energy transfer due to eddy transport, viz.
(11.69)
where k is the eddy contribution to the apparent thermal conductivity which is a function of r and
hence kept inside the brackets. Equation (11.69) can be rearranged to give

T 1
z1=
x

rL

r(a+8

aTl

)rJ

i
r

c, T1
rI + i
rL Pr F,;) rj

(11.70)

where 8
H is the eddy diffusivity of heat. Since the Prandtl number of a fluid is defined as the ratio
of the momentum diffusivity to the thermal diffusivity, we can, by analogy, define a turbulent
Prandtl number, Pry, as
(11.71)

Ch. 11 Pg. 26
Unlike the laminar case, the convection term appearing on the left-hand side of equation
(11.70) is negligible compared to the radial conduction which is now enhanced by the turbulent
eddies. If we define a coordinate system measured from the wall y = R
1 r, we are then left to
solve
-

_+=constant=
Pr PrJy

(11.72)

to obtain the temperature distribution in the radial direction. Typically, we assume that the
mechanism for energy transport is identical to the mechanism for momentum transport in fully
turbulent flow, i.e., Pr =1. To achieve a solution to equation (11.72), the flow field is broken into
three separate regions representing the laminar sublayer, the buffer layer, and the fully turbulent
core with a different temperature distribution for each. These temperature distributions are
combined with Newtons Law of Cooling to give the convective heat transfer coefficient. The
resulting expression is somewhat ponderous and is useful only in illustrating the magnitudes of
the various regions of the flow. It is not widely used in thermal-fluids engineering practice. The
preferred approach is that due to an idea originally proposed by Reynolds.
Recall from our previous discussion of momentum transfer in turbulent flow that we
expressed the total shear stress in a turbulent flow field as the sum of a laminar contribution and
a turbulent contribution, viz.
(11.73)
dy
where 8
M is the eddy diffusivity of momentum. Then by analogy, we treat the energy transfer in a
similar fashion, viz.
(k
q=pcj

+EH

pc

dT
dT
I=pc(a+6)
)dy
dy

(11.74)

where 8 is again the eddy diffusivity of heat. Using the turbulent Prandtl number, Pr, defined in
equation (11.71), we can write equation (11.74) in the form
q=

Cp

Pr

Pr

dy

(11.75)

Reynolds originally considered the case in which Pr = 1 and Pr = 1 throughout the flow field and
postulated that for this case the velocity and the temperature profiles for turbulent flow are
identical. This implies that the same mechanisms control both momentum and energy transfer.
The velocity and temperature profiles in the forms
and (TTc)/(Th -Tv) must, therefore, have
identical forms. Then
ddT-T
dY?YaueJ dyTTJ

(11.76)

Combining equations (11.73), (11.75), and (11.76), we get

(11.77)
P dave
but Newtons Law of Cooling gives
(11.78)
and the definition of the Darcy friction factor gives
2
fPn,e

(11.79)

Ch. 11 Pg. 27
Then, combining equations (11.77), (11.78), and (11.79) and casting the result in dimensionless
form, we get
(11.80)

NuD

Equation (11.80) is one form of the model known as the Reynolds analogy.
This well-known result for turbulent flow is limited in that it applies only to fluids for
which Pr = 1 (typically air and water at high temperatures). In an attempt to remove this
limitation, Prandtl modified Reynolds original approach. Prandtl divided the total flow field into
two regions: a laminar sublayer and a turbulent layer. At sufficiently large distances from the
wall in the fully turbulent layer, the eddy diffusivity of momentum, and by analogy the eddy
diffusivity of heat, assume values which are so large in comparison with the molecular viscosity,
p, and the molecular thermal conductivity, k, that the latter can often be neglected with respect to
the former. On the other hand, in the laminar sublayer where turbulent fluctuations are
nonexistent, the reverse is true and the eddy coefficients may be neglected. Experimental
measurements have shown that even though the Prandtl number may be different from unity in
the laminar sublayer, the turbulent Prandtl number may still be unity in the turbulent layer (Pr
1=
1 but Pr 1). Under these circumstances, the Reynolds analogy of equation (11.80) is no longer
valid. In the Prandtl approach, for the laminar sublayer the eddy coefficients vanish, and
equations (11.73) and (11.75) can be written
(11.81)
In the turbulent layer where p and k can be neglected and P,

1, these equations become

(11.82)
cit9
Prandtl now integrated these expressions assuming that the temperature at the wall was a
constant, T, and that the velocity and temperature at the outer edge of the laminar sublayer were
L and TL, respectively. Prandtl argued that the ratio j/rremains constant throughout the
boundary layer and obtained for the laminar sublayer
-=c

kTLT

TL

(11.83)

and for the turbulent layer

TT

(11.84)

Lave

Since cf/us constant, we can equate equations (11.83) and (11.84) to obtain
Pr(T. -1)

_[i

+(Pr_l)1(T

-])

(11.85)

but Newtons Law of Cooling gives

h

Ta-Tb
Then combining equations (11.85) and (11.86), we get

hC=_l+(Pr_l)(TL_7)
aie

(11.86)

(11.87)

Ch. 11 Pg. 28
Combining equations (11.83) and (11.87), we get
h.=

(11.88)
l+--(Pr1)

Introducing the definition of the friction coefficient, equation (11.79), into equation (11.88) and
casting the result in dimensionless form, we get
ReDPr

(11.89)

NttD=
I

---

(PrI)

dave

which is known as the Prandtl analogy.

Note that before equation (11.89) can be applied to a particular physical situation, we
must first specify the ratio 1}j12ve. On the basis of experimental observations and the law of the
wall, Prandtl proposed the following velocity profiles for the two regions of flow in a circular
conduit:
Oyll.5

(11.90)

=2.51n y +5.5

>11.5

Then at the outer edge of the laminar sublayer

y==ll.5

(11.91)

From the definition of the friction velocity, if,

2

f2

(11.92)

and the fact that at the edge of the laminar sublayer

y2==ll.5

(11.93)

we have
lI.5
dave

(11.94)

V8

Then the Prandtl analogy for turbulent flow in a circular conduit becomes

NUD=

LRePr
8

(11.95)

1+11.5 /Z(Pr_l)
V8
On the basis of more recent experimental evidence, the Prandtl analogy has been
modified by Gnielinski to produce a correlation that is applicable to turbulent flow in smooth
circular conduits over a larger range of Reynolds numbers (2300 Re 5 x 106) and Prandtl
numbers (0.5 Pr 2000):

NuD=

L(Re 1000)Pr
8

1 + 12.7

f (Pr2/3
V8

(11.96)
I)

Ch. 11 Pg. 29
For smooth circular conduits, the friction factor is given by the Moody diagram or the correlation
f =(O.79OlnReD _l.64)2
(11.97)
Equation (11.96) for turbulent flow applies to both wall conditions considered previously
for
conditions of laminar flow: constant heat flux at the wall and constant wall temperature. The
requisite thermal property data should be evaluated at the mean temperature between the wall
temperature and the bulk mean temperature of the fluid. Note that equation (11.96) can be
applied to turbulent flow in conduits of non-circular cross-section by using the hydraulic
diameter, ,
11 in place of the diameter where
D
D
=
1
-

(11.98)

and A is the cross-sectional area of the flow and p is the wetted perimeter.

11.6

Forced Convection Heat Transfer in External Flows

Flow Over a Flat Plate

External flows differ from the internal flows we have just discussed in two important
respects. On the one hand, the boundary layer that develops as a result of the interaction between
the viscous fluid and the bounding surface is free to grow in an unbounded fashion. That is, as
we have already seen in the case of the hydrodynamic boundary layer developing on a flat plate
for example, the boundary layer can continue to grow as the flow proceeds down the surface of
the plate. The same is true for the thermal boundary layer. Jr the course of its growth, the thermal
boundary layer continues to interact with the bounding surface on one side and the free stream
of
flowing fluid on the other. The external thermal boundary layer never grows to such an extent
that it completely dominates the entire flow field as was the case for an internal flow.
On the other hand, the external boundary layer never becomes fully developed in the
sense of an internal flow where the velocity profile remains unchanged once the flow has
proceeded beyond the entry length. The temperature profile in an internal flow retains its shape
once fully developed, but the magnitude of the temperature of the fluid does as a result of heat
transfer interactions between the fluid and the wall in the direction of flow. In the case of the
external flow, although the velocity profile has the same shape due to the self-similar nature
of
the flow as the fluid proceeds down the surface, the dimension of the profile normal to the
bounding surface does change as the flow progresses. In fact, as the flow progresses over the
surface, it reaches a point where the boundary layer has grown so large, the influence of viscosity
is no longer able to damp out the small perturbations to the flow (the eddies) that are always
trying to develop as a result of the inherent roughness of the bounding surface. The character
of
the flow then undergoes a transition from laminar to turbulent. As we have already seen from our
discussion in Chapter 9 for the case of the hydrodynamic boundary layer, the mechanism of
momentum transfer is very different for these types of flow. Similarly, the mechanism of energy
transfer between the wall and the fluid is very different between these two types of flow. The
important point is that, in the case of external flow over a surface of typical dimensions, we must
consider both a laminar region and a turbulent region in the same flow field whereas for an
internal flow, we could confine our attention and our analysis to a single type of flow.
In our development of the topic of forced convection heat transfer in external flows, we
shall focus on the case of flow over a flat plate since that geometry is by far the most common
in
thermal-fluids engineering. We shall consider the case of laminar flow and then the case of
turbulent flow.

Ch. 11 Pg. 30

11.6.1 Laminar Flow Over a Flat Plate in Forced Convection Heat Transfer
Consider the case of a flat plate maintained at a uniform surface temperature T by some
external means. The plate is immersed in a flow which has a uniform free-stream velocity O. and
a uniform free-stream temperature TO., upstream from the plate. As shown in Figure 11.9, as the
flow encounters the plate, the action of viscosity causes the fluid adjacent to the plate to be
slowed by the presence of the plate. As a consequence, a velocity profile develops in the fluid
such that the fluid immediately adjacent to the plate assumes the velocity of the plate, the no
slip boundary condition of Chapter 9 while the fluid a short distance from the surface of the
plate has a finite velocity that is somewhat less than the free-stream velocity. Although the
influence of the plate truly can be felt no matter how far we might get away from the plate, the
effect does become negligible in a relatively short distance measured normal to the surface. This
narrow region of influence is modeled as the boundary layer as suggested by Prandtl.

Free stream

Boundary layer

///////////JV//Z///
X

////////////////////i
Flatplate

Figure 11.9 Velocity Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate

Since the fluid particles in the boundary layer spend more time in the neighborhood of the
surface than the fluid particles remote from the surface, they have more time to try to reach
thermal equilibrium with the plate. As a result, the temperatures of these fluid particles take on
values between the surface temperature of the plate T and the free-stream temperature of the
fluid T,,. The actual values depend upon the distance from the surface of the plate as well the
character of the flow and the thermal-fluid properties of the fluid. The variation in the values of
the temperature occurs in a continuous fashion with distance normal to the plate. At distances
remote from the surface, the residence time of the fluid particles is too low to have any effect on
the temperature of the fluid. This establishes the outer limit of a thermal boundary layer in the
fluid which may be thicker or thinner than the velocity boundary layer depending on the value of
the Prandtl number of the fluid. As we shall soon see, in the special (but common) case for which
Pr = 1, the thermal boundary layer has the same thickness as the velocity boundary layer. (We
expected this based upon our discussion in section 11.1.)
The analysis of the thermal boundary layer for this flow geometry follows the same
pattern as that used for the analysis of the internal flows shown above. We first solve the Navier
Stokes equation for the geometry of interest in order to establish the velocity profile in the flow.
This we have already done for the case of the flat plate. The result is the well-known Blasius
solution derived in Chapter 9. We then use this result in the appropriate form of the first law for
the geometry at hand. For flow over a flat plate, we have not yet developed the appropriate form
of the first law. To accomplish this we consider a differential control volume in the boundary

Ch. 11 Pg. 31
layer of Figure 11.9. A differential control volume of unit width normal to the plane of the page
would appear as shown in Figure 11.10.

(y+dy)

shear

E(x)

(y+dy)

I
dy
dx

(y)

i(y)

Figure 11.10 Differential Control Volume

The terms like E(x) represent the rate of flow of energy stored within the mass that enters
the control volume at the location x. This term includes kinetic and gravitational potential energy
as well as the flow work transfer and, in the case of the incompressible fluid model, the stored
thermal energy. (See Chapter 8.) The terms like j(x) represent the rate of energy transfer by
conduction (the heat flux) in the x-direction at the location x. (See Chapter 6.) The term W/
ear
1
represents the rate at which the shear stresses in the fluid result in a work transfer for the control
volume.
When the appropriate forms of the various terms are substituted into the first law, we
obtain after a considerable amount of algebraic manipulation (See Appendix 1 1A.) The following
form of the first law:
(11.99)
dx
dy
dx
dy
dy
To first order, the kinetic and gravitational potential energy of the incompressible fluid are
unchanged as it flows at a steady rate through the control volume. Thus the only stored energy
change of consequence is the change in stored thermal energy. The terms on the left-hand side of
equation (11.99) represent the net rate at which the stored thermal energy of the fluid is changed
as it flows through the control volume. As we have seen in Chapter 9, the flow work transfer for
the incompressible fluid just compensates for the work transfer associated with the viscous forces
acting on the control volume. Thus those terms cancel out and do not appear in equation (11.99).
On the right-hand side of equation (11.99), we are then left the energy transfer to the fluid via
conduction (the first term), the work transfer associated with the compressibility of the fluid (the
second term), and the viscous dissipation in the fluid (the third term).
For the incompressible fluid model the two-dimensional form of the continuity equation,
3x

dy

Ch. 11 Pg. 32
equation (9.70), reduces to

az

i2.

-+---=0
(11.100)
3x
y
Thus the second term on the right-hand side of equation (11.99) vanishes as we would expect
from the fact that the fluid is incompressible. Furthermore, the third term on the right-hand side
also can be neglected in all cases except those involving very high speed flow or those involving
the flow of highly viscous fluids such as oils. Then equation (11.99) reduces to
(2T
2T
3T
3T
(9
pcj i
--+i I=kI ----+-- I
(11.101)
\OX

Y)

OX

Y)

We now note that from our experience with the momentum equation in the boundary layer, the
gradients in the direction of flow are small compared to the gradients transverse to the flow. Thus
the first term in the parenthesis on the right-hand side of equation (11.101) can be neglected in
comparison with the second term in the parenthesis. We can not simplify the left-hand side of
equation (11.101) because the first term in the parenthesis is the product of a large velocity and a
small gradient while the second term is the product of a small velocity and a large gradient. Thus
the to terms are of the same order. Then the boundary layer form of the first law becomes
(11.102)
where we have made use of the definition of the thermal diffusivity, a = k/pc.
11.6.1.1 The Reynolds Analogy. We now note, as Osborne Reynolds did in 1874, that equation
(11.102) is precisely the same form as the momentum equation for the boundary layer, equation
(9.167), with the velocity component i2 in the derivatives replaced by the temperature and the
momentum diffusivity V replaced by the thermal diffusivity a. Furthermore, the boundary
conditions are the same for the two cases:
i=0and T T=Oaty=0
z2- andTT,asyoo
In fact, if a = v, that is if Pr = 1, the same function will satisfy both equations. If the equation is
cast in dimensionless form, the coefficient on the right-hand side of equation (11.102) becomes
the reciprocal of the Prandtl number. Then for Pr = 1, the shapes of the dimensionless
temperature profile and the dimensionless velocity profile are identical and they grow at the same
rate so that ,=
.
7
Suppose we now define a dimensionless temperature profile i) such that
-

()T(l7)_7

i)

(11.103)

Then

T-z2
yT7)

(11.104)

yLzJ

The heat flux at the surface of the plate is given by the Fourier Conduction Law, viz.
=-k
YJ),O

T-.
ayT

-.J]o

(11.105)

Ch. 11 Pg. 33
but the shear stress at the surface is

r--i

iy

(11.106)

For the case in which Pr = 1, we can combine equations (11.104), (11.105), and (11.106) to get
.kTT

(11.107)

It

If we now introduce Newtons Law of Cooling, we get

k(T-T)
h(Tr_T,)=_
v

(11.108)

Equation (11.108) can be rewritten in the dimensionless form

k

(11.109)

or from Table 10.7

C
Nu=Re--

(11.110)

where we have made use of the definition of the local skin friction coefficient Cf given in
equation (9.203). Equation (11.110) is known as the Reynolds analogy.
Note that the two definitions presented in equations (9.203) and (11.79) can be combined
to give the relationship between the Darcy friction factorf and the skin friction coefficient Cf
which is also known as the Fanning friction factor [see equation (9.143)], viz.
Cf

(11.111)

Thus equations (11.80) and (11.110) are identical except that in one case the conduit diameter D
is the characteristic length, and in the other case the distance from the leading edge of the plate is
the characteristic length.
From equation (9.204) we have
Cf

(9.204)

Then for the case of a fluid with Pr = 1 flowing in a laminar fashion over a flat plate, equation
(11.110) becomes
5 =0.332Re
Nt,

with

Pr=1

(11.112)
Thus for a special (but common) case of Pr = 1, we have actually achieved a solution of the first
law for laminar flow over a flat plate, without explicitly solving the partial differential equation.
The problem is, we do not know the influence of the Prandtl number for fluids with Pr 1. We
now proceed to do this with the aid of the Blasius solution for the boundary layer form of the
Navier-Stokes equation. Before we do this, however, it is appropriate to make two observations
concerning the Reynolds analogy of equation (11.110).
Although the foregoing development of the Reynolds analogy utilized the situation of
laminar flow over a flat plate, the concept is general and can be applied to other geometrical
shapes and to turbulent flow as we have already seen in equation (11.79). In fact, the Reynolds
analogy finds its greatest importance in the case of turbulent flows because of the extraordinary

Ch. 11 Pg. 34
complexity of these flow fields. In those cases for which a more precise correlation between the
Nusselt number and the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers is unavailable, the Reynolds analogy is
often the only means available to model the physical situation.
Finally, it should be noted that in 1874 Reynolds did not present the analogy concept in
quite the manner presented here. Rather, he argued that the heat transfer actually experienced by
a surface relative to the maximum heat transfer that could be realized in allowing the surface to
run down to equilibrium with the fluid should be equal to the amount of momentum transfer
between the fluid and the surface relative to the maximum amount of momentum that could be
transferred by bringing the fluid to rest relative to the surface. Equation (11 107) is the modern
mathematical equivalent of Reynoldss argument on a rate basis.
11.6.1.2 Extension of the Reynolds Analogy to the case with Pr 1. Note that equation
(11.103) is related to the Blasius function, viz.
.

()T(11)Tcv(77)df
T,-I
z
d17

(11.113)

where as before
(11.114)
Then the stream function becomes once again
(11.115)
Then from the continuity equation, equation (11.100), we have
(11.116)
and

1)

(11.117)

Substituting equations (11.114) through (11.117) into the first law, equation (11.102), we get

f)JZ!L
_f1__i/(77f_
2x di 2
x
vxdi7

vxdl7

(11.118)

which reduces to
2

di

vdi

(11.119)

or
lI)

Jf)

(11.120)
di 2
2
d17
Thus the partial differential equation has been converted into an ordinary differential equation.
The original boundary conditions were
T=T.
at y=O
(11.121)
T=T,,,
at y=co
which with the change of variables now become
0=0
at
=0
(11. 122)
7=oo
0=1
at

Ch. 11 Pg. 35
If we make another change of variables such that
(11.123)

dii

equation (11.120) becomes

+
f
1
.Pr.p=0
di 2

(11.124)

which can be integrated to obtain

lnp =--Prgfdii
1
+C

(11. 125)
p

di

=-=

c
e
7
xp[__P
2 rrfdill

Equation (11.125) can be integrated to yield

0(i7)=

1 expL__Frrfd1 dii
2
c

(11.126)

Applying the second boundary condition to equation (11.126), we get

Jexp[_2 iPrrfd]d

(11.127)

exP[_Prrfc1r11d71

If we recall the original Blasius equation, equation (9.176), we carl recast equation (11.127) in
the form
r(fYr

)
11
r(

(11.128)

which can be evaluated numerically using the values given in Table 9.4. However, what we are
really after here is a dimensionless solution that will give us the Nusselt number in terms of the
Reynolds number and the Prandtl number. If we recognize that the rate at which energy is
convected away by the fluid is precisely the energy conducted down the temperature gradient in
the fluid, we can combine Newtons law of Cooling with the Fourier Conduction Law in the
fluid. Then we have
(11.129)
where ui is the local value of the convection heat transfer coefficient. In terms of the variables
we have employed in the solution thus far we have
=-(T -T)

0
vxdi
j

=-(T-T)

1
vx r(f)Prd

(11.130)

If we now solve equation (11.129) for the heat transfer coefficient h and make use of equation
(11.130), we get
h

k
Vvx (fff)Prd

(11.131)

Ch. 11 Pg. 36
If we now define a local value of the Nusselt number, Nut, we get
1
k

r(fff)Prd

(11.132)
r(frd

If we now rearrange equation (11.132) in the following form, we can generate from Table 9.4 a
table of values for the ratio Nu/Re
2 as in Table 11.2.
(11 133)

Table 11.2

If we now plot the data of Table 11.2, we can develop a correlation of the form Nu

,Pr).
1
/(Re

Nu
Re/i

0.10.1

10

100

Pr
Figure 11.11 Heat Transfer Correlation for Flow Over a Flat Plate
If we use a linear regression analysis and force the fitted line to go through the point for
Pr = 1, we can correlate the local Nusselt number with the Reynolds number and the Prandtl
number for a flat plate in laminar flow as
(11.134)
Nu =O.332Re)Pr03437
which for simplicity has historically been written in the form
(11. 135)
Nu = O.332Re)Pr
From equation (11.131), it is apparent that for a given free-stream velocity of a given fluid, the
form of the local heat transfer coefficient h is

Ch. 11 Pg. 37
(11.136)
where C is a constant. Then the average heat transfer coefficient for a flat plate of length
L is
given by hL where
2
L
1
_
C
LCJthC

(11.137)

2hXL

Then the Nusselt number for a flat plate of length L in laminar flow becomes
NuL where
NuL =0.664ReLPr
(11.138)
and the Reynolds number is evaluated at the length L.
Consider a typical application of equation (11.135) involving the flow of air at a velocit
y
of = 0.9 rn/sec over a flat plate of length L 1 m. The kinematic viscosity of the air at
a
temperature of T= 300 K is v= 15.66 x 106 m
/sec and the thermal conductivity is k 0.0267
2
W/m K. The local convection heat transfer coefficient hr exhibits the behavior shown
in Figure
11.12 which is typical of all cases involving flow over an isothermal flat plate.
20

15

10

h 2
(W/m K)
5

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

x(m)
Figure 11.12 Local Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient for Laminar Flow Over Flat
a
Plate
According to equation (11.135), the local heat transfer coefficient varies as the
inverse of
the square root of the distance from the leading edge of the plate. Thus at the leading edge,
the
heat transfer coefficient is infinite and decays rapidly with distance from the leading edge.
The
portion of the flat plate downstream from the leading edge is much less effective as heat
a
transfer surface than the portion right near the leading edge. This observation is a
guiding
principle in the design of flat-plate like surfaces, such as this rectangular pin fins, for
the control
of surface temperatures. If the fins are short in the direction of flow (chord length) and
are
staggered so that they are not shielded from the oncoming fluid stream by their neighb
ors, the

Ch. 11 Pg. 38
heat transfer will be dominated by this effect of the leading edge and the heat transfer coefficient
for convection over the fin will have the largest possible value for a given fluid velocity. There
results, then, a reduction in the total fin surface area which reduces the cost of the finned surface.
11.6.2 Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate in Forced Convection Heat Transfer
The flow field in the neighborhood of the surface of an external flow has many
perturbations to it due to small fluctuations in both flow velocity and local pressure of the flow as
well as perturbations due to the roughness of the surface itself. In laminar flow, these small
perturbations are damped out through the action of fluid viscosity, but as the flow progresses
downstream from the leading edge, it becomes increasingly difficult for the fluid to damp out
these small perturbations. Eventually, the perturbations become large and the flow becomes
unstable. The flow then undergoes a transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow. Experimental
measurements of this transition phenomenon have reported a range of values of the local
Reynolds number at which the transition occurs, typically 3 x10
5 < Rex trancjtion < 5 x10. Since
these data have been typically obtained in laboratory settings where the conditions are precisely
controlled, some investigators believe that these data are artificially high. Kays and Crawford
(W. M. Kays and M. E. Crawford, Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, 2 edition, McGraw
Hill, N. Y., 1980, Chapter 10) argue that the results obtained from viscous stability theory might
be more appropriate in practice where conditions are not quite so closely controlled, viz.
Re transition 60,000.
The analysis of the case of heat transfer in turbulent flow over a flat plate is usually
treated by means of the Reynolds analogy or the Prandtl analogy. Here we make use of the latter
in the form of equation (11.95) because it includes the effects of Prandtl number. We now rewrite
this expression for the flat plate case in the customary manner using the local skin friction
coefficient C instead of the Darcy friction factor.
ReDPr
(11.139)

NUD

= l+l1.5v (Pr_I)

It now remains for us to determine the skin friction coefficient for the case at hand.
It has been found that the data for the velocity profile in the turbulent boundary layer can
be fit approximately with a 1/7th power law. Von Karman has suggested, in the interests of
simplicity, that the similarity solution for the turbulent boundary layer be written in the form
_9

t9,,,

6,)

-=i-fl

(11.140)

where is the bounday layer thickness. We now borrow some results from turbulent flow in a
circular conduit. Recall from equation (9.248) that the shear stress at the wall for turbulent flow
in a circular conduit was related to the friction factor by
(11.141)
In 1911 Blasius fit all the data then available for the friction factor for turbulent flow in a circular
conduit by the expression
4
i_D
ave

f=0.3164

(11.142)

V)

Combining equations (11.141) and (11.142), we get

=003955PaveXVD

(11.143)

Ch. 11 Pg. 39
If we rewrite this result in terms of the radius R of the conduit and recognize that for turbulent
flow in this geometry 1ve = 0.8
we get
s

=0.0225Pi

(11.144)

For the flat plate in turbulent flow, equation (11.144) becomes

I

1_X_I
0225
=o.

Y
5
0
J

2
pL

(11.145)

In our prior discussion of the momentum thickness, we derived the result [equation (9.202)]
d8
2
(11.146)
dx
where 6is the displacement thickness given by equation (9.197), viz.
(11.147)
Substituting equation (11.140) into equation (11.147) and carrying out the integration, we get
(11.148)
72
Substituting this result into equation (11.146), we obtain a differential equation for the boundary
layer thickness based upon the 1/7th power law similarity solution of equation (11.140), viz.
I

1
0
.
0
L=
225

(11.149)

72 dx

Integrating equation (11.149) from the leading edge of the plate to the location x, we get
0.23l43v
6CI=

(11.150)
(x)

0.37x

Then from equation (11.148) we get

z9
1
6(x)=0.036x_
-2-J

(11.151)

but the definition of the local skin friction coefficient C, is

(11.152)

Combining equation (11.152) with equation (11.146), we get

C=2f
(11.153)
dx
Differentiating equation (11.146) and substituting the result into equation (11.153), we get
1
C
Then

0.0576

1
0.0576Re

(11.154)

Ch. 11 Pg.40

=O.O288Re
2
but the experimental data have been found to be better represented by changing the constant
slightly so that

= O.O296Re<
(11.155)
2
which is the commonly accepted correlation in the literature.
To determine the Nusselt number, equation (11.155) can be substituted into the Prandtl
analogy, equation (11.95). Because of the scatter in the experimental data, it has been customary
in practice to simplify the correlation by dividing both sides of equation (11.95) by the numerator
on the right-hand side and to evaluate numerically the quantity
NUr

in the neighborhood of Pr = 1 over the range of Reynolds numbers 5 x 10 Re lO. The

results for each value of Prandtl number are averaged over the range of values of Reynolds
numbers. These results are then plotted vs. Pr on Log-Log coordinates as in Figure 11.13.
10

Nu
C/p
1

NN_
0.1

10

100

Pr
Figure 11.13 Heat Transfer Correlation for Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate, 5 x iO
The data are then fit using linear regression analysis. The result is
Aru
=

Equation (11.156) can then be rewritten in the form

Nu = O.O296Re)Pr

Re

iO

(11.156)

(11.157)

Ch. 11 Pg.41
which is the equation of the line plotted in Figure 11.13. Comparison of this expression with the
recent experimental data suggests that the fit could be improved by modifying the constant and
the exponent on Pr slightly, viz.
Nu 8
3
=0.029
P
r
Re
(11.158)
Finally, we note that the flow is not turbulent over the entire flat plate. As mentioned
above, the flow is initially laminar and then undergoes a transition to turbulent flow at some
distance downstream from the leading edge. Exactly where this transition occurs is still the
subject of study, but the generally accepted values are in the range of 6 x iO <Re.r < 5 x iO.
Then the heat transfer coefficient averaged over the length of the plate L becomes
hL
=

hria,,u,cirdX +

j hturi,uientdX

(11.159)

If we substitute equations (11.135) and (11.158) into equation (11.159), we get an expression for
the Nusselt number averaged over the length of the plate L.
NUL = 0.0664Re)Pr + 43
0.O36ReLPr I

(11.160)
ReL

Clearly, the application of equation (11.160) depends upon the value of Retr used.

11.7

Free Convection heat Transfer

Convection heat transfer, unlike conduction and radiation heat transfer, involves the
motion of a fluid past a solid surface. Thus far in our development of the topic, we have focused
our attention on situations in which the motion of the fluid was induced by external means
either by an imposed pressure gradient produced by a compressor or pump or by imposed motion
resulting from the motion of a boundary such as a fan or turbine blade. However, there is another
important class of convective motions in which the fluid motion is induced naturally by
buoyancy forces generated within the fluid itself.
As we have discussed in detail in Chapter 4, buoyancy forces arise from non-uniform
pressure distributions that can ultimately be traced to density differences. For example, consider
the Ping-Pong ball held completely submerged in a body of water as shown in Figure 11.14. A

V_____________
FbUOYCY
Ping-Pong ball

Fgravity

P water

Figure 11.14 Buoyancy of Submerged Ping-Pong Ball

Ch. 11 Pg.42
buoyancy force acting on the ball arises from the fact that the pressure on the top surface of the
Ping-Pong ball is less than the pressure on the bottom surface of the ball. When this pressure
distribution is integrated over the entire surface of the ball, a buoyancy force in the upward
direction results. This buoyancy force is greater than the body force due to gravity acting in the
downward direction. As a result, there is a net upward force acting on the ball that can be
expressed in terms of the difference in the densities of the air inside the ball and of the
surrounding water that is displaced by submerging the ball. (Clearly we are neglecting the mass
of the thin shell that comprises the wall of the ball.) This expression is the fundamental equation
of hydrostatics for submerged objects of uniform density.
11
Fnt = uoyancy cravitv = ( P ware,. Pc,ir ) g V,,,

(p

g VOhJCC

This net upward force causes a motion of the object in the upward direction. In the case of the
Ping-Pong ball, the ball rushes to the surface upon being released.
In a similar manner, if a solid object in contact with a fluid medium has a surface
temperature different from that of the surrounding fluid, the temperature difference causes a heat
transfer interaction between the fluid and the solid that can create a localized density gradient
within the bulk of the fluid. This density gradient can create a buoyancy force on some parts of
the fluid that ultimately leads to local motion within the fluid itself that we call free convection or
natural convection. The classic configuration is one in which a fluid layer is heated from below
or cooled from above. The fluid density gradient that results is unstable since in both cases the
denser fluid lies above the less dense fluid. A small perturbation to this unstable fluid layer
causes the fluid to break up into vertical cells of fluid of polygonal section, usually known as
convection cells or Bnard cells in honor of Henri Bdnard who first studied them experimentally
in 1901. Within these cells, the magnitude of the body force due to gravity acting on a typical
fluid element produces a net force on the element that causes the more dense fluid elements to
fall and the less dense fluid elements to rise. The ensuing fluid motion occurs on a local level
within each one of the many cells of circulating fluid that are now distributed throughout the
fluid. It was Lord Rayleigh who first described this motion in mathematical terms in 1916.
It is clear, then, that the appearance of the free convection phenomenon in a fluid is
dependent upon the development of a density gradient by thermal means. For the incompressible
fluid model that we have used thus far to describe most of the dynamical behavior of fluids, the
density is taken to be a constant, independent of temperature. Clearly, in order to describe the
free convection phenomenon in this model, it is necessary for us to relax this constraint and now
allow the fluid density to depend upon the local temperature. Since the density gradients that
drive the motion are small, we can expand the density in a Taylor series expansion of the
temperature, viz.
]
T_T
l+fl
+dT+...p
p=p
[
(
0
)

(11.161)

where we have retained just the linear term of the expansion. p

0 is the density at some Kelvin
, and the coefficient /0 evaluated at the same reference temperature is
0
reference temperature T
known as the coefficient of thermal expansion (volumetric) and is defined as the fractional
change in the specific volume per unit change in temperature at constant pressure, viz.

=--(
fl1--
vT)
pT)

(11.162)

Ch. 11 Pg.43
For the ideal gas model, P

pRTand equation (11.162) gives a particularly simple result, viz.

/3i(P/RT)
(11.163)
dT
p
,) T
2
J (P/RT) RT
For more complex fluids like liquids, the value of /3 must be determined experimentally or from
complex property constitutive relations derived from experimental data. Some values for
representative liquids at a temperature of T
0 = 300 K are given in Table 11.3 along with the
corresponding value for the ideal gas model at this temperature.
=

Table 11.3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (Volumetric) of Selected Liquids at T

0

300 K

Fluid
Mercury

1.8 x iO

Water

2.75 x iO

Glycerine

5.4 x iO

Gasoline (octane)

7.2 x iO

Turpentine

9.9 x iO

Ethyl Alcohol

1.1 x i0
3

Methyl Alcohol

1.4 x 10

Ideal Gas (all)

3.33 x iO

Note that ,Ois positive and typically has a small value so that to first order, liquids can be
modeled as incompressible. In that sense, free convection can be viewed as a second order
phenomenon. Clearly, the ideal gas has the largest value of the coefficient of thermal expansion
and is therefore the most susceptible to free convection phenomena. It is not surprising, then, that
free convection phenomena occur readily in the atmosphere and are responsible for much of the
weather on the planet Earth.
Although we have not yet discussed the behavior of fluids that can change phase, it is
worth noting in passing that water is anomalous with respect to its thermal expansion behavior.
Water is unusual in that under conditions for which the liquid and vapor can co-exist in
equilibrium, the liquid phase has a local maximum density at T= 3.9982 C (277.15 K) so that /3
becomes zero at that temperature and subsequently changes sign and becomes negative for
saturation temperatures down to the triple point (T
- = 0.01 C), the state in which the vapor,
1
liquid, and solid phases can co-exist in equilibrium. This behavior happens to be extremely
important for life on earth. In a stationary pool of water, such as a lake, that is cooling through
radiative and/or convective heat transfer to the surroundings, the packets of water that reach a
temperature of 4 C are locally more dense than both warmer and colder packets of water and thus
sink to the bottom of the pool. The colder water then rises to the surface where it freezes, thus
forming a layer of ice above the liquid water at the bottom of the pool. Although this layer of ice
has a higher value of thermal conductivity than the liquid water, it does present a large thermal
resistance to the atmosphere compared with the thermal resistance associated with the convective

Ch. llPg.44
and radiative cooling processes at the air/liquid water interface. This solid ice layer prevents the
liquid water beneath it from cooling further and thus protects fish and other life forms from death
by freezing during winter (or extinction during ice ages!).
The change in local density with temperature also results in changes in other properties
such as the refractive index of the fluid. These changes in refractive index distort light passing
through the fluid, and it is these local variations that we see when we see observe natural
convection in the surroundings. For example, when driving down a paved road in summer, the
road visible in the distance appears to shimmer as the light rays from it are deflected by the
convection cells near the road surface. Similarly, the steam rising off the bare head of a hot,
helmetless football player sitting on the side lines of Lambeau field in winter develops a swirling
motion due to local density variations.
11.7.1 Modes of Free Convection
As we described above, free convection phenomena result from local spatial density
gradients within a fluid, but the coefficient of thermal expansion is defined in equation (11.162)
in terms of the change in density with temperature. This coefficient of thermal expansion can be
related to the spatial gradients in density by using the product rule, viz.

1Nl

(.L

a
P
1
=_

(11.164)
x) aT)ax)
Thus the analysis of free convection flows is reduced to one of determining the temperature
gradients that lead to the density gradients that drive the free convection phenomena. The free
convection motions that arise from these temperature gradients may be subdivided simply into
two classes depending upon whether the fluid motion occurs adjacent to or away from the rigid
boundary responsible for the temperature gradients.
Images of two free convection flows are shown in Figure 11.15. These images have been
formed using interferornetry to produce fringes from local refractive index changes in the fluid
resulting from local density gradients due to local temperature gradients. The lines thus
correspond to isodensity lines, which at the nearly constant pressure present in the flow field, are
also isotherms. If the free convection occurs near a rigid wall as in Figure 11.1 5a, then it is only
logical that we try to describe the flow in terms of a free convection boundary layer similar to
that of the forced convection flow. However, as we shall see shortly, the shape and rate of growth
in this boundary layer is very different from that of the forced convection case since the fluid
motion is induced by the local change in density rather than by being imposed externally. A
familiar example of such a boundary layer is the one that occurs spontaneously on the inside of a
window on a cold winter day. If one places the back of the hand close to, but not touching, a
single pane glass window, one can just detect the slowly moving free convection air flow as the
warm air in the room experiences a heat transfer interaction with the cold glass surface.
In the absence of a bounding rigid surface, the convective fluid motion can be thought of
as a plume or buoyant jet as shown in Figure 11. 15b. The difference between this case and the
previous one is clearly seen in the shapes of the fringes, which are constant density contours, at
the middle of the plume. Such configurations occur commonly in chimneys and in environmental
or geophysical flows within the atmosphere and ocean. This is the classic case of a fluid heated
from below or cooled from above as studied by Rayleigh and many others since.
Finally, it is worth noting that although these images show an upward motion due to local
heating of the fluid with the resulting expansion of fluid elements, identical but opposite motions
can occur from local cooling of fluid elements. The same correlations may be used in both cases;
=(

Ch. 11 Pg.45
the change in the sign of the temperature difference simply leads to a change in the sign of the
heat transfer interaction (positive or negative when viewed from the perspective of the fluid) and
a change in the direction of the heat flux (away from or towards the wall).

(a)

(b)

Figure 11.15 Images of Free Convection

(a) Natural convection boundary layer on a heated vertical flat plate
(b) A thermal plume above a heated horizontal plate located at the bottom of the picture
(from Van Dyke, An Album of Fluid Motion, Parabolic Press, 1981)
11.7.2 Free Convection on a Vertical Flat Plate
Consider the configuration shown in Fig 11.1 5a, namely the free convection thermal
boundary layer that forms along the surface of a vertical flat plate that is at a temperature T
different from the temperature T. of the surrounding fluid far outside the boundary layer. This is
a geometry that occurs frequently in thermal-fluid systems, so it is only natural that we attempt to
develop a means of evaluating the heat transfer that occurs between the plate and the fluid as a
result of the ensuing free convection flow. The analysis of this configuration is somewhat more
complicated than the case of forced convection flow that we considered earlier because the flow
occurs as a result of the heat transfer process itself rather than being imposed by external means.
As a consequence, the Navier-Stokes equation (the equation of motion) becomes coupled with
the first law of thermodynamics for the configuration. This means that we can no longer solve the
appropriate form of the Navier-Stokes equation first to obtain the velocity profile in the fluid, and
then use this result to solve the first law for the temperature distribution and the subsequent heat
transfer coefficient. In the case of free convection flows, the momentum boundary layer and the
thermal boundary layer are essentially one and the same and develop together. This complicates
the analysis considerably. Therefore, rather than attempt to solve the problem exactly, as we did
for the case of forced convection over a flat plate, we employ the methods of dimensional

Ch. 11 Pg.46
analysis first to establish the dimensionless parameters that can be used to describe the situation,
and then we consider the balance offorces acting on a fluid element in the boundary layer and
the manner in which they scale with the fundamental thermal-fluid and geometric parameters of
the situation to obtain an approximate form for the relationship between these dimensionless
parameters.
11.7.2.1 Dimensional analysis. Let us determine the dimensionless groups that characterize the
dynamics of the coupling between the fluid motion and the heat transfer in the freely-convecting
boundary layer shown schematically in Figure 11.16. We can accomplish this by applying the
methodology that we developed for this purpose in Chapter 10.

Flat plate
T> T

Boundary layer

Figure 11.16 Free Convection Boundary Layer on a Vertical Flat Plate

Step 1: List and count the n parameters required to describe the physical situation. If any
important parameters are missing, dimensional analysis will fail.
Based on the foregoing discussion, we expect the heat transfer process embodied in the
heat transfer coefficient, h, to depend upon the temperature difference between the fluid and the
plate, AT = T Tc; the density of the fluid, p; the buoyancy force per unit mass, FB; the viscosity
of the fluid, p; the specific heat of the fluid, c; the thermal conductivity of the fluid, k; the
acceleration of gravity, g; and the length of the plate, L. There are nine parameters so n = 9.

Step 2: List the dimensions of each iariable according to M, L, T, and 6k

M

, [zTj=O,
3
[hl=
[c

]= 0T
2

[p1=-p-,

[k]=

2
0T

L
M
[FB]-, [It]=-

{gl=,
T

{L]=L

Step 3: Find the value of r. Initially guess r to be equal to the number of different dimensions
present and then make sure the there are rparameters that do notform a 11-product. If this is

Ch. 11 Pg.47
unsuccessful, reduce r by one and look again.
We initially guess r = 4 since there are four dimensions. Then we should be able to
reduce the nine parameters down to five 11-groups, n r = 9 4 = 5. Let us choose p, c, k, and
L as the 4 potential repeating parameters. We need to ensure that they themselves do not form a
11-group. Checking, we get
-

[pacpbkcLd

(MI (

L2

(L)d

} eT
3
L
) OT
2
a
4
A
a
3
b
2
/
)+cO_
+cL
dT
+
b_c =

a+c=O
3a+2b+d=O
2b + c

b c =0
The solution of this system of equations is a = 0, b = 0, c
cp, k, and L are dimensionally independent; hence, r = 4.

0, and d = 0. Then the parameters p,

Step 4: Select r parameters which do not form a fl-product among themselves. These parameters
are the repeating parameters that will appear in all the 11-groups.
We shall select p, c, k, and L as the repeating parameters since they have already been
shown to be dimensionally independent.
Step 5: Select one of the remaining parameters that is not one of the r repeating parameters and
non-dimensionalize that parameter using the r repeating parameters. Repeat the procedure until
all the remaining parameters are non-dimensionalized. There should now be n r Il-groups.
We have already gained some experience in working with a similar collection of
parameters in situations involving heat transfer. When non-dimensionalize the heat transfer
coefficient h, we will get the Nusselt number, Nu. This will be our first 11-group.

H =!=Nu
k
When non-dimensionalize the viscosity p, we will get the Prandtl number, Pr. This will be our
second 11-group.
2 =-=Pr
TT
k
The third dimensionless group results from non-dimensionalizing T, viz.
[ATpacpbkLd =
1?(

L
2
ML La
=1
L OT
J
3
) 3
2
OT
)
=

a+c=0
3a+2b+c+d =0
2b 3c = 0

1bc

Ch. 11 Pg.48
The solution of this system of equations is a
=

2, b

3, c

-2, and d = 2. Then

2
L
3
ATpc

fl22

2
k

JpJkJ
2

2Ec}

where Ec is the Eckert number (See Table 10.6.) and is important only in high-speed flows where
the velocity 1is appreciable (typically a value approaching the speed of sound). Since the
velocities in free convection are extremely slow, we do not expect ]] to be of any significance in
the present situation. It is still a valid dimensionless group, however. The fourth dimensionless
group results from non-dimensionalizing F
, viz.
8
[FBpaCPhkCii =

L
(OT2J

(L(My
T2JL3J

ML

LaI

OTJ

23 = i
_
2
T_
Al acLl_3a+2bfc+d cO_h_c

a+c=0

1 3a + 2b + c + d =0
2 2b

3c =0

c =0
The solution of this system of equations is a = 2, b = 2, c = 2, and d = 3. Then
p2L3pc FBLfl
8
F
2
,
= Fp
c,L 1
2
2
b

2
k

k}

v2)

where v is the kinematic viscosity, v = p/p. We can express the buoyancy force in terms of the
other parameters and thereby clarify the first term in parentheses on the right-hand side of the
above expression. The buoyancy force per unit volume is
=(pp)g
and the buoyancy force per unit mass becomes
B

FB

p
but the thermal expansion coefficient can be written

---L _(m-i)
pTJ

p(T-T)

(11.165)

Then the buoyancy force per unit mass becomes

FB =/3g(TT,,)=/3g(T--T,)

Then the first term on the right-hand side of I1 becomes

F

3
,8g(T-T)L

=Gr

This dimensionless parameter is known as the Grashof number and is denoted by the symbol Gr.
Physically the Grashof number represents the ratio of the product of the buoyancy force and the
inertia force to the square of the viscous force, i.e.,
(buoyancy force) (inertia force)
Gr

(viscous force)

Ch. 11 Pg. 49
Since Gr depends directly upon L
3 and inversely upon v
, it can be a very large number (as large
2
as 1010) for typical convection flows in fluids with small kinematic viscosities such as gases.
The fifth dimensionless group will turn out to have precisely the same form as the fourth
dimensionless group because g has the same dimensions as FB, namely lIT
2 Thus
H

_Jp,2

The term in parentheses can easily be converted into the Grashof number by multiplying by the
dimensionless group /T Tj. As a result, we cannot expect to learn anything from the
dimensionless group 14 that we cannot already learn from the Grashof number.
-

Step 6: Check to see that all proposed P-groups are dimensionless and write the functional
relationship among them in dimensionless form.
The five H-groups are indeed dimensionless (We checked.). Then according to the
Buckingham Pi Theorem, the free convection heat transfer analysis can be presented in a
relationship of the form
= G(Gr,Pr)
Once again, this is as far as dimensional analysis can take us. To determine the form of the
function G, we need to examine the governing equations in detail and perhaps perform some
experimental measurements.
11.7.2.2 Scaling of the free convection boundary layer. We now proceed to analyze the way
in which the boundary layer thickness develops along the plate. The expected variations of the
velocity profile and temperature in the boundary layer are shown in Figure 11.16. Note that since
the two motions are coupled, there is only one boundary layer with a thickness we simply denote
by (x). The velocity is zero both on the surface of the plate (the familiar no slip boundary
condition) as well as far from the plate where the fluid is quiescent. In the boundary layer, the
fluid velocity increases with distance along the plate as the fluid elements are heated, expand,
and begin to rise due to the buoyancy effect. The temperature difference between the plate and
the fluid far from the plate is always iT =
T,. but the gradient ST/By in the boundary layer
actually decreases as we move along the plate due to the outward diffusion of thermal energy
from the surface of the plate into the fluid. Since the momentum transfer and the heat transfer are
coupled in this case, once we have determined the velocity profile, we can see how the slope of
the temperature difference changes. We can then compute the local heat flux at each point, and
from this determine the local Nusselt number. Integrating the local Nusselt number along the
plate will finally lead to an expression for the average Nusselt number as a function of the
Grashof number and Prandtl number.
Consider a control volume in the natural convection boundary layer shown in Fig. 11.16.
The lateral extent of the control volume is 6(x) and the components of the velocity vector in the
x-direction and the y-direction are
and i9., respectively. The motion in the boundary layer is
steady from the point of view of an observer stationary in space (Eulerian view). However, from
the point of view of an observer moving with the fluid (Lagrangian view), the motion is
unsteady. Thermal energy diffuses in the y-direction away from the wall and the fluid particles
near the wall expand and thus experience a buoyancy force which causes them to accelerate
vertically upwards until this buoyancy force is just balanced by the viscous drag force. This
motion convects thermal energy with the fluid. These physical statements are embodied in the

Na

Ch. 11 Pg. 50
conservation equations for mass and linear momentum (Navier-Stokes equation) and the first
law. The thermal-fluid properties of the fluid can be considered constant except for the variation
of density with temperature in the gravitational body force term of the Navier-Stokes equation
since it is this term which drives the flow. (Without this term there would be no free convection.)
The effect of the temperature dependence of the other properties is to modify the numerical
constants in the solution in a simple, but weak fashion. This simplification is known as the
Boussinesq approximation.
Employing the Boussinesq approximation, we can now write the governing equations in
two-dimensional form. The continuity equation becomes
(11.166)
dx
dy
and the x-component of the Navier-Stokes equation becomes
dY
dP
2
d
(11.167)
+-Jpg
dx
a
dx
dx
dy
where we have made use of the fact that the gravity vector lies in the negative x-direction in this
case. We note that at the outer edge of the boundary layer, the pressure gradient in the direction
of flow is simply the hydrostatic variation in pressure, viz.

dx

=pg

(11.168)

To first order, the pressure gradient in the y-direction is zero. Then equation (11.168) gives the
pressure gradient in the x-direction within the boundary layer. Substituting equation (11.168) into
equation (11.167), we obtain
dt9
d
d
. +--2
(a
(1
(11.169)
-+Y-- =p
P1 t9
i(ppjg
dx
dy)
dx
QY)

Substituting equation (11.165) into equation (11.169), we get

P[+=P/3g(T_T)+P +

(11.170)

The first law for this case becomes

(d2T d2T)
dT
dT
(11.171)
1k1
ox
dy)
ox
QY)I
The description of the boundary layer for free convection on an isothermal vertical flat plate can
be determined by solving equations (11.166), (11.170), and (11.171) subject to the boundary
conditions of no slip at the wall and no temperature jump at the wall, viz.
=0andz)=0 at y=O
t9=0
at y_co

PCpI

T=T
at y=O
TrrT
at y_oo
Unfortunately, we cannot use the same approach that we used in the case of forced convection
over a flat plate, namely, solve the Navier-Stokes equation for the velocity profile and then use
this velocity profile in the first law to determine the temperature profile. In the present case,
equations (11.170) and (11.171) are coupled through the coefficient of expansion, ,8 We could

Ch. 11 Pg. 51
introduce a coupled similarity variable and then use this to derive a set of couple
d ordinary
differential equations from equations (11.170) and (11.171) that could be solved
numeric ally. At
this time, however, we do not know what that similarity variable might be.
To gain some insight to this situation, let us determine the magnitude of each variabl
e that
appears in the governing equations. In contrast to the case of forced convection,
the present case
has no externally imposed fluid velocity by which all the other terms can be scaled.
For the free
convection case the velocity in the x-direction is an unknown and changes with
x as the fluid
accelerates up the plate. Then we write
x=x,
,Y=U(x),
(TT)=(TTj=AT, y=-6(x),
O =V(x) (11.172)
Then from equations (11.172) we have
3U(x)

and

V(x)
3y

6(x)

Then the continuity equation (11.166) becomes

U(x) V(x)
+
=0
x
3(x)
or
3
V(x
)U(x)

(11.173)

Since by definition the boundary layer is thin, x) <<x and it follows from equatio
n (11.173)
that V(x) << U(x) and the flow is almost parallel to the plate. Then following the examp
le of the
continuity equation, the Navier-Stokes equation, with the aid of equation (11.173),
becomes
pu(x)U+[6U=pfigA+
(11.174)
x
x
6(x)
x
[
[6(x)1
In equation (11.174), the two terms in the brackets on the left-hand side are of the
same order and
can be combined; however, on the right-hand side, the underlined term in the viscou
s drag term
is much smaller than the second term because (x) <<x. Then we can be neglect it
by
comparison. Then combining the remaining terms equation (11.174) and dividing
by p, we get
2
[U(x)1

_flgAT+

vU(x)
(11.175)

[6(x)i
where we have made use of the definition of the kinematic viscosity, v = jilp.
Using the same approach on the first law, equation (11.17 1) becomes
pc (U(x)_-k
x
[6(x)T

(11.176)

Solving equation (11.176) for U(x), we get the behavior of the convection velocity with
respect
to the position on the plate, viz.
x
Cp

[3(x)]2

ax

(11.177)

[6(x)12

where we have made use of the thermal diffusivity, a = k/pc. Since U(x)
equation (11.177) that

Lt,

it follows from
(11.178)

Ch. 11 Pg. 52
and the boundary layer thickness does indeed grow in a diffusive fashion. The difference between
this result and a similar result for the case of forced convection is that in the free convection case
the velocity U(x) itself varies along the plate. Thus, we need to eliminate it from the coupled
equations (11.175) and (11.176). Combining these two equations, we get

ax

_flAT.+va

[6(X)

(11.179)

[6(x)1

Dividing equation (11.179) by v

, we get
2
=

2
Pr

v2

+Pr

[6(x)1

(11.180)

[6(x)1

Equation (11.180) can be written in more general terms as

=

f(Pr)

(11.181)

v2

where f(Pr) is a function of Pr

1 and Pr
. Solving equation (11.181) for the boundary layer
2
thickness, we get
(11.182)

f(Pr)x

4
Equation (11.182) shows that the free convection boundary layer grows along the plate as xU
which is markedly different from the forced convection boundary layer which grows as xU2. Non
dimensionalizing the boundary layer thickness in equation (11.182), we get

6(x)

[fig (- T ) x

f (Pr) = Gr [f (Pr)<

(11.183)

where we have introduced the local Grashof number, Gr.

Having obtained an expression for the development of the free convection boundary layer
along the plate, we can now explore the details of the development of the dimensionless heat
transfer coefficient, i.e. the Nusselt number, along the plate. The heat flux at the surface can be
expressed either in terms of the temperature gradient in the fluid at the surface of the plate, or
equivalently, in terms of Newtons law of cooling, viz.
(11.184)

=c=h(TsT)
v=o

Since the temperature gradient at the wall decreases along the plate as the boundary layer grows
with x, it is clear that on the right-hand side of equation (11.184) we should expect the heat
transfer coefficient h(x) to also vary with x. We may estimate the wall temperature gradient as
ay

(11.185)
6(x)

Then combining equations (11.182), (11.184), and (11.185), we get

- k(-T) =h(x)(T-T)
xGr[f (Pr)
S

Introducing the definition of the local Nusselt number into equation (11.186), we get
h(x)x
-y
Nu=
=Gr[f(Pr)1
k

(11.186)

(11.187)

Ch. 11 Pg. 53
Thus we have now determined the functional form of the relationship derived from the
dimensional analysis. In order to evaluate the precise form of equation (11.187), we need to
develop the similarity solution.
For design purposes it is often more convenient to express heat transfer correlations in
terms of an average heat transfer coefficient. From equation (11.187) we can readily determine
the average Nusselt number over a vertical plate of length L as
NUL

J0

[f1

iLL

(11.188)

Thus the average value of the Nusselt number over the length of the plate is 1/3 larger than the
local value at x = L. This result is a consequence of the fact that the temperature gradient, and,
hence, the heat flux, actually decreases along the plate as the boundary layer diffuses outward
and becomes thicker.
11.7.2.3 Similarity solution for free convection on a vertical flat plate. Now that we have
determined the manner in which the boundary layer thickness scales with distance along the
plate, we can develop the appropriate similarity parameter that will lead to a solution of the
coupled governing equations. To this end, we introduce the stream function qt such that the
continuity function is automatically satisfied, viz.
9
t

and

=--

(11.189)

where the similarity variable is given by

(Gry
x
Then the velocity components become
=2figx(7T)f

(Gr
y=4vp- f(i7)
4)

and

and

(11.190)

(11.191)

and the dimensionless temperature is given by

TT
(11.192)
T T
Substituting equations (11.191) and (11.192) into equations (11.170) and (11.171), we are able to
reduce the coupled partial differential equations into a pair of coupled ordinary differential
equations, viz.
-

f+3ff2f
+
2
=0
O+3(Pr)f6=0

(11.193)

with boundary conditions

f=0

and f=O

at

f=O

at

17oo

0=1

at

=0

0=0

at

i=0
(11. 194)

17oo

There is no known analytic solution for equations (11.193) so we must rely on numerical
solutions with the Prandtl number as a parameter. The difficulty with numerical solutions is that
the velocity gradientfand the temperature gradient Omust be known at the wall in order for

Ch. 11 Pg. 54
as i7 co For some representative
the velocity to vanish and the temperature to decay to
values of the Prandtl number, White (Frank M. White, Viscous Fluid Flow, McGraw-Hill,
Boston, 1991, p. 326.) suggests the values for these gradients as shown in Table 11.4.
-

Table 11.4 Dimensionless Velocity Gradients and Temperature Gradients at the Surface
for Free Convection Flow Over a Vertical Flat Plate
Pr

f(O)

8(O)

0.10

0.8591

-0.2301

0.6422

-0.5671

10

0.4192

-1.1237

100

0.2517

-2.1913

Using the data of Table 11.4, we can obtain a numerical solution of equations (11.193). The
results are shown graphically in Figures 11.17 and 11.18.
0.5

0.4

0.3

2Jxflg(7 -T)
0.2

0.1

00

17

Figure 11.17 Velocity Profile in Free Convection Boundary Layer on Vertical Flat Plate
In order to fit the Nusselt number data resulting from the foregoing numerical solutions for
various values of the Prandtl number, Churchill and Usagi (S. W. Churchill and R. Usagi, A
General Expression for the Correlation of Rates of Transfer and Other Phenomena, AIChE
Journal, 18, pp. 1121-1128, 1972) curve fit the data and proposed a Prandtl number function P
such that

I (\ AUfl

IJ= l+fl
\Pr

9/
/66

6/
/9

(11.195)

Ch. 11 Pg. 55

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

17

Figure 11.18 Temperature Profile in Free Convection Boundary Layer on Vertical Flat Plate
In the laminar regime (RaL 10), this function is to be used with the following curve fit for the
average Nusselt number for free convection over a vertical flat plate as determined by Churchill
and Chu (S. W. Churchill and H. H .S. Chu, Correlating Equations for Laminar and Turbulent
Free Convection from a Vertical Plate, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 18,
pp. 1323-1329, 1975), viz.
NuL = 0.68 +0.670(RaF)<
(11.196)
where we have introduced the Rayleigh number, Ra = GrPr.
Thus for the case of free convection over a vertical flat plate, we have shown through a
combination of dimensional analysis and approximate or scaling analysis of the governing
equations, that laminar free convection gives rise to a slowly-growing boundary layer described
by equation (11.182) and an average Nusselt number given by equation (11.196). As we have
shown, the coupled nature of the heat transfer and fluid flow means that both of these results
depend on the dimensionless Grashof number raised to the 1/4 power. This result is quite robust
and we should expect it to be repeated for other geometries that are more difficult to analyze
exactly.
11.7.2.4 Turbulent free convection. Based on our experience with forced convection, we fully
expect the laminar free convection boundary layer to become unstable at some point and to
undergo a transition to a turbulent boundary layer. Figure 11.19 shows a typical free convection
flow experiencing just such a transition.
In the case of free convection on the vertical flat plate, as the fluid rises up the plate, the
velocity increases as indicated by equation (11.177). In fact, the velocity increases as
U x)

i
[(x)]2

(x)2

i/

Ch. 11 Pg. 56

Figure 11.19 A Free Convection Smoke Plume Develops Waves and Becomes Turbulent
The local Grashof number, Gr, also increases just as the local Reynolds number, Rex, increased
during laminar forced convection over a flat plate. Then, at some value of the Grashof number,
even under carefully controlled conditions, small perturbations to the flow will eventually grow
and the flow will become turbulent. This turbulence leads to disruption of the laminar boundary
layer and rapid mixing of the rising warmer fluid with the surrounding colder air. The mixing
then enhances energy transport between the plate and the fluid. Experiments and calculations
show that for the free convection boundary layer adjacent to a flat plate, the critical conditions for
the laminar/turbulent transition occur at a critical Rayleigh number of Raxeritica, = io. For a given
temperature difference between the plate and the fluid, this value of the Rayleigh number can be
used to determine the location where the laminar/turbulent transition occurs. Beyond this point,
the fluid motion is turbulent and the correlation of equation (11.196) no longer applies. For 1 o
1012, Churchill and Chu (op. cit.) suggest that the average value of the Nusselt number can
RaL
be determined from
NuL

0.68+ 0.670(RaLP) (1 + 1.6 x

lO8RaLP)

(11.197)

where the Prandtl number function P is given by equation (11.195).

11.8

Combined Free and Forced Convection

Another very common situation encountered in automotive engineering and in micro

electronic applications consists of combined natural and forced convection. For example, in the
latter case, a small fan may be mounted close to a hot surface such as a circuit board populated
with integrated circuits that dissipate power and which are normally cooled by natural
convection. If the surface temperature T as monitored by a surface mounted thermocouple
exceeds a critical value, the fan may be actuated and air will be blown across the surface to
enhance the overall heat transfer coefficient and assist in the removal of excess thermal energy.
We may wish to know which process dominates the overall heat transfer, free or forced
convection. From the definition of the Grashof number, it is clear that it provides a dimensionless
measure of the inertial and buoyancy forces in the fluid. This measure may be compared with the

Ch. 11 Pg. 57
appropriate measure of the inertial forces in the corresponding forced convec
tion configuration
which characterizes the growth of the thermal boundary layer and the averag
e Nusselt number.
The dimensionless ratio 2
GrL/ReL thus provides information about the relative magnitude of free
and forced convection.
Three limiting cases can be identified, viz.
<<1 Free convection negligible
GIL

I Both effects important

>> I Forced convection negligible
=

eL

(11.198)

As the velocity i9 of the forced fluid stream is increased, it is clear from equatio
n (11.198) that
free convection becomes progressively less important. In general, analysis of situatio
a
n for
which 0.1 2
GrL/ReL 10 requires the development of specialized correlations for the actual
geometry and conditions.

11.9

Convection Heat Transfer Correlations for Other Geometries

The foregoing discussion of this chapter has attempted to present the underlying
physics
of convection heat transfer for both forced convection and free convection phenom
ena. The
discussion has also attempted to present the typical methods employed in the
analysis of the
quantitative aspects of these phenomena in the context of some common situatio
ns that occur in
the practice of thermal-fluids engineering. Clearly, given the scope of the subjec
t, this treatment
has of necessity been illustrative rather than exhaustive. The methodology presen
ted, however, is
common to all situations that might arise in the practice of the profession. Specif
ic convection
correlations that should prove useful to the practicing thermal-fluids engineer
are summarized in
Table 11.5.

Ch. 11 Pg. 58

Table 11.5 Heat Transfer Correlation Equations of Nu

Configuration
Turbulent flow
in smooth ducts
with fully
developed
hydrodynamics
and heat transfer

/(Re,Pr) for Various Configurations

Correlations

f = (0.790

Comments

In ReD,

l.64)_2;

(f I 8)(Re,,
NuD,

< ReD, < 5 X 106

I 000)Pr

i + 12.7(f / 8)12 213

(Pr

Hydraulic Diameter: D
,
1

where 9 is the wetted perimeter

3000<ReD, <106

Exponents for property and temp

ratio corrections for duct flows
(s: refers to wall; b. to bulk):

0.5 < Pr
2

Laminar flow in
a pipe with fully
developed
hydrodynamics:
V(,I1

uniform

Flow

64

Wall

3.66+

ReD <2300

2/3

l+0.04[(D/L)ReDPr]

Gases

Heating

(/)

Cooling

0
0

Turbulent Liquids Heating 0.25

uniform
A

(us Pb) Cooling

2300
ReD<

=4.364+0.0722(D/L)ReDPr

,z

(p ip,,) Cooling 0.50 -0.11

0.065(D/L) ReD Pr

Fluid

ReD < 2300

j;

NUD

-0.55

(T IT,,) Cooling-0.l

Laminar flow
between parallel
plates with fully
developed
hydrodynamics

96

5 <
ReD

f ( Pr, or

05
Nu

=2 x plate spacing

fb

7.54+

2/s

ReD <2800

Laminar
boundary layer
onaflatplate
Turbulent
boundary layer
on a smooth
flat plate

/L)Re,, Pr
5
=8.235+0.0364(D

1.3 28 ReL

-1/2

PrJ

1PiJ
1
Nu

1+0.016[(Dh/L)ReD, Pri
5
NUD

Nu

0.03(Dh/L)ReD Pr

0.0

for use with the following ratios:

2800

44

0.25

0.25 -0.11

Heating-0.2

Gases

or
1

1PbJ

5
J

or

or
,.Ph)

ReD, <2800

5 x iO

< Re

3 <ReL 5x10
, 0.5<Pr
5
Pr i0
2
Nu=0.664ReL
;
113
Cf

1.328 Retr
Re,r

Nu

< ReL <

Re,,
Re

0.5 23
2 0.06 ReL
In

Re,r

0.5 23

2 0.06 Re
ReLJ ln

10

0.81
+ 0.O36ReL
3
2 Pr
0.664Retr
8 Pr043[1_ (Re,r/ReL)

, 0.7<Pr<400
7
Retr<ReL<3x10

ir

Re,, = 50,000 500,000

Lower values are characteristic of
practical situations where
disturbing factors such as
roughness and vibration are
present

Ch. 11 Pg. 59
6

Flow across a
cylinder

CD=l+

10
ReD

=l.bReD

NUD

1/2

;
113
Pr

0.62 ReD

NUD =0.3

1/2

0.5 <Pr
3
Pr

,-

L ReD
6
O.

0.3 +

1)2

)
1
Drag force I(+pz2A

NuD: stagnation line local Nusselt

number

4
ReD<1
,
0 0.5<Pr

4
[1+ (0.4/Pr)2l3]

CD

1<RCD <10

213;

1
Pr

Re
1 +1
282,000

\l/2

4
[1 + (0.4/Pr)2/3]Y

4 <ReD <4x10
2x10
3
-

0.62 ReD
3
2 Pr

0.3 +

4
{i + (0.4/Pr)2/3]

ReD
282,000

\5/8

4/5

5 <ReD <5x10
4x10
6
1
NJD=

0.8237
7

Flow across a
sphere

ln(ReD Pr)

24

CD-

24

ReD
6

11+
ReD

500
<
2
ReD<

Laminar naturalconvection
boundary layer
on a vertical
wall

5
500<ReD <2x10
1/2

Pr 1/3

32 ReD
l.

NUD

2 + (0.4 ReD
;
4
+ 0.06 ReD
2
) Pr
3

2
<

NuL

Turbulent
naturalconvection
boundary layer
on a vertical
wall

0.68

NUL

0.68

r
=

<

Pr

Re <8 x i0, 0.7 <Pr

0.670(RaLT)
0.492
Pr

0.5

NuD

3.5

Use mean film temperature; or

better results can be obtained using
a viscosity ratio correction with n
= -1/4 applied to the convection
contribution

2/3

0.44;

0.2

<

ReD <0.5

ReD

C
D

ReD Pr

I2

1+

<

NuB: stagnation line local Nusselt

number

380

1/4

RaL <

iO

9/I6 -i16/9

4
0.670(
(
1
RajI) + 1.6 x 10
RaLI)
8
0.492
Pr

9/16

1/12

16/9

9
i0

<

Ra

< 1012

Ch. 11 Pg. 60
10

Natural
convection on
a horizontal
cylinder

4
0.518RaD

0.36+

NUD

[1 + (0.559/

iO < RaD
2

RaD
[1+(O.559/Pr)
11

12

Natural
convection on
a sphere
Natural
convection on
a heated
horizontal plate
facing down or a
cooled plate
facing up

NUD

O.589

2+

= 65[ 1

(0.469

0.38 [(i

W]

-0.16

1;

Natural
convection on
a heated

horizontal plate

Ra
9
10

j__j

1011;

Ra

0.5<

Pr

Pr)9h161

1
L

= 13.5RaL

16/9

1/4
RaD

4,9
[i

9116

)0.39

Wis the length of the longer side,

L is the length of the shorter side,
L is the length of the adiabatic
extensions

X039]R aL 0.13

LI

106 < RaL < 10; 0.7 < Pr < 4800; 0 <

13

9
i0

9
/
4
Pr)961

NuL

;
4

1
0.54RaL

NUL

;
3
0.14RaLU

<

<

0.2

IA
w

>:

L is the length of the shorter side

7
RaL < 2 x i0

2 x i0
7 < RaL < 3 x 1O

facing up or a
cooled plate
facing down
14

Natural
convection
across vertical
cavities with
insulated
horizontal
surfaces,
1<H/L<1O

Natural
convection
between
concentric

0.29

<

Pr
Ra L
0.2 + Pr

RaL <10

NuL

0.18

0.2 + Pr

Ra L

2 < H/L < 10:

NUL

15

H is the height of the cavity,

L is the length of the cavity

i < H/L < 2:

0.22

0.386

Pr

RaLH

0.2 + Pr
Pr
0.861 + Pr)

cylinders

Valid only for kJk> 1

1/4

1
Ra

1/4

102 <

1
Ra

4
/
0
[ln(D
)
1
D
]

1
Ra

0
(D

3
)
1
D
(
D
j

RaL

<

7
i0

k is the effective thermal

conductivity, for use in
22rkffL(T 72)

ln(tI)

Ch. 11 Pg. 61
16

Natural
convection
between
concentric
spheres

0.74

Natural
convection
across thin
enclosures
(H/L> 10)

RaSPh

D)

4
)
1
D
0
(D

17

0.86 1 + PrJ

RaSPh

Valid only for k

./k> I
1

1/4

Pr

1/4

102 <

Ra sph

<

10

RaL

(D;

keff is the effective thermal

conductivity, for use in
4k(7 T
)
2

1
D

7/5 5

1/

1 /

0 0<60:
NuL=1+1.44[l

RaL cos

RaL cosO

1708(sin 1.80)1.6

1708

RaL cos0

1/3

5
0<RaL <i0

5830

Sch e,natic of an inclined enclosure

0=60:
u L,60 }
2
=max{
,
1
Nu
;
Nu

0<RaL

<

0.0936RaL
0.5

1 =
Nu

All properties to be evaluated at

Tr

1/7

0.3 14

=(TH

+T)

If a term in square brackets is

negative, set it equal to zero.

1+

[1 +
2
Nu

0.104+

(RaL/3

160)206]

Strictly speaking, these

correlations are for gases only;
however, the equation for
0 8 < 6O can also be used for
liquids of moderate Prandtl
number

0A7RaL0283

60 <0<90
NUL_1NU L,60

(0-60

30

L90

30

0 = 90:
NUL
O
9
.

1;

NUL
O
9
. =

3
max{N
1
,
2
}
Nu
;
u

RaL
3 < RaL
i0

1 = O.O605RaL
Nu
3

1
0.1O4RaL

L1+(6310/RaL)
\

3 = 0.242
Nu

RaL

H/U

0.272

0.293

1/3

1.36

10
<io

Ch. 11 Pg. 62
Flow through
tube banks,
with N rows of
tubes transverse
to the flow
ned:

N<10:

NUD=

10N:

Nu=INu
0.7

L>

a1igned

=1+

staoered =

(SL/STO.3)
(SL/ST

l5OpV
2
L

dP
dx

th
pE,,A

l.75pV
L
,
1
L=d

is an arrangement factor,
SL is the transverse pitch,
ST is the longitudinal pitch,
= ST/D is the dimensionless
transverse pitch,
= SL/D is the dimensionless
longitudinal pitch

P=1---

1PL:
Flow through
packed beds

4f

Viscosity ratio with n

2;

is the characteristic velocity,

is the characteristic length,
d is the effective particle
diameter,
V, is the total particle volume,
A is the total particle surface area,

,
1
A

O.5<Pr<20, 20<Re<10
4
20

Flow through
perforated plates

Eu

8.17 Re5(1.707

Eu

0.5(1.707

20

E) is the specific

surface area of a packed bed

<

150

;
3

2
C Re Pr

f- (1

Re

150

Re

3000

Re

0.5<Pr, 300 <Re

<

3000

Gd
=

G is the mass velocity

LI

through the holes of diameter d

Eu

St

-0.14

V
L

V
d=6

)PrhJ3;
3
/
2
(O.5ReU2+O.2Re

Nu

4
1<Re<10

Packing Volume
Bed Volume

Bed Volume

ST (r/4)D

where 190 is the velocity of the

fluid in the empty cross section of
the shell or duct

+ 0.7)2

ST

tubes,

where, for P,, <1:

19

Nu = NUD from item 6 with

ReD based on the average velocity
in the space between two adjacent

NuD

APfor a single plate

plate open-area ratio

2.07

C = 3.6 x iO{(i

0.2]

4.36 x ;
234
E
2
10

0.3 <

<0.6

Equation for Strouhal number is

valid for gases and for liquids
of moderate Prandtl number

Ch. 11 Pg. 63
21

Rotating disk in
a quiescent fluid

0.5 85 Re
1

1
Nu

1
Re

0.6/Pr+ 0.95/Pr

NUr
22

1/2

Rotating sphere
in a quiescent

fluid

; 0.5
3
8 Pr
0.O2lRer
0.43 Re D

0.5

<

<

2.4 x i0

Pr, 2.4 x i0 < Rer

.
4
Dr

102 < ReD < 5 x i0,

66
NuD=
ReD
O.O

0.67 D

0.7

<

Pr

0.4

6
5x1
<
5
,
ReD<7x10
0 0.7<Pr
23

24

Horizontal
rotating cylinder
in a quiescent
fluid

NUD

ReD
33
O.l

2/3

r /3 ;

Lower limit on ReD is due to

natural convection effects

0.7< Pr < 670,

37

47
(GrDfl

Pr)

Turbulent flow
in a rough pipe
=

{_2.o io[

(k/R)

5
<ReD<4.3x1
0
2

7.4

((k /R)
13
logI
+
Re
7.4
Re
5.02

0.9 +

(f /8)
[g(h, Pr)
2

7.65]

60<k

g(h,Pr):

1. Sand grain indentation,

f/8

St=

Options for

4.8(h+)O2 Pr
; 1
43

<

Pr

<

2. Rectangular transverse ribs

with lO<plh<40,
25

Turbulent
boundarylayer
on a fully rough
flat plate

-246

1
3.476+O.7O
7ln

; l5O<<l.5xlO, 6O<k

4.3(e)

Pr; O.7<Pr<40

k.

3. General,

-2.57

If

Cf

2.635+O.6181n

k)

St

; 15O<<l.5x1O,

-1
Cf

0.9

CfX) [g(h, Pr) 7.65]

6O<k

60 < k
5

Pr213_1)+9.5; 0.5<Pr
g=0.55(hj (2

Ch. 11 Pg. 64
Problems
11.1 Water flows at an average velocity of 1Y,ve = 1 mlsec through a smooth, circular conduit
whose diameter is D = 25 mm. The water can be modeled as an incompressible fluid with
constant average properties p = 990.63 kg/m
, p = 6.0678 x iO kg/rn sec, and c = 4180 J/kg K.
3
There is a uniform, constant heat flux at the wall of q. In a section where the flow is fully
developed, the water enters at a bulk mean temperature of TbI,
1 = 20 C. At a distance L = 10 m
down the conduit the bulk mean temperature of the fluid is Th
f = 70 C.
011
(a) What is the value of the heat flux q?
(b) Show that the temperature profile in both the fluid and the conduit wall are linear with
x, the distance measured along the conduit axis from the entry point to the exit point in this
region of fully developed flow.
(c) Calculate the rate of entropy transfer to the fluid at the interface between the conduit
and the fluid in the section of interest.
(d) Calculate the rate of entropy generation gen for the control volume bounded by the
inside of the conduit wall and the planes perpendicular to the conduit axis at x = 0 and x = L.
(e) Explain why the entropy generation has the value that it does.

11.2 In the transport of oil via pipeline, whether for cross country transport such as the Alaskan
pipeline or for supply of fuel oil to a power plant, the oil is heated to some elevated temperature
in order to reduce its viscosity and, hence, the power required to pump it. Although the pipe is
insulated, there are heat losses along its length that cause the temperature of the oil to drop to
levels that result in unacceptably high pumping power requirements. Thus, it is necessary to
install heaters and pumping stations at periodic intervals along the length of the pipeline.
In the design of a section of the Alaskan pipeline, an insulated steel pipe of length L =
100 km and diameter d = 1.2 m is buried a depth z = 3 m below the surface of the ground. The
thickness of the insulation around the pipe is 0.15 m so that the outside diameter of the buried
pipe with its insulation becomes D = 1.5 m. The oil enters this section of the pipeline at a mean
temperature of Tb = 120 C and a flow rate of n = 500 kg/sec. The surface temperature of the
soil is T = -40 C.
(a) For a case in which the surface temperature of the pipe is constant, the thermal
resistance of the soil geometry above the pipeline, R, is given by
(4z
1n
R=

27CkL

where the thermal conductivity of the soil is k, = 0.5 W/m K. Calculate the bulk mean
temperature of the oil leaving this section of the pipeline, TbQ, at L = 100 km assuming that the
surface temperature of the pipe is constant.
(b) Calculate the total heat loss from this section of the pipeline in order to determine the
power requirement for the heater for the next section.
(c) Is the assumption of constant surface temperature of the pipe a reasonable one?
For the oil: p
, c,
3
0 = 2000 J/kg K, V( = 8.5 x iO m
/sec, k
2
0
0 = 900 kg/rn
The thermal conductivity of the insulation is k
1 = 0.05 W/m K.

0.140 W/m K

Ch. 11 Pg. 65

11.3 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) system is an attempt by thermal-fluids
engineers to exploit the variation in temperature that exists in the ocean. Cold water can be found
at the lower depths and warm water, in the form of the Gulf Stream, can be found near the
surface. Since the volumes of water are huge, large amounts of power can be produced by
using these bodies of water as heat reservoirs even though the temperature difference between
them is relatively small. Obviously the efficiency is going to be low, but as they say, The price
is right.
As shown in Figure 1 1P.3, one design calls for cold water from the lower depths to be
pumped up to the surface where it can pass through a heat exchanger and serve as the low
temperature heat reservoir. The pipe for this purpose is bare aluminum with D 1 m and D<, 1.15
m. The volumetric flow rate inside the pipe is V = 1.3 m
/sec at 5 C. There is an external
3
crossflow current of /1= 60 cm/sec with a temperature of 15 C.
(a) Estimate the drag on the pipe (per meter of length) due to the external current.
(b) For a one meter length of pipe, estimate the heat transfer in the radial direction
between the internal flow and the external flow.
(c) Estimate the increase in temperature of the internal flow per meter of length of pipe.
For water at 5 C: p
5

,c
3
999.92 kg/m
5 = 4205.5 J/kg K, p
5 = 1.5 183 x io kg/rn see,
= 0.57052 W/m K
For water at 15 C: p
=
,c
3
15 999.06 kg/rn
15 =4 188.8 J/kg K, p
15 = 1.1376 x iO kg/m see,
15 = 0.5893 3 W/m K
k
=

pipe
D 1.l5m
0
1m
1
D

U 60 cm/sec
T=15 C

/sec
3
1.3 m
=5 C
Figure 11P.3
=

11.4 Cold plates are devices that are commonly used to maintain safe operating temperatures
of electrically dissipative electronic components that are mounted on them. The design of the
cold plate consists of a slab of material of high thermal conductivity with passages cast or
machined in it. Coolant of some sort, often in the form of cooling water, flows through these
passages to remove the energy dissipated and the entropy generated by the electronic component.
By virtue of its high thermal conductivity, the slab can be modeled as isothermal. In operation,
the slab achieves a uniform temperature different from the temperature of the coolant passing
through it. The operating temperature of the electronic component will depend upon the thermal
contact resistance between the electronic components and the cold plate.

Ch. 11 Pg. 66
The cold plate shown in cross-section in Figure 1 1P.4, consists of a thick slab of
aluminum 15 cm wide by 22 cm long with 8 circular cooling passages 6 mm in diameter cast in
it. Water enters each channel with a mass flow rate of 0.24 kg/sec and a temperature of 25 C. The
electronic components mounted on the slab dissipate a total power of 1.2 kW.
(a) If the thermal contact resistance between the electronic components and the cold plate
is R, = 5 x iO C/W, estimate the operating temperature of the electronic components.
(b) Estimate the rate of entropy generation of the electronic components.
(c) Estimate the pressure drop for the water if the passages are smooth.
For cast aluminum: kAl
For water: p

168 W/m K

1000 kg/rn
, .
3

4178 J/kg K, p = 8.67 x iO kg/rn sec, k

15 cm

0.611 W/m K

[i(

0 0 0 O,,O 0

of

Coolant passages (typical)

Figure 1IP.4

11.5 As part of the air-conditioning system of a large commercial building, a long, L = 15 rn,
thin-walled uninsulated duct, D 0.3 m, is used to route chilled air at a mass flow rate of 0.05
kg/sec through the attic space of the building. The temperature of the attic air is 37 C, and natural
convection between this air and the duct results in a heat transfer coefficient of h(() = 2 W/rn
2K
on the outer surface of the duct. Chilled air enters the duct at a temperature of T,,
,, = 7 C.
1
(a) What is the exit temperature of the air, T,,
?
01
(b) If the duct is now insulated by wrapping it with a 1 cm thick layer of fiberglass,
k 0.03 8 W/m K, what is the exit temperature? Assume the value of h
0 is unchanged.
(c) For the configuration of part (a) above, what is the rate of entropy generation for a
control volume that is drawn around the duct and the boundary layer on the outside of it?
The thermal properties of air are: p= 1.177kg/rn
,c
3
k=0.0267W/mK

1005 J/kg K, p

18.43 x l06 kg/rn sec,

11.6 A typical microprocessor (CPU) for a personal computer consists of number of transistors
mounted on a slab of silicon bonded to a metal or metal oxide substrate. The switching of the
capacitive elements at high frequency results in the dissipation of electrical energy causing the
microprocessor to increase in temperature. In earlier CPU designs, the amount of energy
dissipated was of such a magnitude that it usually could be removed by natural convection heat
transfer from the surface of the device. Device design consisted of a thin layer of silicon bonded
to an aluminum substrate 2 mm thick.
As shown in cross-section in Figure 1 1P.6a, the aluminum substrate is a square 5 cm on
each side. The semi-conductor layer is located on the back of the substrate which is mounted
directly on the circuit board which is fabricated from a plastic composite material of very low
thermal conductivity. For this reason, this back surface can be modeled as adiabatic. Because of

Ch. 11 Pg. 67
the particular shape of the fixture that holds the chip, the edges of the aluminum can also be
modeled as adiabatic.
In slightly newer designs, the Intel Pentiurn processor employed a more sophisticated
chip design that incorporated a greater number of transistors fabricated in a thinner layer of
silicon bonded to the aluminum substrate. For a Pentium MMX processor running at 233 MHz,
the rate of power dissipation was measured to be 17 W. This chip was cooled by forced
convection.
(a) Consider first the older design cooled by natural convection. If the maximum
allowable temperature of the semi-conductor is 65 C and the natural convection heat transfer
coefficient for the flat surface of the CPU (without fins) is h, describe a heat transfer model
(thermal resistance circuit), not including thermal radiation, that will enable you to determine the
maximum allowable rate of dissipation of electrical energy in the semi-conductor.
For aluminum: kat = 174 W/m K; p = 2770 kg/rn
; Cai 875 J/kg K.
3
For air: kair = 0.028 1 W/m K, Pr = 1.106 kg/rn
, Cpajr 1005 J/kg K, p = 19.29 x 106 kg/rn sec
3
(b) Using the model described in part (a) above, calculate the maximum allowable rate of
energy dissipation for natural convection cooling with an air temperature of 35 C.
(c) By incorporating a small fan on the chip package as shown in Figure 1 1P.6b, the
cooling mechanism was transformed from natural convection to forced convection with a larger
convection heat transfer coefficient h. Show that for an air velocity of 1 rn/sec in the forced
convection mode, the cooling of the Pentium MMX design is still inadequate unless the surface
area of the chip is increased by adding fins. What number of fins will provide adequate cooling
with a typical pin fin size of 3 mm diameter and 12 mm length?
Adiabatic material

Silicon layer

Aluminum substrate (5 cm x 5 cm x 2mm thick)

Figure 11P.6a
Adiabatic material

Fan

Silicon layer

Aluminum substrate (5 cm x 5 cm x 2mm thick)

CROSS-SECTION OF PENTIUM PROCESSOR
Figure 11P.6b

11.7 A heat exchanger used to condense water vapor in a desalination plant consists of many
tubes through which sea water passes while the vapor condenses on the outer surface of the
tubes. In a particular design, a typical tube is fabricated from monel metal (a copper-nickel alloy

Ch. 11 Pg. 68
that is corrosion resistant with k = 23 W/m K) with an inside diameter of D
1 = 19.1 mm and a
wall thickness of t = 1.07 mm. The length of the tube is L = 15 m. The sea water flowing on the
inside of the tube enters at Th,
1 = 15 C and exits at TbOlf = 25 C. The flow velocity of the sea
water is i= 5 rn/sec. The temperature of the condensing water vapor is constant at Tl,)Or = 30 C,
and the heat transfer coefficient for condensation on the outside of the tubes is h(, = 1500 W/m
2
K.
(a) Calculate the Reynolds number of the sea water flowing in the heat exchanger.
(b) Estimate the heat transfer rate possible with a typical tube.
For sea water:
,p
3
p= 1024kg/rn

3 kg/rn sec, c
1.072 x i0

3994 J/kg K, k = 0.600 W/m K

11.8 As shown in Figure 11P.8, a smooth, thin-walled steel pipe of diameterD = 0.1 m and
length L = 25.0 m passes through a vat containing a slurry which is held at a constant temperature
of 70 C. The heat transfer coefficient between the slurry in the vat and the pipe wall is known to
2 K. Water is pumped through the pipe for an extended period of time.
be h
0 = 100 W/m
(a) The outlet temperature of the water flowing in the pipe is measured to be T,)(,UI 31.0
C. The mass flow rate of the water through the pipe is (lter = 2 kg/sec, and the length of the pipe
is L = 25 m. Under these conditions, what is the inlet temperature
of the water?
(b) What is the pressure drop of the water as it flows through the pipe?
Thermal properties of water: Pwarer 1000 kg/rn
, kwater = 0.611 W/m K, Cjter = 4178 J/m K,
3
x
8.67
io kg/rn sec
Pwuter
Thermal properties of the slurry: Pci,1i-, = 1100 kg/rn
,
3
= 20 x iO kg/m sec
Vat

Slurry
Tb =70 C

Water in

Water out
l C
3
TbOt=

Tbfl=?

L
.

x0

x25m
Figure 11P.8

11.9 A section of copper tubing 10 mm in diameter and 10 m long carries water at high pressure
in fully developed flow. The water enters the section at a temperature of T = 22 C and the tube
wall is maintained at a temperature of T = 125 C. Because the water is under high pressure, the
water does not boil. Two flow regimes are being considered:
(1)Re=2x lO
and(2)Re=2x iO
3
For each flow regime, compute the following:
(a) The pressure drop in the flow.

Ch. 11 Pg. 69
(b) The heat transfer coefficient, h, of the flow.
(c) The outlet temperature of the water, Th
f.
011
(d) The net rate of entropy convected out of the tube by the water,
sm).
(e) The rate of entropy transfer at the interface between the water and the inside of
the tube wall.
th(s(,I,t

(f) The rate of entropy generation due to viscous dissipation in the flow,
(g) The rate of entropy generation due to the heat transfer process,

(GEN)

VISCOUS

(GEN

For this example:

Compare the results of these calculations for the two flow regimes. What conclusions can
you draw regarding laminar vs. turbulent flow? What conclusions can you draw regarding the
irreversibility of viscous dissipation vs. the irreversibility of heat transfer?
11.10 Exhaust gases from an oven are discharged through a tall vertical stack. In order to meet
certain EPA regulations, it is necessary to know the mean outlet temperature of the exhaust gas
from the stack, T,,
, and the temperature of the surface of the stack at outlet, T
4
t
0
. The section of
1
stack of interest is a non-insulated, thin-walled smooth cylinder with a diameter D 0.5 m and a
length L = 6.0 m. The exhaust gas flow rate is n = 0.5 kg/sec, and the mean temperature of the
gas entering the section of interest is Tb
) 575 C. The ambient air temperature is
1
= 10 C and
the wind velocity transverse to the axis of the stack is Y= 5 mlsec.
Assuming that the flow entering the stack is fully developed and that thermal radiation
can be neglected, estimate the temperatures TbOI, and T
.
0
For the exhaust gas: Pgci.s = 0.435 kg/rn
, (Cp)gas = 1099 J/kg K, PgcIs = 36.98 x 106 kg/rn sec,
3
y = 0.709
0
kgas 57.3 x iO W/rn K, Prg
For the air: Pthi = 1.2306 kg/m
, (c)
3
1006.1
J/kg K, p()
111
1 = 1.7757 x iO kg/rn sec,
kuir 0.02504 W/m K, air 0.7 135

11.11 A hot-wire anemometer is a device used to measure the velocity of a gas stream flowing
over it. The device is in the form of a small diameter, electrically conducting wire stretched
between rigid, thermally non-conducting supports. The gas flow is normal to the axis of the wire.
An electrical current is passed through the wire such that the steady-state temperature of the
wire is established when the rate of electrical energy dissipation in the wire is exactly balanced
by the rate of heat transfer between the wire and the flowing gas stream. If thermal conduction
through the supports and thermal radiation from the surface of the wire are assumed negligible,
the dominant mode of heat transfer is convection from the surface of the wire. The measured
steady temperature of the wire can then be directly related to the velocity of the gas stream. The
temperature of the wire is determined by means of a previous calibration of temperature vs.
electrical resistance in a non-flow configuration.
In a particular application of an anemometer, the wire is made of tungsten with a diameter
of D 20 pm and a length between supports of L = 2 mm. The steady temperature of the wire is
40 C when exposed to flowing air with a temperature of 27 C. The current flowing through the
wire is 150 mA and the electrical resistivity of the tungsten at 40 C is
= 5.51 micro-ohms
cm. Note that the electrical resistance of a wire is given by
R elect PeirciL
A
where A is the cross-sectional area of the wire.

Ch. 11 Pg. 70
(a) Determine the velocity of the air flowing over the wire.
(b) What is the Biot number for this configuration?
(c) What is the time constant of this device?
(d) Could this device be used to measure local fluctuations of velocity in a turbulent flow
of air? If so, what is the highest frequency of fluctuations that could be measured?
For tungsten: Pw 19,300 kg/rn
, c 132 J/kg K, k = 174 W/m K
3
For air: p= 1.1614kg/rn
, c,, = 1007 J/kg K, p = 184.6 x iO kg/rn sec, k = 0.0263 W/m K
3

11.12 Small spheres of lead, known as shot, are used in the manufacture of shotgun shells and
other items that require small diameter lead spheres. The lead shot are manufactured by cooling
molten lead droplets in air. The requisite heat transfer process is provided by allowing the
droplets to fall through ambient air in a tower designed specifically for this purpose. The lead is
cooled by forced convection over the surface of the sphere and the srnall spheres are collected at
the bottom of the tower.
(a) In a particular design, 3 mm diameter lead spheres with an initial temperature of 601
K are cooled by forced convection during free fall in ambient air with a temperature of 300 K.
Assume that the spheres are released with an initial velocity of zero and are allowed to fall freely
through the air in the tower with g = 9.81 rn/sec
. Assurne that the spheres immediately reach
2
terminal velocity. The drag coefficient of a sphere is given by

cD

FD

where FD is the drag force on the sphere, p is the density of the air flowing over the sphere, lis
the velocity of the air relative to the sphere, and A is the cross-sectional area of the sphere
projected normal to the direction of flow of the air over the sphere. The value of CD can be
determined from Figure 11P.12 for which the following curve fit has been proposed:
CD=2
ReD

ReD1
I <Ret

CD
=

400

646
ReD

5
400<ReD3x10

CD=0.5

(3.66 x lOjReD04275

CD

CD

=0.18

3 x i0
5

<Rep

2 x 106

6
ReD >2x10

I
L1-4

Figure 11P.12

Ch. 11 Pg. 71
What is the Biot number for this situation? Formulate an appropriate model to
describe the
temperature at the center of the sphere as the sphere cools. Use this model determ
to
ine the
height of the tower H necessary to reduce the temperature of the center of the
lead sphere to 180
C. Is the assumption of terminal velocity for most of the distance traveled by the
sphere a
reasonable one?
(b) Calculate the entropy transfer for the lead for this cooling process.
(c) Calculate the entropy change of the air for this process.
(d) Calculate the entropy transfer for the air for this process.
(e) Calculate the entropy generated in this cooling process, and comment on the
reversibility of this process and identify the source of the irreversibility if there
is one.
For lead: p= ,
3
11340
kg/rn c = 129 i/kg K, and k 34W/rn K.
For air: p = 1.3 11 kg/rn
, Cp,jr = 1009 J/kg K, and kuir = 0.0249 W/m K
3
11.13 Water at high pressure is flowing through the horizontal aluminum square
duct shown in
cross-section in Figure 11P.13. An electric current flows in the walls of the duct
in the direction
of flow which is normal to the plane of the figure. The inside surfaces of the duct
are smooth, and
the outside surfaces are insulated so that all the energy dissipated in the walls
flows into the
water. At any plane perpendicular to the direction of flow of the water, the temper
ature of the
inside surface of the duct is uniform in the circumferential direction. However,
since the heat
flux at the wall due to the Joule heating is j = 300 W/m
, the surface temperature of the duct wall
2
varies in the axial direction. Consider the last 10 m of the duct in which the flow
is fully
developed hydrodynamically and thermally. The bulk mean temperature of the
water entering this
region is Thfl = 450 K. Two flow rates are being considered for the cooling water:
For the case in which the water flow rate is
0.027 kg/sec:
water
(a) Estimate the pressure drop over the length L 10 m.
(b) Estimate the inside wall temperature at the end of the duct.
For the case in which the water flow rate is
cater = 2.7 kg/sec:
(c) Estimate the pressure drop over the length L = 10 m for this new flow rate.
(d) Using the Reynolds analogy, estimate the inside wall temperature at the end
of
the duct for this new flow rate.
(e) If the Gnielinski correlation for NUD = /Xf,ReD,Pr) can be considered to predict
the heat transfer coefficient h with an accuracy of 100 percent, what is the error
from using the Reynolds analogy in part (d) above?
Insu1ation
Aluminum

Ah

10 cm

.4

cj/
/

,-

Figure 11P.13

Ch. 11 Pg. 72
890.47kg/rn c = 4400 J/kg K, p
,
For water at T= 450 K: p 3
k = 0.678 W/m K, Pr = 0.99

152 x 106 kg/rn see,

11.14 As shown in Figure llP.l4, a kiln for the firing of ceramic materials such as toilet bowls
and bathtubs is fired by natural gas which produces high-temperature products of combustion
used to increase the temperature of the ceramics to the appropriate firing temperature. After the
products of combustion pass over the ceramics, they are discharged to the atmosphere via a tall,
thin-walled cicrcular stack whose diameter is D = 0.5 rn. In order to predict the dispersion of the
exhaust gases once they are discharged to the atmosphere, it is essential to know the temperature
of the exhaust gases as they leave the stack. In addition, the exhaust gases contain water vapor
from the oxidation of the hydrogen in the natural gas. If the stack surface temperature reaches the
temperature of 150 C, the water vapor will condense on the walls and lead to corrosion (rusting
out) of the stack. Also, any sulfur dioxide formed during the combustion process will react with
the condensed water vapor to form sulfuric acid which is a dangerous pollutant. The exhaust
= 0.5 kg/sec.
= 600 C and a mass flow rate of
gases enter the stack at a temperature of
(a) As the thermal-fluids engineer on the job, you are asked to determine the maximum
stack height that will avoid the condensation problem for weather conditions that include a wind
10 C.
flowing normal to the stack with a velocity of lYj,1d = 10 rn/sec and a temperature of
=
(b) What is the discharge temperature, Th
, of the exhaust gases leaving the stack for the
014
conditions specified in part (a) above?
(c) For the stack height determined in part (a) above, is the buoyancy force sufficient to
drive the flow of exhaust gases or will some sort of blower be required?

1 = 1123 J/kg K,
0.427 kg/rn
, (Cp)g
3
106 kg/rn see, kgj = 0.055 W/m K
34.2
x
=
Pgac
, (c),
3
= 16.63 x 106 kg/rn see,
1.360 kg/rn
111 = 1009 J/kg K,

For the gases entering the stack: Pga.v

For the atmosphere: Patni

0.0242 W/rn K

Exhaust
Stack

Stack base

Figure liP. 14

Ch. 11 Pg. 73

11.15 A plate-type heat exchanger consists of an array of thin flat aluminum

(kA, = 175 W/m K)
plates parallel to one another and separated by a distance of 5 mm. The length
of each plate is L
= 750 mm and the width is W= 150 mm.
The fluid flows in a counterfiow configuration with
alternate streams of hot and cold water as shown in cross-section in Figure
1 1.15. Consider a
single plate and half of the flow on each side as constituting a heat exchan
ger configuration.
(a) Estimate the overall heat transfer coefficient of this configuration.
(b) Estimate the rate of heat transfer through a single plate.
(c) Determine the fluid outlet temperatures for each stream.

Cold water in
Uave=

12
1
mIs
0C
ec,T

1
5
mm

4.w4
Hot water in
nave

0.5 mlsec,

Th,lfl

70 C

Plates of negligible thickness

For water at 20 C: 2
p
0

998.21 kg/rn
, (c)
3
20 = 4184.1 J/kg K, k
20 = 0.59846 W/m K,
=
1.0016
x
iO,
20
Pr
= 7.0026
P20
For water at 70 C: p
70 = 977.76 kg/rn
, (c)
3
70 = 4190.1 J/kg K, 7
k
0 = 0.66313W/rn K,
70 = 4.0389 x iO, Pr
p
70 = 2.552 1
=

11.16 As we have seen in Chapter 9, detailed solution of the time-dependent

three-dimensional
flow that develops in a pipe at high Reynolds number turbulent flow
is extremely difficult;
however, following the example of Prandtl, we can use dimensional analysis
to gain insight into
the parameters that are important. Prandtl (in 1930) postulated that the velocit
y O very near the
wall must depend only on the distance y away from the wall and on the fluid
properties that are
important near the wall such as the shear stress z,, the viscosity p, and the density
p. That is,

(a) How many dimensionless groups should we expect from this postulate? Choos
e the
wall shear stress and the fluid density as two of the repeated variables (plus
as many others as
might be needed) and give the dimensionless form of the above equation.

(1)

(b) Why would it be incorrect to also include the velocity gradient the
equation (1)?
(c) By noting that the Hgroup containing velocity is dimensionless and can
thus be
written as a ratio of velocities
give a definition of i. This parameter is known as the friction
velocity. Re-express the other llgroups and the dimensionless equation in
terms of this
characteristic velocity. The result is known as the Law of the Wail and forms
the basis for all
existing theories of turbulent pipe flows.
(d) Very close to the wall, this law should take a special limiting form since
we know that
the no-slip boundary condition must still be satisfied right at the wall, i.e.,
= 0 at y = 0. Thus
.

Ch. 11 Pg. 74
we can use a Taylor series expansion for very small distances (y
Starting from the expansion,

<<

1) away from the wall itself.

dy+...
eliminate

in favor of other parameters in equation (1) and then rearrange the result to give

an equation for the law of the wall in dimensionless form using the variables identified in (c)
above.
11.17 Consider a 1 cm thick plate glass window in a large office building that is 2m high and 10
m long. On a night when the outside air temperature is T
0 = 10 C, the inside air temperature is
= 20 C. Assume that the air outside and inside the cafeteria is still. Compute the heat transfer
through this window due to natural convection on the inside and outside surfaces.

For air at

10 C: p
, (c)
3
10 = 1005.8 J/kg K, k
10 0.02361 W/m K,
10 = 1.3245 kg/rn
20 = 0.7 137
10 = 1.6753 x lOs, Pr
p
For air at 20 C: p
, (c)
3
20 = 0.02574W/rn K,
20 = 1006.4 J/kg K, k
20 1.1885 kg/rn
=
1.8249
x
iO,
20
Pr
134
0.7
P20
-

11.18 In one design of indoor ice rinks, an array of pipes carrying refrigerant is placed a small
distance above a plane surface, often concrete or packed sand as shown in Figure 1 1P.18. The
area is flooded with water and the refrigerant is circulated at low temperature, thereby freezing
the water. In Figure 1 1P.18, the water layer thickness, H, is 60 mm with the refrigerant tubes
centrally placed, the refrigerant tube diameter, D, is 12 mm, the centerline separation of the
tubes, S, is 50 mm, and the length of each tube, L, is 5 m. All the tubes are fed from a common
manifold such that the bulk mean temperature of the fluid entering each tube is Ti,m = -33 C and
the mass flow rate for each tube is n = 0.02 kg/sec. The refrigerant is liquid throughout the flow
with the following properties: c, = 900 J/kg K, k = 0.07 W/m K, p = 3.5 x iO kg/rn sec.
For the water: p= iO kg/rn
3 and the latent heat of fusion is h
= 3.34 x iO J/kg
1
(a) For the case in which the water is well-stirred (no spatial temperature gradients), we
are interested in the phase change from saturated liquid water to saturated solid ice. Assume that
the tube wall temperature is uniform at the saturation temperature of the ice (not a bad
assumption since kice> 3
kwatei:). Estimate the bulk mean temperature of the refrigerant as it leaves
the tube, TbOUI.
(b) What is the rate of heat transfer for a single tube?
(c) Estimate the length of time required to freeze the entire water layer.
Air
Water, sat. liq., T 0 C
=

Refrigerant
Figure 11P.18

Ch. 12 Pg. 1
CHAPTER 12
Heat Exchangers
12.1 Introduction
For proper operation, many thermal-fluid systems require heat transfer between a solid
boundary and a flowing fluid or between two fluid streams separated by a solid wall. The
required heat transfer and concomitant entropy transfer is usually accomplished in a dedicated
system component known as a heat exchanger. The primary objective of the heat exchanger may
be to change the thermodynamic state of the fluid stream(s) or, alternatively, to remove or add
energy (and entropy) to the solid boundary.
Examples of heat exchangers used to accomplish the first objective include the boiler and
superheater which are used in a steam power plant to increase the temperature, enthalpy, and
entropy of the steam before it flows into the positive shaft work machines (turbines or expansion
engines) of the cycle. Similarly, the condensers of the steam power plant are heat exchangers
used to reduce the energy, enthalpy, and entropy of the steam before it flows into the negative
shaft work machines (pumps) of the plant. Heat exchangers of this type are also found in
refrigeration plants where they are used to increase the energy, enthalpy, and entropy of the
refrigerant while it is in thermal communication with the substance being refrigerated. These heat
exchangers are known as evaporators while the heat exchangers used to communicate with the
heat sink of the refrigeration plant are known as condensers because they decrease the energy,
enthalpy, and entropy of the refrigerant, often at constant temperature.
Examples of heat exchangers used to accomplish the second objective are those which
attempt to maintain a desired operating temperature of a surface as in the cooling jacket of an
internal combustion engine or the cooling fins of a passive thermal control device for an
electronic component. In large rotating electrical machines like electrical generators, the
electrical windings are carefully designed to be heat exchangers for heat transfer to the ambient
air which is circulated by fans on the rotor. In fact, the power rating of the machine is determined
by the effectiveness of the heat transfer from the windings and the maximum operating
temperature for the insulation.
A nuclear power reactor is an example of a device in which both objectives are equally
important. The temperature of the nuclear fuel elements must be kept at a safe level while the
thermodynamic state of the coolant, which also serves as the working fluid for the power cycle,
must be changed significantly by the heat transfer interaction. Clearly the range of applications of
heat exchangers is very wide.
In those heat exchangers in which the change of state of the fluid is of prime importance,
it is usually desirable to effect the heat transfer while generating as little entropy as possible. This
requires that the fluid must achieve thermal equilibrium with the heating or cooling element. In
general, since the rate of heat transfer decreases with a decrease in temperature difference
between the two media, the time required to achieve thermal equilibrium becomes inconveniently
large. Therefore, thermal equilibrium can only be approached as a limit of the operating
conditions. The closeness of the approach to thermal equilibrium, and conversely, the rate of
entropy generation is a suitable compromise between the fluid velocity, the temperature
difference for heat transfer, and the surface area for heat transfer. This compromise varies with
the application depending upon the relative importance of weight, size, ilTeversibility, cost, and

Ch. 12 Pg. 2
other factors; however, regardless of the level of compromise, the fluid velocity is usually so low
that the pressure drop necessary to move the fluid through the heat exchanger is negligible to first
order. Thus, the heat exchanger operates at essentially constant pressure. Furthermore, these low
values of fluid velocity usually mean that the kinetic energies of the fluid streams are negligible.
Also, the gravitational potential energy of the fluid is negligible compared to the heat transfer
across the fluid boundaries. Then for the control volume of a typical fluid stream in a heat
exchanger as shown in Figure 12.1, the first law becomes
11 h
)
11
(12.1)
Q = rh(h
Equation (12.1) is consistent with the notion that the fluid velocity should be as low as possible if
the enthalpy change of the fluid is to be as large as possible for a given heat transfer rate. The
smaller the mass flow rate, the larger the change in enthalpy for a given heat transfer rate. These
low mass flow rates insure that the pressure drop due to fluid friction is negligible.
On the other hand, when the temperature of the apparatus is of prime importance, the
situation is somewhat different since the main objective is to establish heat transfer at the
maximum rate through a given surface area. Under these circumstances, a large mass flow rate is
used with a resulting small change in the enthalpy of the fluid. In such cases, the pressure drop
due to fluid friction is usually significantly larger than in the previous case.
Control volume

Fluid stream in

IFluid stream out

-*:
Heat transfer,

j,

all along flow path

Figure 12.1 Heat Transfer to Fluid Stream in Heat Exchanger

The relationship between the fluid temperature and the enthalpy appearing in equation
(12.1) will depend upon the fluid model used. For the ideal gas model, the enthalpy constitutive
relation is dh = cdT and equation (12.1) becomes
(12.2)
Q =thc,,(T, 1)
For the incompressible fluid model, the enthalpy constitutive relation is dli
equation (12.1) becomes
1,,) + thv(FOLIf I)
Q the

cdT + vdP and

(12.3)

but given the fact that we can model the flow as constant pressure, the second term on the righthand side of equation (12.3) becomes negligible in this limit. Even in those cases for which the
pressure drop is non-zero, the magnitude of the second term on the right-hand side of equation
(12.3) is negligible compared with the first term for a heat transfer of any appreciable magnitude.
It is common practice in thermal-fluids engineering to write the first law for a heat exchanger for
both the ideal gas model and the incompressible fluid model as equation (12.2) with the subscript
in the case of the incompressible fluid model serving as a reminder that the flow is modeled as
constant pressure. The product nc is known as the heat capacity rate or simply the capacity rate
of the fluid stream.

__

__

__

Ch. 12 Pg. 3

12.2

Heat Exchangers with Two Fluid Streams

The most common configuration for heat exch

angers used in thermal-fluid systems is one
in which the heat transfer occurs between two
fluid streams a and b as shown in Figure 12.2
. For
this case, the first law for the control volume beco
mes

tha (he,).

[(ha).
Qa =

ihc

[(

th,, (hh )in

I
( )our I

(ha )out

tha

(ha)

thb [(Jib )ot

7 (hh
rn,

(h,, ),

[(

(12.4)

lflhCP?,
)in
)out (b
Qh
where we have made use of equation (12.2)
for the individual streams. Note the fact that the
heat
exchanger is adiabatic with respect to the envi
ronment so that from the point of view of the
individual streams

)fl

QaQb

1
_
F.2
I
I

_/JL.

Heat exchanger

(12.5)

I
I
I

)i

(mj

(mb)OU
(mb)lfl

Figure 12.2 Externally Adiabatic Heat Exch

anger with Two Fluid Streams

In a heat exchanger with two fluid streams, the exten

t of the approach to thermal
equilibrium between the two streams depends
upon the resistance to heat transfer between the
two streams. The simplest model for the kinetics
of the heat transfer process is that the heat
transfer rate is proportional to the temperature
difference between the two streams and the
surface area available for heat transfer between
them. For stream b, for example, the heat trans
fer
rate is given by
Q,,=UA(T(,Th)
(12.6)
where A is the surface area available for heat
transfer between the two streams and (1, T,,)
is
some appropriate temperature difference betw
een the two streams a and b that serves as the
driving force for the heat transfer interaction.
The constant of proportionality U appearing
in
equation (12.6) is known as the overall heat trans
fer coefficient and is a complicated function
of
the internal geometry of the heat exchanger, the
individual fluid velocities, the thermophysical
properties of the fluids, and the material of cons
truction of the heat exchanger. The temperatu
re
difference (I Tb) is also a function of the flow
geometry. We now proceed to develop each
of
these terms in detail.
-

Ch. 12 Pg. 4
12.2.1 The Log Mean Temperature Difference
Figure 12.3 shows a simple heat exchanger with two fluid streams flowing in the same
direction. This configuration is known as a parallel flow heat exchanger. The axial temperature

Ta* I

_.__*1

Stream a (hot)

Q,

Ta

dTa

dA1
I

Stream b (cold)

mb

)I

Tb__*:

Endi

End2

A
I

* Tb + dTb

Controlvolume

A+dA

Figure 12.3 Parallel Flow Configuration for a Two-stream Heat Exchanger

distribution for this configuration is determined by considering the differential control volume of
Figure 12.3. The first law gives
(12.7)
8Qa =1flCpdT
and

5Q,,

(12.8)

=rn,,cP,dTb

with
(12.9)
6Qa=YQi,
Since stream a is the hot stream, ,, is positive, dTa is negative, and dTb is positive. The local
rate of heat transfer between the two streams can also be obtained by applying Newtons Law of
Cooling, viz.
(12.10)
Qi,=U(TaTi,)dA
We now define the temperature difference between streams to be LT where
(12.11)
where T and Tb are measured at the same axial position in the heat exchanger. Then
(12.12)

d(AT)=dTadTh

Combining equations (12.7) through (12.9) with equation (12.12), we get

d(AT)=

Qa

SQh
Qb

fha Cp

lflhCph

fliCp

Substituting equation (12.10) into equation (12.13), we get

d(T)
i + I
UdA
AT
1fl,Cpa
rn,,CPh)

(12.13)

mhcPh

(12.14)

Ch. 12 Pg. 5
Equation (12.14) can be integrated from one end of the heat exchanger to the
other to give
rd(AT)
( 1
AT
1
+
UdA
I
=-I
J
k c, mbcPh)
-

12 15
+

L\T

C
1
fli

UAT
m
,
1
c

Substituting equation (12.4) into equation (12.15), we get

2
_Tai)1
i:=[AT _z\T]1_ (12.16)
Equation

(12.16)

can

be

rearranged to give

AT

7
AT
UAT=UATATI

(12.17)

1n
where we have made use of the concept of the log mean temperature difference,

TLM.

2=out
1=in

hot - cold
(12.18)
2
A
1
T
1
Al
Thus we have now established the proper temperature difference to use in Newto
ns Law of
Cooling applied to one stream of the heat exchanger.
12.2.2 The Axial Temperature Profile in a Two-fluid Stream Heat Exchan
ger
If we combine equations (12.11), (12.15), and (12.4), we can obtain (after consid
erable
algebraic manipulation) the temperature distribution in each of the fluid stream
s. For the parallel

flow configuration we have

TbTb)=(

(TT
(A
hi )
1

Tal_T((=mI)CPh

mhcPh

1(1
N

1
+

mcicPa

,JJUA

mhcPh

thc)

(12.19)

1fl

(1-1)

1+

l_exP{_[

FilCp

m(( cp
1

UA

hlhCPh

where the area A is allowed to increase in the direction of flow. Figure 12.4 shows
these
temperature distributions for a representative case of parallel flow in which the
axial coordinate
along the direction of flow is A/AT. The specific values of the relevant parame
ters used in plotting
Figure 12.4 are:
lflhCPh
ma Cpa

=2

and

UAT

=2

fl2 Cpa

From Figure 12.4 we note that the temperature change from inlet to outlet is largest
for the
stream with the smaller capacity rate, lncp.

Ch. 12 Pg. 6

H
F-

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

AIAtotal

Stream b
Stream a

Figure 12.4 Temperature Distributions for a Two-stream, Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger
Figure 12.5 shows the counterfiow configuration for a heat exchanger with two fluid
streams in which one stream is flowing in the opposite direction from the other. The axial
temperature distribution can be determined in the same manner as for the parallel flow heat
fJFJ7J

I.JJ

mb

.4.

i J J J J J ii,.

Stream a (hot)

Ta*I

ma

TaldTa

Stream b (cold)
Tb + dTb4

Endi

mb

.4I

A+dA

End2

,,,w.f

JJJJJ id/i

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,ffrA

Control volume

Figure 12.5 Counterflow Configuration for a Two-stream Heat Exchanger

___

Ch. 12 Pg. 7
exchanger except that now a negative sign appears in front of each n, since
it is now going in the
opposite direction. The principal equations that change are (12.8) and (12.15
) which becomes

2
(L\T

1niI=
A1 ,)

(12.20)

UAT

JflCp

l
C
2
p

Note that equations (12.17) and (12.18) remain unchanged. Equation (12.20
) shows that a twostream counterfiow heat exchanger with identical capacity rates in the two
streams has the same
T at each end of the heat exchanger. In fact, for this arrangement the ZT
is constant along the
length of the heat exchanger as long as the two capacity rates are identical.
For the counterfiow configuration, the temperature distributions are given
by

()

i_ex_[

m,,c
\thCp
(I

1
mcP

UA

mhcPh

)
1
1
_th
,
, (T
7Ta_
rn C (thhCP/,

1
rnC

ri_expl_1

(12.21)
I
1c
th

I
JflhCPb

UAll

jj

Figure 12.6 shows these temperature distributions for a representative case

of counterfiow in
which the axial coordinate along the direction of flow is A/AT. The specific
values of the relevant
parameters used in plotting Figure 12.6 are identical to those of Figure 12.4.
100

80

60
F
H

40

20

0
A/Atotal

stream b
stream a

Figure 12.6 Temperature Distributions for a Two-stream, Counterfiow Heat

Exchanger

Ch. 12 Pg. 8
From Figure 12.6 it is apparent that the temperature difference between the two streams
decreases in the direction of flow of the stream with the smaller capacity rate, macp. We also note,
as before, that the temperature change from inlet to outlet is largest for the stream with the
smaller capacity rate,
Indeed, these two observations are true for heat exchangers in general.

12.3

Second Law Considerations of Heat Exchanger Performance

For the control volume shown in Figure 12.2, the second law of thermodynamics takes
the form

)=

(ths)

+
j

,a
0
(ths)

in

Sgen

(12.22)

out

Since the heat exchanger operates in the steady flow condition and since the control surface
shown is modeled as adiabatic, equation (12.22) reduces to
gen

Out

= k, [(Sa

)OLt

(12.23)

Ifl

(Sa

+ m [(s,,

(Sb )jn

If the fluid can be modeled as incompressible, we can substitute the entropy constitutive relation
given in section 4.3.2 so that equation (12.23) becomes
Sgen = ma Ca in

(T)

)ut

+ mheh

In

(?)

)Ut

(12.24)

If the fluid can be modeled as an ideal gas, we can substitute the entropy constitutive relation
given in section 4.3.3 so that equation (12.23) becomes
(T)
(F)
(Ft) out
(Tb)
(12.25)
C lfl
6
Sgen m
thaR in
+mhCPh ln
mhRln
(Ta )
(Pa m
(Th ).m
(Ph
but since heat exchangers are modeled as constant pressure devices to first order, equation
(12.25) reduces to
(T)
(Tb)
(12.26)
+ thbCph in
Sge, = m
C in
0
a

out

which is identical to equation (12.24) with the additional reminder in the subscript of the specific
heat that the heat transfer process is being modeled as a constant pressure process.
The second law requires that the rate of entropy generation must always be positive or, in
the reversible limit, zero. Then equation (12.26) sets the limits on the inlet and outlet
temperatures that will satisfy the second law. It is interesting to note that there are many
combinations of inlet and outlet temperatures that will satisfy the first law that will not also
satisfy the second law. It is imperative, then, that one must always check to see that any heat
exchanger configuration of interest satisfies both the first law and the second law simultaneously.
It is particularly worth noting that it is possible mathematically to create a heat exchanger design
that will satisfy both the first law and the second law simultaneously but not achieve the
specified inlet and outlet conditions physically because the mathematically specified inlet and
outlet temperatures require that the axial temperature profiles of the two streams cross. This
means that at some point in the direction of flow, the stream that was the hotter of the two

Ch. 12 Pg. 9
suddenly became the colder of the two and vice versa. Then at some later point in the flow, the
stream that was originally the hotter of the two but is now the colder one once again becomes
the
hotter stream. This, of course, is physically impossible. What happens is that at the point where
the temperature profiles would cross, the temperature profiles touch and the rest of the heat
exchanger becomes inoperative because the two fluid streams have reached a state of mutual
thermal equilibrium. In order to make sure that this situation does not occur with a given heat
exchanger design, one must check to see that the second law is satisfied at every plane
perpendicular to the direction of flow. This is especially important for a case in which the
specific heats of the fluids are functions of temperature and/or pressure.
Example 12E.l: As a thermal systems design engineer working for a company that
manufactures paint and solvents, you are asked to design a simple heat exchanger to cool toluene
(lacquer thinner) from the temperature at which it leaves the fractionation column to a
temperature appropriate for packaging, say 25 C. To carry out the design, you decide to set the
mass flow rate of the toluene to be n = 1 kg/sec. In the final heat exchanger design, you know
you can simply scale accordingly to accommodate the actual flow rate of the toluene. As an
initial approach, you decide to examine both parallel flow and counterflow configurations. The
heat exchanger is to be of the simple concentric tube design with the toluene flowing in the inner
tube and the coolant, water, flowing in the annulus between the two tubes as shown in Figure
12E.1.
water in
Cooling water flow
Toluene flow

(a) Parallel Flow Configuration

out
Cooling water flow
Toluene flow

in
(b) Counterfiow Configuration
Figure 12E. 1 Simple Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger Design

Ch. 12 Pg. 10
The toluene enters the heat exchanger at a temperature 1 = 100 C and leaves at the temperature
0141 = 25 C. The water enters the annulus at a temperature of T
T
111 = 20 C. One of the objectives is
to use as little water as possible to do the job. As an initial assumption, assume turbulent flow
throughout.
The thermal properties of toluene are:
, c= 1690J/kgK,p= 587x 10
3
kg/rnsec,k=0.160W/mK
6
p= 867k/rn
The thermal properties of water are:
= 989 kIm
, c = 4174 J/kg K, p = 5.84 x i0
3
4 kg/rn sec, k = 0.641 W/rn K
Solution: To begin the design, let us assume that for the toluene, Re = 86,000. (This is not a
purely arbitrary choice as we will discover later.) There are other parameters that we need to
establish in order to carry out the design. Specifically, the Prandtl number Pr
(587x l0_6 kg/msec)(1690J/kgK)
c
=6.2
k
0.160W/mK
and the inner pipe diameter D
1 necessary to handle this mass flow rate.
4(1 kg/sec)
4th
D.=
=
=0.025m
zuRe ir(587 x 10_6 kg/rn sec)(86, 000)
The flow velocity is then
4th
2
1
pirD

4(1 kg/sec)
=

.ir(867 kIm
)(0.025 rn)
3
2

=2.309 rn/sec

Alternatively, we could have chosen the diameter of the inner tube to be some standard diameter
of tubing. Fortunately, the above value is such a diameter. As a design choice, we assume the
tubing to be drawn stainless steel tubing which for the purposes here can be considered to be
hydrodynamically smooth. Then the friction factor is given by the friction factor correlation of
Petukhov given in equation (11.97), viz.

(0.790 in Rei .64)2

[0.790 In (86,000)i .6412

0.0 19

Alternatively, we could have obtained this value from the Moody diagram, Figure 9.30.
In order to determine the required length of the inner pipe, we need to determine the heat transfer
coefficient h
. This requires that we first calculate the Nusselt number. In the present case, the
1
appropriate correlation for the Nusselt number for this turbulent flow is given by equation
(11.96). Then
L(Re_l000)Pr
8

NuD

1+12.7

/Z

3
1
(Pr2

1)

V8

0.019(86000I000)62
8
=498.883
/0.019 (6.22/3
1+ 12.7
1)
\I

Then the heat transfer coefficient becomes

W/rn2
)
.Xg
498
=(
6
l
0.l60W/mK=
5 K
h .=NuD 3
1
D
0.025rn }
The requisite heat transfer between the two fluid streams can be determined by applying the first
law to the flow in the inner pipe. Then
=

thc (1

(1 kg/sec) (1950 J/kg K) (100 C

25 C)

1.268 x 1 o W

For the parallel flow configuration, the water enters the annulus at a temperature of 20 C and at

Ch. 12 Pg. 11
best can achieve a maximum temperature of 25 C. Then the water flow rate is determined by the
first law applied to the water, viz.
(Twow

in

1
v
in

Qo

5
l.268x
W
l0

,
4
c

(4174 J/kg K)(24 C20 C)

7.592 kg/sec

In order to determine the appropriate size for the annulus, we assume an appropriate value for the
Reynolds number in the annulus. The larger the value of Re
,, the smaller the value of the
4
diameter of the outside tube. The choice is somewhat arbitrary. Let Re = 5 x i0. Then for the
mass flow rate just calculated for the water, the hydraulic diameter of the annulus is D
11 where

4(7.592 kg/sec)

4th

1
D

KpRe

ii(5.84 x l0- kg/rn sec)(5 x

io)

0.033 m

By definition, the hydraulic diameter of the annulus is four times the cross-sectional area divided
by the wetted perimeter. Then since we are assuming that the wall thickness is zero for the
purposes of this illustration, the diameter of the outside pipe is given by
0

4
2
2rD

D hw
2
0
D

==

D/,,D()

i4
rD
2
1
(D

2
0
jrD

rcD

D/Df

2 (0.033 m)D
0
D
0 ((0.025 rn)
2 +(0.033 m)(0.025 m))=0
Do

0.058 m

The friction factor for the annulus is given by

=(0.79OlnRel.64)
f2

=[0.7901n(5 x 105)_l.64]

=0.013

and the Prandtl number for the water is

0
k

(5.84 x l0 kg/rn sec)(4174 J/kg K)

3 803

(0.641 W/m K)

The literature reports that for the geometry selected for this parallel flow heat exchanger, namely
an annulus with the outer tube insulated on the outside and the heat transfer occurring across the
outer surface of the inner tube, the appropriate correlation for heat transfer to the annulus is
(Rel000)Pr
NUA

1+12.7

17
/_(Pr2/3_l)

0.861

Then

NUA

(
sx1o_l

ooo)3.

8o3
\-O.161
0.025 m
8
0.861
=1760
/0013 (3.8032/3_l)
0.058mJ
1+12.7 1
V8

Ch. 12 Pg. 12
Then the heat transfer coefficient in the annulus becomes
W/rnK
h. =NuA=l760
2 K
=8590W/rn
0641
0.033 m
D,,w
Then the overall heat transfer coefficient per unit length of the inner tube is
LU

UA
L
ua=

1
7cDh

2rDIhC()

=183.253W/mK

r(0.025 m)(3165 W/m

2 K)

2r(0.025 m)(8590 W/m

2 K)

For this parallel flow configuration, the log mean temperature difference can be computed from
the temperatures at the two ends of the heat exchanger. Then
AT

(i

T
,
4
)

(100 C 20 C)

80 C

A7A1
ATLM

ln-A1

and

2
AT

0
(T

(25 C 24 C)

1 C

c
2
o
8
8OC_iCi
8
in

1C

From Newtons law of cooling, we can obtain the overall heat transfer coefficient UA.
l.268x
0
31
O
7
W
w/K
UA=
18.028 K
Then the length of the inner tube becomes
UA
7031W/K
L==
=38.366m
iia
183.253W/rnK
Thus the design results in a double tube, parallel flow heat exchanger 38.37 m long with an inner
tube diameter D
1 = 25 mm and an outer tube diameter Do = 58 mm. At this point we should check
to see that the pressure drop is something reasonable. On the toluene side
2

(2.309 rn/sec)
2
(38 37 m
0.0191
= 6.53 x io 2
1(867 k!m3)
N/rn
D
2
0.025m)
2
This is a bit high for a heat exchanger, but it can be easily met with a pump of small size. On the
water side, we have
AP

(0.538 mlsec)
2
(38.37 m
L
AP=f p --=0.013I
rr2.203x l0 N/rn
l(989k/rn)
2
2
1
D
0.033 rnJ
2
This is a much more modest pressure drop typical of heat exchangers of this type.
For the counterfiow design, the correlation equations are the same; however, the value of
AT is different and the value of UA also will be different. The water enters at TU.I,, = 20 C and
now leaves at a much higher temperature but less than the entering temperature of the toluene. As
a first try let the temperature at exit be 65 C. Then from the first law
100

10

0 i)
c(1

1.268 x l0_W
(4174 J/kg K)(65 C20 C)

0.675 kg/sec

Since the temperature change for the water is now significantly larger than in the case of parallel
flow, we can try a smaller value of the Reynolds number on the water side. Let Re
100 = 5 x iO.
Then the hydraulic diameter for the water becomes

Ch. 12 Pg. 13
D

4th

4(0.675 kg/sec)

irpR

7c(5.84 x i0
4 kg/rn sec)(5 x i0)

=0.029m

As before,
0
(
4
2
rD

DhW

0
irD

2
0
yrD

1
rD

2 D/,VD() _(D
D
2 +D,
1
)
D
1

2 (0.029 m)D
D
0 ((0.025 2
rn) +(0.029 m)(0.025 m))
0
D

0.054 m

The friction factor for the annulus is given by

2
f =(0.790in Re1.64)

=[0.7901n(5 x 104)_1.64]2

0.021

and the Prandtl number for the water is the same as that calculated above, namely, Pr = 3.803.
Since we are still using the annulus geometry, the correlation for the Nusselt number is the same
as above, namely
L(Re_i000)Pr
NuA
=

.16

+12.7(Pr2/3 _i)

Then
0.021(5
x l0 1000)3.803
/
0.025m
Nit A = 8
0.861
=245.23
k\0.054m,)
10013 (3.8032/3_i)
1+12.7 1
V8
Then the heat transfer coefficient in the annulus becomes
0.641 W/m K
h. = NuA
245.23
= 1363 W/m
2 K
0.033 m
1
D
Then the overall heat transfer coefficient per unit length of the inner tube is

UA
L
ua=

ir(0.025 m)(3165 W/m

2 K)

1
h(.,
1
.2rD

iCD,hC()

ir(O.025 m)(1363 W/rn

2 K)

=75.5O4WJmK

For this counterfiow configuration, the log mean temperature difference can be computed from
the temperatures at the two ends of the heat exchanger. Then
zVlj = (i T.) = (100 C 65 C) = 35 C and A1
(T i) = (25 C 20 C) = 5 C
=

ATLM

A1-A1
A7
in
AI

1
S
3
C
7
I
4
S
C_SC
35C
in
SC
-

Ch. 12 Pg. 14
From Newtons law of cooling, we can obtain the overall heat transfer coefficient UA.
= 1.268 x
W
UA =
= 8221 W/K
15.417 K
L\TLJ
Then the length of the inner tube becomes
8221W/K
L=-=
=l08.888m
ua
75.504W/mK
Thus the design results in a double tube, counterfiow heat exchanger 108.89 m long with an inner
tube diameter D, = 25 mm and an outer tube diameter Do = 54 mm. At this point we should check
to see that the pressure drop is something reasonable. On the toluene side
2
(2.309 rn/sec)
2
(108 888 m
L
AP=fp-=0.0191
I(867k/m3)
2
=l.853x 10 N/rn
D
2
0.025mJ
2
This is high for a heat exchanger, but it can be easily met with a pump of small size if necessary.
Other factors may dictate choosing the parallel flow design instead. On the water side, we have
-

2
(0.644 mlsec)
2
(108 888 m
L
AP=f.p=0.02lI
=i.627x i0 N/rn
)
3
1(989k/rn
,
1
D
2
0.029 m
2
This is a reasonable pressure drop.
fri comparing the two designs, we see that the length of the parallel flow configuration is
significantly shorter than the length of the counterfiow design; thus, the capital cost of the
parallel flow design would be substantially less than the cost of the counterfiow design.
However, the required mass flow rate of the coolant in the parallel flow design is more than ten
times the mass flow rate of the coolant in the counterfiow design; thus, the operating cost of the
parallel flow design is substantially more than the operating cost of the counterfiow design. The
thermal-fluid engineer is then faced with with making a trade-off between operating cost and
capital cost. The choice would be dictated by other factors. For example, if the design is to be in
service for an extended period of time, it might be possible to amortize the capital cost with the
savings on the operating costs.
There is another issue to be considered in this design. The irreversibility inherent in both
designs generates entropy that must be dealt with in some other portion of the system. The costs
in terms of system performance due to this entropy generation may completely overshadow the
other costs mentioned above. To determine the relative merits of these two designs from the
point of view of the entropy, we need to evaluate the rate of entropy generation in each design by
applying the second law in each case. The second law applied to the steady-flow, externally
adiabatic heat exchanger reduces to

gen

[(sfl,

See,z = ih,c in

(s

th [(s

thc In

(T)

(s

(T)
(T)

For the parallel flow design, the rate of entropy generation becomes
geti

K
=(7.592 kg/sec)(4174 I/kg K)in(297 +(1 kg/sec)(l690 J/kg K)ln(298
Sgei = 50.3 09 W/K

For the counterfiow design, the rate of entropy generation becomes

338 K
Sgfl = (7.592 kg/sec)(41 74 J/kg K) ln
+ (1 kg/sec)(l 690 J/kg K) In
=

23.159 W/K

Ch. 12 Pg. 15
Thus, the rate of entropy generation for the counterfiow design is less than half that of the
parallel flow design. This parameter alone may be the determining factor in picking one design
over the other.
The present example tends to over-simplify the task of designing a simple heat exchanger
for this application. We made a number of arbitrary decisions concerning water outlet
temperature and Reynolds number of the water flow. These need to be examined in detail by
performing a parameter study. For example, consider the counterfiow heat exchanger design.
Let
us assume that the toluene side of the heat exchanger is fixed at a diameter of 25 mm, a mass
flow rate of 1 kg/sec, an inlet temperature of 100 C, and an outlet temperature of 25 C. For the
cooling water side, let us consider several different designs in which we allow the outlet
temperature to vary from 25 C to 95 C and the Reynolds number to vary from 5 x iO to 5 x io.
Using the methods described above, we find that for various values of the Reynolds number the
length of the heat exchanger takes the form shown in Figure 12E.2.

300

250

200
H

()

150

100

.. ..

50n

...

-l

20

30

40

Re = 5x1O4
Rerz1O5

50

60

70

80

90

Tout,water(C)

Re=5x1O5

LENGTH OF HEAT EXCHANGER

Figure 12E.2 Heat Exchanger Length for Various Flow Rates

Note that the length actually experiences a minimum. There are two competing effects at work
here. One is the fact that
decreases as the water outlet temperature increases. See Figure
12E.3.

Ch. 12 Pg. 16
30

25

20
H

15

10

5
20

30

40

50

60

70

90

80

T out,water (C)

Figure 12E.3 Log Mean Temperature Difference for Various Cooling Water Outlet Temperatures
Thus there is a smaller temperature difference available to maintain the fixed heat transfer rate.
As a consequence, the area of the heat exchanger must increase as the outlet temperature
increases. However, at lower outlet temperatures, another phenomenon occurs As the outlet
temperature decreases, the outside diameter of the annulus must increase significantly in order to
accommodate the increased water flow rate mandated by the first law. See Figure 12E.4.
.

OUTSIDE DIAMETER OF ANNULUS

0
20

30

40

Re=5xIOM
Re=10A5

50

60

70

80

90

T outwater

Re=5x105

Figure 12E.4 Annulus Diameter for Various Cooling Water Outlet Temperatures

Ch. 12 Pg. 17
At fixed Reynolds number, this has the effect of reducing the temperature gradient at the wall for
a given bulk mean temperature. The net result is that the heat transfer coefficient decreases as
shown in Figure 12E.5. Thus the conductance at the wall decreases necessitating a larger surface
area.
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
I

i2I0
-

SI

/
-

8J0
-

41

210

C
20

30

40

50

Re = 5x I O4
ReIOA5
Re=5x105

60

70

80

90

T out,water (C)

Figure 12E.5 Heat Transfer Coefficient of the Cooling Water

OVERALL CONDUCTANCE PER UNIT LENGTH
I

_I____,

200

20

30

40

= 5x lO4
Re=10A5

Re

Re=5x105

50

out,water

60

70

80

90

(C)

Sg
:
0
=m

Figure 12E.6 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Per Unit Length

Ch. 12 Pg. 18
The rate of entropy generation is as shown in Figure 12E.7. Clearly it decreases as the outlet
temperature increases because the temperature difference across which the heat transfer occurs
decreases.
RATE OF ENTROPY GENERATION

bo
1D

20

30

40

50
T

out,water

60

70

80

90

(C)

Figure 1 2E.7 Rate of Entropy Generation for the Counterfiow Configuration

112 this particular case the rate of entropy generation is not quite so important as it would be in an
energy conversion system where it would decrease the output directly, but it does reflect itself in
the amount of cooling water that the design consumes.

COOLING WATER REQUIREMENT

I

60

70

80

Q
I)

6
H

0
20

I
30

40

50
T

outwater

(C)

Figure 12E.8 Cooling Water Requirements

90

Ch. l2Pg. 19

12.2.3 Flow Configurations Other Than Parallel Flow and Counterfiow

While the two flow geometries considered above are adequate to provid
e the necessary
heat transfer between two fluid streams in many cases, there are situatio
ns in which some other
flow configuration is more desirable or even required. For example,
in order to provide the most
intimate contact possible between the two fluid streams, thermal-fluids
engineers have developed
complex flow geometries such as crossflow in which either one or both
of the fluids is mixed in
the thermal sense. These flow configurations often use the available
hardware in a more efficient
manner than is possible with the simple parallel flow or counterfiow geome
tries. Many other
configurations are also possible and the choices are limited only by the
imagination of the
designer.
For each of these geometries, the first law of equation (12.4) still applies howev
;
er, for
each different geometry, the rate equation of equation (12.6) require
s a new expression for the
appropriate temperature difference that serves as the driving force for the
heat transfer interaction
between the two fluid streams. The expression for the log mean temper
ature difference
developed in section 12.2.2 is limited strictly to the two specific flow config
urations considered
there. Unfortunately, the more complex the flow geometry, the more compl
icated the analysis. In
some cases the treatment is virtually intractable, and rather than attempt
these difficult
formulations in each case, thermal-fluids engineers have developed a semi-e
mpirical approach
based upon that of the preceding sections. Unfortunately, this method
is convenient to use only
for a limited number of geometries and is not widely used in modern therma
l-fluids engineering
practice. We present it here simply for historical completeness since it was
the earliest method
for dealing with complex geometries and is sometimes still found in the
heat exchanger
literature.
In this method, known as the mean temperature difference (MTD) metho
d, the heat
transfer rate between the two fluid streams is given by the rate equation

Q UAFATL,ICF
(12.22)
where all terms are as before except that .TLMcF represents the log mean
temperature difference
for the counterflow configuration and the factor F represents the degree
of departure of the actual
mean temperature difference from the counterfiow log mean temperature
difference, viz.
=

(12.23)
.CF

The factor F, which should not be interpreted as some sort of heat exchan
ger effectiveness, is a
function of two dimensionless groups P
1 and R
1 where
=

(T)
a

ant

-(T).

(T).
-(T).
h
a

and

1
R

,,

(lfl.

(Th)

(T)

-(T).

OUt

(12.24)

For all flows other than parallel flow, the log mean temperature difference
for counterfiow is
given by equation (12.18) with
(i).

)
011
(T

and

2
z\T

(I)
(T,d).
(12.25)
where we have now explicitly identified which stream is the hotter and
which stream is the
colder. For parallel flow, the log mean temperature difference is again
given by equation (12.18)
with
=

(T)

)
(
1
(T

for which the factor F becomes unity.

and

2
txT

(ThO,

011
(T

)oUt

Ch. 12 Pg. 20
For the case of the shell and tube heat exchanger shown schematically in Figure 12.7, the
values for the factor F are shown in Figure 12.8.
Shell fluid

Heat exchanger shell

Tube fluid

Heat exchanger tube

Figure 12.7 Shell-and-tube Heat Exchanger Schematic

1.00

0.95

0.90

F
0.85

0.80

0.75
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1
P
Figure 12.8 The LMTD Correction Factor for a Shell-and-tube Heat Exchanger
(From Handbook of Heat Transfer, ed. byW.M. Rohsenow, J.P. Hartnett, and Y.I. Cho,
McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1998, Chapter 17, Heat Exchangers by R.K. Shah and D.P. Sekulic, p. 17.33)

Ch. 12 Pg. 21
12.3

The e- NTU Method of Heat Exchanger Analysis

In determining the states of the working fluid in a given heat exchanger application,
the
method employed depends upon the information available. If the four temperatures,
two inlet
temperatures and two outlet temperatures, are known, equation (12.18) gives the
log mean
temperature difference,
equation (12.4) gives the heat transfer rate, and equation (12.17)
gives the required heat exchanger specification, UA. This method is known as the
Mean
Temperature Difference method and is denoted as MTD. It should be noted that the MTD
method
of analyzing heat exchanger performance is useful only in limited circumstances.
In particular, if the capacity rates for the two fluid streams are known and two of the
inlet
temperatures and one of the outlet temperatures are known, the first law, equatio
n (12.4), can be
used to determine the other outlet temperature. The log mean temperature differe
nce for the
counterfiow configuration, 1TLCF, can then be determined from equation (12.18). Then
a chart
similar to Figure 12.8 can be used to determine the appropriate value of the factor
F for the
configuration being analyzed. Then from the first law and Newtons Law of Cooling
in the form
of equation (12.22), we can determine the value of the product UAT for the heat exchan
ger. Using
this value of UA, we can select the heat exchanger appropriate for the application
at hand from
data supplied by heat exchanger manufacturers. Alternatively, we could design a heat
exchanger
using the appropriate heat transfer correlations for the configuration selected.
On the other hand, if the two inlet temperatures, the capacity rates, and the
UAT product
are known, equation (12.4) must be solved simultaneously with equation (12.15
) or (12.20) for
the two unknown temperatures. Equation (12.6) or, in the case of a flow configuration
other than
parallel or counterflow, equation (12.22) then gives the required heat transfer rate.
This
procedure usually requires an iterative solution and can be quite tedious.
Fortunately, there is an alternate method of heat exchanger analysis available known
as
the 8 NTU method that does not require iteration. The essence of the method lies in
the
definition of the heat exchanger efficiency, or as it is more commonly known, the heat
exchanger effectiveness. By definition, the heat exchanger effectiveness is the ratio
of the actual
heat transfer rate from one stream to the other divided by the maximum possible heat
transfer
rate for the given set of inlet temperatures.
As we have shown in section 12.2, the fluid stream with the smaller value of the capaci
ty
rate C,
, = (nic),,
1
, will experience the larger change in temperature in the direction of flow.
1
In
addition, the highest temperature in the heat exchanger is the inlet temperature of the
hot stream,
11111 and the lowest temperature is the inlet temperature of the cold stream,
T
,
. Thus the largest
,
1
T
possible temperature change in either stream would occur for the case in which one
of the
temperatures is equal to T and the other temperature is equal to T(. At best, this combin
ation
of temperatures is possible only for the stream with the lower capacity rate, ,
11 =
C
Then
the maximum heat transfer rate that is physically possible in the heat exchanger would
be
mai where
= c,,
,
11
(12.27)
At first glance, it would appear that equation (12.27) cannot be correct since
C,JV(ThI,,
111
T
)
would give a larger numerical value. However, while this is true mathematically,
this latter
combination would violate the first law and is, therefore, not an acceptable statement
of the
maximum possible heat transfer in the heat exchanger. For example if the stream
with the
maximum capacity rate C,,, were to experience the maximum change in temper
ature
the
,nax =

(thc).

,, )

Ch. 12 Pg. 22
first law would require
C,nav A T,nax = C, A T,,,,

which clearly leads to an absurdity.

=

absurdity

010

Cmin

It follows, then, that the heat exchanger effectiveness can be expressed in two ways
guaranteed to be equivalent by the first law.

c
Cnnn

Qn,ax

(, in

) = c1, (T,,,,
in ) Cn,in (, in

,,
1
T

)
in )

(12.28)

The overall thermal conductance for the heat exchanger can be expressed in dimensionless form
as
(12.29)
Cmin
where the symbol NTU stands for the number of transfer units. The c NTU methods postulates
the existence of a function q5 such that
NTU=-

E=c15(NTU,C)

(12.30)

C=

(1231)

where the capacity ratio C is given by

i0(10

As an example of the development of the functional relationship between e and NTU,

consider the case of a two-stream heat exchanger with parallel flow such that the capacity rate of
the hotter stream, C,,, is the smaller of the two capacity rates, C,, = C,,,,,,. Then
=

c,, (, in
, (,
11
c,,,

01(1

)=

(:ji

.th)

1,

GILt)

(12.32)

and
=

0
C,,,

,i,,cp,

iic

i,,) =

T, out)

(Ti,in

T,,

out

(12.33)

From equation (12.15) we have

(AI
1 1
lnII=I
1 J
AT
mhcP,,

ln

TI,

Gilt

T.1.0111 =
I,,

0111
T

ln
h,in

C,ifl

1
iUA
thcJ

(1

+
VAT
C,, C

(12.34)

_NTU(1+ c)

=
,,,in

flICIX

Then
exp[-NTU (1 + Ca)]

(12.35)

Ch. 12 Pg. 23
But adding and subtracting ,
17 in the numerator of the left-hand side of equation (12.35) and
T
7
making use of the first law, we get
ITh.out

Ii Out

r.in

c Out

Out

Ii ,Ifl

Thfl

Ii in

Th in +(T
Jr in
)

Tc in J

C .0211

Tcin

(hour

TJr .in

max

2,in
1

TCin

or
Thour Tcon

Tcin

e+1 CE

18(1 + c)

(12.36)

Combining equations (12.35) and (12.36), we get

1_exp[_NTU(l+Cj1
(12.37)
l+C
Similar analyses can be carried out for other heat exchanger configurations. The results are
summarized in Table 12.1.
In practice, the steps to be carried out in applying the 8 NTU method for the analysis of
a heat exchanger can be best summarized as follows:

Case I: Given U, C
, and the temperatures T,, in T,
7
, C,
7
,7
777777
T in and ,
07 find AT.
.
T
7
1. Select a heat exchanger configuration.
2. Calculate 8 from equation (12.28).
3. Calculate C = 120
,/C,
1
C,,
.
4. Use the correlation equation from Table 12.1 to find the value of NTU
appropriate for the heat exchanger configuration selected.
5. Calculate AT from the definition of NTU, equation (12.29).
Case II: Given AT, U, C
, C,,, T,,
0

,,,,

and T,. ,,, find t.

7717
T

1. Select a heat exchanger configuration.

2. Calculate NTU from the definition, equation (12.29).
3. Calculate C = 7
IUV.
C,
I
,/C,
4. Calculate Q EC,,
, (i m TC.b
71
).
7
=

5. Calculate
011
T
t

= th

and

ThO( = 1.in

In both cases listed above, the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, is assumed to be known.
Frequently, this information is available from the manufacturer who has determined the value of
U from data derived from tests on the actual heat exchanger configuration of interest. However,
there are other cases, such as the design of a heat exchanger custom configured to meet the
unique requirements of a particular application, in which the value of U is not available by this
means. Under these circumstances, it may be necessary to determine the value of U from the
application of heat transfer correlations similar to those presented in Chapter 11. Example 12E.3
illustrates this procedure.
W

Ch. 12 Pg. 24
Table 12.1 Heat Exchanger Correlation Equations for
=

C=thc

Cinax

with C
2

c,

Cmi,,

(, in

and NTU

)
in )

UAT
NTU=
Cinin

exp(NTU)

Concentric tube:

NTU = -ln(1 8)
-

1 exp[-NTU(1 +
B

Concentric tube:
counter flow

NTU =

c)]
exp[-Nm(1 c)]

1 exp{-NTU(1
B

)]

1
1n

c+1

NTU

1
c. 1

NTU = sI (1

NTU =
one shell pass;
2, 4, tube
passes

(C =1)

(c)

Shell and tube:

.C
1
I(1

...

Single-pass
cross-flow: both

fluids mixed
8

Single-pass
cross-flow:
,, unmixed and
1
C,
C, mixed
Single-pass
cross-flow:
Cmi,, mixed and
unmixed

Adapted from:

=I

ex

(E1
.ini
E + I)

2
NTU

[1

5
exp(C

=1

1
exp(NTU)

[1 + (Ca)

exP{_[1

1
NTU
j
1

1 exp(C
5 NTU)

exp (_C:[1

Iterate the

(1

Ca)

2 ]l12

61
=

f(NTU, Ca) correlation

s=

f(NTU, Ca) correlation

for mixed single-pass cross-flow

exp(-NTU)])}

NTU =

NTu)1}

NTU =

exp(_ C

2 1/2

for unmixed single-pass cross-flow

= e C

Iterate the e

NTUO.78)]}

[1+ (Ca)

J_

] [
and F

6
=

2
F
C
F 1

Ea shell passes

EOCCShCII pass

where is defined in (4), and calculated using NTU per shell

pass (e.g. NTU I n ) where NTU appears

22

2
(1+c*)
where

Single-pass
cross-flow: both
fluids unmixed

C <1

5
C

...

ini

Shell and tube:

n shell passes;
2n, 4n,
tube
passes

1+C.
-

f(e, c)

Correlation for NTU =

=0

parallel flow

)
in )

iont
1

f(NTU, C)

c,,, (Th in

max

Configuration Correlation for

Single stream;
heat exchangers

(hiii

ln[1

+4.. lfl(1

B C5)]

in[i + C
5 ln(1

Tables 8.3a and 8.3b Basic Heat and Mass Transfer, by A.F. Mills, and
Tables 11.3 and 11.4 in Introduction to Heat and Mass Transfer by Frank P. Incropera and David P. DeWitt

B)]

Ch. 12 Pg. 25
Note from Table 12.1 that the counterfiow configuration has the largest value of the heat
exchanger effectiveness, e for given values of NTU and C compared to all other configurations.
In this sense, the counterfiow configuration provides maximum performance in terms of
utilization of heat exchanger surface area.
In applying the c NTU method, there are two special cases worthy of note. The first of
these is the special case in which the heat exchanger effectiveness approaches unity. This can
occur only for a counterfiow heat exchanger for which the two capacity rates are equal. That is,
. From the first law in the form of equation (12.4), it is apparent that when the capacity
1
C,, = C,,
rates are equal, the temperature changes in the direction of flow for the two streams are equal to
each other. In addition, from the definition of the effectiveness, equation (12.32), it is apparent
that a value of unity for the effectiveness requires that the outlet temperature of the hot stream
must be equal to the inlet temperature of the cold stream and the outlet temperature of the cold
stream must be equal to the inlet temperature of the hot stream. Thus, in the limit of an
effectiveness of unity, the IXT is zero throughout the heat exchanger and it follows that the log
mean temperature difference for the heat exchanger is zero. From the second law for the heat
exchanger, equation (12.26), it is apparent that the rate of entropy generation vanishes and the
heat exchanger becomes reversible in this limit. In addition, the rate equation requires that the
overall conductance, UAT, must be infinite if the heat transfer rate is finite. (As a practical
consideration, it should be pointed out that the effectiveness can approach unity for some
complex heat exchanger designs that are not simple counterfiow. For these configurations the
overall conductance approaches infinity, and thermal conduction in the solid parts that make up
the heat exchanger becomes important. This effect has been neglected in the present discussion.
The effect is that the heat exchanger tries to become isothermal by virtue of conduction in the
solid parts that make up the heat exchanger. This can have an adverse effect on heat exchanger
performance.) On the basis of the foregoing discussion, the heat exchanger effectiveness can be
thought of as the ratio of the actual heat transfer rate to the heat transfer rate in a reversible heat
exchanger with the same two inlet states, the same minimum capacity rate, but a different
maximum capacity rate.

Ch

00

x
(a) Condenser

00

x
(b) Evaporator (Boiler)

Figure 12.9 Heat Exchangers with One Fluid Changing Phase

The second special case occurs when one of the fluid streams undergoes a change of
phase as a result of the heat transfer with the other stream. This is the case in a boiler or an
evaporator and in a condenser. Since the heat transfer process in the heat exchanger is modeled

Ch. 12 Pg. 26
as constant pressure, it follows that the fluid stream undergoing the phase change does not
change temperature. This has the effect of making that fluid stream appear as though it had an
infinite capacity rate. The situation is shown schematically in Figure 12.9.
In both of the cases depicted in Figure 12.9, C = 0 and the 8 NTU correlations reduce to
e=lexp(NTU)
and NTU=ln(lE)
(12.38)
as shown in case 1 of Table 12.1.
Example 12E.2: In open heart surgery, the oxygen requirements of the patient can be
reduced substantially by reducing the core body temperature of the patient. This is known as
induced hypothermia. To achieve this state of the patient, the patient is placed on a heart-lung
machine in which the patients own heart is by-passed so that it can be freed for the surgical
procedure. The heart-lung machine contains a heat exchanger which is used to cool the patients
blood before the surgery and to re-warm it afterward. It is proposed that a concentric tube
counterfiow heat exchanger shown schematically in Figure 12E.2, of length 4 m be used for
heating the blood post-operatively, with the thin-walled inner tube carrying the blood having a
diameter of 60 mm and the insulated outer tube carrying the heating water having a diameter of
80 mm.
(a) Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient U for the following operating
conditions: T, 90 C, n
1 = 0.10 kg/sec,
= 18 C, n = 0.05 kg/sec
(b) What is the temperature of the blood leaving the heat exchanger?
For water: kc,,er = 0.652 W/m K, R,aier = 985 kg/rn
, Cwater = 4178 J/kg K,
3
=
4.92
kg/rn
sec,
= 3.153
x
io
Prwater
Pwuter
For blood: kh/OOd = 0.602 W/m K, P/,1d = 998 kg/rn
, Cblood = 3500 J/kg K,
3
kg/rn
see,
= 5.628
=
9.68
x
io
Fr,,lOd
PhliI

4. Blood

Heating water
Figure 12E.2 Counterflow Heat Exchanger for Warming Blood

Solution: (a) In order to determine the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, we need to first
calculate the thermal resistances on the inside wall and the outside wall of the inner tube. We
first calculate the Reynolds number of the flow in the inner tube. (In the calculations that follow,
we denote the properties of the blood by the subscript c since the blood is on the cold side of the
heat exchanger and the properties of the water by the subscript h since the water is on the hot side
of the heat exchanger.)
4(0.05 kg/see)
4th
Re.=
=
=1096
.irD,p 2T(0.060 m)(9.68 x l0 kg/rn see)

Ch. 12 Pg. 27
Thus the flow of the blood in the inner tube is laminar. This is to be expected since the laminar
flow condition minimizes the mechanical damage to the formed elements of the blood, e.g.,
red
blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, etc. The Nusselt number for this flow is given
by

rn
0.0650.060 0
096) (5.628)

0.0652ReP,,
L

Nu=3.66+

4rn

=3.66+

=6.968

+5
O
[
4
9
)
6
.
(0.0
2
.O
60m
]
(
6
8
(lO

1 + 0.04[(RecP

Then the heat transfer coefficient and the corresponding thermal resistance for the cold side
is
W/m K
h, 60
=Nu-=6.968
2
2 K
=69.91W/rn
0.060m

=
C

L
1
hcD

=0.OI9OKJW

2 K)r(0.060 rn)(4 m)
(69.91W/rn

For the hot side of the heat exchanger, the Reynolds number depends upon the hydraulic
diameter, ,
11 which for an annulus becomes D,, = Do DL = 0.020 m. Then
D
4th
4(0.lOkg/sec)
Re =
=
= 1.294 x I o

.irD,,u
r(0.020 m)(4.92 x io kg/rn sec)

Since this is turbulent flow in an annulus, the friction factor and the corresponding Nusselt
number are given by

1 _1.64)2
f =(0.79lnRe,

Nu 1

=[0.791n(l.294 x 104)_l.641

7 1000) pi
L(Re,
8

(D
0.86!
ID

0.029

.16

1ff
2/
1+12.7
3
Lt
1I
P
I
V8\

[(1.294
29
x 104)_10001(3.153)
NUh=

1+12.7

/0.029
E(3.153) 11
V8 L
I
1 = 65.937
Nu,

100600b6

0.861

0.080

Then the heat transfer coefficient and corresponding thermal resistance on the hot side of the
heat
exchanger are
W/mK
1 =65.9370.652
h =Nu
=2149.6 W/m
2 K
7
D,
0.020 m

Rh

h
c
1
D.L

(2149.6 W/m
2 K).T(O.O6O m)(4 m)

4
=6.170
K
JW
x10

Then the overall thermal conductance and the overall heat transfer coefficient are given by

j =(o.ol9o KIW+6.170 x io KJW)

1
UA=(R +R
U.=

UA
icD.L

51.051W/K
=

n(0.060rn)(4rn)

51.051 W/K

=67.708W/rnK

Ch. 12 Pg. 28
(b) The temperature of the blood leaving the heat exchanger can be determined from the
heat exchanger effectiveness. Then
51.051W/K
NTU___UA_
0292
(0.050 kg/sec)(3500 J/kg K)
C
Cmfl

1 exp[_-NTU (1_ cj

C exp[NTU (i

c*)1

1 exp[(O.292)(i

0.419)]

I 0.4l9exp[(0.292)(l 0.419)]

=0.241

This temperature is a reasonable value since blood components are damaged by temperatures in
excess of 42 C. Also blood at this temperature will restore the patient to normal body
temperature, 37 C, in a short time.
Example 12E.3: The exhaust stream from a large industrial furnace contains a significant
amount of energy that we wish to recover by placing a waste heat recovery heat exchanger in
the stack as shown in Figure 12E.3. The heat exchanger consists of a tube bank arranged in a
square array of 95 thin-walled tubes in a staggered configuration with 5 rows of ten tubes each
alternating with 5 rows of 9 tubes each. Each tube has a diameter of D = 25 mm and a length of L
= 4 m. The transverse pitch of the array is ST = 50 mm and the longitudinal pitch is SL = 50 mm.
Pressurized water at a flow rate of n = 0.025 kg/sec makes a single pass through each of the
tubes, and the exhaust gas has a uniform upstream velocity of = 5 mlsec. The stack has a
diameter of 4 m. Assume that the water flow is fully developed. The inlet temperature of the
water for each tube is T
vcjterj,i = 300 K and the exhaust gas enters the tube array at a uniform
4
temperature of Tasin 800 K.
(a) Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, for this cross-flow configuration.
(b) Calculate the outlet temperatures of the two fluid streams, Twater<,iit and Tga out.
iO 3
kg/rn CwIter = 4180 J/kg K, Pwater = 855 x 106 kg/m see,
,
Svater = 0.6 12 W/m K, water 5.84
, (Cp)gas 1099 J/kg K, Pgci = 36.98 x 106 kg/m see,
3
For the exhaust gas: Pgas = 0.435 kg/m
kgac = 57.3 x iO W/m K, 1
gas = 0.709

For the water: Pvc,ter

Stack
4m
Typical tube
Water in)

Exhaust gas flow

Figure 12E.3 Waste Heat Recovery System

Water out

Ch. 12 Pg. 29
Solution: (a) We first calculate the Reynolds number of the water flow.
4(0.025 kg/sec)
4th a
Re =
=1489
1rDJJ ir(0.025 m)(8.55 x iO
4 kg/rn sec)
Clearly, the water flow is laminar. Then from correlation number 2 of Table 11.5
m(
148
)
584
9
0.065025 )(
m

0.O65JRcPc

Nit,=3.66+

=3.66+

1+

=5.905

+)
O
[
4
48
)(
8
25
.O
S
m(
4
9
.
l

Then the convective heat transfer coefficient for the water flow is

C. W

W
=
O
9
W
2
l
6
.
Im
S
/m
S
4
7
K=
S
.
2
l K
=Nu 4
D
0.025 m
W

For the flow over the tube array, we need to calculate the average velocity in the array. Then from
correlation number 18 of Table 11.5

ST

0.050 m

(5 m/sec)

8.233 rn/sec

0.050m((0.025m)

4}

Then the Reynolds number for the exhaust gas flow is

Re

(8.233 rnlsec)(0.025 m)(0.435 kg/rn

)
3

i3Dp g

=2421

36.98 x l0_6 kg/rn sec

jIg

Then from correlation number 6 of Table 11.5

NUD

0.3+

0.62Re PrA
=

0.3+

0.62(2421)(0.709)
=

24.184

0.4
l+(
0.709}

Pr,)
For the array, correlation 18 gives

2
SLO.0
50m
D 0.025m

staggered

NU

TstaggeredI1

3- 2

(1.133) (24.184)

32.246

Then the heat transfer coefficient for convection on the outside of a single tube in the array is

Nu

32.246

0.0573 W/m K

= 73.908
0.025 m
Then the thermal resistances on the inside and the outside of a tube are, respectively
=
I
R.=
=0.022K1W
hirDL (144.547 W/m
2 K)2v(0.025 m)(4 m)
=

R=____
hcgltDL

1
(73.908 W/m
2 K)ir(0.025 m)(4 m)

=0.043K/W

Ch. 12 Pg. 30
Then the thermal conductance of an individual tube in the array is
1 =(o.o22 K/W+0.043 KIW) = 15.363 W/K
UA = (R, +R(,)

The temperature of the water at the outlet from a tube is

= Tgj,

T.

(Tgjn

=800 K(800 K300 K)expI

(
exp

Where does this come

from?

UA

15.363 W/K
(0.025 kg/sec)(4180 i/kg K)

= 368.361 K

Then the capacity rates for the water and the exhaust gases are
thg =Pg
9

=(o.435 kg/m3)4m)

(5 mlsec)=27.332 kg/sec

i0 W/K=C,,
Cg =thgCpg =(27.332 kg/sec)(1099 J/kgK)=3.004 x 4
= (0.025 kg/sec) (4180 J/kg K) (95 tubes) = 9928 W/K = C,

C, =

9928W/K
=0331
3.004 x io W/K
Then the heat exchanger effectiveness is
CW(Tb(,llfIIfl)

c,,,, (Tgj,

T)

(9928 W/K)(368.361 K300 K)

=0137
(9928 W/K) (800 K 300 K)

Then the correlation number 9 of Table 12.1 gives for crossflow with the fluid with C,, mixed
I
ln(1(0.137)(0.331))l=0.151
NTU =_1nr1+ln(1_sC*)1=_lnr1+
]
L 0.331
L C
J
,.,.(,, = NTU
1
UA(
A

= (0.151) (9928 W/K) = 1496 W/K

2
e =r(0.025 m)(4 m)(95 tubes)=29.845 m
6
=7lDLNjj

u=

UA(,.,( = 1496 W/K

29.845 m
2

Airrcn

2 K
= 50.133 W/m

(b) The result for the outlet temperature of the water is given above
Tvmit = 368.361 K
For the outlet temperature of the exhaust gas, we make use of the heat exchanger effectiveness,
viz.
106 W
max = crnj, (Tgj, T) =(9928 W/K)(800 K300 K)=4.964 x
Tg,out =Tgui

EQ

Cg

=800K

6 W)
0.137(4.964 x i0
3.004 x 10 W/K

=777.407 K

Then the waste heat recovered can be determined from either the water side or the exhaust gas
side, viz.
) = (27.332 kg/sec)(1099 J/kg K)(777.407 K800 K)
1
Q =lflgCpg (Tgaiit _Tgj,
Qg

=6.787 x io W

Ch. 12 Pg. 31

011 i,)
(T

= th,CwNttlhec

(0.025 kg/sec)(4180 J/kg K)(95 tubes)(368.361 K300 K)

Q=6.787 x io W
Example 12E.4: Saturated steam from a manufacturing process is to be condensed at a
pressure of sat = iO N/rn
2 in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and two tube
passes. Saturated H
0 vapor enters the shell with an enthalpy of hg = 2674.9 kJ/kg and saturated
2
liquid H
0 leaves with an enthalpy of hf= 417.50 kJ/kg. The saturation temperature of the steam
2
is
= 99.61 C.
Cooling water enters the tubes at
= 14 C with an average velocity of 1Ve = 3.5 ni/sec.
The tubes are thin-walled and made of copper with a diameter of D = 14 mm and a length of L =
0.5 m per pass. The convective heat transfer coefficient for condensation on the outer surface of
the tubes is h
0 = 21,800 W/m
2 K.
(a) Determine the bulk mean outlet temperature of the water.
(b) Find the number of tubes/pass required to condense steam at the rate of 2.3 kg/sec.
Solution: (a) We first need to establish the relevant fluid properties. Clearly the
temperature of the water inside the tubes is going to increase as a result of the heat transfer
process. Then the average temperature of the water is higher than the inlet temperature. Let us
assume that the average bulk mean temperature of the water is 20 C. Then
= 998.21 kg/rn
3
20 = 4184.1 J/kg K k
c
20 = 0.59846 W/m K Pr
20 = 7.0026
=1.0016 x l0 kg/rn sec
We begin by calculating the Reynolds number and the associated friction factor for the flow of
the water inside the tubes.
20

Re)

(3.5 m/sec)(0.014 m)(998.21 kg/rn

)
3

z9 D
=

20
P

1.0016 x l0 3 kg/rn sec

f (0.79 In Re1 .64)2

=

4.883 x

[0.79 ln(4.883 x 10)_l.64T

2

0.021

Then the Nusselt number and the resulting heat transfer coefficient for the flow inside the tubes
becomes
0.021
0
[(4 883 x l0)_l0001(7.0026)
(Re)V 1000) Pi
8
Nu = 8
=322.713
17
10021
y
y
0 3_i)
1+12.7_-(Pi
1+12.7
[(7.0026)
8
W/m K
059846
=1.3795 x i0
4 W/m
2 K
1 = Nu=322.713
h
D
0.014m
Then the thermal resistances for heat transfer across the tube wall are
1
=
1
R.=
W
3
=l.648xl0
2 K)ir(0.014 m)(l m)
2rD(2.L) (1.3795 x io W/m
1
h
R

h(,aD(2.L)

(2.1800 x 10 W/m
2 K)r(0.0l4 m)(l rn)

K
3
=1.0430xl0

Then the thermal conductance of a single tube is

UA =(R
1 +R(
)
1

(1.6482 x l0 K/W + 1.0430 x l0 K/W)

1

We now calculate the number of transfer units for a single tube.

371.594 W/K

Ch. 12 Pg. 32

th

2
D

9
)rt
20
=p

=(998.21 kg/rn),r

20
th,c

(0.014 rn)
2

(3.5 mlsec)=0.5378 kg/sec

(0.5378 kg/sec)(4 184.1 J/kg K)

2250.3 W/K

UA

371.594W/K
= 0.1651
2250.3W/K
C,
Then the heat exchanger effectiveness can be determined from colTelation number 1 of Table
12.1, viz.
E =1exp(NTU)= 1exp(0.1651)=0.1522
NTU

The outlet temperature of the water inside the tubes can be calculated from the effectiveness.
, i,) = 14 C+(0.1522)(99.61 C 14 C) = 27.88 C
1
+ E(1
(b) The number of tubes required can be determined from the load on the condenser and
the heat transfer rate per tube.
threan

srea,n

(Jig h
)
1

(2.3 kg/sec)[(2674.1 x i0 J/kg)(4l7.50 J/kg)

Qtean

ru1,e =

rhc (i

5.1920 x

(0.5378 kg/sec) (4184.1 J/kg K) (27.88 C

Qtube =

2.8982 x l0 W/tube

Q.ream

5.1920 x 106 W

Q,,.

2.8982 x i0
4 W/tube

179.15 tubes

180 tubes

14 C)

____________

Ch. 12 Pg. 33
Problems
12.1 As shown in the sketch below, the feedwater heater for the boiler of a large power plant
supplies water at the mass flow rate Of flfr =
kg/hr at a pressure of P
2 and a
2 = 106 N/rn
temperature of T,
2 65 C. The inlet temperature of the feedwater to the heater is T
1 = 20 C. The
heater heat exchanger design is of the shell and tube type with a single shell pass and two tube
passes in which saturated vapor H
0 at a pressure of P
2
1 = 1.4 x 1 o N/rn
2 enters the shell side
and exits as saturated liquid at the same pressure. The overall heat transfer coefficient is U
2000 W/m
2 K.
(a) What is the temperature of the fluid exiting the shell? Sketch the axial temperature
distribution in the heat exchanger.
(b) Using the NTU method, determine the required heat transfer area.
(c) What is the rate of condensation mcQ,lde,jafjo,l for the H
0 on the shell side?
2

Saturated H
0 vapor, P
2
1

1.4 x10
5 N/rn
2

Cooling water
l0
1
P
N
6
2
/m
1 =20 C
T

=:

T =65 C
2
10m
2
P

Saturated H
0 liquid, P
2
2

1.4 xl o N/m2+

12.2 Our objective here is to design a counterflow heat exchanger to function as the primary
heat
exchanger in a small combined-cycle power plant. The high temperature stream is air which
enters the heat exchanger at a temperature of T = 600 C at a mass flow rate of 84 kg/sec.
The
low temperature stream is H
0 at a pressure of 35 x 106 N/rn
2
2 which enters the heat exchanger at
a temperature of TL = 20 C with a mass flow rate of 15 kg/sec and flows through the heat
exchanger at nearly constant pressure. At this pressure, H
0 will not experience a phase change
2
at any temperature.
As shown schematically in the sketch below, the heat exchanger is a shell and tube design
in which the counterfiow configuration is achieved by bending the tubes in a U-shape inside the
shell. A longitudinal baffle in the horizontal plane forces the flow on the shell side to follow
a
counterfiow path. However, vertical baffles on each side of the horizontal baffle force the
flow
on the shell side to pass back and forth over the tubes in a cross-flow pattern as the fluid moves
along the axis of the heat exchanger. The net result is a well-mixed fluid on the shell side
traveling in a counterfiow direction. The convective heat transfer coefficient for the air on
the
shell side is ho = 10,000 W/m
2 K. The tube side of the heat exchanger consists of 20 brass tubes
0 = 111 W/m K) each with a total length of 140 meters with I.D. = 19.3 mm and O.D. = 25.4
(kbras
mm.
(a) Determine the Reynolds number for the H
0 flowing in the tubes.
2
(b) Using the appropriate correlation equation, determine the heat transfer coefficient h,
for the H
0 inside the tubes.
2

Ch. 12 Pg. 34
(c) Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient U for a single tube based on the outside
area of the tube for the shell and tube geometry.
(d) For this counterfiow configuration, use the e -NTU method to determine to determine
Tairoitt and Twateroj
t.
4
(e) Calculate the pressure drop for the H
0 flowing inside the tubes.
2
For air: Pair = 0.56 kg/m
, c = 1003 J/kg K, kaji = 0.045 98 W/m K, Pair = 30.497 x 106 kg/rn sec
3
For H
0: Pvaler = 565.15 kg/m
2
, Cvater = 5814.3 J/kg K, kwater = 0.3673 W/m K, Pwa
3
er = 5.2 168 x
t
4 kg/rn sec
i0
Air in, Tairin = 600 C,

majr

84 kg/sec
Heat exchanger

Air out, Tair out

12.3 The lubricating oil for a large industrial gas turbine is to be cooled in a simple counterfiow
double-pipe heat exchanger. The mass flow rate of cooling water through the inner tube is m =
0.2 kg/sec, while the mass flow rate of oil through the outer annulus is i = 0.4 kg/sec. The oil
and water enter at temperatures of 60 C and 30 C, respectively. The inside diameter of the tube is
25 mm and the inside diameter of the outer annulus is 45 mm. The outlet temperature of the oil is
40 C. Neglect the thermal resistance of the tube wall.
(a) Using the NTU method, calculate the length L of the heat exchanger.
(b) Calculate the pressure drops for both oil and water.
For the water: Pvlter = iO kg/rn
, cater = 4180 J/kg K, Pwater = 855 x 106 kg/m sec,
3
kwater = 0.6 12 W/rn K, Prwater = 5.84
For the oil: p
,c
3
01 1990 J/kg K, p
07 = 871 kg/rn
011 = 1370 x io kg/rn sec,
011 0.1425 W/m K, Pr
k
01 = 1910
Oil in

Water in

Oil out

Water
out

Ch. 12 Pg. 35
12.4 As shown in Figure 12P.4, a counterflow heat exchanger for a hydrogen cryoge
nic
refrigeration system is to be fabricated by welding two stainless steel tubes togeth
er. The system
has a balanced flow with the capacity rates identical in the two tubes. The mass flow
rate in each
tube is m = 6.0 x 10-6 kg/sec. The cold stream enters at a temperature of
111 = 11 K and must be
T
heated to a temperature of T
01 = 300 K. The hot stream enters at a temperature of
= 310 K.
The average pressure on the cold side is P = 667 N/rn
, and the allowable pressure drop on the
2
cold side is zP = 80 N/rn
. The wall thickness of the tubes is t = 1 mm and the tube walls can be
2
modeled as fins of the appropriate length. That is, think of the joined tube walls
as forming fins
with the base of the fin at the weld and the insulated tip at the midpoint of the circum
ference
opposite the weld in each tube. Thus, the two tubes together form two pairs
of fins, each pair
consisting of one hot fin and one cold fin joined at the base. Since the temperature
difference
between the two tubes is nearly constant along the length, the configuration can
be modeled as
one of constant wall heat flux. At these low flow rates, the flow can be modeled
as laminar. (You
will need to confirm this.) Determine the tube diameter and the tube length.
For hydrogen at 150 K: p = ,
3
0.1615
6kg/rn c = 12.60 x iO J/kg K, p = 56.0 x 1O kg/rn see,
k=0.101 W/mK,Pr=0.699
HINT: This situation requires a bit of modeling. You may have to iterate to find
the final
solution.
Stainless steel tubes

Figure 12P.4
12.5 A combustion apparatus discharges a gas stream at a temperature of 950 K
and a mass flow
rate of 5.4 kg/sec. As shown in Figure 12P.5, the gas stream is to be passed throug
h a heat
exchanger that will provide the high temperature heat transfer to a reversible cycle
that operates
with the atmosphere as the low temperature heat reservoir. Two heat exchanger
designs are
being considered, and both produce the same exit temperature for the combustion
gases.
In the first design, the heat exchanger consists of 100 identical thin-walled, smooth
tubes
with an I.D. of D 50 mm and a length of L = 9.5 m with a constant wall temper
ature maintained
at T = 400 K by means of an evaporating fluid that serves as the working fluid for
the reversible
cycle.
In the second design, by some clever means, the working fluid for the cycle (now
a liquid
different from the first case) enters the heat exchanger at 400 K and leaves at a temper
ature such
that the temperature difference is the same at both ends of the heat exchanger.
The properties of the combustion gases are: c = 1057 J/kg K, p = 0.683 kg/rn
, k = 0.0383 W/m
3
K, p = 25.1 x 106 kg/rn sec
For the first heat exchanger design, calculate the following:
(a) the heat transfer coefficient, h, for the combustion gases

Ch. 12 Pg. 36
(b) the exit temperature and pressure drop for the combustion gases
For the two heat exchanger designs, sketch the axial temperature profiles and calculate
the following:
(c) the rate of heat transfer from the combustion gases to the cycle
(d) the power output from the cycle
Answer the following questions:
(e) Are the two answers for part (c) the same? Why?
(f) Are the two answers for part (d) the same? Why?
Combustion gases

Combustion gases
Tb. =950K
-

In

=7

Heat Exchanger

Cycle working fluid

Cycle working fluid

Rev

Atmosphere, Tatm = 300 K

Figure 12P.5
12.6 A particular manufacturing process requires air at a temperature of 340 K. The available air
supply is at a temperature of 280 K. Your job as a thermal systems design engineer is to design a
heater to raise the temperature of the air to the required value. The basic design is to wrap an
electric heating tape around a section of tubing in the air supply piping. Existing piping limits
your design to a thin-walled, smooth stainless steel tube with an I.D. of D 25.4 mm and a
length of L 0.5 m. Process requirements set the average air velocity at 30 rn/sec with air of the
, k 0.0274 W/m K,
3
following properties (assumed constant): c, 1005 J/kg K, p 1.14 1 kg/rn
p 18.87 x 106 kg/rn sec. For fully developed hydrodynamics and heat transfer the appropriate
correlations for turbulent flow would be:
f (0.7901n ReD _l.64)2 and
=

1000) Pr
(NuD)L

1 +12.7(Pr1)
with
f==0.021

and

(NuD)L

=97.154

As an astute young engineer, you are concerned that 0.5 m may be too short a distance to achieve

Ch. 12 Pg. 37
fully developed hydrodynamics and heat transfer. A search of the literature turns up the
following reference: Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, 2 Edition, by William M. Kays and
Michael E. Crawford, McGraw-Hill, 1980. Chapter 13 of this text offers the following data for
the configuration at hand (although not quite in this form):
x

4
1x10

4
x1O

4
3x10

4
[x10

4
x1O

4
x1O

4
x1O

4
)x10

iO

Nu 164.721 126.282 115.422 110.099 106.848 104.637 103.041 100.922 100.2

)9.628

3
1.5x10

NU. 98.059

3
x10

3 x10
.5x10
3

7.493

7.281

)7.202

3 xl0
.5xl0
3

3 5x10
.5x10
3

3
)x10

102

)7.172

7.156

)7.155

)7.154

)7.154

7.l6l

2(y)

D
and Nu=Nu(x)
RePr
(a) Calculate the Reynolds number and confirm that the flow is indeed turbulent.
(b) Calculate the heater power requirements for steady flow operation.
(c) Plot the tube wall temperature and the bulk mean temperature of the fluid as a
function of x, the distance from the start of the heated section in the direction of flow.
(d) Calculate the log mean temperature difference and U for this configuration.
(e) What is the thermal entry length (definition is arbitrary; you specify) for this flow?
(f) How does this information help you in the design process? Could L = 0.25 m?

12.7 A tractor-trailer (an 18 wheeler) has a gross vehicle mass of 4 x iO kg. It presents a frontal
area of 4 m in height and 2.6 m in width and is traveling up a 10 percent grade (10 m rise/100 m
horizontal distance) at a steady speed of 100 km/hr. It has a standard fairing with a drag
coefficient of CD = 0.96. The rolling resistance of this vehicle at this speed is known to be 125
HP. At this level of performance, the engine dissipates an additional amount of power in the
coolant in the cooling system equal to 60 percent of the shaft power output. The heat exchanger
in the cooling system (a.k.a. the radiator) is a crossflow design with both fluids unmixed. The
coolant flows in the tubes with atmospheric air flowing over the outside of the tubes. The coolant
enters the heat exchanger at a temperature of T, = 100 C and exits at a temperature of
= 75
C. The air enters at a temperature of ,
37
C and exits at some unknown temperature. The
11
T
heat exchanger effectiveness is e= 0.8.
(a) Determine the necessary value of UA for this heat exchanger.
(b) Determine the bulk mean temperature of the air leaving the radiator.
Note: An approximate expression used by many authors for the heat exchanger effectiveness of
the crossflow heat exchanger with both fluids unmixed as in this application is given by
E=lexp

22
NTU

EexpI_tNTU0.78_1

For the coolant: Pc,oia,,i = 1048.1 kg/rn

, Ccoo/a,fl = 3650 J/kg K
3
For the air:
= 1.141 3
kg/rn (cp)(jjr = 1005 J/kg K
,

Ch. 12 Pg. 38

12.8 A local company, Lytron, the Total Thermal Solutions Company

, makes many different
TM
types of heat exchangers. One of their product lines is cold plates. A particular model, CP-15, is
shown in Figure 12P.8 taken from their website http://www.lytron.comlabout/index.htm The
intended application is to mount dissipative electronic packages on the smooth top surface so that
the cold plate can maintain the proper operating temperature of the electronics.
.

n.xis

Thii li4a

w-

s-s.

&ii:

/
)-i,.J

rr.ni

--

Ti.r.s

Figure l2P.8 Lytron Cold Plate, Model CP-15

The device consists of an aluminum casting (kAl 169.2 W/m K) with a length of copper tubing
shaped as shown and pressed into groves cast into the underside of the aluminum casting. The
casting is 6 inches long (15.24 cm) and 3.75 inches (9.35 cm) wide. The thickness of the casting
is 0.3 125 inches (7.938 mm). The copper tubing has an outside diameter of 0.25 inches (D
0
6.350 mm) and an inside diameter of D, 4.826 mm. The length of copper tubing in contact with
the aluminum casting is L 0.9 144 m. The copper tubing is pressed into the bottom of the
aluminum casting so that there is a thin layer, t 1.5875 mm, of aluminum between the smooth
top surface of the aluminum casting and the outer wall of the copper tubing.
Lytron reports the thermal performance of the device based on actual heat transfer test
results. Performance is expressed in terms of a thermal resistance R defined such that
(T-T.)
bin
=

Q
where T
5 is the temperature of the top surface of the aluminum casting and T is the bulk-mean
temperature of the cooling water at entrance to the smooth copper tubing. For the model CP-15,
20 C so that R 0.0 182 C/W with a water flow rate of i7 0.75 gallons/mm
65 C and TbI,
1
(V= 4.73 1 x iO m
!sec).
3
One deficiency of the design arises from the fact that by pressing the copper tubing into
the casting without using a low thermal resistance bonding material between the two mating
surfaces, there is a thermal contact resistance between the copper tubing and the casting. This
results in a reduction in thermal performance of the device. Our objective here is to determine the
thermal contact resistance to see if it might be worth altering the assembly process to reduce this
contact resistance and thereby increase the thermal performance of the device.
For water at 20 C: p= 998.21 kg/rn
, c 4184.1 J/kg K, k 0.59846 W/m K,
3
kg/mK,Pr=7.0026
3
p= 1.0016x lO
=

Ch. 12 Pg. 39
(a) For the performance data given, determine the heat transfer rate Q for the present
configuration of the CP-15 cold plate.
(b) Calculate the Reynolds number for the flow inside the copper tube.
(c) Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient, h, for the inside of the smooth
copper tube.
(d) For a thermal resistance model that has the conduction thermal resistance of the thin
layer of aluminum t in series with the convection thermal resistance of the inside of the copper
tube, calculate the temperature of the cooling water at exit from the copper tube.
(e) From the first law, calculate the rate of heat transfer QF to the cooling water. Note
that this result ignores the contact resistance and, hence, represents the maximum possible rate of
heat transfer.
(f) From the value of
and the first law, calculate the temperature of the cooling water
at the outlet of the copper tube during the heat transfer test. Use this bulk-mean outlet
temperature to determine the value of LT during the test.
(g) Consider a thermal resistance circuit consisting of the thin aluminum layer of
thickness t, the contact resistance between the outside of the copper tube and the aluminum
casting, and the convection resistance inside the copper tube. Formulate an expression for the
overall thermal conductance UA of this circuit. Use this expression together with the values of
I.TLM and Q,,, to estimate the value of the contact resistance. Compare the magnitude of this
thermal resistance with that associated with the convection process inside the copper tube.
(h) Plot the thermal performance of the device that could be realized by reducing the
contact resistance by 20, 40, 60, and 80 percent. Show QF on the plot.

12.9 Direct immersion cooling is a technology used in the thermal control of electronic
components. In this technology, the electronic chips in a system, such as a supercomputer, are
immersed directly in a dielectric heat exchange fluid such as Fluorinert manufactured by 3M Co.
The Fluorinert absorbs energy and entropy directly from the electronics package usually, by
boiling heat transfer or spray cooling, and is then circulated to a heat exchanger where it gives up
this energy and entropy to cooling water.
The following is excerpted from an article by Robert E. Simons, an expert in direct
immersion cooling:
(cf http://www.electronics-cooling.comfResources/EC_Articles/MAY96/may96_04. htm)
An example of a large scale forced convection fluorocarbon cooling system is provided
by the CRAY-2 supercomputer [5]. As shown schematically in Figure 5 [Figure 12P.9a], stacks
of electronic module assemblies were cooled by a forced flow of FC-77 in parallel across each
module assembly. Each module assembly consisted of 8 printed circuit boards on which were
mounted arrays of single chip carriers. A total flow rate of 70 gpm [V = 4.4 16 x iO m
/sec] was
3
used to cool 14 stacks containing 24 module assemblies each. The power dissipated by a module
assembly was reported to be 600 to 700 watts. Coolant was supplied to the electronics frame by
two separate frames containing the required pumps and water-cooled heat exchangers to reject
the total system heat load to customer supplied chilled water.
Reference 5 of Simons article:
5. Danielson, R.D., Krajewski, N., and Brost, I., Cooling a Supetfast Computer, Electronic
Packaging and Production, pp. 44-45, July 1986.

Ch. 12 Pg. 40

Figure 1 2P.9a: CRAY-2 liquid immersion cooling system

ForFC-77: p= 1780kg/rn
, c= 1100J/kg K, k= 0.063W/rn K, p= 1.3 x io- kg/rn sec
3
For water: p= 999.25kg/rn
, c=4189.6 J/kg K, k= 0.58753W/rn K, p= 1.1683 x 10 3
3
kg/rn sec
(a) Calculate .
12 If the inlet temperature of the FC-77 to the stacks is T,,,
C
921 = 20 C,
calculate the required outlet temperature from the stacks, ThI,,.(Note: Temperatures are labeled
referenced to the heat exchanger, not the stacks.)
(b) The heat exchanger of choice is a shell and tube exchanger in which each tube makes
two shell passes (down the length of the shell and back) and the cooling water makes one shell
pass as shown in Figure 12P.9b. There are 88 thin-walled tubes each with diameter D 8 mm.
Chilled cooling water enters the heat exchanger at
= 10 C and exits at ,
012 18 C. The heat
T
transfer coefficient on the water side is h, = 1.094 x i0
4 W/m
2 K. Calculate C and C,,,
.
11
Cooling water in

Shell

FC-77 in

F
Tube
Heat exchanger

FC-77 out

Cooling water out

Figure 12P.9b Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Schematic
(d) Calculate e and NTU.
(e) Calculate UA and UA/tube.
(f) Calculate UA/L for a single tube. Calculate the length of each tube.

Ch. 13 Pg. 1

Chapter 13
Thermodynamic Properties of the Pure Substance Model
13.1

Introduction

In developing the first and second laws of thermodynamics in the preceding chapters, we
have used simple models to represent the thermodynamic behavior of a system. The
constitutive
relations for the equilibrium properties of these models embody the essential elements of
thermodynamic behavior and serve to illustrate the use of the laws of thermodynamics.
Unfortunately, because of their simplicity, these special models are incapable of represe
nting
certain significant aspects of thermodynamic behavior. Accordingly, in this chapter, we
consider
the constitutive relations for the more complex simple system model. By definition, a simple
system is a thermodynamic system without significant effects from the following phenom
ena:
(1) Surface forces from capillarity and surface tension.
(2) Forces due to gravitational, electric, and magnetic fields.
(3) Shear stresses resulting from the distortion of solids.
(4) Bulk motion.
In keeping with our simplified approach, the simple system model is still an idealization
of thermodynamic behavior. In the model, the state of stress is hydrostatic everywhere and all
body forces due to external force fields are taken to be insignificant. The state of stress is
hydrostatic if the force per unit area acting on a test plane is independent of the orienta
tion of the
plane at each point within the system. A solid under uniform three-dimensional compression
or
tension will not have shear stresses. This classification may seem highly restrictive since
these
phenomena are present in so many physical situations; however, experience shows that the
simple system represents the significant coupled thermodynamic behavior of many system
s. The
most significant characteristic of the simple system model is that the pressure is uniform
and
hydrostatic at equilibrium and all reversible work transfer is given by W = J? dU Here P
is the
uniform pressure of the system and V is the volume of the system. When no chemical reactio
ns
are involved, the simple system model becomes the pure substance model. The definition of
a
pure substance is:
A pure substance is a simple system which is uniform and invariable in chemical
composition.
Further, the internal energy, U, of the pure substance can be changed reversibly only by
heat
transfer or by work transfer associated with the uniform pressure of the system and the
displacement of the system boundary, that is, the reversible work transfer is given by the
integral
fP dV This restriction on the reversible work transfer requires that bulk motion, gravity, surface
tension, solid shear stresses, electric fields, and magnetic fields all have an insignificant influen
ce
on the thermodynamic equilibrium properties of the pure substance. With all of these influen
ces
eliminated, the requirement for mechanical equilibrium is that the pressure is uniform throug
hout
the system and that the force on the boundary of the system is directly related to this uniform
pressure. In addition, the requirement for thermal equilibrium is that the temperature is uniform
throughout the system. In some cases the influence of bulk velocity and gravity are include
d;

Ch. 13 Pg. 2
however, the energies associated with these effects are considered to be uncoupled from the
internal energy, U, in the manner described in Chapter 4. Each of these effects, which are ignored
for the pure substance, represent reversible methods of work transfer in addition to fF dv, and
thus would add to the complexity of the interactions between the system and the environment.
The incompressible fluid model and the ideal gas model that we introduced previously are both
special cases of the pure substance. In particular, the incompressible fluid model is, in effect, the
degenerate case of the pure substance in which the volume is constant and no reversible work
transfer is possible. In the more general case, the pure substance describes the properties of a
chemically pure material in the gaseous, liquid, and solid forms, or any combination of the three.
In addition, the pure substance describes the properties of a mixture of gases if no liquefaction or
solidification takes place. For example, air may be modeled as a pure substance in the gaseous
state; however, if some of the air condenses into liquid, the liquid will be richer in oxygen than
the remaining gas. This condition then violates the requirement that a pure substance be uniform
in composition. The pure substance model also describes the properties of a solution if no
solidification or vaporization takes place. A solution of salt in water may be modeled as a pure
substance, but if freezing takes place, the solid will be of lower salt concentration than the
remaining liquid, again violating the uniform composition requirement. On the other hand, pure
0 may be modeled as a pure substance in the solid, liquid, or gaseous form or any combination
2
H
of the three.
13.2

Independent Properties of the Pure Substance Model

In establishing the independent properties of the pure substance model, we make use of a
fundamental principle, the state principle. This principle, although deduced by empirical means,
is based upon the observation of so many thermodynamic systems that it can be regarded as a
fundamental law of thermodynamics. The state principle, stated rather simply, is:
Any two independent properties are sufficient to establish a stable
equilibrium thermodynamic state of a simple system. For each identifiable
departure from the requirements for a simple system, one additional independent
property is necessary.
Note that the state principle is restricted to stable equilibrium thermodynamic states rather than
to equilibrium states in general. Stable equilibrium states are those equilibrium states for which a
finite change of state can occur only if there is some corresponding change of state in the
environment. Since most equilibrium thermodynamic states are of this type, this restriction poses
no serious limitations from a thermodynamic point of view. The significance of the state
principle itself is contained in the fact that it establishes in a formal way the minimum number
of properties necessary to describe the state of a thermodynamic system.
A convenient, but not necessarily unique, interpretation of this principle is that there is
one independent property associated with each reversible mode of energy interaction. The only
reversible mode of work transfer for the simple system is given (in differential form) by P dU In
this case, the volume V can be regarded as the independent property describing the work transfer.
Similarly, we have seen in Section 7.7 that the reversible heat transfer for any system is given (in
differential form) by T dS. For the heat transfer interaction, the entropy assumes the role of the
independent property. Thus for the pure substance, the simple system of interest there, the first
law of thermodynamics in differential form becomes

Ch. 13 Pg. 3
dU =TdSPdV
(13.1)
The first law of thermodynamics guarantees that the internal energy is a property; consequently,
equation (13.1) has an integrated form
U
U(S,V)
(13.2)
Equation (13.2) expresses the internal energy of a pure substance in terms of the two independent
properties entropy and volume. According to the state principle, only two independent properties
are necessary to describe the equilibrium state of a pure substance; equations (13.1) and (13.2)
are just such a description. Therefore, equations (13.1) and (13.2) relate equilibrium states and
are valid regardless of whether the interactions experienced by the pure substance during the
change of state are reversible or irreversible. Another way of interpreting this result is to note that
any one equilibrium state of a pure substance can be reached (in principle) from any other
equilibrium state by a series of reversible processes. In this manner, we can establish for every
equilibrium state the value of any property (relative to some datum state). Equation (13.1) is an
interrelation among the system properties that must be satisfied for every infinitesimal change of
state. From the change of state itself, we cannot establish whether reversible or irreversible
interactions were involved; however, equation (13.1) is true regardless of the nature of the
interactions. The important point is that the product T dS represents the heat transfer and the
product P dV represents the work transfer only for reversible interactions. In the case of
irreversible interactions, the product T dS exceeds the actual heat transfer by the same amount
that P dV exceeds the actual work transfer.
Although we have just established the entropy and volume as a set of independent
properties for a pure substance, we are by no means restricted to this set. That is, any other two
properties of the pure substance could be selected as the independent set provided, of course, that
the two properties really are independent. For example, in the case of the ideal gas, the
temperature and the pressure form a set of independent properties, but the temperature and the
internal energy do not. This is because the internal energy is a function of only temperature for
the ideal gas. As we shall see later, the temperature and the pressure are not a set of independent
properties for the states of a pure substance in which the vapor and liquid forms coexist in
equilibrium.
Although equation (13.1) has been discussed in the context of a pure substance, the
equation is equally applicable to any simple system. In fact, equation (13.1) occupies a rather
special position in thermodynamics, and for this reason, some authors refer to it as the canonical
relation. The significance of equation (13.1) lies in the fact that there is a great deal of
information that can be obtained from it. For example, if we mechanically restrain a simple
system so that its volume is fixed, it cannot experience any reversible work transfer. If we further
isolate it so that it cannot experience any heat transfer or irreversible work transfer, either internal
or external, its entropy is fixed. Under these circumstances, equation (13.1) can be shown to
indicate that the internal energy is an extremum. In more advanced treatments, stability
considerations reveal that this extremum is a minimum. The very foundation of thermodynamics
is that, under these imposed restrictions, the system will achieve a unique state as determined by
the entropy and volume, and that the internal energy of this state is smaller than all other states of
the system with the same entropy and volume. By definition, this state is the stable equilibrium
state and all other states with the same entropy and volume are non-equilibrium states. Thus,
equation (13.1) is not necessarily satisfied for non-equilibrium states. Equation (13.1) serves to
distinguish between extensive properties and intensive properties. The extensive properties
energy, entropy, and volume are directly proportional to the mass present in the system. For
example, if a pure substance system at equilibrium is subdivided into two subsystems the value

Ch. 13 Pg. 4
of each extensive property of the subsystem will be less than the value for the total system. The
value of an extensive property for a composite system is the sum of the values for that property
for the subsystems.
The intensive properties, temperature and pressure, in equation (13.1) are the properties
with values that are not changed by subdivision of the system. The intensive properties can be
defined at a point within a system and have values which are uniform for the equilibrium states
of a pure substance. For non-equilibrium states the intensive properties may be non uniform or
may be undefined. Another noteworthy feature of the canonical relation is that the
thermodynamic properties appear as pairs which are said to be canonically conjugate. For
example, the temperature and the entropy are canonically conjugate properties that completely
describe a reversible heat transfer interaction while the pressure and the volume are canonically
conjugate properties that completely describe a reversible work transfer interaction. Note that
in each case the pair of properties consists of one intensive property such as the temperature or
pressure, and one extensive property such as the entropy or volume. We can generalize these
observations to the case of closed systems which cannot be classed as simple. For each
independent, reversible interaction capable of altering the internal energy of the system, there is a
pair of properties, one intensive and one extensive, that completely describes the interaction. The
set of independent extensive properties associated with these interactions represents the
minimum number of properties necessary to specify the stable equilibrium state of a given
system. Since all of the properties affect the internal energy, they are coupled. The simplest form
for the constitutive relations are then equations that express each of the intensive properties in
terms of all of the independent extensive properties. For each aspect of system behavior that is
uncoupled, there is not only an independent property that is used to describe the interaction but
also a separate stored energy form. Note that the conditions of equilibrium require that the
intensive property associated with each possible reversible interaction be uniform. When two
systems (or subsystems) are not in a state of mutual equilibrium, the difference in their intensive
properties serves as the driving potential for the interaction which will bring the systems to a
state of mutual equilibrium characterized by equal intensive properties.
Equation (13.1) can also be expressed in terms of specific properties, which are the
extensive properties per unit mass of the system. If we divide equation (13.1) by the mass of the
system we have
rn

(13.3)

or
du Tds Pdv
(13.4)
Here ii is the specific internal energy, U/rn, s is the specific entropy, S/rn, and v is the specific
volume V/rn. As we will discuss in detail later, the specific properties may be multivalued in a
pure substance in an equilibrium state, when more than one of the liquid, gaseous or solid forms
are present.

13.3

Equilibrium Liquid-Vapor States

One of the primary reasons for formulating the pure substance model is to be able to
model the thermodynamic behavior of a substance that can experience changes between the solid,
liquid, and gaseous forms. None of the other system models that we have considered previously
is capable of experiencing such a transformation.

Ch. 13 Pg. 5
The transformation between gaseous and liquid forms has a high degree
of
thermodynamic coupling and is thus quite important in thermo-mecha
nical energy conversion. It
is natural to begin the discussion of the pure substance with the consid
eration of liquid-vapor
equilibrium states.
As a consequence of the state principle, any two independent properties
are sufficient to
fix the state of a pure substance. Thus, an expression relating any other
property to the two
independent properties selected for the characterization of the state constit
utes a valid
constitutive relation, or equation of state. It is often convenient to graphi
cally represent the
equilibrium states of a pure substance in terms of this constitutive relatio
n. Accordingly, we most
commonly use a two-dimensional representation in which one indepe
ndent property appears as
the abscissa, the dependent property appears as the ordinate, and the
other independent property
appears as a parameter indexing the family of curves. The constitutive
relations for pure
substances are usually determined by actual measurements of the proper
ties. The pressurevolume-temperature relation is very common since these properties are
most easily measured.
There is no one universal constitutive relation which will model all of the
pure substances.
However, with a few notable exceptions, the equilibrium thermodynam
ic behavior of most
pure substances is qualitatively the same. Thus, to illustrate the genera
l thermodynamic behavior
of a pure substance (in a qualitative fashion, of course) it is sufficient
to perform a hypothetical
experiment on a hypothetical pure substance. To this end, consider the follow
ing situation in
which a unit of mass of a pure substance, for example a gas, is enclos
ed in a piston-cylinder
apparatus and the whole configuration is in thermal equilibrium with
a heat reservoir at the
temperature T (cf Figure 13.1).

cyhmdr

----s---[i1ir.rrn[

buI.!car

h.it rsrtoir

Figure 13.1 Piston-cylinder Apparatus for Isothermal Processes in the Pure

Substance Model

Ch. 13 Pg. 6
We now proceed to compress the pure substance by decreasing the volume. If we perform
this compression at a sufficiently slow rate, the temperature of the substance will remain fixed at
T since the system is in thermal communication with the heat reservoir. As we might expect, the
pressure of the substance will increase during this compression process. To be more specific, if
we decrease the volume from Va to Vh (Figure 13.2) while the temperature remains constant at T
,
1
In fact, if we were to monitor the pressure
the pressure increases accordingly from a to
constantly during this process a-b, we would find that it would trace out the path a-b shown on
Figure 13.2. Clearly, because of the manner in which we are performing the experiment, the
states which lie on the line a-b are equilibrium states.

p
T
K

T
T t
T= T

Figure 13.2 Isotherms for the Pure Substance Model

If we were to continue to decrease the volume in the manner described above, we would
continue to see a corresponding increase in pressure until the state g is reached. Suddenly, when
this state is reached, the pressure ceases to increase with a further decrease in volume. In fact, if
we were to continue to decrease the volume to v, for example, the pressure in state m would still
be identical to that in state g. Obviously, something drastic happened when the system reached
state g. Closer inspection of the apparatus reveals that when the system reached state g, the
substance was present only in the gaseous form. For all volumes less than vg, the liquid form of
the pure substance was present. Further, as the system progressed from state g to state m, the
amount of the liquid form increased while the amount of gas, or vapor as it is often called,
decreased.
If we examine the liquid form more closely, we find that the state of the liquid is
homogeneous, that is, uniform throughout its extent. Similar inspection of the vapor form reveals
that it, too, is homogeneous in state. The conditions of thermal and mechanical equilibrium

Ch. 13 Pg. 7
require that the temperatures and the pressures for these two forms be identical. However, in
spite of the homogeneity that exists within the two forms, the only properties that are the same
for these two forms of the pure substance are the temperature and pressure. All of the specific
properties, such as entropy, energy, and volume, have different values for the two forms, but each
of these properties is uniform throughout the extent of the particular form. Thus, the liquid and
the vapor forms have the same intensive state, that is, temperature and pressure, but different
thermodynamic states. In order to better describe this situation, J. Willard Gibbs introduced the
concept ofphase which he defined in the following manner:
A phase is the collection of all macroscopic parts of the system with the same
homogeneous thermodynamic state. That is, all parts of a system which have
identical and uniform values for each of the specific properties as well as identical
and uniform temperature and pressure are said to constitute one phase.
Thus, in state in described above, the liquid form and the vapor form constitute separate, distinct
phases, namely, the liquid phase and the vapor phase. State m is said to be a two -phase state or
mixed state in which the two phases are in equilibrium.
As we continue to decrease the volume of the pure substance from state m in the manner
described previously, we find that both the pressure and temperature remain constant. All during
this process, the amount of liquid present continues to increase while the amount of vapor present
continues to decrease. Suddenly, when we reach statef we find that the vapor has vanished. Only
the liquid phase is present. If we now continue to decrease the volume of the pure substance to
ye, for example, we find that the pressure again increases. Then, it is apparent that unlike single
phase states the pressure and temperature are not independent properties when two phases of a
pure substance exist together in equilibrium. Thus, a two-phase state can be specified only by
temperature or pressure and some other property such as volume.
In proceeding from state g to statef the pure substance is said to have experienced a
change in phase or phase transition since only the vapor phase is present in state g while only the
liquid phase is present in state f. A definite change in the specific properties is associated with
this phase change which took place both at constant temperature and at constant pressure. The
locus of equilibrium states traced out by the system while in thermal communication with the
heat reservoir at the temperature T
1 is represented on the pressure-volume plane as a continuous
line known as an isothe,-rn. Notice from Figure 13.2 that at the two states g andf, the isotherm, T
= T
, undergoes a discontinuous change in slope. That is, between states g andf, (P/
1
0
)T
while everywhere else (aP/a v)T < 0. A discontinuous change of slope of this type is characteristic
of phase changes which occur at constant temperature and pressure.
If we were to perform the same experiment while the system was in thermal
communication with a heat reservoir at a temperature T,, where T
2 >T
, we would observe the
1
same general behavior. That is, the pressure would continue to increase with a decrease in
volume until some state g is reached. For this state, the slope of the isotherm T = T
2 changes
discontinuously to zero as the liquid phase appears. The pressure and temperature remain
constant as the volume is decreased until the state fis reached. For this state the slope of the
isotherm again changes discontinuously, this time from zero to something less than zero, as the
vapor phase vanishes. From this state on, the pressure increases as the volume is decreased. Once
again, the states between g andfare two phase states with liquid and vapor phases. As the
volume is decreased from v at g to v atf the relative amount of the liquid phase present
increases from zero at g to all liquid atf Associated with this phase change at constant pressure

Ch. 13 Pg. 8
and temperature is a definite change in the specific properties such as the specific volume. Of
course the pressure and temperature are not independent properties during the phase change g
f The locus of equilibrium states for the system while in communication with the heat reservoir
at T
2 is shown on Figure 13.2 as the isotherm T= T
.
2
If we were to perform this same experiment on this apparatus while it was in thermal
communication with a heat reservoir at a temperature T
, where T
3
3>T
>T
2
, the system would
1
trace out the isotherm T = T
3 as shown in Figure 13.2. Notice that this isotherm possesses the
same general characteristics as the previous two isotherms, T = T
1 and T = T
. However, in
2
comparing the three isotherms T = T
, T= T
1
, and T = T
2
, we note the occurrence of a rather
3
curious phenomenon. The change in specific volume associated with the phase change at
constant pressure and temperature decreases as the temperature at which the experiment is
executed increases. Changes in all other specific properties behave in a similar manner.
Apparently, the liquid and vapor phases are becoming more and more similar in nature as the
temperature is increased. The question then arises as to whether there exists some critical
temperature T = T for which there is no difference in specific properties between the liquid and
vapor phases. For such a temperature there must exist a state for which there is no distinction
between the liquid and vapor phases. Such a critical temperature does indeed exist, and the
critical state, is the state at the critical temperature for which the liquid and vapor phases are
identical. In this state the isotherm T T undergoes an inflection with (dP/ v)T = 0 and
P/dv
(d
)
2
T = 0 (cf. Figure 13.2). No other state possesses this feature. Thus, the critical state is a
unique state and every pure substance is observed to possess oniy one.
For experiments carried out at higher temperatures, we find that the isotherms, for
example T = T
, T
4
> T, possess no discontinuity of slope. Everywhere (aP/dV)T < 0 if T> T.
4
Along such isotherms, sometimes called supercritical isotherms, the pressure increases
continuously as the volume is decreased. As is shown on Figure 13.2, no liquidvapor phase
change occurs. If we again look at the collection of isotherms that we have generated in our
hypothetical experiment, we note that we can form the locus of states for which the slope
(dP/dv) < 0 changes discontinuously. These states, because of this change in slope, are very
special states that we call saturation states. The saturation states are those states of the pure
substance for which (SP/dv)T = 0 and only one phase is present. The locus of saturated
states for a typical pure substance is shown in Figure 13.3. Any saturated state for which v < v is
known as a saturated liquid state. On the other hand, any saturated state for which v> v is
known as a saturated vapor state. A change in phase from a saturated liquid state to a saturated
vapor state is commonly known as boiling, evaporation or vaporization. Conversely, a
change in phase from a saturated vapor state to a saturated liquid state is commonly known as
condensation or liquefaction. The locus of saturated liquid states and the locus of saturated vapor
states meet at the critical state since in this state the two phases, liquid and vapor, are identical.
By way of convention we denote the specific properties of the saturated vapor state with the
subscript g (gas) and the specific properties of the saturated liquid state by the subscriptf (liquid).
Thus, the specific volume of the saturated vapor state would be vg while that of the saturated
liquid state would be yr For a given temperature, there is at most one and only one set of liquid
vapor saturation states. Further, there is a unique pressure, known as the saturation pressure or
vapor pressure that corresponds to a given temperature for which a saturated liquid state and a
saturated vapor state can coexist. Conversely, to any one pressure at which the two types of
saturated states can coexist there corresponds a single temperature known as the saturation
temperature, dew point temperature, or boiling point temperature. There is a definite relationship
between the saturation temperature and saturation pressure.

Ch. 13 Pg. 9

typil ot11rItL fo T:. Tr

J)

v:jzr + ELqtd

Figure 13.3 Pressure-volume Diagram of Vapor-liquid Two-phase States

for Pure Substance Model
In Figure 13.3 there are other regions of interest in addition to the region of two-phase states. For
example, at a given temperature, those states for which v> vg are known as superheated vapor
states. Note that for these states the temperature is greater than the saturation temperature at the
pressure of the state, hence the name superheated vapor. The difference in these two temperatures
is often called the degree of superheat. All superheated vapor states are single phase states since
they involve the vapor phase only.
Another region of interest in Figure 13.3 involves those states at a given temperature for
which v < Note that for these single phase (liquid) states, the pressure is greater than the
saturation pressure that corresponds to the temperature of the state. For this reason, states of this
group are often called compressed liquid states. For these same states we note that the
temperature of the state is lower than the saturation temperature which corresponds to the
pressure of the state. Accordingly, these states are sometimes referred to as subcooled liquid
states.
There is one other region of interest in Figure 13.3. This region involves states which are most
appropriately termed supercritical states, but because of their special nature, we shall delay their
discussion until later.

13.4

Critical State
We have already introduced the existence of a special state, known as the critical state,

Ch. 13 Pg. 10
for which the saturated liquid and vapor phases become identical. We have also pointed out that
the isotherm for this state, i.e. the critical isotherm, possesses an inflection point for which both
the slope and the curvature of the isotherm vanish. That is, 6
)T =Tcrit =
2
P/ V)TTCrjt = 0, and (YP/dv
(
0. The critical state is specified by means of its pressure, the critical pressure, and its temperature,
the critical temperature. Since the common substances with critical temperatures near room
temperature have rather high critical pressures (on the order of 60 MPa), the critical state is not
within our everyday experience. However, because the critical state exhibits such unusual
behavior, it is worthwhile to study the nature of this state and its neighbors even though such
states are not encountered at moderate temperatures and pressures.
The physical behavior of a pure substance in states near the critical state can be illustrated
by considering several simple thermodynamic processes. If a substance at state a, with specific
volume v, (Va>
as shown in Figure 13.4, is compressed at constant temperature T(T> T
)
1
b

nr

p
1
T
I,

:> 7
tril

cri

u
I

Figure 13.4 Thermodynamic Processes for the Pure Substance Model

the state of the system will remain homogeneous throughout
to a specific volume Vh (v,) <
the process. One could then say that the substance had been compressed to state b without any
condensation. On the other hand, suppose the substance in state a had been first cooled to state
a, where a = v, and T = I
7 < Tcrjt. If the substance in this state is now compressed at constant
temperature, the substance will begin to condense when state g (saturated vapor) is reached, and
will continue to condense at constant pressure until statef (saturated liquid) is reached. The
system at statef may now be heated at constant volume to state b without passing through any
two phase states. Thus, in the first process (a to b) the substance at a was still vapor when it
reached state b. In the second series of processes, the substance at state a condensed to liquid

Ch. 13 Pg. 11
before reaching the same state b. Is the substance at state b liquid or vapor? The only completely
satisfactory way out of this paradox is to abandon the simple idea that every state of a given
material can be uniquely classified as a solid, liquid, or vapor. In fact, at the critical point the
system is entirely liquid and vapor at the same time since the distinction between liquid and
vapor has vanished. It follows that any liquid can be changed to a vapor without a change of
phase (i.e. passing through two-phase states) by a series of processes which take place at
temperatures and pressures in excess of their critical values. In a strict sense the terms liquid and
vapor can be applied only to the phases of the two-phase states. The location of a boundary
between liquid and vapor in the supercritical region would be completely arbitrary.
Historically the term vapor was applied to that form of a substance which could be
compressed to two-phase states while at room temperature, that is, to substances with critical
temperatures above room temperature. The term permanent gases was originally applied to
hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon monoxide because the behavior of these gases is such that their
two-phase states cannot be reached by compression at room temperature. The critical temperature
of these substances is below room temperature. Now it is common, but not universal, to use the
term vapor for states with v> Vcrjt and T < Tcrjt, the term liquid for states with v < and P
<Pcri,
and the term supercritical for states with either P > Crjt or T>
An additional feature of the supercritical states is illustrated by the constant pressure
process d to e shown in Figure 13.4. Since the pressure is greater than the critical pressure, the
constant pressure cooling from state d to e cannot reach the two-phase region and no
condensation can occur. Conversely, the system at state e cannot be made to evaporate by a
constant pressure heating.
Subcritical states also exhibit unusual behavior. Consider first a substance in the state c
shown in Figure 13.4. The pressure in this state, P
. is less than the saturation pressure
3
corresponding to the saturated liquid state with the same specific volume as this state, v <
Clearly this state is a mixture of liquid and vapor phases. The properties of the liquid present are
the properties characteristic of the saturated liquid at the pressure P
3 (statef), and the properties
of the vapor present are the properties characteristic of the saturated vapor at the pressure P
3
(state g ). If this system is enclosed in a rigid container and heated, the pressure and the
temperature will increase while the total volume remains constant. The temperature in each state
is the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure of the two phases. Because of the
increase in temperature, the liquid phase will expand and increase in specific volume along the
saturated liquid line from r to
In the vapor phase, the effect of the increase in pressure
overshadows the effect of the increase in temperature, and the specific volume decreases from
8 along the saturated vapor line. Since the amount of liquid present is large relative to the
to v
amount of vapor present, the expansion of the liquid is larger than is necessary to compress
vapor; consequently, the vapor condenses. By the time the pressure has reached P-,, all of the
vapor has condensed and only liquid remains. Thus, we have condensed the vapor in the system
by heating.
If the system at state fi has an initial specific volume v such that v> v
, the expansion of
1
the liquid when heated is not sufficient to compress the vapor, and thus some of the liquid must
evaporate in order to increase the density of the vapor. This evaporation process continues until
finally only vapor is present at state g. If the initial specific volume is such that v
= Vcrjt, the
two effects balance and the system remains in a two-phase state up to the critical point. When
the
experiment is carried out in a container with glass viewing ports, the approach to the critical state
is easily followed by shaking the container and observing the wave action at the interface
between the liquid and vapor phases. This wave motion is driven by the difference in the density

Ch. 13 Pg. 12
of the two phases of the pure substance; thus, as the density of the vapor approaches the density
of the liquid, the wave motion becomes very slow until finally, at the critical point, the interface
separating the liquid and vapor just fades away. At the critical point, the fluid usually appears to
change color as it preferentially scatters light fron the liquid droplets or vapor bubbles remaining
in the vapor or liquid phases. The scattering phenomenon may become so strong that the fluid
appears reasonably opaque.
The critical constants of a great many pure substances have been compiled in the
International Critical Tables. Every pure substance has a critical state; however, some substances
decompose chemically before the critical state can be reached. On the other hand, there are some
materials with critical states at temperatures and pressures which are above the available
experimental range. Consequently, these critical states have never been observed experimentally.

13.5

Equilibrium Liquid-Solid and Vapor-Solid States

In Sections 13.3 and 13.4 we have described the nature of various equilibrium states of
the pure substance model. The states described there were by no means inclusive since a solid
phase is possible for the pure substance model. Thus, two other types of two-phase states are
possible-liquid-solid two-phase states and vapor-solid two-phase states. Since these two-phase
states occur at extremes in temperatures and pressures, it is difficult to represent them on the P-v
plane with liquid-vapor two-phase states. Accordingly, we expand that portion of the P-v plane in
the vicinity of these two-phase states. Figure 13.5 is an example of such an expansion.
In general, these states exhibit a behavior similar to the liquid-vapor two-phase states.
That is, if we were to extend the isotherms as in Figure 13.5 to include the solid phase, we would
find much the same behavior that we observed in the liquid-vapor region. The slope of an
isotherm is less than zero everywhere except in the two-phase regions where (aP/3) = 0. There
exist saturated solid, liquid, and vapor states for which there is only one phase and (P/dv)T = 0.
For all two-phase states, pressure and temperature are related so that an additional property is
required to specify the state. Definite changes in the values of the specific properties are
associated with a change in phase at constant temperature and pressure. From Figure 13.5 it
is apparent that if the isothermal compression process producing the change in phase is carried
out at sufficiently low temperature, the vapor phase will condense directly to the solid phase
without ever becoming liquid. In distinct contrast to liquid-vapor two-phase states, there is no
critical state within our physical experience for which the liquid and solid become
indistinguishable or for which the vapor and solid become indistinguishable.
A phase change from saturated liquid to saturated solid is commonly referred to as
freezing while the reverse change of phase is known as melting. (Note that the saturated liquid
phase in equilibrium with the saturated solid phase is completely different from the saturated
liquid phase in equilibrium with the saturated vapor phase.) A phase change from saturated vapor
to saturated solid is commonly known as frosting while the reverse change of phase is referred to
as sublimation. The properties that establish these states are also given special names. At a given
pressure, the temperature for which the solid and liquid phases can coexist in equilibrium is
known as the melting point or freezing point. The pressure at which these two phases coexist for
a given temperature is called simply the saturation pressure. Solid and vapor phases at a given
pressure can coexist in equilibrium at a temperature known as the sublimation point or frost
point. For a given temperature, the pressure at which the solid and vapor phases are in
equilibrium is also known as the saturation pressure.

Ch. 13 Pg. 13
1

1
1

I
T1

EquLd +

vap.:3z

i;jhc.rm

r> rrp

i1iiirfll

Figure 13.5 Equilibrium States in the Solid-liquid Region of the P-v Plane
of a Pure Substance that Contracts upon Freezing
fri dealing with the solid phase, we note that there are two phenomena peculiar to this
phase only. The first of these is a consequence of the variety of possible molecular orientations in
the solid phase. As a result, some pure substances are capable of forming more than one solid
phase, usually of different crystal structure. Thermodynamically, the two-phase state formed by
two solid phases in equilibrium is much the same as the two-phase states that we have already
discussed. Two-phase states of this type, as well as liquid-solid two-phase states, are of major
importance in metallurgical thermodynamics. The second peculiarity of the solid phase is a
consequence of the nature of intermolecular forces at close molecular spacings typical of the
solid phase. These forces can be of two distinctly different types which can cause the substance
to expand or contract upon freezing. That is, for a freezing process that takes place at constant
pressure and temperature, the change in specific volume associated with the liquid-to-solid phase
change may be either positive or negative according to whether the substance expands or
contracts. All other specific properties, however, decrease during the freezing process. Thus, in
the neighborhood of the liquid-solid equilibrium states, the P-v plane would have the appearance
of Figure 13.5 for a substance that contracts upon freezing or the appearance of Figure 13.6 for a
substance that expands upon freezing. Figure 13.6 is difficult to visualize because it is a twodimensional projection of a folded surface. For example, it is impossible to reach the saturated
solid state from the saturated liquid state by isothermal compression along the isotherm shown in
Figure 13.6. Although such behavior would at first sight seem anomalous, one of the most
common substances known, water, behaves in this manner. In fact, it is because of this behavior
that ice floats in liquid water.

Ch. 13 Pg. 14

[sothetm

r:> Tjp

iquid +vpcir

rnpl piin

]ii

siid

Figure 13.6 Equilibrium States in the Liquid-solid Region of the P-v Plane of a Pure Substance
that Expands Upon Freezing

13.6

Equilibrium Solid-Liquid-Vapor States

The final combination of phases in the pure substance model is a state of mutual
equilibrium among the solid phase, the liquid phase, and the vapor phase. These three-phase
equilibrium states are unique in that they occur only at one temperature and one pressure for a
given pure substance. This intensive state is known as the triple point. Thus, for the pure
substance model a three-phase equilibrium state is even more restrictive than a two-phase
equilibrium state because the temperature and pressure are not only related but they are fixed.
Neither temperature nor pressure can be arbitrarily established if the three phases are to remain in
equilibrium. For an isothermal compression process carried out at the triple point temperature,
the vapor phase can condense to either the solid or the liquid.
Although three-phase states are unique with regard to their intensive state, they still
possess considerable freedom with regard to their extensive states. At the triple point, each of the
specific properties (e.g. the specific volume) has a unique value; however, the relative amounts
of the three phases present can be varied over a relatively large range so that there is essentially
an infinite number of three-phase states. For this reason, the locus of three-phase states is a line
in the P-v plane (cf. Figures 13.5 and 13.6). This line joins the saturated solid, saturated liquid,
and saturated vapor states. Note that at the triple point there is a single saturated liquid state.
With the exception of helium, all real substances possess a triple point. Helium, however, cannot
exist as a solid under its own vapor pressure and can only be solidified, even at temperatures

Ch. 13 Pg. 15
near 0 K, at pressures in excess of 25 atmospheres. At any lower pressure, helium remains liquid
to the lowest temperatures attainable.

13.7

Gibbs Phase Rule

In comparing the mutual equilibrium that prevails in three-phase states, two-phase states,
and single-phase states for a given pure substance, we make an interesting observation. Threephase states can occur oniy at a single intensive state. That is, only at a unique combination of
temperature and pressure will we find the solid, liquid, and vapor phases in equilibrium for a
given substance. On the other hand, two-phase states can occur at a variety of temperatures and
pressures, and we are free to arbitrarily specify either the temperature or the pressure. Of course,
once we have specified one of these properties, the other is automatically determined since there
is a unique relationship between pressure and temperature for two-phase states. Finally, we note
that singit-phase states can occur at any combination of pressure and temperature. There is no
restriction placed on the intensive properties of a single-phase state. Temperature and pressure
are independent properties for these states.
An alternate way of making this observation is to note from Figure 13.7 that three-phase
states are confined to a single point in the P-T plane, two-phase states can occur only along
certain lines in the P-T plane, but single-phase states can occur anywhere in the P-T plane. Note
from Figure 13.7 the two possible configurations of the intensive states of a pure substance. One
for the substance that contracts upon freezing, Figure 13.7(a), and the other for the substance that
expands upon freezing, Figure 13.7(b). The two differ in the sign of the slope of the line that
represents the locus of solid-liquid two-phase states. The significance of the term triple point
becomes immediately apparent from Figure 13.7.
J. Willard Gibbs generalized these observations of the number of independent intensive
properties in the form of an empirical expression which is now known as the Gibbs phase rule.
f=2+c
(13.5)
Heref is the number of thermodynamic degrees of freedom, that is, the number of intensive
properties which can be arbitrarily specified, c is the number of chemically independent
components, and (is the number of phases present. For a pure substance, c must be 1 since only
one component is present. Then Gibbs phase rule reduces to
(13.6)
Thus, if only one phase is present, (= 1 andf= 2. Then the pressure and temperature can be
fixed arbitrarily, and the system is said to be divariant. If there are two phases present,
( 2 and
f = 1. Then only the temperature or the pressure, but not both, can be fixed arbitrarily. Once one
of these properties is specified, the other is automatically determined in order to preserve the
equilibrium between the two phases. The system is then said to be monovariant. Finally, if three
phases are present, (= 3 andf 0. Thus, no intensive property can be arbitrarily fixed. The
intensive state is automatically specified by virtue of the equilibrium among the three phases.
The system is then said to be invariant. Note that the three phases involved need not be solid,
liquid, and vapor. There can be two or even three solid phases involved, and the Gibbs phase rule
will still be valid.

Ch. 13 Pg. 16

riiiaE

CfLthII

P
vapor

vipor

iipIc poii

lipft p:iri

ohdIiqLIidvIporsLar.cs

SI.))tdIkHJL1 VI.fl!

Q)

Figure 13.7 (a) Intensive States of the Pure Substance Model that Contracts upon Freezing
(b) Intensive States of the Pure Substance Model that Expands upon Freezing

13.8

Energy Interactions During Changes of Phase

Change of phase processes at constant pressure are important practical processes for the
pure substance. Since the two phases are in equilibrium with each other during such a change of
phase, it follows from our previous discussions in this chapter that if the pressure remains
constant, then the temperature must also remain constant. Under these circumstances, the
evaluation of the energy interactions becomes particularly simple. For example, consider the case
of a phase change from saturated liquid to saturated vapor due to a heat transfer process in which
the temperature and pressure of the pure substance are always constant. If the process is
reversible, the only work transfer (for a unit mass of the substance) is $Pdv but since the
,

pressure is constant,
(13.7)
(Wi_g)rev = mP(vg Vf)
Here the subscriptf refers to the saturated liquid and the subscript g refers to the saturated vapor.
The first law of thermodynamics requires
(13.8)
rn(u uf)
1 Wj_g
Q
When we substitute equation (13.7) for the work transfer, the required heat transfer for the
system is
= rn[(u+Pv)g (u+Pv)fl = m{hg h
(13.9)
]
1
(Qj_g)re
In equation (13.9) we have used the property enthalpy defined as
(13.10)
H= U+PV=.nh=m(u+Pv)
(Although the enthalpy has a special significance in the present case, we shall see later that it has
an even greater significance in the case of the open system.) If the system were initially all
saturated liquid and finally all saturated vapor, then
hf) = ,nh
(13.11)
1
_g )rev = m(hg
1
(Q

The quantity hjg is called the latent heat of vaporization and involves the same historic misnomer
as the specific heat. The term latent heat originated in caloric theory which attempted to describe
all thermal processes in terms of the simple concepts of stored heat. We now know these simple

Ch. 13 Pg. 17
concepts to be adequate only for pure thermal systems. The term latent heat was used in contrast
to the term sensible heat in an attempt to justify the absence of the temperature increase expected
in the common case. In spite of its name, the latent heat h
1 is generally useful for liquid-vapor
phase changes at constant pressure. For example, if a saturated liquid confined in a cylinder at
constant pressure is evaporated by an adiabatic, irreversible process such as stirring the fluid with
a paddle wheel, the work transfer to the fluid is given by the latent heat hg.
The heat transfer required for a reversible evaporation at constant temperature and
pressure may also be determined directly from the second law of thermodynamics.
(Qfg)

=mfTds

(13.12)

Since the temperature is constant in the present case, the integration of equation (13.12) is
straightforward. Thus,

1
(Q

)rev

nz T(Sg

s)

1
inTs

(13.13)

When we equate this result to the heat transfer computed with the first law, equation (13.11), we
obtain the important relation
9 =hfg
Tsf
(13.14)
which must be satisfied by the specific properties of two phases in equilibrium.
Although we have calculated the heat transfer and work transfer for the case of a liquidvapor phase change, the analysis is also valid for solid-liquid and solid-vapor phase changes. In
each case, it is simply a matter of using the properties for the appropriate saturated states.
13.9

Phase Equilibrium

The results of equation (13.14) can be used to establish an additional requirement for
equilibrium between two phases in the pure substance model. Equation (13.14) can be rewritten
in the form
h,_Tsg =hfTsf
(13.15)
Making use of the definition of the Gibbs free energy equation (7.88), we can write equation
(13.15) in the form
(13.16)
gg = gf
Equation (13.16) is a general result and holds for any two phases of a pure substance in
equilibrium. Thus for such a system, the specific Gibbs free energy is the same for both phases.
This result is consistent with the second law limit on the work transfer (equation (7.89)) for the
evaporation of a saturated liquid at constant temperature and pressure since the reversible work
transfer other than $Pdv is zero.
We have now developed an additional requirement for thermodynamic equilibrium of a
pure substance in a multiphase state. This requirement is that the specific Gibbs free energy be
uniform throughout the system if the system is to be at equilibrium with respect to mass passing
from one phase to another. Thus, the specific Gibbs free energy, h Ts, plays the same role with
respect to mass transfer between phases as the temperature plays with respect to heat transfer and
the pressure plays with respect to work transfer by means of mechanical motion. Accordingly,
equation (13.1) can be modified to allow for interactions involving mass transfer. For a pure
substance,
dU =TdsPdv+gdm
(13.17)
-

Ch. 13 Pg. 18
Here m is the mass of the system and g is the specific Gibbs free energy. For a closed system, the
mass is constant, and equation (13.17) reduces to equation (13.1). The open system is another
matter altogether since mass can be transferred across the open system boundary.
In more complex cases in which the system is made up of a number of different
substances and chemical reactions are possible, a property called the chemical potential must be
uniform throughout the system for equilibrium with respect to mass transfer between phases.
Thus, in the simple case of the pure substance the chemical potential reduces to the Gibbs free
energy.

13.10 Thermodynamic Surfaces

In the preceding section we have assumed that all the equilibrium properties of the pure
substance are known. Because of the complex thermodynamic behavior of the pure substance we
cannot evaluate these properties from simple algebraic constitutive relations of the type we have
used previously. Instead, we must rely upon the values of properties determined from
experimental measurements. We have already seen that it is possible to represent the
thermodynamic properties of the pure substance model in terms of curves plotted on an
appropriate set of coordinates. Although such a representation is often very convenient,
it suffers from two disadvantages. First, for clarity, the data must be presented as a family of
curves spaced at reasonable intervals while the actual physical data vary continuously.
Interpolation must be used to obtain data for engineering calculations from the two-dimensional
graphical representation. The accuracy of this method is at best limited. Second, the twodimensional graphical representation is sometimes difficult to interpret. This situation is
particularly true in the case of the pure substance that expands on freezing (cf Figure 13.6).
Thus, it is worthwhile to consider a representation that does not involve these disadvantages. We
recognize that according to the state principle, we can specify the state of a pure substance by
establishing the values of two independent properties. Any other property can then be related to
these two through the appropriate set of constitutive relations. These constitutive relations can be
reduced to a single expression for the desired property as a function of the two independent
properties. For a unit mass of the pure substance this single expression can be represented as a
surface in a three-dimensional coordinate space defined by the two independent properties and
the property of interest. Such a surface is called a thermodynamic surface, and for a unit mass of
a given pure substance, every equilibrium state of the substance must lie somewhere on the
surface.
The most common, and perhaps most useful, thermodynamic surface is the threedimensional representation of the P-v-T data for the pure substance. These three properties are
the easiest properties to measure. Figure 13.8 shows schematically typical P-v-T surfaces for two
classes of pure substances those that contract upon freezing and those that expand upon
freezing. In this representation the interrelation between temperature and pressure for two-phase
states becomes immediately apparent. Because of this interrelationship the loci of all two-phase
states are surfaces whose generators are normal to the pressure-temperature plane and parallel to
the volume axis. A single curved surface of this type is often called a ruled surface. There are
three such regions of two phases. All three of these ruled surfaces intersect at a particular value
of the pressure and temperature, the triple point. The locus of the intersection is actually a line
called the triple line and every three-phase state for a unit mass of the pure substance must lie
somewhere on this line. Although the three ruled surfaces have the same temperature and
pressure at their line of intersection, they each have a different slope. These slopes, however, do
not vary with the average specific volume of the three-phase state.

Ch. 13 Pg. 19

Figure 13.8(a) P-v-T Surface for a Pure Substance that Contracts upon Freezing
Figure reprinted from Lee and Sears, Thennodvnornics: An Jntmductory Text fir Engineering Students, 1963, AddisonWesley Publishing Company, Inc., page 38. figure 2-7. Reprinted with permission.

On the P--T surface the saturated states lie on the lines of intersection between the ruled
surfaces representing the two-phase states and the double curved surfaces representing the
single-phase states. In Figure 13.8 the relative magnitudes of the volume changes associated with
constant pressure phase changes are greatly exaggerated. The volume change for the constant
pressure liquid-solid phase change is extremely small (too small to show unless exaggerated)
relative to the volume change for either the vapor-liquid or vapor-solid phase change which are
both of the same order of magnitude.
Note that there are two distinct differences between the P-v-T surfaces shown in Figures
13.8 (a) and 13.8 (b). The first difference is the location of the liquid-solid two-phase surface
with respect to the location of the liquid-vapor two-phase surface. In Figure 13.8 (a) we see that
at the triple point, the volume change for the vapor-liquid phase change is smaller than the
volume change for the vapor-solid phase change. Thus, at this pressure the specific volume of the
solid is smaller than the specific volume of the liquid, and the substance contracts upon freezing.
On the other hand, in Figure 13.8 (b) we note that at the triple point the volume change for the
vapor-liquid phase change is greater than the volume change for the vapor-solid phase change.
Hence, at this pressure the specific volume of the solid is greater than the specific volume of the
liquid, and the substance expands upon freezing. This difference between Figures 13.8 (a) and
13.8 (b) becomes even more obvious when we project the P-v-T surface onto the already familiar
P-v plane as in Figures 13.5 and 13.6.

Ch. 13 Pg. 20

Figure 13.8(b) P-v-T surface for a substance that expands upon freezing
Figure reprinted from Lee and Sears. Thennodynomics: An Introductory Text for Engineering Students, 1963. AddisonWesley Publishing Company. Inc., page 39, figure 2-8. Reprinted with permission.

The second difference between Figures 13.8 (a) and 13.8 (b) is in the sign of the slope of
the ruled surface representing the liquid-solid two-phase states. In Figure 13.8 (a) it is clear that
an increase in pressure results in an increase in the freezing point. This situation is also typical of
the liquid-vapor and solid-vapor two-phase states for which an increase in pressure causes an
increase in the saturation temperature. For a substance that expands upon freezing, the liquidsolid two-phase states exhibit the anomalous behavior that an increase in pressure results in a
decrease in the freezing point, a distinct contrast to other two-phase states. The projection of the
P-v-T surface onto the P-Tplane as in Figure 13.7 reveals this difference in even more striking
fashion.
By now it is obvious that the P-v-T surface for a pure substance provides a great deal of
information about the equilibrium thermodynamic behavior of the substance. However, we must
remember that the actual P-v-T surface of a given pure substance may look radically different
from the two schematic surfaces that we have just considered. For example, one of the most
common of all pure substances, water, exhibits unusual behavior of its P-v-T surface at high
pressures. When water freezes at pressures that are within our normal range of experience (e.g.
several atmospheres), it expands. Thus the solid form, ice, will float on the surface of the liquid.
At extremely high pressures (thousands of atmospheres), the solid form becomes more dense
than the liquid and hence will not float. This type of behavior together with the seven different
solid phases of ice is shown in Figure 13.9. The important point to remember is that regardless
of the anomalies that might occur, every equilibrium state of a unit mass of a pure substance must
lie somewhere on the P-v-T surface.

Ch. 13 Pg. 21

Figure 8.9 P-v-T Surface of Water at High Pressure

Figure reprinted from Lee and Sears. Thermodynamics: An Introductory Text for Engineering Students.
1963, AddisonWesley Publishing Company, Inc., page 42, figure 2-11

The P--T surface is just one example of the many possible thermodynamic surfaces that
we can construct. Each one serves some special purpose; however, these surfaces are awkward to
use. For this reason, we usually rely on projections of these surfaces onto one of the coordinate
planes for a graphical representation of the states of the pure substance model. In spite of their
limitations, these projections are quite often useful because the liquid-vapor two-phase states are
of most interest.
13.11 Tabulation of the Thermodynamic Properties of the Pure Substance Model
In the previous section we saw that all possible thermodynamic states of a pure substance
can be represented by a surface in a three-dimensional coordinate space. In principle, a collection
of such surfaces could be used to record all of the thermodynamic properties; however, this is
certainly not a very practical method. A more convenient record of the properties is the
projections of these surfaces onto appropriate two-dimensional planes such as the P-v plane (cf
Figure 13.3) or the T-s plane (cf Figure 13.10). These two projections are useful since the
interactions for quasi-static processes are easily depicted on these planes. On the P-v plane, the
quasi-static work transfers are fPdv while on the T-s plane reversible heat transfers are fTds
The data plotted on these planes are determined by experimental measurement of the properties
of interest. Using elaborate curve-fitting and smoothing routines, we can establish the values of
the properties for any particular state. These are the values that are then plotted on the two
dimensional planes such as Figure 13.10.

Ch. 13 Pg. 22
su bar i:>

/
/
/
/

:ril

Ey:)t:aI isHhr

T
C

Ru-p1a

;;

[Ii)

r I

J?

j i: i ij

I pie pch: Iir

1.;I

I:c: + :j:.J ILl

Figure 13.10 Temperature-entropy Diagram of the Pure Substance Model

Since any property diagram of any reasonable size is limited in accuracy to a few percent,
tables of the values of the thermodynamic properties are more useful for accurate engineering
calculations. These tables of values are established by employing the empirical curve-fits
described above. For pure substance models that find wide-spread use in the design and analysis
of thermal-fluid systems, great care is taken to insure that the curve-fits are mathematically and
thermodynamically robust, not only in the fits themselves but also in their first and second
derivatives. The mathematical formalisms based upon the laws of thermodynamics and presented
in detail in Chapter 14 are used extensively for this purpose.
In particular, the pure substance model for H
0 has been the subject of considerable
2
attention in this regard since it is so widely used in energy conversion systems throughout the
world An international commission with representatives from many nations has reviewed the
considerable amounts of data that have been generated by investigators in these many nations. By
international agreement, particular forms for the curve fits have been established. These closed
form expressions are then used to generate the data presented in tabular form. For other pure
substance models, a somewhat lesser effort has been devoted to the experimental and
mathematical formulation of the relevant data. These efforts are often overseen by professional
societies such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and the American
Society of Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), or by national commissions
such as the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the United States. Similar
efforts are pursued in other nations as well. In recent years, the results of these diverse studies
have often been made available in the form of software that can be used on personal computers
or is available on the World Wide Web. (For example, see the Chemistry WebBook maintained
.

Ch. 13 Pg. 23
by NIST at the website http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/.) In the present work, we shall make
use of the tabular form of the data generated by these software packages, but the approach
described herein can be applied to data generated by any of the aforementioned methods.
Typically, these tables are a listing of the values of the specific volume, specific entropy,
specific enthalpy, and specific internal energy at convenient intervals of temperature and
pressure. The listing is usually in the form of a matrix with the rows and columns corresponding
to either a fixed temperature or a fixed pressure. Table 13.1 is an example extracted from the
tabulated properties of H
0 given in Appendix A. To determine the values of the specific
2
properties for a known state, we simply select the appropriate column corresponding to the
pressure of the system and search down this column until we reach the appropriate row
corresponding to the temperature of the system. The values of it, v, s, and h can be read directly
from the entry in the tables. To calculate the total value of these properties we simply multiply
the specific value by the mass of the system. The intervals of temperature and pressure used in
full and complete tables are selected to permit linear interpolation with reasonable accuracy.
Abstracted tables for several pure substances are given in Appendix A.
This scheme of tabulation is sufficient for those states in which only one phase of the
pure substance is present. However, for two-phase states the situation is a bit more complicated
since the pressure and temperature are no longer independent of one another. Fortunately, each
of
the two phases involved is in a single-phase saturated state so that for a given temperature or
pressure it is possible to tabulate the specific properties for each of the two coexistent phases.
A
table of thermodynamic properties of these saturated states is called a saturation table. Either the
temperature or the pressure is selected as the independent property and is indexed at convenient
intervals to permit linear interpolation. The value of the other intensive property (pressure or
temperature) is usually included in the list of tabulated properties. Table 13.2 is an example,
excerpted from Appendix A, of a saturation table for equilibrium liquid-vapor two-phase states
of H
0 with the temperature as the independent property. Abstracted tables for the saturated
2
states for several pure substances are given in Appendix A.
Table 13.1 also lists the two-phase states for the pressure values listed at the top of the
table. The saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure is listed in parentheses after the
pressure. The values of the specific properties of saturated liquid (subscriptf states) at each
pressure are in row one of the table (indicated by Sat liq in the left column). The values for
saturated vapor (subscript g states) are given in row three (indicated by Sat yap). The
difference between saturated vapor properties and saturated liquid properties (subscriptfg) are
given in row two (indicated by Evap). At each pressure the states above the horizontal line
are compressed liquid states and the states below are superheated vapor states.

1S

1;,:.)

4:1

401

24.1

4.)

,c,

flJ
$.L2

Z7I

;!:I?4
:41

f$)

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1.L;,
-

t11I

i)
1234)

1.:.81

.n

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.i4q.I
1134

1i4

234)
114i

4.I8

434)
iT1

1443.

t4

44 4

I
1(14 4

468)

11

48

11411

1133)

1i,-i)

.42131.
123I

38P

8111

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Ch. 13 Pg. 24

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Ch. 13 Pg. 25

Ch. 13 Pg. 26
We can now use these tabulated specific properties of the two saturated phases to
evaluate the extensive properties of a two-phase state simply by computing the values of these
extensive properties for the separate phases and then summing the values for all the phases
present. Since the state of each phase is saturated, the value of an extensive property for a given
phase is obtained by multiplying the tabulated value of the specific property for the saturated
state of the phase by the mass of the phase. The volume for a two-phase state is the sum of the
volume of the liquid phase, l- rnfvf, and the volume of the vapor phase, V
9 = m,v
, as in
9
equations (13.18) and (13.19).
8
V=Vf+V
(13.18)
or
V

flif Vf

flZg

9
v

(13.19)

In equation (13.19) the subscriptf denotes the saturated liquid phase and the subscript g the
saturated vapor phase. The relations for the other extensive properties are of the same form.
9
U = flifUf +1flU
(13.20)
S

rnfSf +flgSg

(13.21)

+mh

(13.22)

H =flifhf

Equations (13.19) through (13.22) show that the extensive properties of a system in a two-phase
state depend upon the relative amounts of the two phases. Thus, a system in a two-phase state
can have as one of its independent properties a property that expresses the relative mass in the
two phases. For historical reasons, this property is called the quality, denoted by the symbol x,
and is defined for liquid-vapor two-phase states as the fraction of the mass in the vapor phase.
Thus,
rn g
rn
x=
(13.23)
mf + rng
rn
The quality is often expressed in percent. As an alternate description of a liquid-vapor two-phase
state, we often employ the property called the moisture content, denoted by the symbol y, which
is defined as the fraction of the mass in the liquid phase. Then
mf
rn
=1_
(13.24)
rnf + rng
m
For two-phase states that are nearly all saturated liquid, the moisture content is more convenient
than the quality in characterizing the state. Conversely, for two-phase states that are nearly all
saturated vapor, the quality is more convenient than the moisture content. From equations (13.23)
and (13.24) it follows that
x+y=1
(13.25)
Thus, when a system enters the two-phase region of the P-v-T surface, we lose either the
temperature or the pressure as an independent property, but we gain the quality or the moisture
content as an independent property. Then, in accordance with the state principle, the two
independent properties necessary to specify the state of the pure substance in the two-phase
region, could be (T, x) or (F, x) or (T, y) or (P, y).
The average value for a specific property of a two-phase state is defined as the
corresponding total extensive property divided by the total mass of the system. For example, the
average specific volume of a two-phase state is
in

(13.26)

Ch. 13 Pg. 27
It must be remembered that this is not a true specific property since a random sample from the
two-phase state might contain only a single phase, and therefore will not have this volume per
unit mass. The value presented in equation (13.26) is the value averaged over all the mass in the
system. Substituting equation (13.19) into equation (13.26), we obtain
v=

m.v.+in v

(13.27)

mf + ing

and
mg
mf +m

vg

(13.28)

1 +m
in

Substituting equations (13.23) and (13.24) into equation (13.28), we obtain

1

YVj +xvg

(13.29)

or
V=(l_X)Vf+XVg

(13.30)

Equation (13.30) can be rearranged to give

V=Vf+X(Vg_Vf)

(13.31)

V=Vf+XVfg

(13.32)

or
Here v is a symbol representing the difference in the specific volume for the saturated liquid and
vapor phases, v = Vg Vg This specific volume difference is a property fixed by the saturation
temperature or pressure and is often tabulated for convenience in calculation. In a similar fashion,
the average values of the other specific properties can be calculated.
11 U. +Xttjg
(13.33)

1 +xh
h=h

(13.34)

S=Sf+XSfg

(13.35)

In many practical situations it is necessary to compute the properties of a two-phase state

from a knowledge of the temperature or pressure and the value of an extensive property and the
mass of the system. We begin the calculation by first dividing the extensive property by the mass,
thereby converting the extensive property into an average specific property. We next establish
that the system is indeed in a two-phase state. This information is obtained by recalling that the
specification of the temperature or the pressure immediately fixes all saturated specific properties
of the two phases. Then, if the average specific property that we have just calculated has a value
between the two tabulated saturation values for that property at the given temperature or
pressure, the system is in a two-phase state. However, if the value of the specific property had
been less than the value of that specific property for the saturated liquid state at the system
temperature or pressure, the system would have been in a compressed liquid state. Conversely, if
the value of the specific property had been greater than the value of that specific property for the
saturated vapor state, the system would have been in a superheated vapor state.
Once we have established the fact that the system is in a two-phase state, we next
compute the quality of the two-phase state by substitution of the known specific property into the
appropriate equation of equations (13.32) through (13.35). The value for the quality together with
the tabulated values for the saturated properties then permits us to evaluate all other average
specific properties for the two-phase state. These specific properties can then be converted into
extensive properties simply by multiplying by the mass.

Ch. 13 Pg. 28

Example 13E.1: A system with a total volume of V= 3 m

3 contains a mass of m = 2kg
of H
0 at a pressure of P = 7 x l0 N1m
2
. What is the entropy of this fluid?
2
Solution: Following the procedure described above, we first calculate the average
specific volume.
V 3
3m
v==
=1.5m/kg
m 2kg
Entering the table of properties of H
0 at a pressure of P = 7 x i0 N1m
2
, we find at the top of the
2
column for this pressure the specific volume of saturated liquid and of saturated vapor.
= I .0360E 3 mi/kg
and
= 2.365 m
/kg
3
Since 1.0360E3 < 1.5 <2.365, the system is in a two-phase state. We now compute the quality.
From equation (13.32)
VVt = vv
1 = 1.5 m
/kg1.0360 x i0 m
3
/kg
3
=0634
vg v
2.365 m
/kg1.0360 x i0 m
3
/kg
3
Then according to equation (13.35) the specific entropy becomes
1 +S =1.1919 kJ/kgK+(0.634)(6.2878 kJ!kgK)
SS
s=l.1919kJ/kgK+3.9865kJ/kgK=5.l784kJ/kgK
The total entropy of the 2
H is then
0
S = ms (2 kg)(5.1784 kJ/kg K)

10.3568 kJ/kg

13.12 The Clapeyron Relation

In Sections 13.3 and 13.5, we showed that the temperature and pressure of a two-phase
equilibrium state are interrelated in a way established by equation (13.16). This equation requires
that the value of the specific Gibbs free energy for the two phases be identical. Thus, gj is
identically zero and the average specific Gibbs free energy for the two phases taken together is
equal to the value given in equation (13.15). This value is independent of the relative amounts of
the two phases present and does not depend upon the quality, x (or the moisture content, y), of the
two-phase system.
If the temperature T of this two-phase system is now changed by an infinitesimal amount
dT to a new value T + dT, the pressure P will also change an infinitesimal amount dP to P + dP
in order to preserve the equilibrium between the two phases. Since the two phases remain in
equilibrium, this change of state follows the locus of saturated states, also known as the vapor
pressure curve or the saturation curve. These infinitesimal changes in the intensive properties are
related by the expression
dT }cat

dP

(13.36)

Here (dP/dT is the slope of the vapor pressure curve.

This infinitesimal change in the intensive state of the two-phase system causes the
specific Gibbs free energy to change from g to g + dg. Since the specific Gibbs free energy is
given by
g=u+PvTs
(13.37)
the infinitesimal change in the Gibbs free energy becomes
dg =du+Pdv+vdpTdssdT
(13.38)

Ch. 13 Pg. 29
Substituting equation (13.4) into equation (13.38), we obtain
dg Tds Pd + Pdv + vdPTds sdT = dP sdT
Equation (13.39) can be rewritten with the aid of equation (13.36), viz.

dg =[_s+vjJ]dT

(13.39)

(13.40)

Since the states involved are two-phase states, we can make use of equations (13.32) and (13.35)
and write equation (13.40) in the form
dg=

dT

_Sf_XSfg+(Vf+XVfg)

(13.41)

sat]

or

11

(dP
dg=s +v i +xIs g +v (dP
idT
(13.42)
g i
dTJ
51

dT)satjJ
Since the Gibbs free energy for a two-phase equilibrium state must be independent of the quality,
x, the coefficient of the quality in equation (13.42) must vanish. Then

=0
dT sat
Solving equation (13.43) for the slope of the vapor pressure curve, we obtain
Sfg +Vfg

!tfl
dT)sat

=--

(13.43)

(13.44)

Vfg

We can substitute equation (13.14) into equation (13.44) and obtain an alternate expression for
the slope of the vapor pressure curve, viz.

-1

\dT)sat

=-

TVfg

(13.45)

Both equations (13.44) and (13.45) are known as the Clapeyron relation in honor of Emile
Clapeyron (1799 1864), a French mining engineer who was one of the early designers of steam
locomotives. Clapeyron was the first thermodynamicist to develop Sadi Carnots ideas in
mathematical form. Clapeyrons work laid the foundation for the formalization of the first and
second laws of thermodynamics.
It is to be noted that although we have derived this expression for liquid-vapor two-phase
equilibrium states, this result is a general one and holds for any two phases in equilibrium. One
useful application of the Clapeyron relation is to determine the slope of the line representing the
locus of two-phase equilibrium states in the pressure-temperature plane (cf Figure 13.7). Notice
that this slope is expressed in terms of the difference in the saturation properties for the two
phases of the particular intensive state. Actually, a particular combination of temperature and
pressure represents an infinite number of equilibrium two-phase states which differ in the relative
amounts of the two phases present. As a consequence, each of these two-phase states will be
represented by the same point with the same slope on the pressure-temperature plane. Thus, any
thermodynamic surface that uses the pressure, temperature, and some
specific extensive property as coordinates (for example, the P-v-T surface) will be a surface of
single curvature in the two-phase region as described in Section 13.10.
Equation (13.44) or (13.45) also illustrates the difference between Figures 13.7 (a) and
13.7 (b). For a pure substance that contracts upon freezing, the numerator and the denominator

Ch. 13 Pg. 30
on the right side of equation (13.45) have the same sign. This indicates that the slope of the locus
of solid-liquid states is positive as shown in Figure 13.7 (a). Comparatively, for a pure substance
that expands upon freezing, the numerator and denominator on the right side are of opposite sign
so that the slope of the locus of solid-liquid states is negative as in Figure 13.7 (b). In this sense
the Clapeyron relation is a good example of the manner in which the equilibrium between phases
restricts the behavior of the intensive state in order to preserve this equilibrium.
The equation of the vapor pressure curve can be obtained by integrating either equation
(13.44) or (13.45). For example, the difference in saturation pressure between any two-phase
equilibrium states 1 and 2 at different temperatures T
1 and T
7 is given by
2h dT
T
I
(13.46)
I h-
v T
iT
Because the specific enthalpy and specific volume of saturated states depend upon the
temperature, the integral in equation (13.46) is complicated and usually must be evaluated
numerically from curve fits to the experimental data.
Rudolf Clausius (1822 1888), a German theoretical physicist who debunked the caloric
theory of heat used by his predecessors and thereby became the first investigator to formalize the
first and second laws of thermodynamics without resorting to that artifice, proposed a
simplification of the Clapeyron relation that has become known as the Clausius-Ciapeyron
relation. Clausius argued that in the case of liquid-vapor equilibrium states and also solid-vapor
equilibrium states, the denser phase has a specific volume that is typically several orders of
magnitude smaller than the specific volume of the less dense phase (the vapor). Therefore, the
specific volume of this phase can be neglected in comparison with that of the vapor phase i.e., v
1
<<Vg and v, << Vg. Then the Clapeyron relation becomes

fl

dT}sat

(13.47)

TVg

Clausius then argued that (1) the latent heat can be modeled as constant (This is very nearly true
for the solid-vapor latent heat, but only approximately true for the liquid-vapor latent heat.) and
(2) the vapor phase can be modeled as an ideal gas (Again, this is very nearly true for the vapor
in equilibrium with the solid because of the very low pressures involved, but only approximately
true for the vapor in equilibrium with the liquid because of the significantly higher pressures.).
Then equation (13.47) can be written
h.P
(dP
(13.48)
2
dT,)sat RT
Then in the context of these applications, we can now separate variables and integrate equation
(13.48) in closed form, viz.

(13.49)

2
RT

or
P2dP_hjg

F)

11T

1
J

RT,

2
T

(13.50)

Ch. 13 Pg. 31
For the purpose of curve-fitting experimental data for the vapor pressure curve, equation (13.50)
is often written in the form
lnP=A
(13.51)
T
where A and B are constants determined by the best fit to the experimental data. Both equations
(13.50) and (13.51) are referred to as the Clausius-Clapeyron relation. Clearly, this relation is
only approximately true with the error dependent upon the details of the application.
There is one other useful application of the Clapeyron relation. Since pressure,
temperature, and specific volume are readily measured, equation (13.46) can be used to obtain
the latent heat from such measurements. In those cases for which the latent heat is also measured,
the Clapeyron relation provides a useful check on the consistency of the data.

13.12 Metastable States

All of the equilibrium properties of the pure substance model that we have been
discussing thus far are in fact the properties of stable equilibrium states. A system can change
from one stable equilibrium state to another only if there is a corresponding, finite, permanent
change of state of the environment of the system. Metastable equilibrium states are states of
a
system that can be changed at a finite rate to some other stable equilibrium state by means of a
finite, but temporary, change of state of the environment in excess of a certain minimum value.
In other words, when a system is in a metastable equilibrium state, a fluctuation of sufficient
magnitude in the state of the environment can cause the system to experience a change of state
at
a finite rate. On the other hand, had the initial state of the system been a stable equilibrium state,
no finite change of state could have occurred.
For example, when very clean deaerated water is heated at constant pressure in a new
glass container without blemishes, the water can be heated significantly above the boiling point
corresponding to the pressure without the appearance of any bubbles of the vapor phase. This
liquid is termed a superheated liquid and is in a metastable state because the introduction of a
small quantity of the vapor phase will cause the rapid (explosive) change to a stable two-phase
state consisting of a liquid phase and a vapor phase in mutual equilibrium. The superheated
liquid is maintained in the metastable state by the action of surface tension which is ignored in
considerations of the pure substance. The extra energy needed to form the liquid surface of the
first vapor bubble prevents bubble formation. As a result of metastability of the liquid-vapor
phase change, a boiling liquid will normally be at a temperature somewhat higher than the
saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure.
Metastable states are also associated with the freezing of a liquid. A clean liquid may be
supercooled considerably below the freezing point without the formation of any solid phase. Here
again the system is maintained in the metastable state by the surface energy required to form the
first small crystal of solid. The introduction of a small amount of solid will produce a rapid
solidification in a supercooled liquid. A metastable state associated with a phase change is a
single-phase state where at stable equilibrium two phases are present. The energy associated with
the formation of the first particle of the second phase is not available so the substance remains in
the single phase. Quite often the necessary energy is provided by an external perturbation such
as
a vibration, and the substance violently reverts to the stable two-phase state.
In some situations metastable states can be used to advantage. In fact many heat treating
and other metallurgical processes involve freezing the material in a metastable state by cooling

Ch. 13 Pg. 32
the substance at a rate sufficient to prevent the formation of the stable equilibrium state. Another
example of the useful exploitation of metastable states is the bubble chamber used to detect the
presence of high energy nuclear and subnuclear particles. The particles pass through a liquid,
usually liquid hydrogen, which has been intentionally placed in a metastable superheated liquid
state. The interaction between the particles and the liquid releases sufficient energy to produce a
series of bubbles along the path of the particles.
On the other hand, metastable states can sometimes be troublesome. For example, the
steam (vapor) flowing at high speed through the nozzles and blades of a steam turbine may be
supercooled well below the saturation temperature corresponding to the local pressure. Suddenly,
the stream of vapor is perturbed sufficiently to produce a liquid nucleus, and a rapid
condensation process ensues, perhaps resulting in mechanical damage to the turbine blades.

13.13 Applications of the Pure Substance Model

In the present chapter we have described the thermodynamic properties of the pure
substance model from a phenomenological point of view. This model is very general for a simple
system without chemical reactions. Because of this general nature, the pure substance model is
useful in a very broad range of physical situations and thus occupies a prominent position in
thermal-fluids engineering and the science of thermodynamics, in general. The general nature of
the model requires more care in the application of the first and second laws of thermodynamics
than was necessary for the ideal gas model. The possibility of a phase change in the pure
substance model necessitates the evaluation of properties from tables or charts or software. As
we saw in Section 13.9, the proper use of these calculational aids requires that we first establish
the number and nature of the phases present in a given state. Having done this, we can then apply
the first and second laws of thermodynamics by using the appropriate set of data to evaluate the
relevant properties.
The method of analysis for a change of state in the pure substance model are best
illustrated by the following numerical examples.
Example 13E.2: A closed, rigid container with an internal volume of V = 1 m
3 contains a
mass m = 2kg of H
0 at a pressure of P
2
1 = 7 x io N/m
. The H
2
0 experiences a positive,
2
reversible heat transfer changing its state until the final pressure is P
2 = 3 x iO N/rn
.
2
(a) What are the initial and final temperatures, T
1 and T
, of the H
2
0?
2
(b) What are the values of the quality, x
1 and x
of
, the H
2
0 in the initial and final states?
2
(c) What is the work transfer, ,
12 experienced by the H
W
0 during the change of state?
2
(d) What is the heat transfer, ,
0 during the change of state?
2
12 experienced by the H
Q
Solution: (a) From the table of the properties of H
0 at pressure of P
2
1 = 7 x i0
4 N/rn
, we
2
have
Vf = 1.0359 x io m
/kg and vg = 2.3648 m
3
/kg
3
The specific volume of the H
0 in the container is
2
1 m
3
=0.5 m
/kg
3
m 2kg
Since at this pressure Vf < V
0 in the initial state is a two-phase mixture of vapor and
2
1 < Vg the H
liquid. Therefore, the temperature of the H
O in this state is the saturation temperature at the
2
pressure P
1 = 7 x i0
4 N/rn
. From the top of the pressure column in the table, this temperature is
2
1 = 89.93 C (the number in parentheses after the pressure). For the final state with an absolute
T
,

Ch. 13 Pg. 33
3
3
pressure of P
7 = 3 x 10 5 N/rn-,7 the table gives v
= 1.0732 x 10 3 rn/kg
1
and Vg 0.6058 rn/kg.
Since the tank is closed, the total mass of H
0 (liquid and vapor) does not change. Also, since the
2
tank is rigid, its volume does not change. Thus, v, = 0.5 m
lkg. Again, since v < V) < v at this
3
new pressure, the final state is a two-phase state with a temperature equal to the saturation
temperature at P
2 = 3 x iO N/m
. From the table, T
2
2 = 133.52 C. The path of the process would
appear as shown in the P-v and T-s diagrams in Figure 13E.2.

Figure 1 3E.2 P-v and T-s Diagrams of a Reversible Constant Volume Process in the Two-phase
Region of the Pure Substance Model
(b) The quality in both the initial and the final state is determined from the average
specific volume which is 0.5 m
/kg for both states. Then from equation (13.31)
3
vvf
vg

vf

The value for the initial state is

/0.
3
/
kg0
k
5m
.00l03
g
6m
02111
2.365 m
/kg0.00l036 m
3
/kg
3

For the final state

/0.
3
/
kg0
k
5m
.00107
g
32m
=0 8250
0.6058 m
/kg0.0010732 m
3
/kg
3
(c) Since we are modeling the H
0 as a pure substance, the only possible work transfer in this
7
reversible case is associated with the displacement of the boundary of the system. Since the
container is rigid and since the two phases fill the container, there is no work transfer for this
reversible process. That is,
2

$Pdv

(d) From the first law of thermodynamics,

=

which in this case reduces to

Q
1
2
since W
2

2
U

1
U

0. From equation (13.33),

U

Uf + Ufg

Then for the initial state, the table gives u

1 = 376.68 kJ/kg and
= 376.68 kJ/kg+(0.2l 1 l)(2l 17.2 kJ/kg)

2117.2 kJ/kg and

823.62 kJ/kg
=

Ch. 13 Pg. 34
For the final state, the table gives u
= 561.10 kJ/kg and Ufg = 1982.1 kJ/kg. Then
1
142 =56l.lOkJ/kg+(0.825)(1982.l kJ/kg)z= 2196.3 kJ/kg
Then the heat transfer for this reversible constant volume change of state is
= (2.0 kg)(2 196.3 kJ/kg823.62) = 2745.4 kJ
Although not an issue in this particular example, students are cautioned about the units used in
tabulations of thermodynamic properties. In the interest of conserving space in the tables, the
units for both energy and enthalpy are kJlkg, but the units that result from forming the product Pv
are J/kg if the units for P are N/rn
2 and the units for v are m
lkg. Thus, the units of the integral of
3
Pdv for the work transfer will be three orders of magnitude different from the order of magnitude
of the units for tabulated values of energy. This can be the source of considerable error when
working from tabulated properties unless care is exercised in carrying out the calculations.
Example 13E.3: A closed system contains m = 0.10 kg of H,O at a temperature of T
1=
. The H
2
180 C and at a pressure of P
1 = l0 N/rn
0 is expanded to a final pressure of P
2
2 = 2 x i0
2 by means of a process that can be modeled as adiabatic and reversible.
N/rn
(a) What is the temperature, T
, of the H
2
0 in the final state?
2
(b) What is the heat transfer, Q,, for the H
0 during the expansion process?
2
(c) What is the work transfer, ,
12 for the H
W
0 during the expansion process?
2
Solution: (a) Since the process connecting the end states is both reversible and adiabatic,
the second law of thermodynamics, equation (7.35), shows that the entropy of the steam is
constant during this process. From the table of the properties of H
0, the initial state is clearly a
2
superheated state with s
2 = = 7.7503 kJ/kg K. For the final state at P
2 = 2 x i0 N/rn
, the table
2
also shows that
0.8320 kJ/kg K, sg 7.9072 kJ/kg K, and s = 7.0752 kJ/kg K. Thus, since
2 <Sg at the pressure P
<S
, the final state must be a two-phase state. From
2
2 = 2 x l0 N/rn
equation (13.35)
S
2
5
1
7.7503 kJ/kg K0.8320 kJ/kg K
2
X
09778
7.0752 kJ/kg K
Sfg

Clearly the temperature in this final state is the saturation temperature at P

. From
2
2 = 2 x iO N/rn
the table, T
2 = 60.06 C. The path of the process would appear as shown in the P-v and T-s
diagrams in Figure 13E.3.

Figure 13E.3 P-v and T-s Diagrams for a Reversible Adiabatic Process
in the Pure Substance Model
(b) Since process the process is being modeled as adiabatic and reversible, there is no
heat transfer during the expansion.
2 =0
QI

Ch. 13 Pg. 35
(c) To determine the work transfer, we use the first law of thermodynamics.
(u U
)
1
=
or since the process is adiabatic,
=
2 U
(U
1 ) = in (u
2
)
From equation (13.33) and the data of the table, the specific internal energy of the final state is
= 251.40 kJ/kg + (0.9778)(2204.6 kJ/kg) = 2407.1 kJ/kg
For the specific internal energy of the initial state, the table gives
u, =2628.1 kJ/kg
Thus,
-2 =(0.lOkg)(2628.l kJ/kg2407.l kJ/kg)=22.l0kJ

Example 13E.4: A piston-cylinder apparatus is fitted with a frictionless piston capable of

maintaining a constant absolute pressure of P = i0
5 N/m
2 on a mass m = 0.1 kg of H,O. The H
0,
2
which is all saturated liquid in the initial state, is heated reversibly until all of the liquid is
converted to saturated vapor.
(a) What are the temperatures, T
1 and T
, of the H
2
0 in the initial and final states?
2
(b) What is the reversible heat transfer, ,
necessary
to achieve this change of state?
12
Q
(c) What is the reversible work transfer, W
12 associated with this change of state?
Solution: (a) Since the process involves a change of state from saturated liquid to
saturated vapor at constant pressure and since the pressure and temperature are directly related
for two-phase equilibrium states of a pure substance, the temperature must also remain constant
throughout the process. The temperature is the saturation temperature corresponding to the
pressure of the system, P = iO N/rn
. From the table of the properties of H
2
0, the saturation
2
temperature corresponding to this pressure is Tat = T
2 = 99.61 C. Thus the path of this process
would appear as shown in the P-v and T-s diagrams in Figure 13E.4.

7
I

Figure 1 3E.4 P-v and T-s Diagrams for a Reversible Constant Pressure Phase Change
in the Pure Substance Model
(b) Since the process from state 1 to state 2 is quasi-static and isothermal, we can
according to the second law of thermodynamics calculate the heat transfer for this process from
the relation

2
Q

2
=mT(s
)
s

Since state 1 is a saturated liquid state and state 2 is a saturated vapor state, the expression for the
heat transfer reduces to

Ch. 13 Pg. 36
=

mT(s

sf)

niTs

From the tabulated properties for the pure substance model of H

0 at P = i0 N/rn
2
,s
2
kJ/kg K. Then since T= 99.61 C + 273.15 K = 372.76 K
= (0.1 kg)(372.76 K)(6.0560 kJ/kg K)= 225.74 kJ

6.0560

Alternatively, we could have calculated the heat transfer from the first law of thermodynamics.
For this reversible constant pressure process the first law can be written
)=m(u u
1
v
)
1
2 mP(v 2
_
1
Q
or
=

m(u

1
u

)+ mP(v
2 v
) = m(h
1
2 h
)
1

Again since the end states are saturated states, this expression reduces to
12 =mh =(0.10 kg)(2257.4 kJ/kg)= 225.74 kJ
Q
(c) The work transfer for this reversible constant pressure process is
v
2
=mP(v
)
-2 1
Since the end states are saturated states,
=

From the table,

Vg

=
=

mP (vg

Vf)

mPvfg

1.6939 m
/kg, v
3
= 1.0432 x iO m
1
/kg, and
3

1.6929 rn
lkg. Then
3

(0.10 kg)(10
5 N/m
)(1.6929 ms/kg) = 1.6929 x l0 J
2

16.93 kJ

Note the units. Note also that the above results are in distinct contrast to what we would have
expected from an ideal gas. For the pure substance model, since two phases are present, the
temperature also remains constant even though we are only maintaining the pressure constant by
physical means. For the ideal gas model the constant temperature requires that the internal energy
be constant. Then according to the first law of thermodynamics, the work transfer and heat
transfer are equal. Clearly this is not the case in the present example for which the heat transfer is
a whole order of magnitude greater than the work transfer. Obviously the internal energy in the
present case is not constant. In fact the change in internal energy is equal to mu
_ul)=mufg =(0.lOkg)(2088.2kJ/kg)=208.82 kJ
2
m(u
Example 13E.5: Consider two separate systems A and B. System A consists of a rigid
vessel that contains mA = 1 kg of saturated liquid H
0 at a pressure of PAI = iO N/rn
2
. System B
2
consists of a similar rigid vessel that contains mB = 1 kg of saturated vapor H
O at the same
2
pressure of B1 = iO N/rn
. The contents of each vessel experience reversible heat transfer until
2
the pressure reaches A2 = B2 4 x iO N/rn
2 in each case.
(a) What is the volume of each vessel?
(b) On a single set of axes representing P, the pressure of the H
0, on the vertical axis
2
and v, the specific volume of the H
0, on the horizontal axis, sketch the locus of states that each
2
system passes through during the quasi-static heat transfer process. Be sure to include the locus
of saturated states.
(c) What are the temperatures, TA
0 in each vessel, respectively, at the
2
2 and TB
, of the H
2
conclusion of the heat transfer process? Why is TA
different
from TB
2
?
2
(d) Calculate the heat transfers, (Q12)A and (Q12)B experienced by the two systems,
respectively. Why is (Q
)B?
12
)A different from (Q
12
Solution:(a) Since system A is a saturated liquid, its volume is
3 m
/kg)=l.0432 x l0 m
3
3
VA
flAVA =(l kg)(1.0432 x i0
Since system B is a saturated vapor, its volume is

Ch. 13 Pg. 37
VB

=JflBVB

=(l kg)(l.6939 3
/m
kg)=1.6939 m
3

(b)
Critical state
Sat. liquid
Sat. vapor
P

2B
Two Phase States
lA

(c) To determine the temperature in the final state in each case, we make use of the fact that the
volume does not change in either case. Then, we have in each case two independent properties, P
and V, in the final state. Then the final temperature can be determined from the tabulated
properties, viz.
= 4 x iO N/rn
, v,
2
47 = VAI = 1.0432 x io m
!kg: TA
3
2 = 100 C
, VB
2
=
1.6939
2 = 4 x 10 N/rn
PB
/
3
m
kg:
2 = VBI
7 = 1195.2 C
TB
The two temperatures are different because system A is a liquid which is very weakly coupled so
its temperature changes only a modest amount for a given change in pressure, but system B is a
vapor which is very strongly coupled which results in a large temperature change for a given
pressure change.
(d) To determine the heat transfer, it is necessary to apply the first law in each case. Since the
vessels are rigid, there is no work transfer. Then the first law for these closed systems reduces to
2 UAI = mA(uA
2
uAl) = (1 kg)(41 8.97 kJ/kg 417.40 kJ/kg) = 1.57 kJ
2 )A UA
_
1
(Q

2)
(Q-

2
U

= B (11B2

UBI) =

(1 kg)(4456.8 kJ/kg 2505.6 kJ/kg)

1951.2 kJ

Once again the coupling comes into play producing a huge difference between these two results.
Example 13E.6: Cryogens, low-temperature liquefied gases, are stored in vessels known
as Dewars. A Dewar storage vessel consists of a double-walled container with the space between
the walls evacuated and filled with some low-density solid material designed to reduce the
thermal radiation from the high temperature outer wall to the low temperature inner wall. In a
particular design, a Dewar for storing liquid N
7 has a volume of V= 160 liters with a residual
heat leak of Q = 1.67W. Because of the residual heat leak, N
2 vapor must be continually vented
to the atmosphere through a vent valve in order to maintain the internal pressure at lx 10 N/rn
.
2
As an added safety feature, the Dewar is also fitted with a relief valve that blows when the
internal pressure reaches a dangerously high level.
In a particular incident, a Dewar initially contains V, = 140 liters of liquid N
2 in
equilibrium with Vg
1 20 liters of vapor at a pressure of P
1 = 1 x l0 N/rn
. The vent valve
2
becomes blocked causing the internal pressure of the Dewar to rise to a value of P
2 = 5 x l0
. At this pressure, the relief valve blows and releases N
2
N/rn
7 very rapidly until the internal
pressure falls to P
3 lx 10 N/rn
.
2

Ch. 13 Pg. 38
(a) How long did it take before the relief valve blew in this incident?
(b) We are interested in determining the amount of N
2 that remained in the Dewar after
the relief valve finished venting N
2 to the atmosphere. Formulate an appropriate model for the
process experienced by this N
7 during the blow down process, and use this model to estimate
the amount of N
remained
2 that
in the Dewar by the time the pressure fell to P
3 = 1 x i0 N1m
.
2
Specify the state of the N
.
7
Solution: (a) The process of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen container occurs while the
nitrogen is held at constant volume. Then from the first law for the nitrogen as a system, we have
2 u
) = QL\t
1
= m (u

where the Q is the heat leak into the Dewar. It is necessary for us to first determine the mass of
nitrogen in the Dewar in order to evaluate the necessary properties.
=mfvf
3
Vf =0.140m
0.140 m
3
=113.269kg
1.236 x lO m
/kg
3

1
Vg
m

3
0.020 m

mg

1
vg

3
0.020 m
=0.091kg
0.2195 m
/kg
3

=113.269kg+0.091 kg=113.36kg
x

in
=

0091 kc
113.36kg

+X
11
V
1

fI

8.038 x i0
+x
1 (Vg
1

)
1
Vf

/kg+(8.038 x 10)(0.2l95 m
3
v =1.236 x i0 m
/kg1.236 x 10 m
3
lkg)
3
3 m
/kg
3
1 =1.411 x i0
v
U

1
U +Xj(Ug

)
1
Uf

u =121.7 kJ/kg+(8.038 x 10)(177.l kJlkg)=121.558 kJ/kg

For the state at the end of the constant volume heat transfer process, we have
2
V
= V
2

u.

, =
1
V

1
v
+

.
1
u
2
x

1
V

Vjg
2
+X

1.411 x i0 3
/m
kgl.381 x io 3
m
/
kg
=6.459 x i0
/kg
3
0.04712m

86.76 kJ/kg +(6.459 x 10)(l49.9 kJ/kg)

86.857 kJ/kg

Q =(1 13.36 kg)[86.857 kJ/kg(121.558 kJ/kg)]= 3.934 x 106 J

106 j
= Q = 3.934 x
= 2.355 x 106 sec = 654.304 hr
1.67 J/sec
Q
(b) To estimate the amount of nitrogen that remains in the Dewar after the explosion, we
consider the control volume shown in Figure 13E.6. We model the control volume as adiabatic in
light of the rapid nature of the process and the considerable insulation on the outside of the
Dewar. If we further model the state of the fluid inside the Dewar as one of uniform state, this is
equivalent to modeling the process experienced by the nitrogen inside the Dewar as a reversible

Ch. 13 Pg. 39
one since the fluid passes through a series of equilibrium states. Since the two-phase nitrogen
that remains in the Dewar experiences a reversible, adiabatic process, its entropy will be
unchanged throughout the process.
The rationale for this model is that the nitrogen escaping from the Dewar provides an
inertial resistance to the expanding nitrogen as it tries to accelerate the escaping vapor through
the relief valve. The flow resistance encountered by the escaping vapor as it passes through the
valve is due to its viscosity. These resistances combine to make the process in the expanding
nitrogen look like a quasi-static process. That is, if we were to imagine an interface between the
escaping vapor and the expanding two-phase nitrogen, the motion of this interface would be slow
relative to the rate at which mechanical equilibrium is being established in the expanding twophase nitrogen. Note that this observation applies only to the nitrogen that remains in the Dewar
and that the overall process of discharging the nitrogen from the Dewar is not reversible due to
the irreversibility of the nitrogen flowing through the flow resistance presented by the relief
valve.
Relief valve

Control volume

r
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I__

h
N
Liquid
+

Vapor

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
_I

Figure 13E.6 Dewar Control Volume

From the first law for the control volume, we have
=

According to the uniform state model, the left-hand side becomes

=

Substituting the continuity equation, we obtain for the first law

d
drn
Inun
=h
CV
dt
dt
If we now integrate this expression over the time duration of the blow down process, we obtain
od()
cim
dt=
cit
CV
di
dt
drn
0
dt
[(mu)cvl [(mu)cvl = h
dt
cim CV
U
3
1fl
U =
2
fl
011
h
cit
j ,
/

OUt

cit

Ch. 13 Pg. 40
In order to integrate the right-hand side of this expression, we must be cognizant of the fact that
the pressure of the nitrogen in the Dewar is continually decreasing as the blow down process
progresses. This means that the value of the enthalpy of the fluid leaving the Dewar changes with
time. Then if there is always liquid and vapor nitrogen in equilibrium with one another inside the
Dewar throughout the blow down process, the pressure of the two phases inside the Dewar will
always be the saturation pressure which, of course, is changing with time. Then first law can be
written
u
3
m

j)

0 (r)
h

dmcv(

dat
at

where the notation hOl,,(P(,t) and

is intended to indicate that the values of h
011 and 11
cv
1

depend upon the instantaneous value of the saturation pressure. Given the complex dependence
of the properties on the saturation pressure, it is necessary to evaluate this expression numerically
recognizing that there is a constraint on the volume of the nitrogen. For each state i that the
expanding nitrogen passes through, we have the requirement that it must fill the Dewar at all
times. Then
= , (v + XjVjgj)

VD

Carrying out the integration numerically, we obtain the result rn

3 = 93 .909 kg.
It is worth noting that an approximate result can be obtained by assuming that the value
of h
= hg varies by about 15 percent
0 is constant. This is reasonable in the present case since
over the range of pressures involved. Then the first law becomes
ti
in
3
U
2
ifl
011 (m
h
,
3
2 )
m

3 (u
in
13 + 3
Ufg
X
)

u =
2
m

01
h
3
m

011
h

7
m

At first glance it would appear that there are two unknowns in this equation, in
3 and x
, but the
3
constraint on the volume eliminates one of these, viz.
VD

= m
v = m
3
3 (vf
3 +3
vj
x
)

)Vfg3

Substituting this result into the integrated form of the first law and solving for m
, we get
3
u
2
m

01
h
2
m

ttJ

1)
3 =
in
Vf
Uf
3
13
it

3
v

From part (a) above, u

2
-86.857 kJ/kg and m
2 = 113.36 kg. At P.
5 x iO N/rn
, h = 86.523
2
kJ/kg and at P, = 1 x iO N1m
, h = 77.073 kJ/kg. The numerical average of these two values
2
for the enthalpy is h(,(
, 8 1.798 kJ/kg. At P
1
3 1 x iO N/rn
,u
2
- = -122.37 kJ/kg, u
1
3 = 177.496
g
1
kllkg, v
13 = 1.22398 x iO m
= 0.21823 m
lkg, and
3
/kg. The volume of the Dewar is VDewar =
3
0.160 m
. Substituting these values and solving for in
3
, we getm
3
3 = 93.822 kg. Compared with
the numerical integration, this results in an error that is on the order of 0.1 percent. Note that not
all approximations are this good. In this case, the range of pressures involved is relatively small
so the approximation works quite well. In general, the error would be larger.
Example 13E.7: A rigid, insulated vessel is fitted with a single port for filling and
emptying. Initially, the valve on the port is closed after the vessel has been evacuated. The vessel

Ch. 13 Pg. 41
is to be filled with 1120 from a supply line with constant supply conditions of P = 1 x 106 N/rn
2
and T = 300 C. The valve is opened and H,0 is allowed to flow until the pressure in the vessel
reaches P
2 = 1 x 106 N/rn
. At this time the valve is closed.
2
(a) What is the temperature, T
, of the H
7
0 in the vessel the instant the valve is closed?
2
(b) Why is the temperature of the H
0 in the vessel different from the temperature of the
2
0 in the charging line at the instant mechanical equilibrium is established between the
7
H
contents and the H
0 in the supply line?
2
(c) The 1120 is now allowed to come to thermal equilibrium with the environment at Te,v
40 C. What is the pressure, F
, of the H
3
0 in the vessel at this time?
7
(d) What is the heat transfer, ,
0 during the thermal equilibration process?
2
23 for the H
Q
P 106 N/rn
2
T=300C
Control volume
Valve
Vessel (initially evacuated)

Figure 13E.7
Solution: (a) The vessel being filled can be modeled as an open system since mass flows
across its boundary. Schematically, the system would appear as shown in Figure 13E.7. Since the
filling process occurs so rapidly, there is no time for heat transfer. There is obviously no shaft
work transfer and kinetic and potential energies are negligible. The first law for this control
volume with unsteady flow and a uniform state is given by

but the continuity equation gives

Then the first law becomes

=

1h1

Since 1h
11 is constant, we can integrate this expression. Then
u h, (,n
1
ni
2 rn )
u = rn
2
rn
h,,
2

=h
111
Then from the tabulated properties of H
0, it follows that u
2
2 =
= 3051.2 kJ/kg. Then
interpolating linearly, we get T
2 = 456.53 C.
(b) The temperature of the steam inside the vessel immediately upon establishing
2
U

Ch. 13 Pg. 42
mechanical equilibrium is higher than the temperature of the steam in the supply line because of
the flow work done on the steam in order to push it inside the vessel. Remember that the first
mass element that enters the evacuated vessel will fill the vessel immediately upon entry. Then
the next mass element that enters has to compress the fluid (vapor) already in the vessel. This
adiabatic compression of mass elements that entered the vessel previously continues until
mechanical equilibrium (but not thermal equilibrium) is established between the vessel contents
and the steam in the supply line. Thus the temperature of the steam in the vessel is higher than
the temperature of the steam in the supply line due to the fact that the rate processes responsible
for establishing mechanical equilibrium are significantly faster than the rate processes
responsible for establishing thermal equilibrium.
(c) After the valve is closed, the vessel acts like a closed system. Then for the thermal
equilibration process which occurs at constant volume, the specific volume of the steam remains
constant. Thus
3 =v., =0.33355 m
v
/kg
3
This value of the specific volume lies between the values of the specific volume s for the
saturated liquid and the saturated vapor at 40 C. Thus the pressure of the steam at 40 C is the
saturation pressure, P
3 = 7.384 x l0 N/m
.
2
(d) The equilibration process occurs at constant volume. Thus, there is no work transfer
during this process. Then the first law gives
= in(u
3 u
)
2
but
3 = Vf +x
v
3 =1.0078 x l0 3
/kg+x
m
1
9.522 m
/kg
3

x
3
U

U +X
g
1
U
3

0.33355 3
/m
kgL0078 x i0 3
m
=0.017034
/kg
3
19.522m
=167.56 kJ/kg+(0.01703)(2262.6 kJ/kg)= 206.10 kJ/kg

Then the heat transfer per unit mass of H

0 in the vessel is
2
q

3
U

2
U

q = 206.10 kJ/kg 3051.2 kJ/kg = 2845.1 kJ/kg

Example 13E.8: As shown schematically in Figure 13E.8, a manufacturing plant has a
stream of saturated H
0 vapor available at a mass flow rate of n = 1 kg/sec and a temperature of
2
T = 300 C, but it needs two streams of H
0 vapor, one stream at a pressure of P
2
2 = 2 x 106 N/rn
2
and a temperature of T
2 400 C, the other at a pressure of P
3 = iO N/rn
2 and a temperature of T
3
= 200 C. It is proposed to split the supply stream into the two required streams in a steady flow
system whose only interaction is a heat transfer with the environment at a temperature of 1 =
300K.
400 C
2
P
2
2
x 106 N/rn
Sat. Vapor
=300C
1
T

Ta=300K

Steady flow system

3
rn

I
Figure l3E.8

>T
=
3
200C
1
3
P
N
5
2
/m
0

Ch. 13 Pg. 43
(a) Calculate the mass flow rates of streams 2 and 3.
(b) If the system operates in a reversible manner, what is the magnitude and direction of
the heat transfer rate? What is the effect of irreversibility on this heat transfer rate and the flow
rates?
Solution: (a) For this open system in steady flow, we have for the continuity equation
= 1 kg/sec = m
2 + iT!
3
=

The first law reduces to

h., +th
7
thJh]
h
3
Q =th

h +(lth
2
=th
3
)
2
h h
1

2 (3248.3 kJ/kg) + (1 th
2 )(2875.5 kJ/kg) (1 kg/sec) (2749.6 kJ/kg)
Q in
(372.80 kJ/kg)
2
Q 125.90 kW + m
If the system is reversible, the second law gives
=

s
2
[th

2 )s
(1rn
3

]
1
s

2 (7.1292 kJ/kg 2
K)+(1
)
(7.835th
6 kJ/kg K)(1 kg/sec)(5.7059 kJ/kg K)]
Q = (300 K) [th
7 (211.92 kJ/kg)
Q =638.91 kWth
Solving the expressions simultaneously, we get
= 0.877 kg/sec
3 =
in

0.123 kg/sec

(b) The heat transfer for reversible operation is then given by either the first law or the second
law, viz.
Q = 638.91 kW (0.877 kg/sec)(21 1.92 kJ/kg) = 452.98 kW
Note
effectthat the heat transfer is positive, i.e., into the system. If the operation is irreversible, the
is to reduce this heat transfer rate since entropy is now being generated within the control
volume thereby reducing the need for positive entropy transfer from the environment, and hence,
heat transfer, across the control surface. However, since the energy associated with this heat
transfer interaction is the source of the flow work driving the high energy (actually, high
enthalpy) flow, stream 2, the reduced heat transfer will result in a reduction in the flow rate in
stream 2 and an increase in the flow rate of stream 1, the less energetic (lower enthalpy) stream.
13.14 Heat Transfer Interactions in the Pure Substance Model
The fact that the pure substance can experience a change in phase as a result of a heat
transfer interaction gives rise to two new mechanisms of heat transfer that we have not
considered heretofore. As described in Section 13.5, the transformation of a saturated liquid into
a saturated vapor at constant pressure, and, hence, constant temperature, is known as eaporation
or boiling and constitutes one of these new mechanisms. The other mechanism is associated with
the reverse phase transformation from saturated vapor to saturated liquid and is known as
liquefaction or condensation. From a physical point of view, both boiling heat transfer and
condensation heat transfer are exceedingly complex and necessitate expanding the pure substance
model in order to account for the surface forces that are essential to both mechanisms. This has
presented a considerable challenge to the thermal-fluid engineer a challenge more than worth

Ch. 13 Pg. 44
the effort since the heat fluxes that result from these two mechanisms are quite high and can
reach magnitudes of one megawatt/square meter or higher. This means that these processes can
be valuable design tools to the thermal-fluid engineer since high heat fluxes can result in a
considerable reduction in the size of heat transfer equipment with a concomitant reduction in the
cost of the apparatus.
Because of the complexities of the physics of these processes, analytical models that can
be used to predict their behavior are also complex and in many cases only approximations of the
true situation. Nonetheless, because of their importance in the design of thermal-fluid equipment,
these mechanisms have been the subject of intense investigation by thermal-fluid engineers for
more than half a century and these investigations continue to this day. The result of all this effort
has been a basic understanding of the underlying physics of the mechanisms and the formulation
of heat transfer correlations that are useful to the thermal-fluid engineer in the design of devices
that exploit these mechanisms. In the present section, we shall examine these mechanisms in
some detail and present useful correlations of their behavior.
13.14.1 Boiling Heat Transfer
The fundamental process of boiling heat transfer involves a solid surface in contact with a
liquid which may be either a saturated liquid or a subcooled liquid. Typically, the temperature of
the solid surface at the interface with the liquid is higher than the saturation temperature of the
liquid corresponding to its pressure by an amount IXT = T.
The boiling mechanism that
ensues is a function of the magnitude of LT and the conditions of the surface such as its surface
condition, the material of construction, and its orientation with respect to the gravity vector.

H
natura ccegion
BC nudaL bL.ng
QNR onset of
c[eat
bOiLi,g
CW criIkaI heat fLux
DE trnsibori boiUng
EF fiLm bolting
A

Jill

P
G

:z::i:
100

200
4XJ
700
$eaic surface t ipriure,

1000

2000

Figure 13.11 Pool Boiling Heat Transfer Data for H

0 at Atmospheric Pressure
2
(From J. G. Collier and J. R. Thome, Convective Boiling and Condensation, 3fl Edition,
Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 149, Fig. 4.10.)

Ch. 13 Pg. 45
Consider a typical boiling beat transfer condition known as pool boiling since the liquid
experiencing the phase transformation exists as a pool of liquid sitting on a heater surface. (Later
we shall consider the case in which the liquid is moving with some velocity past the heater
surface. This latter case is known as forced convection boiling.) Figure 13.11 shows the surface
heat flux for a pool of saturated liquid H,O on a horizontal heater surface at atmospheric
pressure.
The details of the boiling heat transfer mechanism change as the value of AT increases.
Several different regimes can be identified on Figure 13.11 ,and these are shown schematically
in
Figure 13.12:
(1) natural convection, path A to B
(2) nucleate boiling, path B to D
(3) transition boiling, path D to D
(4) film boiling, D to F

AEI Nat saL

cc%vectIcwi

aotisetot
nudeate bccg

c::Qz

Jc)_
-

l&jcleate :bOJliflg
hW heal fIuxe5

.dS-)E 0
S12Q
Q
.

cpj. j?S*aw:

CCritica[

Nuct4jatq boIing
high heat V(uxe

heat

flux

cE,S z;:5=;5q
\\\\ \

\\\

\\\ \V
-

-0

DE Transition toilir

EF

ran boiling

\\\\O\N\\
Figure 13.12 Regimes of Pool Boiling
(From J. 0. Collier and J. R. Thome, Convective Boiling and Condensation, 3 Edition,
Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 150, Fig. 4.11.)

Ch. 13 Pg. 46

13.14.1.1 Natural Convection: As heater power is increased and the surface temperature
of the heater increases from 70 C to 100 C and beyond, the data follow the curve from A to B to
C to D in the natural convection and nucleate boiling regimes. In the range A to B, the heat
transfer mechanism is by free convection from a heated horizontal surface facing up as we
discussed in Section 11.7. The resulting free convection cells are shown schematically in Figure
13.12 and the heat transfer data can be correlated by the expression
Nu

=O.14
kf

0.l4[GrPr]
gTDppc

(13.52)

Notice that the free convection regime continues into the range where the surface
temperature exceeds the saturation temperature, Tat = 100C. This is due to the fact that the vapor
in the bubbles that are trying to form on the heater surface must have some superheat to
compensate for the surface energy associated with the vapor-liquid interface of the bubbles. IlL
order to provide the necessary superheat, there must be a temperature gradient in the liquid pooi
in the neighborhood of the heater surface. This gradient provides a means for the energy and
entropy to flow from the heater surface into the liquid pool. Clearly this is not a true equilibrium
situation in the sense of the pure substance model discussed thus far. The liquid layer with the
temperature gradient is a superheated liquid since its temperature exceeds the saturation
temperature, and it is, therefore, in a metastable state as described in Section 13.12. However, we
can use the equilibrium pure substance model to gain some understanding of the basic physics of
the boiling heat transfer mechanism.
13.14.1.2 Bubble Dynamics: Despite the presence of the aforementioned temperature
gradient at the heater surface, the bulk of the liquid is at the saturation temperature dictated by
the externally imposed pressure, atmospheric pressure in the case under consideration. The
localized temperature gradient plays a key role in the formation of the vapor-liquid interface
associated with the boiling heat transfer mechanism. Consider a spherical bubble in local
thermodynamic equilibrium with the layer of superheated liquid in which it is immersed as
shown in Figure 13.13.

Saturated liquid,

sat

Figure 13.13 Vapor Bubble in Equilibrium with Liquid

Consistent with the pure substance model, gravity effects on the local pressure in the liquid are

Ch. 13 Pg. 47
assumed negligible. Then for a liquid at nearly uniform temperature except for the metastable
layer, the pressure exerted by the liquid on the vapor bubble is the saturation pressure. Since the
vapor bubble sits in the temperature gradient at the heater surface, the vapor phase is in thermal
equilibrium with the liquid at its local temperature. Thus, the vapor pressure inside the bubble is
greater than the saturation pressure of the liquid pool that surrounds it. For this value of the
pressure exerted by the vapor, there is only one size vapor bubble that can exist in mechanical
equilibrium with the saturated liquid. The radius of this bubble is known as the critical radius and
is denoted by the symbol R. We can determine the critical radius by considering a free-body
consisting of half the bubble as shown in Figure 13.14.
Ftiquid

Fsace tension
Fapor
Figure 13.14 Free-body Diagram of Bubble
The condition of mechanical equilibrium between the bubble and the liquid requires

Z F=0
1
s
urface

tension

i1
guid

Fvapor

(13.53)

27rRa + IrR F
2rRcF,(lpor = 0
where a denotes the surface tension of the liquid-vapor interface. Then the critical radius is
2a
(13.54)
R=
vapor at
In equation (13.54), the value of ijf,Qr is determined by the thermal equilibrium between vapor
and liquid phases at the local temperature in the gradient where the bubble is located. The value
of
is the value of the externally imposed pressure on the liquid pool. From equation (13.54),
we have
2u
)=
1
(13.55)
vcor (Tvapor) iqiiii1 (T
R
Thus, equation (13.55) shows that in order to produce a vapor bubble in a liquid with a surface
tension a, the temperature of the vapor in the bubble must be greater than the saturation
temperature of the bulk liquid far removed from the heater surface. This is the point in Figure
13.11 which represents a departure from the pure substance model since we are now accounting
for surface effects. The degree of superheat can be determined explicitly by substituting equation
(13.55) into the Clausius-Clapeyron equation in the form of equation (13.50) and solving for the
superheat, viz.

R7 2a
1
hPR
cat c
jg

(13.56)

The experimental data of Figure 13.11 show that the onset of nucleate boiling occurs

Ch. 13 Pg. 48
when the surface temperature of the heater exceeds the saturation temperature by approximately
10 C. Thus at atmospheric pressure, T = 100 C, sat = 1.01325 x iO N/rn
, u= 0.0589 1 N/rn,
2
and
. From equation (13.54) we have for the critical radius
2
(110 C) = 1.4338 x iO N/rn
2(0.05891 N/rn)
R =
=2.802 x 10 m
(13.57)
l.4338x i0
l.01325x io N/rn
2
5 N/rn
2
This is the size of equilibrium vapor bubbles consistent with the superheat associated with the
onset of nucleate boiling; however, these bubbles are not stable with respect to small
perturbations in their size. Bubbles with a radius smaller than R will collapse spontaneously, and
bubbles with a larger radius will grow.
The bubble nucleation process does not occur homogeneously in the superheated liquid. It
requires a surface on which the bubbles can nucleate and grow before being released into the
liquid pool. Microscopic examination of the heater surface reveals that the surface is not a true
plane, but is, in fact, rough and covered with a large number of small pits or cavities of a myriad
of shapes and sizes. Vapor bubbles tend to form in these cavities at specific locations called
nucleation sites as shown schematically in Figure 13.15. A vapor nucleus forms in the cavity and
Liquid

Heater surface

Figure 13.15 Vapor Bubble Forming in Cavity

grows through conduction heat transfer from the solid into the vapor. The mass of the vapor
nucleus increases by evaporation at the liquid-vapor interface and in the process pushes the
interface out of the cavity. Depending upon the contact angle between the liquid and the solid, a
cap of some shape forms on the vapor and this vapor cap expands along the surface involving a
number of nucleation sites as the heat transfer process continues. In the case of water on most
metallic surfaces, the contact angle is approximately 90 resulting in a vapor cap that is nearly
hemispherical. Eventually these hemispherical vapor bubbles break away from the cavity and
become spherical when a balance is achieved between the surface forces associated with the
liquid-vapor interface (surface tension) and the net body force due to gravity acting on the vapor
mass and the buoyancy force due to the displaced liquid. Then
F=0
LIrJace

Fgrvi

)uoyancv

=0

(13.58)

tens

2irR,,a+7rR,pgg-irR,pjg =0
and the radius of the bubble at break-away becomes Rh where
y
=
2
R,
(Pf pg)g
For pool boiling of H
0 at atmospheric pressure, p
2
3 and
= 958.35 kg/rn
1

(13.59)
=

3 with
0.598 17 kg/rn

Ch. 13 Pg. 49
a= 0.0589 1 N/rn. Then
R,,

3(0.05891 N/rn)
(958.35 kg/rn
3 0.59817 kg/rn
)(9.81 rnisec
3
)
2

=4.337 x l0 m

(13.60)

In reality, the bubble growth process is somewhat more complicated than described above and
results in slightly smaller bubbles than calculated in equation (13.60). The inertia of the
surrounding liquid and the rate at which the latent heat can be conducted to the interface play
important roles and produce bubble break-away diameters for H
0 in the range of 1 to 2.5 mm.
2
Since the boiling heat transfer process occurs at essentially the saturation pressure of the
pool, each vapor bubble formed carries with it the latent heat of the vapor mass (cf Section 13.8)
plus whatever superheat developed in the vapor before it leaves the surface. The latent heat
carried by each bubble is the same for bubbles of equal size, but the number per unit area
increases as AT increases. The frequency with which bubbles leave the surface also contributes to
the heat flux. Typically for H
0, this frequency is on the order of 20 to 40 bubbles per second.
2
liitially, the nucleation sites are few in number, but their number increases dramatically as the
value of AT increases by a small amount. This is part of the reason for the steep slope of the
portion of the boiling curve labeled B D in Figure 13.11. Also, the size of the bubbles tends to
increase as AT increases and there is some coalescence of bubbles with increasing AT as shown
in Figure 13.12.
The net result of this complex process of bubble growth and release is that the typically
large values of the latent heat of pure substances gives rise to very large values of the heat fluxes
in nucleate boiling. The maximum value of the nucleate boiling heat flux for H
0,
2
= 126
2 = 1.26 MW/m
W/cm
, is attained at point D in Figure 13.11. The particular value of
2
is
somewhat variable from one experiment to another depending upon the presence of gases and
other impurities dissolved in the liquid as well as the specific condition of the heater surface.
Regardless of these experimental variations, point D is characterized by the fact that the all
possible nucleation sites have become actively involved in the nucleate boiling heat transfer
process.
If the heater power is increased at point D, the surface temperature suddenly increases
while the surface heat flux holds constant at the critical value of jcrjt until point D is reached. At
point D, the surface temperature for pooi boiling of H
0 is approximately 1200 C and the
2
regime of boiling shifts from nucleate boiling to film boiling as the multitude of vapor bubbles
on the heater surface coalesce and the surface becomes blanketed with H
0 vapor (cf Figure
2
13.12). Because of the large sudden increase in surface temperature as the boiling regime
changes character, point D is often referred to as the burn-out heat flux. Initially, the principal
heat transfer mechanism in this vapor blanket is conduction and the vapor blanket acts as a
thermal resistance between the heater surface and the pool of liquid. The thickness of this vapor
blanket grows as heater power is increased and more vapor is generated. Thus, the value of AT
must increase as heater power is increased. As heater power is increased still further, the surface
temperature increases in the film boiling regime as long as the heater material does not melt since
surface temperatures have now become quite high. As the value of AT increases, radiation heat
transfer begins to play a role, and the heat transfer process in film boiling becomes one of
combined conduction and thermal radiation.
It is important to note that the boiling heat transfer curve exhibits a marked hysteresis. If
heater power is decreased from point F, the heater surface temperature follows the path F to D
and then to E, not D, where it suddenly shifts at constant heat flux to the nucleate boiling portion

Ch. 13 Pg. 50
of the curve B C. Further decrease in heater power reduces the heater surface temperature
along B C. Thus, the transition boiling regime D E is never actually realized in this simple
heated surface experiment. (The data for the portion of the curve D E are determined in
experiments that use a surface in which boiling heat transfer occurs on one side and condensation
heat transfer [cf Section 13.14.2] occurs on the other.)
13.14.1.3 Nucleate Boiling: Given the complexity of the boiling phenomena, it is not
surprising that the correlation of boiling heat transfer data has proven to be one of the more
challenging issues that thermal-fluid engineers have faced. To this date, most of the attempts at
formulating useful correlations have relied heavily on the pioneering work of Warren M.
Rohsenow of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1952, Rohsenow argued that since
the increased heat transfer rate in pool boiling probably results from the increased agitation of the
liquid due to the motion of the bubbles being released from the surface with a concomitant
transfer of energy primarily from the surface directly to the liquid, there should exist a Reynolds
number Reb based on bubble dynamics that accounts for these effects. Following the example of
single-phase forced convection correlations, Rohsenow postulated the existence of a
dimensionless correlation of the form

(13.61)

Nu,,=g(Reh,P1f.)

where Nub is an appropriately defined bubble Nusselt number and Prf is the Prandtl number of
the saturated liquid. The success of this approach, of course, depends upon selecting the proper
definitions for the dimensionless parameters. For the characteristic length, L, Rohsenow chose a
simplified form of the critical bubble radius shown in equation (13.59), viz.
L

(13.62)
g(Pf Pg)

Then the bubble Nusselt number becomes

Nu,

(u,ice

(13.63)

T )kf

where q is the measured heat flux for a given surface temperature T,z,ce as reported in Figure
13.1 1 for example. The velocity that should be used in the bubble Reynolds number is the mass
average velocity of the vapor receding from the surface, viz.
q
(13.64)
Pg hfg
Then
,PgLc = QL =

a
q
(13.65)
/Jf
Ji
1
h
.
1
p
g
(Pf
Pg
/i
In its final form, the correlation proposed in equation (13.61) should include the effects of the
surface, e.g., roughness, wetability, etc. This Rohsenow accomplished by the inclusion of a factor
C that accounts for the nature of the heating surface-fluid combination. In dimensionless form,
the nucleate boiling heat transfer data can then be correlated as follows:
1
Re

Cpf u,face

/zn

) =

q
/Jfhfg

Pr

(13.66)

(Pj Pg g

Note that the dimensionless group appearing on the left-hand side of equation (13.66) occurs

Ch. 13 Pg. 51
frequently in heat transfer correlations involving a change of phase and is called the Jakob
number in honor of Max Jakob (1879 1955), a German physicist who was one of the early
pioneers in thermal-fluids engineering. Physically the Jakob number, Ja, usually represents the
ratio of the sensible heat of the liquid phase to the latent heat of a pure substance. In the present
case, the definition of the Jakob number is modified slightly to represent the ratio of the
superheat of the liquid phase to the latent heat, viz.
Ja=

CPf(tufc;.e_a()

(13.67)

The dimensionless correlation of equation (13.66) can be recast in dimensional form, viz.

p)Z
1
f jg

1CPf(Tc,fn

C h Pry.

(13.68)

where the values of C

1 and n are given in Table 13.3 and all other fluid properties are evaluated
at Ts
Notice
that
the
nucleate boiling heat flux is proportional to (Tcw.iice T)
.
1
3 which accounts
for the sharp rise in heat flux as the liquid superheat increases. As mentioned above this increase
is due to the rapid increase in active nucleation sites associated as the heating surface temperature
increases.
Table 13.3 Nucleate Boiling Parameters

FLUID-SURFACE COMBINATION
Water-copper
Scored
Polished
Lapped
Water-stainless steel
Chemically etched
Mechanically polished
Ground and polished
Teflon-pitted
Water-brass
Water-nickel
Water-platinum

0.0068
0.0128
0.0147

1.0
1.0
1.0

0.0 133
0.0132
0.0080
0.0058
0.0060
0.006 0
0.0130

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

n-Pentane-copper
Polished
Lapped
Emery rubbed
n-Pentane-polished nickel

0.0154
0.0049
0.0074
0.0127

1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7

Benzene-chromium

0.10 1

1.7

Carbon tetrachioride-polished copper

0.0070

1.7

Ethyl alcohol-chromium
0.0027
1.7
Lacking other information, try C= 0.013 as a first approximation.
(Adapted from J. G. Collier and J. R. Thome, Convective Boiling and Condensation, 3
Edition, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 154, Table 4.2.)

Ch. 13 Pg. 52
Despite the considerable effort expended by many investigators over the years to develop
accurate correlations of nucleate boiling heat transfer data, the correlation of equation (13.68) has
proven to be only an approximation to the actual data. In some cases, the accuracy is quite good,
but in others, it is little more than an order of magnitude estimate. There are simply too many
physical variations related to dissolved gases, surface contaminants, surface finishes and the like
that can affect the prediction of the nucleate boiling heat flux with any consistent accuracy.
Fortunately, it is the critical heat flux, q, that designers have to worry about, and this point on
the boiling curve has been correlated with a more acceptable level of accuracy.
13.14.1.4 Critical Heat Flux: The critical heat flux is limited by the rate at which vapor
can leave the surface since all possible nucleation sites have been activated and the frequency of
bubble break-away is essentially fixed. If we let l1ar be the maximum possible velocity with
which vapor can leave the heater surface, the critical heat flux is given by
(13.69)
Icrit = C,avPnaxhfg
where C,
1 is a constant that essentially accounts for the geometry of the heater surface. The
maximum vapor velocity can be estimated by considering a unit mass of vapor as an isolated
system hydrodynamically and applying the first law. Then the kinetic energy acquired by the
vapor bubble leaving the surface comes at the expense of the change in gravitational potential
energy of the bubble volume as it moves between the liquid and vapor phases over the
characteristic length of nucleate boiling. Then
Pgax

=(Pf _pg)gLc

(13.70)

Solving equation (13.70) for the maximum velocity, we get

(13.71)
Combining equations (13.69) and (13.71), we get
crir = Khjg [agp (Pf

Pg

(13.72)

where the constant K is given by the data in Table 13.4. To use the data of Table 13.4, it is first
necessary to determine the size of the heater surface relative to the characteristic length L given
by equation (13.62). For example, for a horizontal cylinder of radius R
R*=__

(13.73)

The correlation of equation (13.72) has an accuracy of approximately 20 percent provided

the heater dimensions are not too small. If L 0.38 mm, surface tension forces dominate and the
correlation breaks down. As L decreases further, the boiling curve becomes monotonic. For very
fine wires, the heat transfer process passes directly from free convection to film boiling.
Equation (13.72) is used in practice to establish the maximum possible heat flux that a
surface can sustain without risk of melting or incurring temperatures so high that mechanical
failure is likely. The heater surface is then designed to operate at some fraction of jcrit that
provides a reasonable margin of safety. For the pooi boiling curve of Figure 13.11, we can
establish the value of jCrjt with the aid of equation (13.72). For pooi boiling of H
0 at
2
atmospheric pressure, p
3 and Pg = 0.598 17 kg/m
3 with a= 0.0589 1 N/rn. Then
= 958.35 kg!m
1

Ch. 13 Pg. 53
1 [agp (p
Kh

0.149(2256.40 x

J/kg)

Pg

)]

(0.05891 N/rn) (9.81 sec2)(0.59817 kg/rn)

.
2
.(958.35 kg/rn
3 0.59817 kg/rn
)
3

=1.261 x 106 W/rn

2
(13.74)
This result compares favorably with the data shown in Figure 13.11. Example 13E.9 illustra
tes
the way in which the critical heat flux correlation is used to set the operating conditions of
boiling heat transfer apparatus.
Table 13.4 Critical Heat Flux Parameters
Geometry

Dimension

Infinite flat plate

0.149

width or diameter

Small flat heater

2
0.14
)
/Ar
9(12
ea
rtL

width or diameter

Horizontal cylinder

0.1165

Range
2.7
0.07

0.2

0.297exp(-3.44/)

radius R

0.15

Large horizontal
cylinder

0.118

radiusR

Small horizontal
cylinder

25
0.123/
(R*)o

radius R

0.15

Large sphere

0.110

radius R

4.26

Small sphere

5
0.227/
(R)

radius R

4.26

Small horizontal
ribbon oriented
vertically

25
0.154/
(H)

height of side H

0.15

2.96

Small horizontal
ribbon oriented
vertically q

25
0.183/
(H)

height of side H

0.15

H<

5.86

Any large finite body

0.118

lengthL

1.2
R

1.2

L*> 4

Small slender cylinder

O.183/(P)
25
transverse perimeterP
0.15 P
5.86
of any cross section
# Heated on both sides
% One side insulated
(Adapted from J. G. Collier and J. R. Thome, Convective Boiling and Condensation 31
,
Edition, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 165, Table 4.4.)

Ch. 13 Pg. 54
Example 13E.9: A common type of electric boiler used in many industrial applications
makes use of an immersion heater that uses some sort of electrically resistive element connected
to the electrical grid. A simple example of this design is shown in Figure 1 3E.9 and consists of a
tube (D = 10 mm) bent in a U-shape with an electrical resistance heater inside. The electrical
leads for the heater are then brought out from the ends of the resistor so that one lead emerges
from each end of the U-tube. The wires are then connected to an electrical circuit which provides
the necessary power to operate the heater. The heaters are usually inserted into a pooi of liquid so
that the axis of the tube is horizontal.
In a particular heater design, the heater is being used to boil water. The outside surface of
the tube exposed to the water is mechanically polished stainless steel. The electrical resistor is
sized so that the heater operates with a heat flux that is 30 % of the critical heat flux.
(a) What is the surface temperature of the stainless steel tube when operating as designed
0 at a temperature of Tat = 100 C?
2
in a pool of saturated liquid H
(b) If the total length of the heater is 1 m, determine the electrical power that must be
supplied to operate the heater.
0 exiting from the boiler?
2
(c) What is the mass flow rate of the saturated vapor H
[...aVapor
L

Sat.

*id

-c

/7

/7

/7

/7

Heater
Plan view

Side view

Figure 13E.9
Solution: (a) We first need to determine the critical heat flux, q, for this geometry.
From equation (13.72)
qn?ax =

Khf. JgPg 2 (Pf

Pg)]

The value of K can be determined from Table 13.4. We first need to determine the characteristic
length from equation (13.62) so that we can determine the appropriate value of the dimensionless
3 with
3 and p = 0.59817 kg/rn
0 at T= 100 C, Pf= 958.35 kg/rn
7
radius. For pool boiling of H
a= 0.0589 1 N/rn
L
g(pp)
L,=

0.05891 N/rn
)
3
3 0.59817 kg/rn
(9.81 m!sec2)(958.35 kg/rn

Then the dimensionless radius of the heater tube is

3
=2.504xl0m

Ch. 13 Pg. 55

rn
3
5x10
R=-=
=2
L. 2.50 x i0 m
According to Table 13.4, this tube qualifies as a large horizontal cylinder with K= 0.118. Then
the critical heat flux for this geometry is
nla.k =0.118(2256.40 kJ/kg)[(0.58917

(9.81 sec2)(958.35 kg/rn

2 0.59817 kg/m2)

N/rn2)

9.988 x

2
W/m

Then the heat flux for the heater is

=0.3,)(3 =0.3(9.988 x 106 W/m
)=2.996 x i0
2
5 W/m
2
Since the heat flux is less than the critical heat flux, we can use the nucleate boiling correlation
of equation (13.68) to estimate the surface temperature. Then, solving equation (13.68) for the
tube surface temperature, we get

u,fae =

Pi
1
h
1
C
4

Cpf

h
1
p

Tu,face =(100 C)+

g(pf Pg)

0.0132(2256.4 kJ/kg)(l.749)
4215.7 J/kg K

2.996 x iO W/m
2

0.5891 N/rn
(2.817 x l0 kg/rn sec)(2256.4 kJ/kg)L(9.81 2
mlse
)
(958.3c
5 kg/m
3 0.59817 kg/rn)j
=113.1 C

This result is really only an estimate since equation (13.68) is only an approximate correlation
because of all the unknowns and, in this case, there is quite likely some further error introduced
by the fact that equation (13.68) was formulated for a horizontal flat plate and not a horizontal
cylinder. The one redeeming feature of this calculation is that we are solving for the surface
temperature which involves a cube root operation that tends to reduce the error.
(b) The electrical power required to operate the heater is simply the total heat transfer rate
from the heater. Thus,
=

Q=

jirDL

=(2.996x l0 )
2
W
ir(0.OlOm)(lm
/r
)=9.4lk
n
W
(c) To determine the mass flow rate of saturated vapor out of the boiler, we apply the first
law to the boiler. Then
=

th (h
6

) = lflhf
1
h
6

but from Newtons Law of Cooling

Q=
Then

th

h,

= (2.996 x io 2
W/m
)
ir(0.010 m)(1 rn)
2256.4 kJ/kg

4.172 x i0
3 kg/sec

Ch. 13 Pg. 56
It is interesting to note in this example that the electrical power requirement is sufficient to
operate three to five large homes and yet it is capable of generating only four grams of steam per
second. This gives some perspective to the magnitude of the latent heat of vaporization of water.
13.14.1.5 Film Boiling: From the data of Figure 13.11, it is apparent that in film boiling,
the portion of the boiling curve labeled E F, results in heater surface temperatures that are
relatively high due to the large thermal resistance presented by the vapor film. Therefore, film
boiling is not widely used as a cooling mechanism in thermal-fluids equipment since this puts the
equipment at risk for material failures. One notable exception is cryogenic equipment that
operate with fluids at very low temperatures. For this type of equipment, the resulting high
surface temperatures are still within the range of normal temperatures for most materials.
The phenomenon of film boiling is an interesting mix of hydrodynamics and heat transfer.
The physical situation is an inherently unstable one with a more dense fluid, the liquid, sitting on
top of a less dense fluid, the vapor. Basically, the momentum of the vapor leaving the heater
surface is so high, the liquid no longer wets the heater surface. However, the interface between
the two phases is subject to perturbations due to the motion of the vapor that escapes the vapor
blanket through the interface as bubbles. This bubble movement is regular in both time and space
with a wavelength characteristic of a Taylor instability of wavelength

(13.74)

A=2ir

g(PfPg)
When the vapor generation rate becomes too low to sustain this Taylor instability, the vapor
blanket breaks down and the liquid wets the surface. This corresponds to point E on the boiling
curve of Figure 13.11. This point is known as the Leidenfrost point [first reported by the German
physician Johann Gottlobb Leidenfrost (1715 1794) in 1756 in a paper: A Tract About Some
Qualities of Common Water] and represents the minimum heat flux,
necessary to sustain
film boiling. For a horizontal, flat heater surface

niin =

Pghfg
009

1 Pg)
(p

(13.75)

(p +Pg)
In stable film boiling, since the liquid is no longer in contact with the heater surface,
bubble transport is no longer the fundamental mechanism for energy transfer between the surface
and the liquid pooi. Heat transfer now occurs by conduction through the moving vapor film
(convection) and thermal radiation across it because of the relatively high surface temperatures.
The relative contributions of the two mechanisms depend heavily upon the details of the physical
situation, and the two contributions are usually treated independently.
Since the complex dynamics of bubble formation and growth are no longer an issue, the
analysis of the film boiling regime is somewhat more straightforward than the nucleate boiling
regime. The presence of a vapor film on the heater surface with a phase change taking place
naturally leads us to view the convection heat transfer contribution as analogous to film-wise
condensation. In fact, for many geometries, the film condensation correlations are used directly
for this contribution. Rather than take up the details of modeling film-wise heat transfer at this
juncture, we shall delay the detailed analysis of this heat transfer mechanism until Section 13.4.2
where we shall take up the treatment of film-wise condensation. Instead, we simply present here
the results of the correlations appropriate for film boiling heat transfer.
In dimensionless form, the convection contribution can be determined from correlations

Ch. 13 Pg. 57
similar in form to equation (13.61), viz.
NuL

hCOflVLc
kg

3
g(p p)h,L
=

Vgkg

(
u
7
,ce

(13.76)

where the superscribed bar indicates values averaged over the length of the surface. C/h is a film
boiling constant that accounts for the geometry of the surface on which the vapor film has
formed; kg is the thermal conductivity of the vapor; Vg = Ig Pg is the kinematic viscosity of the
vapor; and L is a characteristic length that describes the geometry. Values for the film boiling
parameters are given in Table 13.5 for various geometries. Note that the latent heat of
vaporization has been modified to account for the superheat in the film [G. F. Hewitt, Boiling,
Chapter 15, in Handbook of Heat Transfer, 3 Edition, ed. by W. M. Rohsenow, J. P. Hartnett,
and Y. I. Cho, McGraw-Hill, N. Y., 1998, p. 15.72.] viz.
h =hfg +O.
CPf(T
34
(13.77)
T,at)
Table 13.5 Film Boiling Geometrical Parameters

SHAPE

17
C
,

Horizontal cylinder

0.62

diameter, D

Sphere

0.67#

diameter, D

Plane vertical surface

0.943

vertical length, L

Horizontal surface

0.425

L(

.Ju (Pr

Pg )g

(Adapted from L. S. Tong and Y. S. Tang, Boiling Heat Transfer and Two-Phase Flow,
2 Edition, Taylor and Francis Publishers, Washington, D. C., 1997, pp. 103 107.)
# From A. F. Mills, Heat Transfer, Richard D. Irwin, Inc., Boston, 1992, p. 640.

As mentioned above, the thermal radiation contribution to film boiling is usually treated
independently of the convection contribution. The two effects are then simply added together
with some sort of weighting function to obtain the net film boiling heat transfer coefficient, h/b,
viz.
hfi) =
+ Jh,a,i
(13.78)
where hCQ,?V is the contribution to the heat transfer coefficient due to convection as determined
from equation (13.76),
is the contribution due to thermal radiation, and J is the weighting
function. Over the years, many different approaches have been suggested for the evaluation of J
with the simplest being J = 0.75. Thus,
hfl, = ,
(13.79)
01 +075h,.a,i
h
The radiation contribution to the heat transfer contribution is given by
liraci

SB

(13.80)

Ts,,,face

where u
5 is the Stefan-Boltzmann radiation constant

T,
(B =

5.67 x 10 2
W/m 4
K and
)

is the

Ch. 13 Pg. 58
shape factor that accounts for the geometry and non-ideal behavior of the radiating surfaces. The
simplest model for the radiation contribution is to treat the vapor-liquid interface and the heating
surface as infinite parallel plates with the emissivity of the heater surface denoted by and the
absorptivity of the liquid-vapor interface denoted by a. Then if we model the liquid-vapor
interface as an ideal radiator, a black body, a = 1 and
(13.81)
Then equation (13.80) becomes
1
h

USBE

(13.82)

,.iace
11
Tc

Tsar

Example 13E.1O: During installation of the electric heater for the simple pool boiler of
Example 13E.9, a construction worker inadvertently wires the heater in a 480 V circuit instead of
a 240 V circuit. Thus the power dissipated in the resistor is now 4 times what it was designed for.
If the melting point of the stainless steel is 1400 C, is there a danger of a melt-down of the heater
due to this improper installation?
Solution: We note that if the electrical resistance of the heater is a constant, the power
level with the incorrect wiring will now be four times the design power level. Then the new heat
flux will be
q
=
(
)=1.198 x 106 W/m
2
2.996
= x io W/m
2
new 4
This new heat flux exceeds the critical heat flux for this geometry, jCrjj = 9.988 x iO W/m
. We
2
now determine the heat flux that the heater could sustain if it operated at the melting point of the
stainless steel. Then the heater will operate in the film boiling range. If the melting point of the
stainless steel is 1400 C, the convection contribution to the film boiling heat transfer coefficient
at this wall temperature is from equations (13.76) and (13.75) with data from Table 13.5
h

(0111

= 0.62k

g (Pf

1
Pg ){hfg + O.34c
6 (T
15
Pg k

5
ar )}Dp

2 K
= 61.994 W/m

where we have evaluated all the fluid properties at the saturation temperature. Now if we take the
emissivity of the stainless steel to be e= 0.16, we have from equation (13.82)
h rca 1=

2 K4)(0.16)[(1673.15 K)
(5.67 x iO- W/m
4 (373.15 K)1

1673.15K373.15K
Then the heat transfer coefficient for film boiling becomes

2 K
=67.695W/rn

1=
h,
+0.75h = 61.994 W/m
2 K+0.75(67.695 W/m
2 K) = 112.766 W/m
2 K
Then the heat flux for a surface temperature of 1400 C is
2 K)(1400 C100 C)= 1.466 x 10 W/rn
1400 = h (T1,a1i Tsat) = (112.766W/rn
q
2
?C(,ljU

q
4
00 <<
This is essentially an order of magnitude less than the heat flux due to the electrical power
dissipation in the heater. Thus, there will most surely be a meltdown of the heater.
13.14.1.6 Internal Forced Convection Boiling: In the sections immediately preceding
this, we gained considerable insight to the heat transfer mechanisms associated with boiling in
the pure substance model by studying pooi boiling phenomena. While there are many physical
situations that can be modeled as pool boiling, by far the greatest number of applications of
boiling heat transfer found in thermal-fluids engineering practice involve heat transfer to a
flowing fluid. Typical examples include the steam generator of a thermodynamic energy

Ch. 13 Pg. 59
conversion plant, the evaporator in a refrigeration plant, and a boiling water nuclear reactor
(BWR).
In these systems, there is heat transfer by the simultaneous mechanisms of forced
convection due to the fluid flow and boiling heat transfer due to the behavior of the pure
substance in a saturated state. As we have already seen, the analysis of each of these mechanisms
is challenging in its own right, but when both mechanisms are present simultaneously, the
complexity of the situation is further compounded by the coupling that exists between the fluid
mechanics of the situation and the heat transfer processes. The heat transfer processes result in
the coexistence of the two phases, liquid and vapor, and the individual phases each have their
own peculiar hydrodynamic behavior manifested in the flow patterns themselves as well as the
pressure drop required to drive the flow. The hydrodynamics, in turn, limits the possible heat
transfer by virtue of the nature of the phase in contact with the wall at any instant of time.
Since we are dealing with two phases that have markedly different densities, the
orientation of the flow conduit with respect to the gravity field can have a profound effect on the
both the hydrodynamics and the heat transfer processes in the flow. Figure 13.16 shows the

rOw

4;

;%1
,

o4

..)

AsTITr

Figure 13.16 Typical Two-phase Flow Patterns

(a) Vertical Flow
(b) Horizontal Flow
(From L. S. Tong and Y. S. Tang, Boiling Heat Transfer and Two-Phase Flow,
Edition, Taylor and Francis Publishers, Washington, D. C., 1997, Fig. 3.1,
p. 121.)

2nd

Ch. 13 Pg. 60
remarkable influence of gravity on the flow patterns that occur when both the liquid and the
vapor phases are present in the flow. In horizontal flow geometries, the effect of the body force
due to gravity tends to cause the less dense phase, the vapor, to sequester in the upper protion of
the conduit. This usually results in a stratification of the flow that might not otherwise be
stratified in vertical flow geometries. Some industrial applications favor one orientation, while
others favor another. For example, steam generators in large, central energy conversion plants
tend to favor vertical flow configurations due in large part to their size and their desire to have as
small a footprint as possible, while the refrigeration industry tends to favor the horizontal
configuration since it is more compatible with the other components found in refrigeration plants.
Each flow pattern results in its own particular response to the influences of fluid viscosity
and thermal conductivity on the processes of momentum and energy transport. While it is
impossible to characterize all of these situations in detail, it is possible to develop some
correlations that can be applied to typical applications, at least in an approximate manner. There
have been developed flow maps that attempt to establish the conditions under which the various
flow patterns occur. Figures 13.17 and 13.18 are examples of these maps for adiabatic flows. For
each region, correlations have been developed to describe the flow in quantitative terms.

Figure 13.17 Flow Patterns for vertical Two-phase Flow Upward

(From J. G. Collier and I. R. Thome, Convective Boiling and Condensation,
Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 19, Fig. 1.5.)

1d
3

Edition,

In Figure 13.17, the flow patterns are characterized by a single set of parameters defined in the
following manner:

rth

12

LA.

Eth

i(1x)i

PfJ

and

Pg

(13.83)

Ch. 13 Pg. 61
where A is the cross-sectional area of the conduit with mass flow ni of quality
x. The parameterj
with a subscriptf or g depending upon the phase of interest, represents the superfi
cial velocity of
the phase. This is a defined velocity (rather than a true physical velocity) in which
the particular
phase of interest is assumed to occupy the entire cross-section of the conduit. Then
the product
2 as defined in equation (13.83) represents the superficial momentum flux of the phase
pj
of
interest. Then in Figure 13.17, for example, vertical annular flows are characterized
by high
momentum fluxes of the vapor phase and low momentum fluxes of the liquid
phase. Notice that
in these two-phase flows, the two phases do not necessarily have the same velocit
y. In fact, that
would be the exception rather than the rule. In the analysis of these flows, it is
then necessary to
consider the drag that one phase imposes on the other. This is just one of the many
complexities
that prevail in these two-phase flows.
In Figure 13.18, it is acknowledged that the flow patterns involve very different kinds
of
flow and that no single set of parameters could describe them all. Hence, the notion
of using a
single set is abandoned, and, instead, several different sets of parameters are require
d to
characterize each of the flow patterns. These parameters are based, in part, on
the homogeneous
model of two-phase flow that ignores the details of the flow patterns and simply
separates the
pressure gradient in a two-phase flow into three separate contributions: one due
to fluid friction,
(dP/dz)F; one due to momentum changes in the flow, (dP/dz)M; and one due to the effects of
gravity, (dP/dz)G. This empirical model then assumes that these effects can be
linearly
superposed so that the net pressure gradient in the flow is given by
dP (dP
(dP
(dPi
=1I + +i
(13.84)
dz
dz iF
dz )
dz IG

r.w ic,

Figure 13.18 Flow Patterns for Horizontal Two-phase Flow

(From J. G. Collier and J. R. Thome, Convective Boiling and Condensation,
Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 22, Fig. 1.7.)

31

Edition,

The details of these contributions are given below, but this model is required first
to establish the
parameters of the flow. The first of these is the Lockhart-Martinelli parameter,
X, that is one of
the fundamental parameters of two-phase flow and is defined as
(dP
X

(lZJF

(dP
dz

(13.85)

Ch. 13 Pg. 62
where the subscript Ff denotes the frictional contribution to the pressure gradient due to the
liquid phase as if it existed alone, and the subscript Fg is similarly defined for the vapor phase.
The parameter F appearing in Figure 13. 18 is a modified Froude number defined as

Pg
Jg
F=
(13.86)
JDgcosJ
PfP
where D is the diameter of the conduit and flis the angle of inclination of the conduit with
respect to the horizontal. This modified Froude number is relevant to two-phase flows with a
liquid-vapor interface and accounts for the wave behavior that appears in the flow.
The parameter K describes the rate of dissipation of kinetic energy in the flow and is
defined as
PfPg[

K=
(p

(13.86)

_pg)iijgcosO

Finally the parameter T (which is not to be confused with the temperature, but is just a
poor choice of symbols) is defined as

(13.87)

In determining the pressure gradient in the two-phase flow from equation (13.84), the
velocities of the two phases are assumed to be the same. The average density of the two phases is
taken to be
(13.88)

P P
1
1 PgJ
P
PfPg
Then from the definition of the friction factor, equation (9.139), we have for the friction
component of the pressure gradient

dz}F

2pDAJ

(13.89)

where the friction factor can be determined from Figure 9.30 or equation (9.275). The Reynolds
number to be used in this evaluation is given by
4th
Re=
(13.90)
7rDp
where we have introduced a pseudo-viscosity, p, to account for the fact that the influence of the
vapor phase on the pressure gradient increases as the quality increases. This pseudo-viscosity is
given by
(13.91)
/1

,ti

1
,L1

which clearly tends to the proper values at the limiting values of the quality, viz. x 0 and x = 1.
The momentum contribution to the pressure drop accounts for the momentum changes
that occur in the flow as the density of the flow changes in response to the attendant changes in

Ch. 13 Pg. 63
phase. Since the mass flow rate is constant in the direction of flow regardless of possible changes
in phase, we can write

47
dz,i

dz

(13.92)

which shows that as the density of the flow decreases in the direction of the flow path, that is
(dp/dz <0), the pressure gradient must be negative since the flow must accelerate.
The gravity contribution to the pressure gradient is given by
pgsin&
(13.93)
dz G
where 8is measured from the horizontal. Then equations (13.89), (13.92), and (13.93) must be
combined in equation (13.84) to determine the total pressure gradient for the flow.
Keep in mind that the approach presented above is but the simplest of treatments of this
complicated subject. There are several specialized treatments that give far more detail than is
possible in an introductory treatment such as the present study, and the reader is referred to these
for additional information. For example, see:
1. Convective Boiling and Condensation, 3 Edition, J. G. Collier and J. R. Thome,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999.
nd
2. Boiling Heat Transfer and Two-Phase Flow, 2
Edition, L. S. Tong and Y. S. Tang,
Taylor and Francis Publishers, Washington, D. C., 1997.
3. Liquid-Vapor Phase-Change Phenomena: An Introduction to the Therinophysics of
Vaporization and Condensation Processes in Heat Transfer Equipment, V. P. Carey, Taylor and
Francis Publishers, Washington, D. C., 1992.
Figure 13.19 shows the various regions of heat transfer that occur during convective
boiling in a tube. The fluid begins as a single phase liquid with heat transfer occurring as single
phase forced convection heat transfer (Region A). At some point, (Region B) some nucleation
sites become active and vapor begins to form while the fluid is still a subcooled liquid. This heat
transfer mechanism is known as subcooled nucleate boiling and is driven by a surface
temperature that is slightly above the saturation temperature of the liquid. In regions A and B, the
bulk mean temperature of the fluid is increasing to the saturation temperature which is attained in
region C. The heat transfer mechanism now becomes saturated nucleate boiling and is marked by
the fact that the tiny vapor bubbles that have formed at the nucleation sites on the surface begin
to coalesce and form fairly large bubbles that give rise to slug flow. The boundary of this region
is identified by the fact that the quality of the fluid begins to change and the enthalpy of the fluid
now becomes a function of the distance along the flow coordinate z, viz.
h(zzSC)=hf +x(zzs)h
(13.94)
where Z
5 denotes the point in the flow where saturation conditions are attained. Since changes in
kinetic energy due to acceleration of the flow are small compared to the changes in enthalpy, the
first law reduces to
Q=A

1
=[A(h_
)
h

(13.95)

Substituting equation (13.96) into equation (13.95), we obtain the quality as a function from the
location where saturation is attained, viz.

Ch. 13 Pg. 64

A1i AhWJ ftuiT

APIM4]

1jw

PAT F

1bct
5L L8r&

cr

:ft

Ljde,zt

-4; trn
thrf
ifWhdfr
WnIl Irnp

ruci.at

iA
1rwzr

jId

Figure 13.19 Regions of Heat Transfer in Convective Boiling

(From J. G. Collier and J. R. Thome, Convective Boiling and Condensation,
Oxford University Press, 1999, P. 170, Fig. 4.21.)

cprD (z

zsc)

(13.96)

4
.

IIA.h jg
At.)

Edition,

Axh

Av,,face =

rd
3

1--,r--h.g
AJ 4

j
5
(zz

Dh{
fg

At some point during the saturated nucleate boiling stage, the growing vapor bubbles
coalesce in the central core of the flow and produce an annular flow with the liquid sequestered
at the tube wall and the vapor in the core. The heat transfer mechanism now transitions to one of
forced convection in the liquid film with evaporation at the liquid-vapor interface. This covers
regions E and F. Eventually, all of the liquid evaporates at the location denoted dryout and the

Ch. 13 Pg. 65
heat transfer mechanism undergoes yet another transition to one in which the surface temperature
experiences a sharp increase. Downstream of this point, the flow consists of dispersed bubbles
(Region G) that gradually evaporate and produce a true dry vapor flow with no liquid phase
present (Region H). Because of the steep rise in surface temperature at the dryout point, it is an
important feature of convective boiling heat transfer. The increase in temperature can result in
severe damage to thermal-fluid equipment such as evaporators, boilers, and nuclear reactors.
Each of the regions delineated in figure 13.19 has its own complex physical phenomena
that have been studied in detail. The result of these studies is a set of complex analytical tools
that describe the heat transfer processes of each region and are given in the three references listed
above. The early work in the field relied on correlations of pooi boiling heat transfer data of the
type given above and forced convection correlations of the type given in Chapter 11. These two
correlations were then combined in some empirical manner to yield the heat transfer coefficient
for flow boiling. The early work has been valuable because it led to a fuller understanding of the
phenomena attendant to flow boiling heat transfer. In recent years, however, the advent of high
speed personal computers and the introduction of new flow boiling data have lead to empirical
approaches which tend to lump all the flow boiling phenomena into a single expression for the
direct correlation of data which have both greater accuracy and ease of evaluation than the earlier
treatments. In this introductory presentation, it is not possible to include all the details developed
in the earlier work so we present, instead, one of the more recent simplified correlations reported
by Klimenko. (V. V. Klimenko, A generalized correlation for two-phase forced flow heat
transfer second assessment, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 33, No.
10, pp. 2073 2088, 1990.)
Klimenkos model essentially takes the many different regions shown in Figure 13.19 and
lumps them into two separate regions: one that involves forced convection nucleate boiling and a
second one involving forced convection vaporization typical of the annular flow regime. The
demarcation between these two regions is established by the value of the convective boiling
number, NCB, where

8
N

AA q

l+x
L
1
_l
Pg
J PjJ

(13.97)

The cross-over from forced convection nucleate boiling to forced convection vaporization occurs
for the value of NCB = 1.6 x ion. That is, for NCB < 1.6 x i0
, forced convection nucleate boiling
4
prevails, and for NCB> 1.6 x iOn, forced convection vaporization prevails.
The forced convection nucleate boiling contribution is given by
0.54

,
1
Nit

33
P
6
CPe;
r

(t

0.12

(13.98)

where the Nusselt number for forced convection nucleate boiling, Nub, is
Nu
,
1
=---

(13.99)

where L is the characteristic length for boiling (also known as the Laplace constant) given by
equation (13.62). In equation (13.98) Pe,
, is the modified Peclet number
7
qL.p .c
Pe=
(13.100)
hfgPgkf
and Prf is the Prandtl number for the liquid phase. The constant C appearing in equation (13.98)
depends upon the nature of the fluid and is given in Table 13.6.

Ch. 13 Pg. 66
Table 13.6 Constants in the Forced Convection Nucleate Boiling Correlation
Fluid

Freons (R-22, R-134a, R-1 13, etc.)

Organic fluids
Cryogenic fluids
0
2
H

7.6 x
6.8 x
6.1 x
4.9x

Pr
iO
iO
iO
iO

3.8 2.5
3.5 1.3
1.6 1.0
1.2 0.4

The forced convection vaporization contribution is given by

I

Nu

NI

009
N

0.087Re,6Pr

kf J
PfJ
where forced convection vaporization Nusselt number, Nut, is given by

(13.101)

(13.102)
and Re, is the Reynolds number of the two-phase mixture, viz.
l+x

Re m

Pg

(13.103)

Then for two-phase flow in vertical and horizontal conduits when the perimeter is fully wetted by
liquid and 1.2 x iO <NCB < 2.0 x i0
, the appropriate correlation is
4
max [Nub; Nu j
(13.104)
NuTP
where Nub and Nu are given by equations (13.98) and (13.101), respectively. If NCB < 1.2 x iOn,
equation (13.98) is the appropriate correlation, and if NCB> 2.0 x i0
, equation (13.101) is the
4
appropriate correlation.
Example 13E.11: The steam generator of an energy conversion plant that uses H
0 as the
2
working fluid is constructed with a water tube wall consisting of a collection of stainless steel
tubes (D = 16 mm, k = 15.2 W/m K) welded together, side-by-side, with their axes parallel and
vertical. The heat flux is cj= 106 W/m
2 and the mass flux is n/A 500 kg/rn
2 sec. The H
0 flows
2
vertically upward, and at some point in the flow the saturation temperature is Tv,, = 200 C with a
quality of x = 0.02. At this location in the flow, we wish to determine the temperature of the tube
wall, and the local pressure gradient in the flow.
Solution: From the property tables for the pure substance model for H
0, we have the
2
following properties at T 200 C:
= 1.5549 x 106 N/rn
2 cr=0.03768 N/rn sec Pr
1 =0.9104 k =0.66331W/rn K
ar
3
1 = 0.85227 x 106 I/kg h
h
g = 1.93974 x 106 I/kg
1
Pg = 7.8610 kg/rn
We first calculate the convective boiling number from equation (13.97), viz.
pf

864.66 kg/rn
3

NCB=[ 1+x-1
q
A
Pg
J
N CB

=(soo kg/rn
2

106 J/kg
3
sec)19397 x
1+o.o2864.66 kg/rn
L
6 W/m
rn
2
7.8610 3
kg/rn
J
NCB

643.68

J
3
J]864.66kg/rn

Ch. 13 Pg. 67
Thus, at this point in the flow, the heat transfer process is dominated by forced convection
nucleate boiling as we would have expected given the small value of the quality. Then the heat
transfer coefficient should be calculated from equation (13.98) with C = 4.9 x io. Then we
must first calculate the modified Peclet number Pern. For this we need the specific heat at
constant pressure for the liquid, Cpj= 4495.9 J/kg K and the Laplace constant, LC, viz.
0.03768 N/rn
=2.117 x 10
)(864.66 kg/rn
2
3 7.861 kg/ms)
(PfPg) (9.81 nsec
Then
(106 W/m
)(2.1 17 x10
2
3 m)(864.66 kg/m
)(4495.8 J/kg K)
3

ilLCp,cpf

hfgPkf

(1.93974x 106 J/kg)(7 861 3

kg/rn
)
(o.66331 W/mK)

=813.759

Then
Nu,,

(
L
0
Pr
6
Pe;
33
a

054

0.12

(k
k

2
N
6
10
(2.l17
/m x io
r(1.5549 x )

Nub =4.9 x 103(8l3.759)06(0.9104)0.33[

0.03768 N/rn

m)1

0.54

15.2W/mK
0.66331 W/rnKJ

0 1
-

163.985
Then the heat transfer coefficient for forced convection nucleate boiling becomes
k
0.66331W/rnK
= Nu,,
= 16 3985
=5.137 x
2 K
W/m
(2.117x 10 m
Then the tube wall temperature is given by Newtons Law of Cooling, viz.
106 W/m
2
=200C+
=2l9.47C
wall
at
5.137 x io W/m
2 K
hh
The average density of the two phases is
6
Nu

pp
1 +(lx)p
xp

(864.66 kg/rn)(7.86l kg/rn

)
3

0.02(864.66kg/m)+(10.02)(7.86l kg/rn
)
3

3
=271.92kg/rn

The mass flow rate is

th

(500 kg/rn
2 sec)

2
(0 016 rn)
4

0.1005 kg/sec

The pseudo-viscosity of the two-phase mixture is

I
1x
x
0.02
10.02
+
/1
1.57 15 x
kg/rn sec 1.3432 x io kg/rn sec
p,
Pf
,u*=1.1670x 10 kg/rnsec
Then the Reynolds number for the flow is
4(0.1005 kg/sec)
4th =
Re=
=6.8549 x i0
4
Du
ii (0.016 m)(1.l670 x l0 kg/rn sec)

Ch. 13 Pg. 68
Then the friction factor is

f = (0.7904 In ReI .64)2

[0.7904 In (68549)i .6412

0.0195

Then the pressure gradient due to friction is

2

(dP

II

dzJF

0.0195 (500 kg/rn

2 sec)
2

I
2pDAJ

3
2(271.
)
(0.01
92kg/m
6m)

3
=560.93N
/m

The pressure gradient due to changes in momentum can be calculated from equation (13.92), viz.
(dP

2
d
p
pAJ dz
di

,
1
dzJ

But we can expand the spatial gradient of density with the aid of the chain rule, viz.
dp dp dx
dx dz
dz
The first derivative on the right-hand side can be evaluated with the aid of equation (13.88), viz.
dp

PfPg(PfPg)

cix

2
[xpf+(I_x)pg
]

(864.66 3
kg/m
)
(7.861 3
kg/m
)
(864.66 3
kg/m

7.861 kg/rn
)
3

ci
clx

[0.02 (864.66 kg/rn

) + (1 0.02) (7.861 kg/rn
3
3

=9320.2 kg/rn
2

The second derivative on the right-hand side can be evaluated from equation (13.92), viz.
)
2
= 4
=
4O0 W/m
=0.2578 m
dz Dh
(0.016 m)(l.93974 x 106 J/kg)(500 kg/rn
2 see)
Then the pressure gradient due to momentum changes is
elF
dz

ClZ

p4

)M

(500 kg/rn
2 sec)
2

/p

di

.,

(271.92 kg/m
)
3

dp

(th/A(

dz

)2

2
p

cip dx
clx dz

(9320.2 3
kg/m
)
(0.2578 m)=8123.1 N/rn
3

The pressure gradient due to the gravity body force is

= pg = (271.92 kg/m
)(9.81
3
dz )G
Finally, the total pressure gradient is
dP (dP)
(dFi

=1I +I

dz

dz

)F

dz

sec2) =

(dP
dz

2667.5 N/rn
3

+1
G

=(_56o.93 3
N/m
)
+(_8123.1 N1m
)+(_2667.5 3
3
N/m
)
=_1.1352 x i0
4 N/rn
3

dz
Example 13.12: Consider the steam generator of Example 13.11. Let us examine the
situation further along a typical tube near the dryout point where the quality is x = 0.98.
(a) At this location, calculate the tube wail temperature and estimate the length of tube
over which the phase change occurs.
(b) Calculate the local pressure gradient.

Ch. 13 Pg. 69
Solution: (a) The thermal-fluid properties of interest are identical to those listed in
Example 13.11. Then the convective boiling number now becomes
NCB

A
NCB

(500 kg/rn
2 sec)[

1
Jjp

6
P

1.9397 x 106 J/k[l

1(7.86l0 kg/rn
3
kg/rn
3Y
+0 98[864.66
31
106 W/m
2
7.86 10 kg/rn
j]864.66kg/m3J

4
NCB =2.1824 x i0
This is clearly a situation in which forced convection vaporization dominates and the Nusselt
number is given by equation (13.101), viz.
0.2

Nu

Pg

p009

(kuice
1
k

where the relevant value of the Reynolds number is

7
Re,

th
A.

1
kg/m
2.1173 x l02 sec)[1+O.98864.66
Re, =(soo kg/rn
7.861 kg/m
3 JJl.
3432 x 10 kmsec
Re,, = 8.4974 x
Then
Nu=0.087(8.4974xl0)

0.6

7.861kg/rn
3
(o.91o4)
864.66 kg/rn
3

0.2

15.2W/mK
0.66331 W/m K

Nit =160.116
Then the heat transfer coefficient becomes
k
0.66331 W/rnK
h =Nu -=l06.l16
50161 x io W/m
2 K
2.1 173 x
rn
Then the wall temperature at this location becomes
106 W/m
2
11
T
200C+
=2l9.94C
5.0161 x i0
4 W/rn
2 K
Thus the tube wall temperature is essentially constant over the region where the phase change is
taking place. The length of this region is given by the first law
C

DL=A
h
[JcJ

L=C
AC) D

(1flhfD

C)

(500 kg/rn- sec)

(1.93974x 106 J/kg)(0.016m)

4(106 W/m
)
2

3.88 rn

(b) To determine the pressure gradient due to fluid friction, we first calculate the pseudo
viscosity, viz.
1
0.98
10.98
= x + 1x =
= 1 .60 x I o kg/rn sec
Uf
1 .5715 x 1 o kg/rn sec 1.4332 x I 0 kg/rn sec

Pg

,-

Ch. 13 Pg. 70
Then the Reynolds number becomes
Re=

4th

4(0.lOO5kg/sec)

irDp

r(0.016 m)(l.60 x io- kg/rn sec)

=5.0008x10 5

Then the friction factor becomes

2
(0.79041n Re1.64)

[0.7904111(5.0008 x i0)_ 1.64]2

0.0131

Then the pressure gradient due to friction becomes

dP
I
dzJF

2 sec)
0.0131(500km
2
=

!I
2pDAJ

2(271.92 kg/m
)(0.016 m)
3

3
=377.26N/rn

As in Example 13.11, the pressure gradient due to momentum changes is given by

/

(dJ-fl

in
dp
pA.J dz

7
dzJ

and
dp
dz

c/p dx
dx dz

where
dp
dx

PfPg(PfPg)
[xpf+(l_x)pJ

and
)(7.861 kg/m
3
)(864.66 kg/rn
3
(864.66 kg/rn
3 7.861 kg/rn
)
3

dp
dx

[0.98(864.66 kg/rn
) + (1 0.98)(7.861 kg/rn3)
3

and from Example 13.11, dx/dz

2
81077kg/rn

0.2578 m. Then

= (8.1077 kg/m)(0.2578 m1) = 2.0899 kg/rn

3
dz
and the pressure gradient due to momentum changes becomes

(dP
dz JM

(500 kg/rn
2 sec)
2

dP

(lZ)

th d
dp(th/Ac)
2
pdx
clx dz
dZ
p4
2
p

(2.0899 kg/m
)(o.2578
3

rn_I)

7.066 N/rn
3

(271.92 kg/m
)
3

which is quite small since most of the mass has already been converted from liquid to vapor. The
pressure gradient due to the gravity body force is identical to Example 13. 11. Then
=pg =(27l.92 kg/m)(9.8l rn!sec2)=_2667.5 N/rn
3
diG

and the total pressure gradient is given by

dP (dP

(dP\

=II +1I

dz

dz

)F

dz

)M

(cIP

+I
,

dz

)+(_7.0663 N/m
3
N/rn
)+(_2667.5 N/rn
3
)=_3.0518 x
3

3
N/rn

Ch. 13 Pg. 71
Comparing this result with that of Example 13.11, we see that the pressure gradient decreases as
the mass is converted from the liquid phase to the vapor phase. Eventually, in vertical Llpward
flow, the largest contribution to the pressure gradient is due to the gravity body force.
13.14.2 Condensation Heat Transfer
Consider the physical situation in which a solid surface with a temperature
is
exposed to a saturated vapor at a pressure
with a corresponding saturation temperature
If
<
will
1
Tj
some
of
the
vapor
condense
and
form
the
liquid
condensation
phase.
Since
the
tface
4
Tsz
process involves the transfer of the latent heat, it usually gives rise to relatively high heat fluxes
with correspondingly high heat transfer coefficients. For this reason, the condensation process
plays an important role in thermal-fluids engineering practice and is the dominant mechanism of
heat transfer in a large class of thermal-fluids engineering equipment, known as condensers, that
are commonly found in energy conversion plants and refrigeration plants. The condensation
process is also important in the processing of many materials such as the refinement of petroleum
and the desalination of water to name only two of many examples.
The condensation process is a complex one that can proceed by both homogeneous
nucleation and heterogeneous nucleation mechanisms. Of these, the heterogeneous mechanism
involving some sort of foreign body or surface imperfection is by far the most common. When
the vapor condenses on the solid surface, it forms nuclei which grow and can form liquid
droplets leading to a phenomenon known as drop wise condensation. In dropwise condensation,
the liquid droplets are dispersed over the surface with the condensation occurring at very
localized sites. These liquid droplets eventually coalesce to form much larger droplets which then
move over the surface under the influence of gravity body forces or drag forces. This gives rise to
very high heat transfer coefficients since the area involved in the heat transfer process is so small.
On the other hand, these nuclei may involve the formation of a liquid film leading to a
phenomenon known asfllniwise condensation. In filmwise condensation, the liquid is dispersed
over the condensing surface in a more or less uniform manner and moves under the influence of
gravity. As a result, the heat transfer coefficients characteristic of filmwise condensation are
typically smaller than those characteristic of dropwise condensation, usually by an order of
magnitude or more. This offers the possibility that condensers involving dropwise condensation
can be made much smaller and at lower cost. Unfortunately, despite the fact that dropwise
condensation is the phenomenon commonly observed on the outside surface of a cold beverage
container, for reasons explained below, dropwise condensation is not easily achieved nor
maintained in industrial equipment.
Whether the condensation process proceeds in a dropwise or filmwise manner depends
upon whether the liquid formed wets the surface. The wetting of the surface is a result of the
contact angle between the liquid-vapor interface and the condensing surface. If the vapor
involved in the condensation process is H
0 and the resulting liquid phase wets the surface, the
2
surface is said to be hydrophilic whereas if the surface is not wet by the liquid, the surface is said
to be hydrophobic. A hydrophobic surface results in dropwise condensation and a hydrophilic
surface results in filmwise condensation. Surfaces can be made hydrophobic or hydrophilic by
treatment with appropriate chemical agents, so in principle at least, the thermal-fluids engineer
has some flexibility in the design of condensing surfaces.
Since condensing surfaces ultimately must transfer the energy and entropy to some other
fluid medium, the surface must have good conduction heat transfer characteristics. For this
reason, metals are the materials of choice for condensing surfaces. Clean metal surfaces tend to
be hydrophobic and contaminated metal surfaces tend to be hydrophilic. However, clean metal

Ch. 13 Pg. 72
surfaces usually become quickly contaminated due to impurities in the prevailing environment
and revert to hydrophilic character. Many polymer surfaces are naturally hydrophobic but have
poor conduction heat transfer characteristics and therefore are not used as condensing surfaces.
The net result of all these considerations is that filmwise condensation is the more common
mechanism in condensing equipment and, for this reason, will be considered here in detail.
The study of the condensation heat transfer process naturally divides into two
classifications: external condensation and internal condensation. External condensation
commonly occurs on the walls of vessels that are exposed to saturated vapors, as is the case of
the cold beverage container in a humid environment, or it may occur when saturated vapors are
exposed to tubes in which a cooling medium is flowing as is the case on the shell side in a shelland-tube condenser. Internal condensation commonly occurs inside tubes in which a saturated
vapor is flowing, as is the case of the condenser in a household refrigerator. In either case, the
temperature of the condensing surface is less than the saturation temperature of the vapor to
which it is exposed. We begin our analysis with the case of external condensation.
13.14.2.1 Filmwise Condensation on a Vertical Flat Plate
The most widely used formulation of filmwise condensation is that due to Nusselt who
presented the following treatment in 1916. Consider the case of a vertical flat plate that bounds a
volume containing a saturated vapor at a pressure
and a temperature T,,,. The temperature of
the plate surface is maintained at the value
Since
, a liquid film of thickness
11
<T
forms on the surface of the plate.
cat

Saturated vapor

Liquid control volume

Figure 13.20 Liquid Film Condensing on a Vertical Flat Plate

As shown in Figure 13.20, the condensing liquid film forms at the leading edge of the
plate, x = 0, and descends down the plate under the influence of a body force that is the net result
of the gravity body force and the buoyancy force provided by the displacement of the vapor. In
the Nusselt analysis of this situation, it is assumed that the flow in the film is laminar. Then the
motion of this liquid film is retarded by a shear force due to the shear stress in the film. In the

Ch. 13 Pg. 73
steady state when inertial effects are no longer operative, the body force is just balanced by the
shear force and the velocity profile in the film becomes fully developed. Then for the differential
liquid control volume of length dx identified in Figure 13.20, the equation of motion reduces to
(_Y)dx(Pf_Pg)Pf[dx
(13.105)
dy
Then separating variables and integrating equation (13.105) from the surface of the plate where
the liquid velocity is zero to some arbitrary location y in the film where the velocity is z, we get
1 -pjg
(p

(-y)dy= rd

(Pi_Px)g
y
6
2

Jif

2]

(13.106)

If we define the mass flow rate per unit film width Fas
1 rdy
F=p
we can substitute equation (13.106) and integrate to get

(13.107)

r= pf(pfpg)g IY_rdY= pjg6

(13.108)
3
Pf
but this is a local result since the film thickness varies in the x-direction due to the condensation.
To account for this, we differentiate equation (13.108) with respect to 6. Then
2j

pf(pf_p)g32

(13 109)

d6

jt

There exists in the film a temperature gradient given by

dy

(13.110)

Then for a differential control volume of the film of length dx and thickness 6, the rate of heat
transfer across the film by conduction from the liquid-vapor interface to the surface of the plate is
given by
dQ

idx

k(T
sat Tsurface )dx
f

(13.111)

At the liquid-vapor interface of the differential element, there is a heat transfer due to the
condensation process at the interface (Here.), viz.
dF
dFd6
dQ=qdx=h dx=Ii dx
(13.112)
dx
d6 dx
where we have neglected subcooling in the liquid in comparison with the latent heat. Combining
equations (13.109), (13.111), and (13.112), we get a differential equation for 6 = (x)
kf
dx

(tat urface)

pf(pfpg)ghfgS

Integrating equation (13.113) with respect to x, we get

(13.113)

Ch. 13 Pg. 74
I

1p
k

b/5

(at

p (p
=

zce)

x (Tm,
1
4kp

I dX

1
gh

Tujce)

(13.114)
Pf (Pf Pg ghjg
The heat flux can be determined in two ways either by Newtons Law of Cooling applied
between the condensing surface and the vapor, or by the Fourier Conduction Law applied across
the film. Both approaches yield the same result and can, therefore, be equated. Thus, the
condensation heat transfer coefficient becomes
k @TIdv) k
=_L
h cond = /
(13.115)
TSat
wail
In Nusselts original formulation, he non-dimensionalized the heat transfer coefficient in terms of
the local coordinate x. This non-dimensional parameter is now known as the Nusselt number and
takes the form

hCOfld

Nit

pj (p

Pg gh x

1
4k,pix(T

(13. 116)

zc,face)

where we have made use of equation (13.115).

If the condensing film remains laminar over its entire length, we can determine the
average heat transfer coefficient to be
h=rh
corn!
L

((00/

(x)dx=1Idx=
L

pfkf(pfpjghf

pf

3(4))

tuiace)

pJkf
(
3
pf_pg)ghfg
X

(i

1L

dx

J o (4x)

I,q(ce)

=0.943

(13.117)
/tfL(:at

Then the average value of the Nusselt number over the length of the plate becomes
=

hL
1
k

0.943

Pf
Pf k

1
Pg g

(at

(13.118)

It must be remembered that this result is valid only so long as the film remains laminar.
One of the shortcomings of the Nusselt model for laminar film condensation of a vapor
on a vertical flat plate is that it fails to account for the convection of energy as the liquid moves
through the control volume. As is evident from equation (13.112), the heat flux into the
differential control volume is assumed to be simply due to the latent heat of the condensing
vapor. In reality, there is a temperature gradient in the liquid and the liquid becomes subcooled as
it moves through the control volume. In order to account for this effect, it is necessary to rewrite
the first law for the differential control volume in the form so that the new form of equation
(13.112) becomes

dQ=qdx=

kj(Tat)dX
ice

dF

(13.119)
6
Equation (13.119) simply is a statement of the fact that the energy that enters the surface of the

Ch. 13 Pg. 75
plate by conduction in the liquid at the surface of the plate, is the net result of the condensation
heat flow and the difference between the enthalpy of the liquid entering and leaving the
differential control volume in the x-direction. If we now substitute the velocity profile of
equation (13.106) and the linear temperature profile in the liquid
tarT
T

=l

(13.120)

iu,face

into equation (13.119), we get

(1Q

(Pf

i dx+[J

[6Y_](at

(13.121)
d =hfg dx+

(c(t

tnface)[TJ

which after carrying out the integration and rearranging terms becomes
dQ

hfg

dF

dx +

Pj(PfP)g

1 IjT
c,

Tfr \)

dQ = h dx+
1 (Tat
k

cue dx

kf (tat

d(3F)

(T
,
1
,

dx

Tsu,fte)

( dx

-j--j

dx

3 c (.a, uce)
_hfg l+
dx
hfg

urface dx

dF
=h dx
dx
*

(13.122)

where
h* =h.

Cpj(at_,c)

1+
8

1h8

(13.123)

Since equation (13.122) is identical in form to the combination of equations (13.112) and
(13.113), we can account for the effect of subcooling in the liquid by simply replacing the latent
heat h
g in equations (13.116) and (13.118) by a pseudo-latent heat h
1
g given by equation
1
(13.123). A more detailed analysis by Rohsenow (Rohsenow, W. M., Heat Transfer and
Temperature Distribution in Laminar Film Condensation, Transactions of the ASME, vol. 78,
pp. 1645 1648, 1956.) shows that the temperature distribution is not linear, but slightly curved,
and that the film thickness is slightly greater than that predicted by equation (13.114). The net
result is that the heat transfer rate is slightly greater than that predicted by the Nusselt analysis.
Rohsenow showed that these additional effects can be introduced into the Nusselt analysis by
modifying the constant in equation (13.123) so that the pseudo-latent heat becomes

h fg =h 1+0.68

cpj(at_j,ce)

1
h

(13.124)

In our analysis of the condensing film, we could have followed the example of Mills
(Mills, A. F., Heat Transfer, Richard D. Irwin Publishers, Boston, MA, Chapter 7, 1992) and
adopted an approach slightly different from that of Nusselt. The film Reynolds number is defined

Ch. 13 Pg. 76
in terms of the mean velocity and the hydraulic diameter of the film. Thus,
Rer-L
I-ti

(13.125)

where F is the mass flow rate per unit width of film whose local thickness (x) is given by
equation (13.114). Then

(Pf_PjPf
3
46
(13.126)
tIf
3

However, typically p <<,c and

can be neglected in comparison to 1

p Then
= 4g6
2
p
3
53
Rer

(13.127)

3VfJ

Jf
3

If we now define a characteristic length for condensation L

011 such that
2

(v
=

(13.128)

the film Reynolds number becomes

(13.129)

Rer=

We now define the Nusselt number for condensation in terms of this characteristic length LC(,fld as
Nicr,fld

hCU,IdLO,U,

hCO,Id

(v2

/g

(1 3. 1 30)

While the film thickness might seem to be the appropriate length scale to use in the definition
of the Nusselt number, LQ,d is a better choice since is unknown and must be determined
separately. If we substitute equations (13.115) and (13.129) into equation (13.130), we have the
dimensionless relation

NuCO,ld

Re

(13.131)

which depends only on the local value of and is valid only so long as the film remains laminar.
The falling film is inherently unstable with the possibility of small amplitude waves
forming on the surface at any value of the film Reynolds number. However, it has been shown by
experiment that by the time the film Reynolds number reaches a value of Re = 33, the
probability of wave formation is high enough that equation (13.13 1) is no longer valid. Beyond
this value, the film takes on a character known as wavy laminar with small amplitude waves
appearing on the interface between the vapor and the liquid. In this regime, which persists up to a
film Reynolds number of approximately Re = 1600, the experimental data of Chun and Seban
(Chun, K. R. And Seban, R. A., Heat Transfer to Evaporating Liquid Films, Journal of Heat
Transfer, vol. 93, pp. 391 396, 1971.) for the condensation Nusselt number can be correlated
by
J
1
0.822Re
= 22
(13.132)
In the range of Reynolds numbers 1400 <Ret < 2000, the laminar film undergoes a
transition to a fully turbulent film. In this turbulent regime, according to the work of Chun and

Ch. 13 Pg. 77
Seban (op. cit.), the condensation Nusselt number can be correlated by the expression
= 3.8 x i0 65
Prf
4
ReF

(13.133)

For the average value of the Nusselt number over the length of the vertical flat plate, L,
we must integrate the above results. If we take x to be the local position measured from the top of
the wall and if we assume the liquid film to be saturated liquid at the vapor/liquid interface with
a temperature gradient within the film, it follows that the enthalpy carried into the film by the
condensing vapor must be conducted away through the wall (assuming subcooling of the film is
negligible relative to the latent heat). Then for a unit width of the plate
= k
1 (Tsat Tcu,face)
k
= h
(13.134)
dx
v J
0

Substituting the expressions for the local values of Re and Nu, we get
ph
dx
=
I 1
dRer
2
1
4k
(vf / g
u,face Nu
(af

(13.135)

But since the Prandtl number for the liquid in the film is given by
1
Pr

= PC
1

(13.136)

and the Jakob number is given by

=Cpj(Tat_urjace)

Ja

(13.137)

g
1
h

we can write
dx
2
1
(v

/ g)

If the condensation begins atx = 0 with F

over a length L down the wall to get

1 dRe
Pr

0 and Re

Pi

L
(vj2/g)

( 13 138 )
.

1 Nit
4Ja
=

0, we can integrate equation (13.138)

IReL dRe

4Ja
J
1
o

(13.139)

Nu

We can define the average Nusselt number for this length of film to be
NuC(,,l(l

( /g

(13.140)

The average heat transfer coefficient can be determined by applying the first law to a unit width
of the plate over the length L and combining it with Newtons Law of Cooling. Then

FLhfg

=h,,
(
1
/L(T,

ReL

uace)

(13.141)

where the subscript Lou the mass flow rate indicates that equation (13.108) should be evaluated
at a value of oat x = L. Combining equations (13.140) and (13.141), we get
011
Nu

Pr

2,
/
1 igj
V

1
4Ja

ReL

(13.142)

Ch. 13 Pg. 78
We can carry out the integration of equation (13.139) over the length L and solve for the average
Reynolds number.
For example, substituting equation (13.13 1) into equation (13.139), we get
Prf

1dRer
Nu
(vf2Ig)4f

Prf

0
J

1
Re

4/

Pr (3V3
4/
dRer
ReL
3
4Jaf4

1
4Ja

(13.143)

Equation (13. 143) can be solved for ReL to give

ReL =

r4Ja
4
1

1I

3[

<30

(laminar)

(13.144)

(vf2/g)J

Substituting equation (13.144) into equation (13.142), we get

NuCOfla

4
(vf2Ig)1

Prf

Jaf
4
L
3

(13.145)

Similarly, for the wavy-laminar regime, substituting equations (13.132) into (13.139) and
integrating, we get
L

(wavy laminar)

<Rerr

(13.146)

and the Nusselt number becomes

0.18

Nit cond

(vf2lg)A

Jaf
4

(13.147)

where the transition Reynolds number for a turbulent film is in the range 1400 < Ret,. < 2000 with
Ret,. = 1600 a typical value.
In the turbulent regime, the location of the transition from wavy-laminar to turbulent is
obtained by substituting equations (13.13 1) and (13.132) into equation (13.139), integrating and
solving for the location of the transition, viz.
1
X

1 .00

Pr.
1
4Ja

(vf2Ig)

(13.148)

22
Retr

Now substitute equation (13.133) into equation (13.139) and integrate to get
35
Prf

(vf2/g) =

(vf2Ig)

[ReL06

4(3.8 x 10
)(0.6)Jaf
3

R err

0.61

(13.149)

Upon solving equation (13.149) for ReL and substituting into equation (13.142), we get

p,

(vf2/g)

Jaf
4

12
.
9
r

x 10
Jai(Lx,r)
3
2

(vf / g

) Prf

0.35

6
+Retr

(13.150)

Ch. 13 Pg. 79
13.14.2.2 Filmwise Condensation on a Horizontal Cylinder
As mentioned previously, another common example of external condensation is the heat
transfer process that occurs in a shell-and-tube condenser when a saturated vapor flows in the
shell and is exposed to the outside wall of the tubes in which a low temperature fluid is flowing.
Filmwise condensation results, and since the diameter of a typical tube is small, the resulting film
Reynolds number is small. Thus, the flow in the film is laminar in character. Under these
circumstances, the Nusselt model is applicable with minor modifications. In addition, as we
mentioned in Section 13.14.1.5, the results of this analysis are applicable to film boiling as well.
The geometry of interest is essentially a horizontal cylinder with an isothermal outer
surface as shown in Figure 13.21.

Tsutace

Sat. vapor
Tsat

g
Liquid film

Figure 13.21 Horizontal Cylinder with Condensing Film

The condensing film begins at the position 0 = 0 and increases in thickness as the film flows
down over the surface of the cylinder under the influence of gravity. For a unit width of the film
measured along the horizontal axis of the cylinder, the first law is the same as equation (13.134),
viz.
k(T_T.wuface
dF
dQ = h
1g dx =
dx
(13.134)
dx
where we have once again neglected the subcooling in the film. Since the body force per unit
volume is now gsin6, the laminar velocity profile in the film becomes [cf Equation (13.106)j
1!

(pp )gsiner

(13.152)

2)

pf

and the mass flow rate per unit width of film measured along the axis of the cylinder is [cf
equation (13.109)]
1
p

Iov_rdy

If

0
J

Pf

2)

If

(13.153)

Then
6=F

Pf (P _pg)gsin6

(13.154)

Since x = R we have
dF
dx

dF dO
dO dx

1 dF
R dO

(13.155)

Ch. 13 Pg. 80
Substituting equations (13.154) and (13.155) into equation (13.134), we get

rir=

Rkf

pJ(pfpjg

sin*OdO

Iz

(13.156)

which can be integrated

FdF

= Rkf (at
g
1
h

u,ce)

Pg g

in OdO

/Lf
3

2.5871 Rkf
3/

Fh = 1.9232

Pj (Pf

1
k
3
R

(p pjg
urrace) Pf 1
hfg
hf

(rat

)3
(tar

Tsu,fae

Pf (P

Pg g

hfg
/
3
Jf

(13.157)

where h is the mass flow rate per unit axial width over one-half the cylinder. Then for a control
volume surrounding the entire cylinder, the heat transfer rate per unit axial width, in the absence
of subcooling of the liquid, becomes
g = irDh,,ji(Iat _TLt,face)
h
1
Q = 2F

(13.158)

Solving equation(13.158) for the condensing heat transfer coefficient and substituting equation
(13.157), we get
h cond =0.728

p(pp)ghk
g
Jg
p D (at ulce)

(13.159)

and the average Nusselt number becomes

NuD

1R*
hD
cond
=z0728
j
kf
JaJ

s-

where Ra is a modified form of the Rayleigh number

Pf(Pf_Pd)D&f

(13.160)

(13.161)

hf
and Ja is the Jakob number.
In most condenser designs, the tubes used as conduits of the cooling medium are arranged
in some sort of array, either an in-line array or a staggered array depending upon the particular
design of the heat exchanger. In either case, there is usually one tube above another which results
in the liquid flowing off the upper tube onto the lower tube. There results, then, a cascading
liquid sheet with the surface tension of the liquid preserving the integrity of the sheet as it moves
downward in the tube array. In actual fact, the surface tension causes the sheet to break up into
columns of the liquid (cf Figure 13.22.).

Ch. 13 Pg. 81

si

c:r:

2]d R:

arii*i
L
1W1

a-.i

y-II

tn R w

i1b Rw

.,

1h

J
Figure 13.22 Photograph of Cascading Condensing Liquid on a Tube Bundle
(From J. G. Collier and J. R. Thome, Convective Boiling and Condensation, 3 Edition
,
Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 451, Fig. 10.7.)
Nusselt was able to extend the analysis of equation (13.156) by recognizing that the
liquid
flowing over the surface of one tube was comprised of two components: the vapor
condensing on
that tube and the liquid draining down from the tube above. Thus, the limits of integra
tion on
equation (13.157) are changed so that for the ith tube in the column of tubes

F =2.3917

)3

1 (T
k
3
R

1
Pf (p

p g

A
(13.162)

hf
Continuity requires

j.i,ottoin

i-l.bottom

=2.3917[

k
3
R
(
at
f

3)
Ttiice

pjg

1
p
3
h

A
(13.163)

Then it follows that

i 2.39 17

kf (tat
3
R

)3

1 (p
P
1

uace

lZfJllf

Pg g

A
(13.164)

Then for the ith tube, the equivalent of equation (13.158) becomes
2
h
fgfih(?It(?,n =

Dh,,zi(Trat

Tc,,e)

(13.165)

Then for N tubes placed one above the other, the average condensing heat transfer coeffic
ient for

Ch. 13 Pg. 82
each tube in the array becomes
h=O.728
comi

Pj
NDpf (at

3
h fg k
1

(13.166)

titjace)

Since we have shown in equation (13.123) that the liquid film between tubes is subcooled by an
amount (3/8)(T
0 Iiace), it is possible that additional condensation occurs on this portion of
the liquid film. If we assume that all of this subcooling is consumed by condensation, Chen
(Chen, M. M., An Analytical Study of Laminar Film Condensation, Part 2: Single and Multiple
Horizontal Tubes, Journal of Heat Transfer, vol. 83, pp. 55 60, 1961.) has shown that the
numerical coefficient in equation (13.166) becomes

Ii

(010/

0.728 1+0.2 (N 1)

(r

..)

hf

3
p(p p )gh k.
I

1 (1
NDp

(13.167)

provided that
(13.168)

[(N_l)1

It should be noted that the foregoing analyses do not account for superheat of the vapor,
shear at the vapor-liquid interface, and non-condensable gases. For consideration of these and
other effects, the reader should consult more advanced treatments of the subject such as those
cited previously.
13.14.2.3 Condensation Inside a Horizontal Tube
In many applications of condenser designs, the condensation process occurs within a tube
instead of on the outside of a tube. Such is the case, for example, in the condenser of a household
refrigerator. These condensers are usually modeled as three separate heat exchangers in series.
The first heat exchanger is the desuperheater which operates entirely in the single phase
superheated vapor region with the fluid entering as a superheated vapor and exiting as a saturated
vapor. Analysis of this section employs the heat transfer correlations of Chapter 11. The fluid
then passes to the condenser proper where the conversion from saturated vapor to saturated
liquid occurs. The analysis of this component makes use of the correlations described below.
Finally, there is the subcooled liquid heat exchanger where the saturated liquid is subcooled
below the saturation temperature. This component is also analyzed using the correlations of
Chapter 11.
In the condenser proper, the analysis is complicated by the fact that the character of the
flow changes as the heat transfer process takes place. As the flow progresses from the inlet where
the fluid is essentially saturated vapor, x 1, to the outlet where the fluid is essentially saturated
liquid, x z 0, the flow can assume various forms as shown in Figure 13.23. Under these
circumstances, it is first necessary to establish the flow regime before proceeding with the
analysis. Berber, et al. (G. Berber, I. W. Palen, and J. Taborek, Prediction of Tubeside
Condensation of Pure Components Using Flow Regime Criteria, International Journal of Heat
Transfer, vol. 83, pp. 471 476, 1980.) propose classifications for the flow regimes based upon
the dimensionless mass velocity of the vapor phase, viz.
=

x(th/A)
C
[gpg(pf_pg)D

(13.169)
2

Ch. 13 Pg. 83
and the Lockhart-Martinelli parameter, X,
0.1

0.5

xtr

Pg

Pf

J
1
p

5
.p

(13.170)

4H7

:
:1;

::

$1

_./

Figure 13.23 Flow Regimes in a Horizontal Condenser Tube

(From P. J. Marto, Condensation, in Handbook of Heat Transfer, 3 Ed., edited by W.
M. Rohsenow, J. P. Hartnett, and Y. I. Cho, McGraw-Hill, N. Y., 1998, Chapter 14, 14.32, Fig.
14.21.)
The flow regimes are:
1.5

X <1.0

mist and annular flows

j <0.5
j <0.5
j >1.5

X <1.0

wavy and stratified flows

, >1.5
1
X

slug flow

, >1.5
1
X

bubble flow

>

(13.171)

The analysis proceeds by breaking the condenser up into discrete elements of length LL along the
flow axis and establishing the flow condition for that element. Then the first law combined with
Newtons Law of Cooling for the element in question becomes

(13.172)
knd nDz\L (T(,, Tw,f(lc.e = thh jg Ax
where the fractional decrease in the quality Ax is taken as the independent variable. Then the
length of the element AL is given by
1
thu
(13.173)
h COU/ D (at uace)
where d
01 is the local value of the condensing heat transfer coefficient determined from one of
h
the following correlations. The total length of the tube is then the sum of all the AL.
=

Ch. 13 Pg. 84
Since the vapor velocity is typically high (jg*> 1.5) in condensers, the flow is often
annular in character along most of its length. Gravitational effects are negligible and the flow is
turbulent with the condensate forming as a thin annular film along the tube wall with no
stratification. For this regime, Traviss et al. (D. P. Traviss, W. M. Rohsenow, and A. B. Baron,
Forced Convection Condensation inside Tubes: A Heat Transfer Equation for Condenser
Design, ASHRAE Transactions, vol. 79,pp. 157 165, 1972.) suggest the following correlation:
= PiRe
9
0.15< <15

Ref

(th/AJ(lx)D
If

F
2
F
2
F

1
5Pr

+5

ln[l

r+
1
.
0
=
5
1
Lx

2.85
476
X
]

5
R
1
0.707Pr
e

(13.174)

Ref <50

Pi (0.0964Re

1)1

2 =5Pr
F
1 +51n(1+5Prj)+2.51n(0.0031Re812)

50< Re
1 <1125
1 >1125
Re

As the condensation process proceeds, the vapor velocity decreases

<0.5) and the
flow cannot sustain annular flow. The flow then becomes dominated by the gravitational body
force acting on the liquid. Then the condensate forms a thin film on the top portion of the tube
wall that flows downward along the wall under the influence of gravity. The liquid then collects
in the lower portion of the tube and the flow becomes stratified. This situation is similar to the
case of filmwise condensation on the outside of a cylinder as described in Section 13.14.2.2. The
condensation heat transfer coefficient can then be correlated by a modified Nusselt form, viz.
h

)fl(/

=0728K

3
pf(pfpg)ghJkf
1 (at
NDp

u,face)

(13.175)
K=

where the factor K accounts for the fraction of the tube surface that is stratified. Typically, the
quality is low, x < 0.2 and the Reynolds number of the flow becomes laminar due to the large
difference in viscosity between the liquid and vapor.
The pressure drop in the tube can be calculated by again breaking the length of the tube
into discrete elements as was done for the heat transfer analysis and determining the pressure
gradient at the midpoint of each element by means of equation (13.84). Then the pressure drop
for that element is given by
(13.176)
The total pressure drop is then the sum of the individual pressure drops.

Ch. 13 Pg. 85

13.15 Thermosyphons and Heat Pipes

One of the most interesting applications of the pure substance model is that of the heat
pipe, the forerunner of which was the thermosyphon. These devices typically operate in the
steady-state with the purpose of maintaining some object at constant the temperature by
transferring large amounts of energy and entropy through a small temperature difference, thereby
generating little entropy in the process. The device accomplishes this feat by utilizing a pure
substance as the working fluid and exploiting the latent heat of the substance as the means of
transporting the large amount of energy in a relatively compact system. The high heat transfer
rates then become a consequence of the large heat fluxes associated with the processes of boiling
and condensation in the pure substance. As it turns out, the sequence of processes experienced by
the working fluid in a heat pipe or thermosyphon is quite similar, in part, to the sequence of
processes experienced by the working fluid in a Rankine heat engine cycle (to be discussed in
detail in Chapter 16). While modern heat pipes were originally developed for the space program,
the most common application of the heat pipe at the present time is the cooling of electronic
devices such as the central processing unit (CPU) of a laptop computer.
13.15.1 Thermosyphons
The thermosyphon is not a new concept. The original manifestation of the thermosyphon
was presented in a series of patents by the Perkins family filed in the United Kingdom over the
time period ranging from the mid-nineteenth century to the early twentieth century. The U. K.
patent filed by Jacob Perkins in 1836 showed a configuration, now known as the Perkins tube,
that closely resembles the presentday heat pipe. More recently in 1929, Gay obtained a U. S.
patent for a device that was basically a collection of Perkins tubes used to transfer energy and
entropy between a hot fluid stream and a cold fluid stream. In 1944, Gaugler obtained a patent for
a thermosyphon used to transfer a refrigeration load (by evaporating a liquid) at an elevated
location to a lower elevation by using capillary forces to return the condensed liquid from the
lower location to the higher location; however, it was not until 1966 that the term heat pipe
was coined in a U. S. patent granted to G. Grover of the Los Alamos National Laboratory.
As shown in Figure 13.24, the thermosyphon, in its simplest form, consists of a boiler and
a condenser connected by two conduits that facilitate the transport of mass between them. In a
typical application, the boiler is placed in contact with an object, such as an electronic device,
that is generating entropy by ineversibly dissipating energy. fri order to maintain the surface
temperature of the object constant, it is necessary to transport the generated entropy and
dissipated energy to an energy and entropy sink, such as the atmosphere, usually in a location
remote from the object being cooled. The dissipated energy, in the form of a heat flux, flows
from the object, through a thermal resistance, into the boiler that contains a pure substance in a
two-phase state of liquid and vapor. This heat flux converts some liquid into vapor which is then
transported upward through a conduit to the condenser. The condenser is in contact with the
energy and entropy sink through another thermal resistance. The temperature of the inner surface
of the condenser is less than the saturation temperature of the vapor, thereby resulting in
condensation of the vapor on this surface. The liquid thus formed then flows by gravity back to
the boiler where the process begins once again. If all the conduit hardware can be modeled as
adiabatic, it follows that Q,, =
In the steady state, the temperature of the pure substance in the boiler is determined by the
thermal resistance between the surface of the object being cooled and the pure substance, the
surface temperature of the object, and the heat flux from the object. Typically, the surface

Ch. 13 Pg. 86

Energy/entropy sink (atmosphere)

Condenser

Adiabiatic
conduits

Liquid

Vapor
Pure substance (two-phase)
Boiler

Themal contact resistance

Object being cooled

fliuUflDfl
Figure 13.24 Simple Thermosyphon Configuration
temperature of the object is a design parameter usually fixed by the desired operating conditions
of the object. The temperature of the pure substance fixes the pressure in the boiler since the pure
substance is in a two-phase state. This pressure is the inlet pressure for the vapor conduit. The
temperature of the pure substance in the condenser is determined by the heat flux, the thermal
resistance between the energy/entropy sink and the pure substance, and the temperature of the
energy/entropy sink. This temperature fixes the pressure in the condenser since there are two
phases present. This now establishes the pressure drop across the vapor conduit. The mass flow
rate through the vapor conduit is determined by the heat transfer rate and the latent heat of
vaporization of the pure substance. The first law for the vapor conduit determines the change in
velocity of the vapor as it flows through the conduit. For the established pressure drop, the size of
the vapor conduit (L/D ratio) can then be determined by applying the Darcy-Weisbach Law and
the friction factor data for the conduit.
For the liquid conduit, the design is complicated by the fact that in the steady state, the
flow of the liquid is counter to the pressure drop between the boiler and the condenser and,
therefore, depends upon a balance between the body force due to gravity that drives the flow and
the combined effect of the normal surface forces (due to pressure) and shear forces, both of
which oppose the flow. (As we shall see shortly, the heat pipe introduces additional forces that
aid in the transport of liquid against the adverse pressure gradient.) This means that the length of
this conduit is an important design consideration since the pressure drop is fixed by the operating
conditions in the boiler and the condenser, and, as the Navier-Stokes equation shows, it is the
pressure gradient that determines the normal force per unit volume acting on the fluid contained
within the conduit at any instant of time.
The thermal-fluid behavior of a thermosyphon can be best illustrated by considering a
specific example as shown in Example 13.13.
Example 13.13: The objective in the present example is to design a thermosyphon to cool
the CPU, a Pentium 4 processor manufactured by the Intel Corporation, for a personal
computer. The specifications set by Intel are that the maximum allowable case temperature of the

Ch. 13 Pg. 87
CPU is Tcae = 70.8 C. Due primarily to the high-speed switching of the capacitive elements of
the CPU, the Pentium 4 dissipates 115 W of electrical power in the steady state. The
thermosyphon must be capable of providing adequate cooling to maintain the case temperature at
the maximum value when the environmental temperature, the energy sink temperature, reaches a
maximum value of Te,,,, 38 C. The thermosyphon is attached to the CPU case with a thermal
interface material (TIM) that has a thermal resistance of RTJM = 0.04 C/W. The contact area
between the case of the CPU and the boiler is a square 31 mm on a side. The condenser surface is
a square of aluminum 10 cm on a side. We wish to specify the design of a thermosyphon, using
0 as the working fluid, adequate to provide the necessary cooling of the CPU.
2
H
Solution: If we assume that the material of construction of the boiler is of high thermal
conductivity such as copper or aluminum, the only thermal resistances of consequence between
the case of the CPU and the bulk liquid of the pure substance working fluid of the thermosyphon
are those of the TIM and the boiling interface of the pure substance/boiler surface. In order to
evaluate the thermal resistance, or alternatively, the heat transfer coefficient of the boiling heat
transfer process in the boiler, we must establish approximately the operating temperature of the
boiler. The temperature difference between the isothermal boiler surface and the isothermal case
of the CPU is given by
ase
1:Tbll

suiface

)ai1er =
surface

(115W)(0.04 C/W)4.6 C

Then
T,oiier

Tcase 4.6 C

70.8 C4.6 C

66.2 C

surface

The heat flux into the boiler is

.Q
A,

Ws=1L967W/cm2
5
ll
(3.1 cm)

Although Figure 13.11 is for boiling at atmospheric pressure, we can use this plot to establish the
boiling regime. Figure 13.11 shows that this heat flux is clearly in the nucleate boiling regime for
water. Then the temperature difference between the boiler surface and the pool of water is given
by equation (13.68), viz.
C .f.h fg Prf
1,o,Ier

sutyace

sat

Cpf

From Figure 13.11 (which is for T,,, = 100 C), it would appear that the Tbetween the boiler
surface and the pool of saturated liquid in the present case is on the order of 15 C. Then if we use
the properties of H
0 at a temperature of 50 C, we should be able to determine a good estimate of
2
the saturation temperature of the liquid. Then from the tabulated properties of H,O at T, = 50 C,
we have
hfg =2381.95 kJ/kg p =988.00 kg/rn
3 Pg =0.083147 kg/rn
3
1 =3.5531
Pr
a

0.06794 N/rn

=4181.5 J/kg K

p = 5.4683 x 1 o kg/rn sec

From Table 13.3 for water on a copper surface, Crf= 0.0128 and ii = 1.00 so that
=

Cpf

Ch. 13 Pg. 88
0.0128(2381.95 x l0 J/kg)(3.5531)

4181.5 JRg K

11.967 x 1 o W/m

0.0674 N/rn
(5.47 x i0
4 kg/rn sec)(2.382 x 106 J/kg) (9.81 m2/sec)(988 kg/rn
3 0.0831 kg/rn
)
3
,e,ler
1

16.2 C

ruifrice

Then
)oi1er

16.2 C=66.2 C16.2 C==50 C

.rii;foce

Thus the properties that we used in the calculation were the correct ones. The value of
= 50 C
sets the pressure in the boiler at P, = 1.2352 x i0 N/rn
. In general, this procedure is an iterative
2
one in which one assumes a value of the saturation temperature and then calculates the T
between the surface and the bulk liquid. If this value of the LT does not give the value of the
saturation temperature assumed, it is then necessary to guess a new value and repeat the
calculation. In the present case, we got lucky, but in general, convergence is rapid.
The conditions in the condenser are determined by the heat transfer between the wall of
the condenser and the environment. In the present case, we will assume that the saturation
temperature of the fluid in the condenser is
= 49 C, P = 1.1752 x io N/rn
. This is an
2
arbitrary choice for the conditions of this design. As we shall see shortly, the design is actually
dominated by the fluid mechanics in the adiabatic tubes connecting the boiler and condenser. In
practice, we want to make the saturation temperature in the condenser as close as possible to the
saturation temperature of the boiler so that we obtain as small a temperature difference through
which the heat transfer would occur. This, after all, is the point of the thermosyphon. The values
chosen here are strictly for the purposes of illustrating the method of design, rather than
optimizing the design.
In the design process, it is essential that the thermal-fluids engineer have access to
software that provides the necessary thermal-fluid properties of the pure substance model. Tables
of properties alone are not sufficiently precise for this kind of work over small temperature
differences. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has developed the
requisite software for a wide variety of pure substance models which can be purchased over the
Internet from the website: http://www.nist.gov. The present case employs the software package
entitled: Steam, NIST Standard Reference Database 10.
If we apply the first law to the adiabatic vapor conduit as a control volume, we have for
steady flow conditions
=

icefr

11
+th

gz

,
0
gz

,
1
m

+ gz,,

Out
1

The mass flow rates into and out of the conduit are identical, so we only need concern ourselves
with the terms in parentheses. Given the typical size of a thermosyphon, the gravitational
potential energy terms are negligible. Similarly, the kinetic energy terms are negligible compared

Ch. 13 Pg. 89
with the enthalpy terms. (We shall confirm this subsequently.) Then it follows that
=

Since the outlet enthalpy is identical to the inlet enthalpy, but the outlet pressure is lower than the
inlet pressure, it follows from the pure substance model that the H
0 is slightly superheated at
2
outlet from the vapor conduit. We then have two independent properties to establish the state of
the H
0 at the outlet of the conduit: the enthalpy, h = ,
2
11 = 2591.29 kJ/kg; and the outlet
h
pressure, P = 1.1752 x 10 4 N/rn-.7 From the aforementioned software,
=0.079115kg/rn
p(fl, 3
and p, 1.06143 x io- kg/rn sec
We now need to establish the cross-sectional area of the vapor conduit. The mass flow rate of
vapor n
3 is given by the first law applied to the boiling process at the surface of the boiler, viz.
.
1
Q = thh
115W
=4.828 x i- kg/sec
hg 2381.95 x io J/kg
We now need to establish the vapor velocity in the conduit. The speed of sound (from the
aforementioned software using methods to be developed in Chapter 14) at the inlet is a
, = 443.2
1
rn/sec. If we wish to maintain incompressible flow in the conduit, the velocity must be such that
the Mach number is less than M,
1 = 0.3. A velocity of i2,, = 50 mlsec should be sufficient. Then
from continuity,
JIZg
4.828 x10
5 kg/sec
A =
=
=1.1613x10 m
(0.083 147 kg/rn
)(50 mlsec)
3
th

Then the diameter becomes

[j

/4(1.1613 x i0 m
)
2

D=
I
4
--=I

=3.845x l0 m
Vr
4
The pressure difference between the boiler and condenser can be sustained by a conduit
of diameter D = 3.845 mm only if the length is right for the mass flow rate
0.0483 g/sec.
The proper length can be determined by applying the Darcy-Weisbach Law. The Reynolds
number of the flow at the inlet is
=

Re,,,

(50 rn/sec)(3.845 x l0 m)(0.083147 kg/rn

)
3

=1505.9
1.0616 x 10 kg/rn sec
p,
The flow is clearly laminar for a circular conduit. The velocity of the superheated vapor at outlet
can be determined by applying continuity, viz.
= th, =
4.828 x i0 kg/sec
= 52.548 rnlsec
OUt
(0.079115 kg/m
)(1.1613 x l0 m2)
3
Thus, there is a slight change in velocity of the vapor, not as a consequence of compressibility
which we have neglected here because of the low Mach number, but, rather, as a consequence of
the behavior of the pure substance model. [At this juncture we can justify neglecting the kinetic
energy terms in the first law in comparison with the enthalpy terms. To wit,
11 = 2591.29 x l0 J/kg = 2.591 x 106 N-rn/kg = 2.591 x 106 2
h
,
/sec
m
(50 rn/sec)
2
2

2500
m/sec =1.250x i0 rn
/sec
2
2

Ch. 13 Pg. 90
Thus
h.

=0.05%

and the approximation is justified.]

We can now determine the arithmetic average of the thermal-fluid properties for the inlet
and outlet conditions of the conduit. Then
3
and ia1e 1.0616 x lO kg/rn sec
dave = 51.27 rn/sec and p(,, 0.0811 kg/rn
Then the average value of the Reynolds number becomes
)
3
0 = (51.27 m/sec)(3.85 x 1o m)(0.0811 kg/rn
= ave D P
= 1506.9
1.06 15 x i0 kg/rn sec
Pave
Then the friction factor becomes
= 64
64
=0.0425
1 1506.9
Re
The length of conduit required to sustain the requisite pressure drop with this vapor flow rate is
then given by the Darcy-Weisbach Law, viz.
Re

2DAP

2(3.845 x l0- m)(600.9 N/rn

)
2

Pave faveve

0.510

(0.0811 kg/m
)(0.0425)(51.27 rn/sec)
3
2

In order to establish the conditions in the condenser, we need to know the temperature of
the condensing surface. The temperature of this surface is required in equation (13.118). This can
be determined only by assuming a value and then performing the analysis to determine the heat
transfer coefficient for condensation, hC(,,d. From this value of hCQ,
(I, the thermal resistance per unit
1
area of the condensing surface can be determined. Since in this case the heat transfer and the
surface area of the condensing surface are known, the calculated value of
can be used in
Newtons Law of Cooling to determine the surface temperature. If this value of
does not
agree with the value originally assumed, we need to estimate a new value and repeat the
calculation until convergence is obtained. In this particular example, we have already done this
iteration and have found
= 48.4 1234 C. (The approximations involved in the Nusselt
analysis of film condensation do not merit this level of precision, but the calculation is sensitive
to the value of this parameter; hence, we have used an unusual number of significant figures in
this example.) This temperature and the temperature of the energy and entropy sink, in this case
the environment, determines the convection heat transfer between the surface and the sink. This
temperature difference should be sufficient to do the job; however, it will require a finned outer
surface and most likely a fan to increase the convection heat transfer coefficient over the fins.
This part of the analysis employs the methods and correlations of Chapter 11, as well as the
analysis of Section 6.6 of Chapter 6, and is left as an exercise for the reader. For our present
purposes, we shall focus on the condensation heat transfer in the thermosyphon.
For saturated H
0 at I = 49 C, we have
2
hfg = 2384.36 kJ/kg P
3 Pg = 0.079343 kg/rn
3
1 = 988.45 kg/rn
Cpf

=4l81.3J/kgK

To calculate hC(,,Zd, we first need

p =5.5613x io kg/msec kf =0.64236W/rn K

as given by equation (13.124). Then

Ch. 13 Pg. 91

h, 1+0.68

=(2384.36x10J/kg) 1+0.68

(T_ ,,ace

(4181.3 J/kg K)(49 C48.41234 C)

(2384.36 x i0
3 J/kg)

2.3860 x 106 J/kg

Then from equation (13.118), we have

0943
_COd
L_

1
k

pf(pfpg)ghjL
k
1
p

(a1

u,face)

Nu=0.943
L

kg/mV3N
(988.45 kgIm)
! i0.0793
2
(9.81 sec2)(2.3860 x 106)(0.100 rn)
3
)
3
988.45kg/rn
(5.5613 x io- kg/rn sec)(0.64236 W/mK)(49 C48.41234 C)

N11L

3046.5

and
h.cond

Nu
= 3046.5
L
L
Then the heat transfer rate is

0.64236 W/m K
=1.9569 x I o W/m
2 K
0.lOOm

2 2
2
Q=h
(
Tcit_Iuce)=(
K)(0.lOOm)
(
49 C48.84307 C)=115W
c,zci
1.9569
L x iO W/m
This heat transfer rate does indeed match the heat transfer rate in the boiler. Thus, we chose the
correct value for the condensing surface temperature.
We now examine the liquid conduit to determine the geometry necessary to sustain the
pressure difference between the boiler and condenser. In this case, the flow is driven by gravity
counter to the pressure drop. Since the pressure drop is small and the mass flow rate in this case
is also small, we would expect the Reynolds number to be small and the flow to be laminar. Then
the Navier-Stokes equation can be solved for the velocity profile. Thus, if we take the z-direction
to be positive downward and the flow to be solely in this direction, the z-component of the
Navier-Stokes equation in cylindrical coordinates becomes
dL9
6P
rl
p -+z----- I=-+pg.+pI --j r
aZ)
z
Lrr ar
For fully developed flow the left-hand side of this expression vanishes. Then
rld(
pg=pIl r

L
Lrdr dr
Integrating this expression twice and applying the boundary conditions for the liquid conduit
=0 at r=R

and

-=0 at r=0
dr

we get
V

2(
1
R
AP(
=I pgIl
Lf,)

2
r
1
R

Ch. 13 Pg. 92
and
D.2(

zY
=

P----

and

th=pA

I)

Then from the Darcy-Weisbach Law

L

g
1
p

28
l
pth
JIPfDJ

where Lf represents the length of the liquid conduit. Given the high density of the liquid, the
liquid conduit should be much smaller than the vapor conduit. Assume that this conduit is a
capillary of diameter D
1 = 1 mm. Then the length of the conduit becomes
LI

g
1
p
L

th
1
128,u
7CPfDJ

600.9 N/rn
2

(988.45 kg/m
)(9.81 misec-)
3

128 (5.5613 x i0 kg/rn sec)(4.828 x i0

5 kg/sec)
2r(988.45kg/m)(l x l0 m)

L =0.070m
The average velocity of the liquid in the conduit is given by

(
()

ave

D(
g
1
p
1
32p

)ave
=

(ix iO rn)
2
32 (5.5613 x i0 kg/rn sec)
(t91

ave

4
.
988
r(
5
[
=

2
nsec2)_ N/rn
9
O
)(9.81 6
3
kg/m
0.070

0.0622 rn/sec

The Reynolds number for this flow rate is then

Re

f)aveDfj0f

(0.0622 mlsec)(0.001 m)(988.45 kg/rn

)
3

p.

5.5613 x i0
5 kg/rn sec

which is clearly laminar flow.

13.5.2 Heat Pipes
In Example 13. 13 we note that the vapor conduit is significantly longer than the liquid
conduit. If the physical separation of the boiler and condenser is dictated by the shorter of the
two, it would be necessary for the longer conduit transporting the vapor to be formed into a helix
(similar to a coil spring) with a coil diameter appropriate for the given installed boiler/condenser
separation. Upon further consideration of the design of the thermosyphon, it would appear
desirable to have a single conduit with the liquid flowing downward along the wall under the
influence of gravity and the vapor traveling upward in the core of the conduit under the influence
of the pressure difference between the boiler and the condenser. However, it is clear from the
analysis of Example 13.13 that for a conduit of length appropriate to sustain the pressure
difference in the vapor, there must be some additional force applied to the liquid since the shear

Ch. 13 Pg. 93

stress in the liquid at the wall would be too large for gravity alone to drive the liquid flow. One
possibility would be to line the conduit with a wick-like material that would provide an
additional force due to capillarity in the wick. This, in fact, is precisely what makes a heat pipe
different from a thermosyphon. In the heat pipe configuration, the single conduit can be made
sufficiently large so that the boiler and condenser can be built into opposite ends with the vapor
traveling in the core and the liquid moving in the opposite direction in the wick material lining
the wall. If the wick material is properly chosen, the capillary force can dominate the liquid flow
and the heat pipe can be used in an orientation, e.g., horizontal, in which the liquid flow is not
dependent on gravity alone. Figure 13.25 shows such a configuration schematically.

Adiabatic section
Figure 13.25 Simple Heat Pipe Schematic
For the heat pipe depicted in Figure 13.25 with a constant value of heat flux that is identical in
both the evaporator and condenser sections, the mass flow rate, flq, of the vapor through the
device varies along the length as shown schematically in Figure 13.26. The force necessary to
Evaporator
F

Adiabatic section

Condenser
F

Leff\

Length, x
Figure 13.26 Distribution of Vapor Mass Flow Rate in a Heat Pipe

drive the vapor flow through the central core of the heat pipe is provided by the difference in
saturation pressure between the two ends of the device due to the temperature difference between
the evaporator section and the condenser section. For steady operation, there must be a similar
distribution of mass flow in the wick, but in the opposite sense. Clearly, if the saturation pressure
alone were imposed on the liquid/vapor interface in the two ends of the heat pipe, liquid flow

Ch. 13 Pg. 94
would be in the wrong direction because of the adverse pressure gradient. Fortunately, the
capillary forces in the wick are sufficient to provide the pumping power necessary to move the
liquid through the wick against the vapor pressure gradient. These forces are a consequence of
the structure of the wick and the surface tension force acting at the interface between the liquid
and the vapor phases in the pores of the wick.
To understand the nature of these forces, we first consider the case of a liquid drop on a
solid surface immersed in a pure vapor as shown in Figure 13.27.

Solid
Figure 13.27 Single Drop of Liquid on a Solid Surface Immersed in a Pure Vapor
The base of the drop forms a circle where it comes in contact with the surface. Along the
circumference of this circle, the interface between the vapor and the liquid forms the angle 6,
known as the contact angle, which is measured in the liquid phase. This region where all three
phases solid, liquid, and vapor are in contact with one another is often referred to as the triple
interface. If thermodynamic equilibrium exists among all three phases (Note that the solid phase
is of a substance different from the liquid and vapor phases.), i.e., there is no evaporation or
condensation occurring at liquid/vapor interface, the volume of the drop is constant and the drop
is in static equilibrium. As shown in Figure 13.27, at the triple interface there are three surface
tension forces acting: one between the liquid and vapor, u
; one between the vapor and solid, o;
1
and one between the solid and liquid, o. Mechanical equilibrium requires that there can be no
net force acting on the drop. For the x-direction, it must be the case that

Ug
sg

Uf

fg
0

cosl=0

=Jf+UfgcosO

(13.177)

which is known as the Neuman equation. For the y-direction, the elastic modulus of the solid is
so high that it is capable of always producing a force that exactly offsets the y-component of the
surface tension between the liquid and vapor phases with no deformation of the surface.
In the case of a heat pipe, the contact angle 6 shown in Figure 13.27 is a characteristic of
the liquid-solid combination and plays an important role in the operation of the heat pipe. In
equation (13.177), six possibilities present themselves:
liquid completely wets this surface as a film
cYf + 0
6=0
sg
fg

sg
0

+ Jfg

and

6=

sg =

o.g <asf +
=

afg

+ Jfg

Jg

>

liquid wets this surface

(13.178)

liquid wets this surface

and a. <a
=

0< 8

<6 < ii liquid does not wet surface;

2
liquid is completely non-wetting on this surface

(13.178)

______

Ch. 13 Pg. 95
In order for a wick material to be effective in a heat pipe, it must be wet by the working fluid
with a contact angle between 0 and rc/2, the smaller, the better.
h the simplest heat pipe design, the wick material is a porous medium usually made up of
a matrix of very small diameter wires or particles of powder in which the working fluid is drawn
up into the pores by capillary action. In Figure 13.28, a typical pore is represented by a tube of
small inside diameter (a capillary tube) open at both ends with one end immersed into a large
pool of liquid that is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its vapor. The liquid rises in the tube
due to the resultant of the surface tension forces acting along the line of contact between liquid
and solid surface of the tube wall. At a distance H relative to the free surface of the pool, the
interface in the tube attains mechanical equilibrium. If we consider the free body consisting of
the mass of liquid contained in the tube between the interface and the plane of the free surface of
the pool of liquid remote from the outside surface of the tube, we see that this state of
equilibrium is governed by a balance between the forces due to pressure acting on the ends of the
column of liquid, the body force due to gravity acting on the mass of liquid M, and the force due
to surface tension at the interface.

Capillary tube

b.

Figure 13.28 Capillary Tube with End Immersed in a Liquid

As shown in Chapter 4, the pressure is uniform on horizontal planes in a continuous liquid. Then
Ph and relative to point c,
F=F+pgH=l9,
(13.179)
Mechanical equilibrium requires
2 Picr
icr
,2irrucos6+Mg =0
1
2P
IrrpfgH 2
=icr
(
] Fj+2icracosO

Substituting equation (13.179) into equation (13.180), we get

2 (pfgH)=lcr2(pggH)+2icrjcoso
icr
H(pfg_pgg)=

2cos 0
r

(13.180)

Ch. 13 Pg. 96
I
H=2Jc0s01
(13.181)
r
gPgg
1
P
Thus the height of the liquid column H in a capillary tube depends directly upon the resultant
surface tension force.
Note that equation (13.181) can be rearranged to give
(13.182)

where the quantity L is the capillary length (also known as the Laplace constant) and is given by
L=

(13.183)

(PfPg)g

which we have already introduced in equation (13.62) as the characteristic length scale for
phenomena that involve surface tension in a significant way. Notice that when r << L, surface
tension dominates and the value of H becomes large, but when r>> L, surface tension is
relatively unimportant and the value of H becomes quite small. Figure 13.30 shows the values of
the capillary length for water over a range of temperatures from room temperature to nearly the
critical temperature. At the critical temperature, Trjt = 373.95 C, the concept of phase vanishes
and all surfaces become bathed in the critical fluid.
3

2.5

Lc(mm)
1.5

0.5

od

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

T(C)

Figure 13.30 Capillary Length for H,O

Suppose for a moment that the upper end of the capillary tube is closed. Now consider the
situation as the capillary tube is gradually withdrawn from the liquid pool so that the volume of

Ch. 13 Pg. 97
the vapor space increases. Since the approach to mechanical equilibrium is much faster than the
approach to thermal equilibrium, the vapor in the tube expands initially to fill the increased
volume thereby reducing its pressure and temperature. In order to maintain the column of liquid
in the tube in mechanical equilibrium, the contact angle at the wall decreases in an attempt to
increase the surface tension contribution to the condition of mechanical equilibrium. Meanwhile,
the reduced pressure of the vapor causes some liquid to evaporate in an attempt to restore thermal
equilibrium. The sequence of events is a dynamic one that causes the contact angle under
conditions of evaporation to be less than the contact angle in the static equilibrium state. In a
similar manner, if the tube with the closed end is depressed into the liquid pooi, the pressure of
the vapor increases as the vapor is compressed into a smaller volume. The contact angle
decreases as the vapor begins to condense to restore thermodynamic equilibrium. Thus, under
conditions of condensation, the contact angle is greater than the contact angle in the equilibrium
case. Then for a given saturation temperature,
< 6
ond As we shall see, this behavior of the
contact angle during evaporation and condensation is crucial to the operation of the heat pipe.
In Figure 13.28, if thermodynamic equilibrium prevails, the pressure in the vapor phase at
points a and c is the equilibrium vapor pressure of the pure substance model, P,
, the pressure of
1
the liquid just below the curved interface at point c is less than P
1 by the amount LP where
AP=] I =p
gHpgH =H(p
1
g p
1
(13.184)
g)
8
This is the pressure difference across a stable curved interface between two phases. In Figure
13.28, the liquid/vapor interface in the capillary tube and the liquid/vapor interface of the pool
were in thermal and mechanical communication with one another through the vapor phase whose
saturation pressure was determined by the uniform equilibrium temperature of the physical
situation. In the case of the heat pipe, the situation is somewhat different. In both the evaporator
and condenser sections, the liquid/vapor interfaces of the various pores communicate with each
other through a vapor that has gradients in both temperature and pressure. Nonetheless, the two
situations are similar. The pressure of the liquid just below the liquid vapor interface is less than
the local vapor pressure. In a heat pipe with a simple wick, the reduced pressure in the liquid
phase at the vapor/liquid interface in the pores of the wick provides the pumping power
necessary to pull the liquid through the pores.
Substituting equation (13.183) into equation (13.184), we obtain
2ucosO
(AP).
(13.185)
!,Ztc1fICe

Since the temperature in the evaporator section is different from that of the condenser section, the
values of (AP) i,i%eifiice are different for the evaporator and condenser sections of the heat pipe.
Aap205

(13.186)

and
2ucos6
(13.187)
r
COfl(1
In equations (13.186) and (13.187), there are two competing effects. In the evaporator section
where the temperature is the highest, the surface tension is the lowest which tends to reduce this
pressure difference and, hence, increase the pressure in the liquid phase. On the other hand, in the
evaporator section, the contact angle is smaller than in the condenser section which tends to
increase the pressure difference across the interface and thereby reduce the pressure in the liquid.
This situation is shown schematically in Figure 13.31 for the liquid/vapor interfaces in the
evaporator and condenser sections.
ond

Ch. 13 Pg. 98

1.

/Li:uidJvaPor interface\
Vapor

Liquid

FZF.FFJ1WI

Condenser Wick

Evaporator Wick

Figure 13.31 Contact Angles in Evaporator and Condenser Sections

In the limiting case,
= t/2. Then in the liquid phase, the limiting pressures at
= 0 and 6
iid
the liquid/vapor interface are given by
(Pevap )rnin

(at )evaj,

2a

and

(onc1 )rnax =

(13.188)

(ar )co,ut

Since in general (Psc,j)evc,i,>

and (yat)co,d decreases with temperature, there is a maximum
temperature difference between the evaporator and condenser sections at which the pressure
differential in the liquid phase between the condenser and evaporator vanishes. This means that
in order to have sufficient pumping power in the wick, the heat pipe should be designed so that
the temperature difference between the evaporator and condenser sections is as small as possible.
Figure 13.32 illustrates the minimum operating pressure in the condenser for a heat pipe using
water as the working fluid with a temperature of 70 C in the evaporator section as in Example
13.13. These data were obtained by plotting equations (13.188) for this design.
3.5 1O

2.5

)
2
P(N/m
21

1.5iO

i 1o
4

50

55

60

65

70

T(C)

Figure 13.32 Limiting Pressures in the Liquid Phase in the Evaporator and Condenser Sections

Ch. 13 Pg. 99
From Figure 13.32, it is apparent that the minimum condenser temperature is 58 C. For
condenser temperatures less than 58 C, the pressure in the condenser is less than the minimum
possible liquid pressure at the interface in the evaporator section, (evaJ)),fli,z Thus, there would be
insufficient pressure in the liquid in the condenser section to overcome the pressure drop in the
liquid phase in the wick between the condenser and evaporator sections. In practice, the
temperature in the condenser section would have to be substantially higher than this minimum
value. This condition dictates that, in general, heat pipe designs should have small temperature
differences between evaporator and condenser sections. Then the other operating features of the
heat pipe have to be designed around the chosen temperature difference for the heat transfer rate
desired.
As we have seen in the case of the thermosyphon, the mass flow rate in the device
depends directly upon the heat transfer rate and inversely upon the latent heat of vaporization of
the working fluid. This sets the mass flow rate not only of the vapor in the core of the heat pipe
but also of the liquid in the wick. The resulting pressure distributions in the vapor and liquid
phases are shown schematically in Figure 13.33.
In the condenser section for the vapor phase, there are two contributions to the pressure
drop. Firstly, there is an inertial effect due to the fact that mass is being added along the flow
path by virtue of the evaporation process itself. This causes the flow to accelerate along the flow

Vapor phase

P1
phase

x
Figure 13.33 Pressure Distribution in the Vapor and Liquid Phase in a Wick-type Heat Pipe
path which makes the pressure drop nonlinear with respect to the flow coordinate. Secondly,
there is a viscous effect due to the viscous shear at the liquid/vapor interface. This viscous effect
is moderated by the fact that mass is being added to the flow (analogous to blowing in single
phase flow) along the flow path. This has the effect of increasing the thickness of the boundary
layer at the interface which reduces the shear stress and, hence, the viscous contribution to the
pressure drop. The net result is a pressure distribution that is non-linear in the evaporator section.
The pressure gradient increases in the direction of flow due to the acceleration of the flow
associated with the mass addition.
Iii the adiabatic section, the situation is a bit more straightforward since the mass flow
rate is essentially constant. There is some acceleration of the flow as the density of the vapor

Ch. 13 Pg. 100

increases in the flow direction. To a first approximation, the pressure gradient is constant and the
pressure drop is determined by the friction between the vapor and the liquid/vapor interface.
In the condenser section, the flow is again more complicated. Since mass is now being
removed from the flow, there is some pressure recovery as the flow decelerates. The viscous
contribution increases since the loss of mass reduces the thickness of the boundary layer at the
liquid/vapor interface (analogous to suction in a single phase flow). This increases the viscous
shear. The net result is a pressure distribution that is non-linear with the pressure gradient
steepest near the adiabatic section.
In most heat pipe designs, the Mach number in the vapor flow is less than 0.3 which
means that the flow can be treated as incompressible. Although the flow is usually laminar in the
vapor phase, which makes the solution of the Navier-Stokes equation somewhat more tractable,
the analysis of the flow field is complicated not only by the inertial effects and the mass flow in
the radial direction, but also by the fact that the flow is not fully developed. The flow of the
vapor is essentially all entry length throughout the length of the heat pipe. While these various
factors often counteract one another and can be ignored in an approximate description of the flow
field, a more complete treatment usually requires the use of numerical methods.
For the liquid flowing through the wick of a horizontal heat pipe, the flow quickly
becomes fully developed since the Reynolds number is small, and, hence, can be modeled as
flow through a porous medium with the flow described by a phenomenological relation known as
Darcys Law, viz.
= if LffiVD
liquu

if Lft.rn

(13.189)

I<p f A wick

where ij is the average viscosity of the liquid, Leffectji,e is the effective length of the heat pipe, z2 is
the one-dimensional mass-averaged flow velocity, and K is the permeability of the wick. All of
our ignorance of the details of the flow in the wick are buried in the permeability which is
determined from measurements of the pressure drop and the application of Darcys Law. The
value for the permeability is highly dependent upon the structure of the wick with values ranging
from 9 x iO m
2 to 30 x 10-10 m
. (Note that the magnitude of the permeability in SI units is so
2
small, data are often reported in the units of Darcys where 1 Darcy = 9.87 x 10-13 m
.)
2
For a horizontal heat pipe, the maximum heat transfer rate is given by
(13.190)
Qniax = mmashjg
From equation (13.189), the maximum mass flow rate is given by
KpA.
wick
th

where the maximum pressure drop in the wick,

(P) max =(Pcoiid

mae

(13.191)

)max

if
(),iiax

-( )
eiap

eff

is given by equation (13.188), viz.

=(Psat

cond

-(Psat

evap

If the temperature difference between evaporator and condenser is small,

mi.()max

(13.192)
(sat)evap and
(13.193)

Then combining equations (13.190), (13.19 1), and (13.193), we obtain for a horizontal heat pipe
JPffg
,nax
if

(13.194)
eftctiie)

Ch. 13 Pg. 101

The first term in parentheses contains only thermodynamic and transport properties of the
working liquid phase and thus provides a means of evaluating the prospective working fluids for
a heat pipe employing a simple wick design. This quantity is often referred to as the figure of
merit for the working fluid and is designated by the symbol Nf. Thus,
oph
f
Nf
(13.195)
Itf
Using the pure substance model, we can evaluate equation (13.195) for various working fluids.
Figure 13.34 shows the results of these calculations which are quite useful in selecting a working
fluid to use in a simple wick-type heat pipe for a given application.

Na

i io
12

1.1011

Nf (W/m
)
2

6
H
2
C
i .io
8

2
N
1 10

li

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

T(K)
Figure 13.34 Figure of Merit

for Various Working Fluids in a Wick-type Heat Pipe

The foregoing discussion describes the behavior of a wick-type heat pipe whose
performance is limited by the ability of the wick to transport the liquid phase through capillary
forces. This type of limitation, known as the capillary limit, is not the only phenomenon that
limits heat pipe performance. At low operating temperatures, saturation pressures in the pure
substance model are also low and, in fact, may not be sufficient to overcome the viscous pressure
drop in the vapor phase. Under these conditions, the vapor may not flow at all, and the heat pipe
shuts down. This limitation, known as the viscous limit, occurs in heat pipes designed for
cryogenic temperatures and in those cases when a heat pipe operates at temperatures below its
normal range of operating temperatures, such as at startup. In the latter case, the viscous limit can
be overcome by increasing the heat transfer rate into the evaporator, thereby increasing the rate of
mass addition along the flow path in the evaporator section. As we have seen in Figure 13.33,
increasing the mass flow rate along the flow path causes the flow to accelerate which, in turn,
causes the pressure to drop in the direction of flow. However, there is a limit to the acceleration

Ch. 13 Pg. 102

of the flow. At some point in time, the flow velocity at the exit from the evaporator section will
reach the velocity of sound, and the flow will become choked as a consequence of the
incomplete pressure recovery in the condenser. Had the pressure recovery process in the
condenser been reversible, pressure recovery would be complete and the flow could accelerate to
supersonic velocities, but the irreversible nature of the pressure recovery process, primarily due
to viscous dissipation, causes the flow to become choked so that reductions in the temperature in
the condenser section have no effect on the heat transfer rate. This limitation, known as the sonic
limit, occurs most frequently in heat pipes employing liquid metals as the working fluid.
The motion of the vapor in the central core of the heat pipe is countercurrent to the flow
of the liquid in the wick. The relative motion of the two phases results in a shear stress being
imposed on the liquid/vapor interface that opposes the motion of the liquid. If great enough in
magnitude, this shear stress can cause the pores in the wick in the condenser section to become
flooded as liquid is driven back into the condenser section. In addition, this shear stress could, in
principle, cause waves to form on the interface that could eventually lead to droplets of liquid
breaking away from the interface and becoming entrained in the vapor flow. Eventually, the
evaporator section would become starved and dry out (at least partially) leading to a significant
degradation in heat pipe performance. This phenomenon is known as the entrainment limit.
While there have been many studies of this phenomenon, both analytical and experimental, there
is no hard evidence that the entrainment limit has ever occurred in a functioning heat pipe. It is
believed that the pores of the wick prevent the formation of waves of sufficient wavelength to
result in entrainment of the liquid in the vapor.
Finally, there are two limiting conditions that have to do with the heat transfer between
the shell of the heat pipe and the energy sink and energy source. If the thermal resistance between
the shell of the condenser section and the energy sink is of sufficient magnitude, the temperature
of the shell of the condenser becomes too great for efficient condensation to take place on the
liquid/vapor interface in the condenser section. The heat transfer rate due to condensation then
becomes the rate limiting step in the operation of the heat pipe. This condition is known as the
condensation limit. Similarly, in the evaporator section, if the heat flux on the shell is too large,
nucleate boiling occurs and the wick becomes blocked by the formation of vapor which inhibits
the flow of liquid into the wick of the evaporator section. This is known as the boiling limit.
The various limits are summarized in Figure 13.35 which is a schematic representation of

Condensation limit

limit

Capillary limit
Entrainment limit

Sonic limit
Viscous limit
Operating temperature, T

Figure 13.35 Schematic Performance Map of a Typical Heat Pipe Design

Ch. 13 Pg. 103

the performance map of a typical heat pipe design. Although a number of different limitations on
the performance of a heat pipe have been identified, the capillary limit tends to be the dominant
one.
In conclusion, the heat pipe is an important means of heat transfer whose operation relies
heavily upon the detailed behavior of a working fluid that can be modeled as a pure substance.
As we have attempted to show in the foregoing discussion, the heat pipe is a means of
transferring large amounts of energy and entropy in a relatively compact device of simple
construction. Furthermore, the heat pipe presents an opportunity to transfer this energy with
minimal entropy generation. For these reasons, the use of heat pipes in various commercial
products and industrial designs is becoming increasingly widespread. Most significantly, the
successful operation of high performance electronic devices, such as laptop computers, depends
heavily upon heat pipe technology. For a more detailed discussion of heat pipe design and the
role of the pure substance model in those designs, the reader is referred to the literature on the
subject. Two excellent summaries of the subject are: Heat Pipe Science and Technology, A.
Faghiri, Taylor and Francis Publishers, N. Y., 1995; and An Introduction to Heat Pipes:
Modeling, Testing, and Applications, G. P. Peterson, John Wiley and Sons, N. Y., 1994.

Ch. 13 Pg. 104

Problems
13.1 A boiling water nuclear reactor contains ni kg of saturated liquid water at 260 C. In case the
reactor pressure vessel fails, a secondary containment vessel must be provided to avoid the
spread of radioactive water.
(a) How large must the secondary containment vessel be if the maximum design pressure
is
= 2 x iO N1m
2 and the space between the reactor and the containment vessel is initially at
zero pressure?
(b) In the case of a sudden release of the H
0, it would be reasonable to assume that
7
pressure equilibrium would be established in a time too short for significant heat transfer to the
0. Determine the final temperature of the H
7
H
0.
2

13.2 A rigid, sealed container of liquid and vapor H

0 is heated at constant volume.
7
(a) Find the proportions by volume of liquid and vapor H
0 sealed in the container at
7
atmospheric pressure that will pass through the critical state when heated quasi-statically.
(b) What is the necessary heat transfer to the contents of the container between
atmospheric pressure and the critical state if the enclosed volume is V= 8 x 10 m
3?
13.3 A rigid, closed vessel is charged with carbon dioxide at 20 C. If the initial charge contains
the correct proportions of saturated liquid and saturated vapor, the carbon dioxide will pass
through the critical state when heated quasi-statically with the fill line closed off. In the initial
state, what are the proper proportions by volume of liquid and vapor CO
7 that will produce the
desired change of state?
13.4 One kg of refrigerant R-l34a at an initial pressure of 7 x iO N/m
2 and 30 C undergoes an
adiabatic free expansion (unrestrained expansion into a vacuum) in which the final volume is 15
times the original volume (V
7 = l5V
). Find the changes in the temperature and in the entropy for
1
this process for each of the following models for the refrigerant:
(a) The ideal gas model for R-134a with R = 8 1.490 J/kg K
(b) The pure substance model for R- 1 34a
13.5 One kg of nitrogen at a temperature of T
1 = 300 K and a pressure of P
1 iO N/rn
2 is
compressed reversibly and isothermally to a pressure of P
2 = 2 x iO N/rn
.
2
(a) Using the ideal gas model for nitrogen, compute the work transfer W
12 and heat
transfer Q
for
the
compression
process.
12
(b) Using the tabulated properties of nitrogen based on the pure substance model,
compute the work transfer W
12 and heat transfer Q
12 for the process.
(c) What error is involved in using the ideal gas model at these temperatures and
pressures?
(d) Repeat parts (a) through (c) above for a reversible isothermal compression process
between the same two limiting pressures but at a temperature of T
1 = 90 K.
(e) From these results, what conclusions can you draw regarding the limitations of the
ideal gas model?
13.6 A new method of stress-relieving metal castings has been developed. The method, known as
cryo-quenching, consists of plunging the casting into liquid nitrogen at a pressure of iO N/rn
2
and allowing the casting to attain thermal equilibrium with the liquid before it is removed. In a

Ch. 13 Pg. 105

particular application of this technique, a steel casting of msteel = 10 kg is to be cooled at a
constant pressure of P = io N/rn
2 from a temperature of 300 K to the saturation temperature of
nitrogen. Only 5 kg of nitrogen are available, not all of which are liquid. The casting can be
modeled as a pure thermal system with a specific heat of Ccteei = 0.4 19 kJ/kgK.
(a) What is the minimum fraction of the mass of nitrogen that must be liquid in order to
attain an equilibrium temperature equal to the saturation temperature of nitrogen at a pressure of
P= iO N/rn
?
2
(b) From an explicit calculation of the entropy change of some suitably defined system,
determine whether the cryo-quenching process is reversible or irreversible.

13.7 A Dewar storage vessel has a volume of 25 liters (1 liter = i0

) and contains liquid and
3
3m
vapor nitrogen at P = iO N/rn
. At some particular instant of time when the Dewar contains 22
2
liters of liquid and 3 liters of vapor, the vapor vent tube is accidentally sealed off. Heat transfer
calculations show that the heat transfer from the environment to the liquid nitrogen across the
vacuum space is 1.67 I/s. Stress analysis shows that the containment vessel will rupture when the
internal pressure reaches P,.,
1 = 5 x iO N/rn
,
11
.
2
(a) How long will it take to rupture the vessel?
(b) Estimate how much mass will be lost if the vapor vent tube is opened when the
pressure reaches
= 5 x iO N/rn
.
2
13.8 As shown in Figure 13P.8, a mass of of water ni = 5 kg are contained in a vertical cylinder at
1 = 40 C by a frictionless piston with a mass such that the pressure on the water is P
T
1 = 1.4 x 106
. The water experiences a quasi-static heat transfer, causing the piston to rise until it reaches
2
N/rn
the stops at which point the volume inside the cylinder is V
2 = 0.5 m
. The heat transfer process
3
continues until the water exists as a saturated vapor in state 3.
jt1LJ

riLrsS.

rJ
%
\

I
Figure 13P.8

(a) Show the heat transfer process on a T-s diagram.

(b) What is the pressure P
3 of the vapor in the cylinder in state 3?
(c) Determine the heat transfer to the H
0 for this process 1 3.
2
(d) Evaluate the work transfer from the H
0 to the piston.
2

13.9 The piston-cylinder apparatus shown in Figure 1 3P.9 is fitted with a leakproof, frictionless
piston loaded with enough weights to maintain a pressure of P
. Initially the
2
01 = 1 x 106 N/rn
,
1

Ch. 13 Pg. 106

piston rests upon stops so that the volume trapped in the cylinder is V
1 = 0.01 m
. This volume is
3
initially filled with 1 kg of refrigerant 134a at a pressure ofF
1 = 4 x iO N/rn
. The refrigerant
2
now experiences a quasi-static heat transfer until its temperature reaches T
3 = 180 C.
atm

___

Weights

----.

._Piston

Stops

R- 1 34a
m 1 kg

Vapor

Liquid
/

fQ
Figure 13P.9
(a) Show the path of the process on P-v and T-s diagrams.
(b) What is the temperature in the initial state, state 1?
(c) What fraction of the total mass is liquid in state 1?
(d) What fraction of the initial volume V
1 is occupied by the liquid?
(e) What is the temperature of the refrigerant as the piston just begins to lift off of the
stops in state 2?
(f) What is the heat transfer necessary to just lift the piston off the stops in state 2?
(g) What is the work transfer experienced by the Freon during the process by which it is
heated from its initial temperature T
1 to T
3 = 170 C?

13.10 As shown in Figure 13P.10, an adiabatic cylinder is fitted with a frictionless, adiabatic
piston and a weight such that a pressure of 8 x iO is required to support it. The volume between
the piston face and the end of the cylinder is partitioned off into two volumes A and B (not equal)
by a thin, rigid, adiabatic membrane. The volume between the piston face and the membrane,
volume A, contains 10kg of R-134a with an initial quality of XAI = 0.5. The other volume,
volume B, initially contains 3 kg of R-134a at a pressure of 4 x io N/rn
2 and a temperature of 30
C. At some instant of time, the membrane is destroyed and the system consisting of the 13 kg of
R-134a comes to a new equilibrium state.
(a) Calculate the quality of the R- 1 34a in the final equilibrium state.
(b) What is the final volume of the R- 1 34a?
(c) Calculate the work transfer experienced by the R-134a.
(d) Calculate the entropy generated in the run down to equilibrium.

Ch. 13 Pg. 107

Weights

Frictionless, adiabatic pistou

= 8 x 1 o N/rn
2
10kg R-134a---.-__..
State 1: XA
0.5
1
=

Volume A
._

3kgR-134a
State 1:
1 =30 C
TB
2
1 =4x io N/rn
PB

Volume B

-..

Rigid, adiabatic membrane

Adiabatic cylinder
I

Figure 13P.10

13.11 Consider a system of H

0 consisting of 1 kg of vapor, 1 kg of liquid, and 1 kg of solid all
2
in thermodynamic equilibrium (state 1). The mixture is stirred by a paddle wheel while the
volume remains constant until all the solid has melted (state 2). In a second process the stirring is
continued at constant volume until only vapor remains (state 3). In an alternative process the
system at state 2 is stirred at constant pressure until only vapor remains (state 4).
Note: Data for the triple point of H
0 are given below.
2
(a) What are the mass proportions of liquid and vapor at state 2?
(b) Determine the temperature, pressure and volume for states 3 and 4.
(c) What are the paddle wheel work transfers for process 1-2, process 2-3, and process 24 if these processes are adiabatic?
(d) What is the entropy change for each of the three processes?
Triple Point Data for 2
H
0
, TTP 0.01 C
2
TP = 611.3 N/m
3

Phase

Enthalpy

Specific Volume

Entropy

(kJ/kg)

(m
/
3
kg)

(kJ/kgK)

Solid

333.40

l.0908x 10

-1.221

Liquid

0.01

1.0002 x 10-2

0.0000

Vapor

2501.4

206.1

9.156

13.12 A heat engine design consists of a cylinder containing 1 kg of H

0 closed by a slowly
2
moving piston traveling back and forth between two extreme positions so that the H
0 executes a
2
cycle. At one of these extreme positions, the specific volume available to the H
0 is 0.300 m
2
/kg
3
while at the other extreme position the specific volume available is 1.344 m
/kg. Two heat
3
reservoirs are available, one at TH = 260 C and another at TL = 140 C. During the progress of the
piston from one extreme position to the other, the steam experiences reversible heat transfer at

Ch. 13 Pg. 108

such a rate as to keep the temperature of the H
0 constant and equal to the temperature of one of
2
the heat reservoirs. With the piston at either end, the steam experiences reversible heat transfer so
that the temperature changes from the temperature of one heat reservoir to the temperature of the
other heat reservoir.
(a) Show the cycle on P-v and T-s diagrams. Label all the states and be sure to include the
locus of saturated states on these diagrams.
(b) Find the net work transfer per cycle cJ8iV for the engine.
(c) Find the energy conversion efficiency

of the engine.

13.13 Consider the system shown in Figure 13P. 13. Tank A initially contains mA] = 5 kg of H
0
7
at Aj = 6 x io N/m
2 T,
1 = 200 C, and is connected through a valve to cylinder B fitted with a
frictionless piston. An internal pressure of 1.2 x io N/m
2 is required to support the mass of the
piston. Also, the piston rests on stops so that the initial volume of B is VBI = 0.5 m
. This volume
3
is initially evacuated, BI 0. The connecting valve is opened until the pressure in A is reduced
to 1.2 x iO N/m
. The entire process by which the contents of tank A and cylinder B come to
2
mechanical, but not thermal, equilibrium can be modeled as adiabatic. In addition, the H
0 that
2
remains in A can be modeled as having undergone a reversible adiabatic process. Determine the
work transfer to the piston and the final temperature of the steam in cylinder B. Note that the
final temperatures in tank A and cylinder B are not equal.
,

Figure 13P.13
13.14 As shown in Figure 13P. 14, a piston-cylinder apparatus is fitted with a weighted,
frictionless piston with an area of A
,= 1 m
1
. The cylinder is initially filled with H
2
0 at T
2
1 = 250
C. The initial volume V
3 is half filled with saturated liquid and half filled with saturated
1 1 m
vapor. The H
0 experiences a reversible heat transfer that causes the piston to rise in the
2
cylinder. In state 2, the cylinder contains saturated vapor only and, the piston just makes contact
with the pure translational spring (k = 2.0703 x 106 N/rn) above it. The reversible heat transfer
process continues causing the spring to be compressed until the pressure of the H
0 in the
2
106
cylinder reaches P
3=8x
.
2
N/rn
(a) In the initial state, what are lflf and mg and x
?
1
(b) What is the volume occupied by the H
0 in state 2?
2
(c) Show the path of the process 123 on a P-v diagram that also includes the locus of
saturated states. Make sure that state 3 is properly located relative to the critical state. By shading
the appropriate area on this diagram, show the work transfer from the H
0 to the piston for the
2
process 1-2-3 and the work transfer from the H
0 to the spring for the process 2-3.
7
(d) What is the temperature T
3 of the H,O in state 3?

Ch. 13 Pg. 109

(e) What is the energy change of the spring for the process 2f 3?
(f) What is the energy change of the weighted piston for the process l-2-3?
(g) What is the heat transfer ?
13
Q

atm

Pure translational spring

Weighted piston

CY1inder%.I

H,O

Q
Figure 13P.14
13.15 A rigid, adiabatic container is divided into two compartments A and B which are separated
by a rigid, adiabatic membrane as shown in Figure 13P. 15. Compartment A contains rn = 2kg
of saturated vapor CO
2 at TA! = -50 C and compartment B contains mB = 8 kg of saturated liquid
2 at TB! = 22.5 C. The rigid, adiabatic membrane is then destroyed, and all of the CO
CO
7 comes
into a new equilibrium state.
(a) Determine the temperature and pressure of the CO
7 in the final equilibrium state.
(b) What is the quality of the CO
7 in the final equilibrium state?
-

HINT: Establish two independent equations for the final quality. Iterate with the saturation table
to find the temperature which gives the same quality in both equations.
dId iaic coniiiiwr

4
sal ILiFej

vapor

1iqiid
hkg

SatULtLl

.j

kg
(Xb

2
CO

rigid
iiO

rmirfltrflc

oltirn )

Figure 13P.15

13.16 As shown in Figure 13.16, a rigid, adiabatic vessel of volume V= 1 m

3 initially contains m!
2 kg of H
0 at a pressure of P
2
. Additional H
2
1 = 2 x l0 N/rn
0 is added from a charging line
2

Ch. 13 Pg. 110

whose conditions are shown in the sketch. When the contents of the vessel reach mechanical
equilibrium with the H
0 in the charging line, the valve connecting the charging line to the vessel
2
is closed.
(a) What is the initial temperature, T
, of the H
1
0 in the vessel?
2
(b) What is the pressure, P
, of the H
2
0 in the vessel when the valve is closed?
2
(c) Show the states 1 and 2 on a P-v diagram that includes the locus of saturated states.
(d) Estimate the mass, in
0 in the vessel when the valve is closed.
2
, of H
2
(e) Specify the state of the state of the H
0 in the
7
valve is closed.

Figure 13P.16

13.17 An inexpensive way of making a Dewar for the storage of cryogens is to manufacture the
walls of the Dewar from polystyrene foam (k
, = 0.023 W/m K) that can be foamed in a mold of
101
the appropriate geometry. Consider such a spherical Dewar, shown in Figure 1 3P. 17, with a wall
thickness of t = 2 cm and a radius of R = 1 m. In the initial state, the Dewar contains, by volume,
50 percent saturated liquid nitrogen and 50 percent saturated vapor nitrogen in equilibrium. The
Dewar sits in a room with fixed environmental conditions of Tatm = 300 K and P,
.
2
1177 = i0 N/rn
As the liquid boils due to the parasitic heat leak, the nitrogen vapor created vents through a hole
in the top of the sphere such that no pressure drop is required for the saturated vapor to escape.
(a) What is the temperature of the nitrogen in the initial state?
(b) What is the mass of the nitrogen in the Dewar in the initial state?
(c) What is the quality of the nitrogen in the initial state?
(d) Estimate the rate of heat transfer from the room into the nitrogen if the heat transfer
coefficient for convection and radiation from the outside surface is ho = 8 W/m
2 K and the
average heat transfer coefficient between the nitrogen and the inside wall of the Dewar is
h= 10
2 W/m
2 K.
(e) Estimate the time required for enough liquid to boil away so that the Dewar contains
only saturated nitrogen vapor.

Ch. 13 Pg. 111

Vapor vent hole

Inside radius of Dewar 1 m

Thickness of foam wall = 2 cm

Foam wall
2
atm iO N/rn
Ta=300K

Figure 13P.17

,.,.

13.18 As shown in Figure 13P.18, a container is divided into two volumes A and B. In the initial
state, volume A contains H
0 in the critical state (VAI = 0.5 m
7
) and volume B is evacuated. A
3
crack forms in the adiabatic wall separating volumes A and B, and H
0 slowly leaks from
7
volume A into volume B. As a result of the resistance to flow in the crack, the weights and the
piston that bounds volume A slowly descend, compressing the H
0 such that the H
2
0 that
2
remains in volume A passes through a sequence of equilibrium states until the piston comes to
rest on the stops, thereby leaving a volume of 0.25 m
3 in volume A (VA
). When the
3
2 = 0.25 m
flow through the crack stops and the pressure of the H
0 is uniform throughout volumes A and
2
.
2
B,PA,=PB?= 10 N/rn
The boundary of the H
0, i.e. the interface between the H
2
0 and the walls of both
2
volumes A and B, is adiabatic at all times.
(a) What is the temperature and pressure of the H
0 in the initial state?
2
(b) Show by means of proper thermodynamic arguments that the mass remaining in
volume A in state 2 is mA
2 = 26.825 kg.
(c) What is the quality XA2 in volume A in state 2?
(d) What is the volume of volume B?
(e) For a system consisting of all the H
0, what is the entropy generation for the process
2
which
by
0 runs down to the final equilibrium state from the initial state?
2
the H
Mass
Frictionless,
adiabatic
piston

Volume A
Initial state:
0 critical state
2
H
3
1 = 0.5 m
VA

Volume B
Initial state: Vacuum

Stops 1!Adiabatic walls

Figure 13P.18

Ch. 13 Pg. 112

13.19 A steam catapult in the form of a horizontal piston-cylinder apparatus is to be used to

launch aircraft from the deck of an aircraft carrier. The steam that is available for this purpose is
at a pressure of P
1 = 8x 106 N/m
2 and a temperature of T
1 = 540 C. For the purpose of designing
this catapult, assume that the steam can be expanded reversibly and adiabatically to a pressure of
2 = lx io N/m
P
. The aircraft, ,)l(,,e = l.5x 10 kg, is to be launched with a velocity of
2
= 60
mlsec after starting from rest. Half of the energy required for the launch comes from the aircraft
power plant and the rest is to be provided by the catapult. As a first approximation, assume that
work done against the atmosphere is negligible. The steam required for the launch is to be stored
in a rigid pressure vessel called an accumulator.
(a) What is the volume, V
, of the accumulator required to store steam for one launch?
1
(b) If the length of the catapult is L = 200 m, what is the diameter?
Shuttle (travels in slot in flight deck)
Flight deck

Piston

Cylinder

accumulator

Steam Catapult for Launching Aircraft

Figure 13P.19
13.20 As shown in Figure 13P.20, a reversible cyclic device operates between two streams of
0 flowing in pipes. Stream A has a mass flow rate of nA = 2 kg/sec and enters its pipe at a
2
H
temperature of TIA = 20 C and a pressure of IA = 2 x iO N/rn
. Stream B enters its pipe at a
2
temperature of TIB = 500 C and a pressure of 1B = 2 x iO N/rn
. The H
2
0 flows in the pipes with
2
negligible pressure drop. Stream A exits from its pipe at a quality of X2A = 0.8. Stream B exits
from its pipe as a two-phase, liquid-vapor equilibrium state. The reversible, cyclic device
experiences a work transfer with the environment at a rate of W = 717.8 kW.
(a) What is the temperature T
A at the exit of stream A?
2
(b) What is the temperature T
B at the exit of stream B?
2
(c) What is the state of the H
0 at the exit of stream B?
2
(d) What is the mass flow rate nB?
(e) Show the paths of the processes in streams A and B on a single set of T-s coordinates
that also includes the locus of saturated liquid and vapor states.

Ch. 13 Pg. 113

Pipe A
Stream A

Reversible, cyclic device

Stream B
Pipe

B,
Figure 13P.20

13.21 As shown in Figure 13P.21, a rigid vessel contains mA = 1 kg of saturated liquid H

0 at a
2
temperature of TAI = 320 C in the initial state. This vessel is adiabatic everywhere except where it
is connected to a thermal conductor. This thermal conductor is connected through a thermal
switch to a cylinder containing mB = 1 kg of H
0 initially in a two-phase state. The cylinder is
7
fitted with a weighted piston such that the contents of the cylinder must exert a pressure of
B
2 in order to support the piston. This cylinder and piston are also adiabatic everywhere
io N/rn
except where the thermal conductor makes contact with the cylinder.
The thermal switch is closed and the contents of the rigid vessel run down to thermal
equilibrium with the contents of the piston-cylinder apparatus. The thermal resistance of the
thermal circuit is such that the processes in the H
0 can be modeled as quasi-static. In its final
2
state, the H
0 in the piston-cylinder apparatus is a saturated vapor.
2
(a) On a single P-v diagram, show the locus of saturated states and show the paths of the
processes of the H,O in the rigid vessel A and in the piston-cylinder apparatus B.
(b) What is the final equilibrium temperature TA
O in the rigid vessel?
7
7 of the H
(c) What is the final equilibrium pressure A
0 in the rigid vessel?
2
2 of the H
(d) For the contents of the rigid vessel, determine the volume VA
J occupied by the liquid
2
phase in the final state.
(e) For the contents of the piston-cylinder apparatus, determine the specific volume VBI of
the two-phase H
0 in the initial state.
7
(f) For a system consisting of all the H
O, what is the entropy generation for the process
2
by which the H
O runs down to the final equilibrium state from the initial state?
7

Ch. 13 Pg. 114

Thermal switch
Figure 13P.21
13.22 A supply line contains H
0 at its critical point. The line is capable of supplying any
2
amount of this H
0 without changing the state of the H,O in the line. A rigid tank, initially
2
evacuated, is connected to the supply line through a valve. The valve is opened and H
0 is
2
allowed to flow into the tank until the pressure inside the tank reaches P
2 = iO N/rn
. The tank
2
volume is VT = 0.1 m
.
3
(a) What is the state of the H
0 in the tank when the pressure reaches P
2
?
2
2 = i0 N/rn
(b) What is the mass of the H
0 in the tank when P
2
2 = iO N/rn
?
2
Valve
0
2
H
state

Figure 13P.22
13.23 In a classroom demonstration of the triple point of N
2 shown schematically in Figure
13P.23, a Dewar contains an initial mass of rn
1 = 1 kg of saturated liquid N
2 at the pressure l0
2 and a negligible amount of vapor in equilibrium with the liquid. A vacuum pump is
N/rn
connected to the vapor space of the Dewar and nitrogen is removed from the Dewar by reducing
the pressure of the vapor phase in equilibrium with the liquid phase. This causes some of the
liquid to evaporate in an attempt to replace the vapor removed by the pump. As the liquid
evaporates, the latent heat necessary to convert liquid into vapor is provided by the liquid that
remains behind. This, in turn, causes the temperature of the remaining liquid to drop in
accordance with the reduced vapor pressure. The reduction in pressure can be continued until the
triple point pressure is reached. If the pumping process is continued further, it is possible to

Ch. 13 Pg. 115

convert the remaining nitrogen into solid nitrogen in equilibrium with nitrogen vapor at the triple
point pressure.
(a) Estimate the mass of N
2 that must be removed by the vacuum pump in order to
convert all the remaining liquid into saturated liquid N
2 at the triple point.
(b) When all the liquid N
7 has been transformed into solid and vapor N
7 (no liquid) at the
triple point, how much N
2 remains?
(c) How much of the remaining mass of N
7 is in the vapor phase?
The following data for nitrogen at the triple point may be useful:
= 0.1249 x iO Jim
2
TTP = 63 K,
= -25.75 kJ/kg, hf= 0 kJ/kg, h = 216.0 kJ/kg
= 1.129 x 1 o m
/kg,
3
1.152 x 1 o m
/kg,
3
1.487 m
/kg
3

VpUmp <

Nitrogen exhaust
Figure 13P.23

13.24 As shown in Figure 13P.24, an adiabatic piston-cylinder apparatus is divided into two
separate compartments of equal volume, V = 1 m
, by means of a thin rigid membrane. One
3
compartment contains saturated liquid refrigerant R-22 in the initial state T
1 = 20 C, while the
other compartment is evacuated. The adiabatic piston is loaded with a mass such that a pressure
of
= iO N/m
2 is required to support it in mechanical equilibrium. In the initial state, a pin
holds the piston in a fixed position.
(a) The membrane ruptures and the R-22 expands to fill the entire volume of the
cylinder. The R-22 is allowed to come to equilibrium in state 2. Calculate P
2 and T
.
2
(b) The pin is now removed and the piston is free to move. After some time the R-22 and
the piston reach a new equilibrium state 3. Calculate V
.
3
3 and T
(c) Calculate the interactions for the various changes of state.
(d) For the R-22 as a system, calculate the entropy transfer for the two process, I 2 and
2 3. Calculate the change of entropy of the R-22 for these two processes. From these data, what
conclusions can be drawn regarding their reversibility?
-,

Ch. 13 Pg. 116

Insu1ated piston

IVLSS
f

Insulated cylinder
VACUUM
1

Membrane

AIR
ZZZZf 1

Figure 13P.24
13.25 As shown in Figure 13P.25, a rigid tank of volume V= i0 m
3 is thermally connected to a
reversible cyclic device. In the initial state, the tank is filled with saturated H
0 vapor at a
2
temperature of T
1 = 40 C. The H
0 is then cooled to a temperature of T
2
2 30 C by means of the
cyclic system that operates in an integral number of reversible cycles. The cyclic system uses the
atmosphere at a temperature of T(
17171 = 35 C as a heat reservoir.
(a) Calculate the heat transfer from the H
0 to the cyclic system.
2
(b) Calculate the work transfer experienced by the cyclic system in order to provide the
heat transfer of part (a) above.
(c) Calculate the mass of saturated liquid H
0 that forms inside the tank during the
2
cooling process.
(d) Calculate the change in entropy of the atmosphere at a result of the interaction
between the H
0 and the cyclic device.
7

6W
Figure 13P.25
13.26 A pressure cooker is a device used to process foodstuffs by cooking them at elevated
temperatures in order to reduce the cooking time. The elevated temperatures are achieved by
cooking the foodstuffs in an H,O environment at pressures higher than atmospheric. Consider the
following example. A pressure cooker consisting of a rigid vessel with an effective internal
volume of V = 1 m
3 is filled with saturated H
0 at a pressure of P
7
1 = lx iO N/rn
2 in the
proportions 10% of the volume saturated liquid and 90% of the volume saturated vapor (state 1).
The vessel is sealed, and the vessel and its contents experience a positive quasi-static heat
transfer until the internal pressure reaches P
5 N/rn
2 = 2x10
2 (state 2). At this time, a relief valve
opens and allows saturated vapor to escape as the heat transfer process continues at constant

___________

____

Ch. 13 Pg. 117

pressure until only saturated vapor remains in the pressure cooker (state 3). At this time,
the relief
valve closes and the heat transfer process becomes negative as the contents are cooled
until the
internal pressure reaches 1x10
5 N/rn
2 (state 4). The pressure cooker is now opened and the
foodstuffs are removed.
(a) Show the states and the processes on P-v and T-s diagrams.
(b) Calculate the mass of liquid, m
, and the mass of vapor, mg, in states 1 and 2.
1
(c) Calculate the heat transfer, ,
12 for the process 1 2.
W
12 and work transfer, ,
Q
(d) Calculate the mass, m
, of H
3
0 in the pressure cooker in state 3.
2
(e) Calculate the heat transfer, ,
23 to the pressure cooker for the process 2 3.
Q
(f) Calculate the heat transfer, ,
34 for the process 3 4.
W
34 and work transfer, ,
Q
Calcul
(g)
ate the proportions by volume of liquid and vapor in state 4.
-.

13.27 The manufacture of paper consumes enormous amounts of energy. A new paper
mill is
presently being designed for Bucksport, Maine. The mill is to produce 1 0 kg of
paper (dry) per
year. As shown in Figure 13P.27, wood pulp enters the mill as a slurry of wood fibers
suspended
in water. The wood pulp is 95% water and 5% wood fibers by mass. The water can
be assumed
to enter as saturated liquid at 25 C and leave as saturated vapor at 25 C. The wood fibers
enter
the mill at 25 C, and the paper leaves the mill dry at 25 C. In the preliminary design
of the mill,
we would like to estimate the minimum energy requirements, both heat transfer and
work
transfer, of the mill as it interacts with the environment at 25 C. Wood fibers and paper
can be
modeled as incompressible materials with density p = 900 kg/rn
3 and c = 1.38 kJ/kg K.
(a) Estimate Q
and W
lTllfl
.

lTllfl

(b) Prove that these values are indeed the minimum values for the interactions.

Sat. H
0 vapor, T
2

Paper

25 C

Mill

Wood pulp, T 25 C
95%
0
2
,5%fibers
H

Paper, I O kg/year

-- - -1
Environment, T

25 C
Figure 13P.27

13.28 The objective is to design a steam-powered catapult for launching jet aircraft from
the deck

of an aircraft carrier. As shown in Figure 13P.28a, the shuttle, or trolley, of the steam
catapult is
connected to the aircraft by its launch bar and is propelled along a track in the deck by
two

Ch. 13 Pg. 118

pistons which are directly connected to it. The pistons travel in two steam cylinders that are
placed side by side under the deck and extend the whole length of the track. Steam pressure acts
directly on these pistons and propels them along the cylinders. The comparatively light pistons
and the shuttle are the only moving parts of the catapult.
The sketch illustrates an aircraft secured by its launch bar to the shuttle and held back
against the thrust of its own engines. The nose gear launch equipment is designed to assist in
launching aircraft by attaching the nose wheel strut to the towing mechanism of the catapult by
way of the launch bar. A holdback device is connected between the aircraft holdback fitting and
the holdback attachment point on the deck. The holdback restrains the aircraft against forward
movement prior to actual catapult firing. The capacity selector valve (CSV) system allows for the
catapult officer to set the desired energy level of the launch. The catapult officer uses the type of
aircraft, aircraft weight, aircraft configuration, wind conditions, and the desired excess aircraft
airspeed to find the correct CSV setting from aircraft launching bulletins that are prepared for
each type of ship. When the aircraft is ready to be launched with its engines at full power, the
launching valves are opened and steam is admitted from the receivers to the after side of the main
pistons in the power cylinders. The force on the pistons generated by this steam breaks a
calibrated weak link in the holdback and accelerates the pistons, shuttle, and aircraft to the
required speed along the deck. At the end of the catapult power stroke, the aircraft automatically
disengages from the catapult and continues the launch under its own power. The catapult
retraction system can then be actuated to return the catapult shuttle to battery position.
Figure 13.28b shows a cross-section through the catapult and illustrates how the two
power cylinders are installed side by side in the trough formed in the flight deck. This trough is
closed by two portable tracks or portions of deck which carry the channel-shaped rails in which
the shuttle runs upon its rollers.
The body of the shuttle is in the shape of an inverted T of which the upper part projects
through a slot between the two channel rails above the deck and forms the hook to which the
towing bridle is attached. The flange of the T on the underside is furnished at each edge with
dogs which engage in corresponding dogs in the driving key attached to the piston. The two
pistons and the shuttle are constrained to move axially, but have freedom relative to each other so
that slight movement of the track or cylinders is possible. The dogs are provided with ample
bearing surfaces. The length of the accelerating stroke, and therefore of the assembled cylinder, is
only limited by the length of the ship, but it is necessary to stop the piston assemblies and shuttle
when they have reached the end of their available stroke.
At the end of the power stroke, the spear sections of the piston assemblies engage the water
brakes. The brake unit consists of two fixed cylinders, or chambers, which are kept full of water
using centrifugal action of a vortex induced in each chamber by jets of water. The tapered spear
enters the orifice at the chambers mouth, displacing water aft through the gradually reducing area
between the orifice and the entering spear. This action develops high pressure in the brake
chambers, which acts on the spears to stop the pistons and the shuttle.
The rotary retraction engine uses hydraulic pressure from the catapult hydraulic system to
operate a hydraulic motor and wind mechanism, which feeds the cables on and off the drum to
operate the launching shuttle grab. After each shot, the grab is propelled the full length of the
launching stroke, where it latches onto the shuttle. The motion is reversed to return the pistons
and shuttle to the starting position in preparation for the next launch.
The current design of the steam catapult is capable of launching a Grumman F-14A
Tomcat aircraft of mass m = 35,805 kg at a speed of z = 71.4 mlsec with a catapult piston stroke
of L = 76.2 m. Each of the two engines of the Tomcat develop a static thrust of F = 9.2963 x iO
N. The two Westinghouse A2W pressurized water nuclear reactors (PWR) of the aircraft carrier

Ch. 13 Pg. 119

are capable of providing wet steam at a pressure Of
= 6.72 x 106 N/rn
,
2
= 283.1 C, and a
quality of x
1 0.9975. The saturation properties of this stearn are:
Vf= 1.3427 x iO rn
/kg, vg = 2.8652 x 102 m
3
/kg, u= 1244.1 kJ/kg, u = 2583.6 kJ/kg
3
hf= 1253.1 kJ/kg, hg = 2776.2 kJ/kg, S
= 3.0969 kJ/kg K, sg
1
5.8352 kJ/kg K
Estimate the diameter of each of the two pistons and the volume of the steam receivers
used to store the steam for each launch.

H7----

cR4U

/
I

..___

2O

JHumE

Figure 13.28a Aircraft in Launch Position

E*(tJrru

J4q;h)hit#tt) tA1UCFR

TAKFh

iPO

HAkCiLfl4rEP

AxE:vU_t__j:

1
T4C.I

Figure 13.28b Cross-sectional View of Piston Assembly

flic-fT.HkC

Ch. 13 Pg. 120

Shutter

Figure 1 3.28c Receiver-Cylinder Schematic

13.29 One of the design limitations in the large scale integration of electronic devices is the
cooling requirements of the individual chips that make up the device. One method of cooling that
has been developed to address this problem uses a dielectric fluid, such as refrigerant R-134a,
that has a low boiling point. The particular design under consideration uses a modular approach
in which an array of chips is housed in a compartment fitted with a condenser coil in the top of
the compartment. As shown in Figure 13.29, a pool of boiling R-134a is used to cool the array of
chips located on the floor of the module, and the vapor thus produced is condensed on the
cooling coil and allowed to drip down into the pool. Thus there is a circuit of R- 1 34a in which
the refrigerant alternates between the two phases, liquid and vapor.
The module is sealed so that the temperature of the two-phase R- 1 34a inside is Tat = 40 C
when the unit is working. Integrated circuits (ICs) are embedded in an adiabatic ceramic
substrate with one surface exposed. The ICs are submerged in the liquid phase and cooled by
nucleate boiling on the exposed surface. The maximum allowable surface temperature of the ICs
is T. = 50 C. The vapor produced by the boiling heat transfer rises to the top of the cooling
module where it comes into contact with a coiled copper tube cooled by water circulating
through it. The vapor condenses, and the condensate drips down into the pooi of liquid below.
The copper tube is 2 m long with an I.D. of 8 mm and an O.D. of 10 mm. The water enters the
tube at a temperature of 10 C with a mass flow rate of 0.05 kg/sec.
For the chip/R- 1 34a interface: C = 0.004 and n = 1.7
For copper: kcLI = 401 W/m K
(a) Determine the heat transfer rate for the coolant.
(b) What is the temperature of the coolant at exit from the module?
(c) If each IC has an exposed surface area 24 mm
, calculate the maximum allowable
2
power dissipation in each IC.
(d) How many circuits can be accommodated by this design?
Tube
Module

Coolan*
R-134a vapor-

,,

Chips

R-134a liquid

Ceramic substrate
Figure 13P.29

Ch. 13 Pg. 121

13.30 As shown in Figure 13P.30, a vessel is divided into two chambers separated by a wall that
is adiabatic everywhere except for a square 2m on each side. This square is made of copper 5 mm
thick (k = 401 W/m K). On one side of the wall is saturated R-134a at a temperature of 35 C.
On the other side of the wall is saturated H
0, T = 45 C, that is condensing in a filmwise
2
manner on the copper surface. As a result of the condensing heat transfer in the H
0, the R-134a
2
experiences nucleate boiling. The resulting vapor is removed and the mass is replaced by an
equal mass of saturated liquid so that saturation conditions are maintained in the R- 1 34a.
Similarly, the condensate that forms is removed and replaced by an equal mass of saturated H
0
2
vapor.

For the copper/R-134a interface: C= 0.0154 and n

1.7

(a) Estimate the temperature of the copper plate assuming the thermal resistance of the
plate is negligible. Is this a reasonable assumption?
(b) Estimate the mass rates (kg/see) of evaporation and condensation for the two fluids.
HINT: The solution of this problem requires a trial and error approach in which one first guesses
the temperature of the copper plate and then determines the heat flux due to boiling in the R
l34a. This now establishes the heat flux on the H
O side. One then needs to check to see that the
2
assumed value for the temperature of the plate will sustain that heat flux in the H
O. If not, pick a
2
new value for the temperature of the plate and try again.
Adiabatic wall
Saturated H
0 vapor
2
Liquid condensate film

00
000
) 0 Saturated liquid R- I 34a
0 0

Copper wall
Adiabatic wall

Figure 13P.30
13.31 A thermosyphon (sometimes called a Perkins tube) is a device for transporting energy and
entropy from one region to another by means of boiling and condensation of a working fluid.
Typically a thermosyphon consists of a tube closed at both ends and filled with a fluid in the
right proportions of liquid and vapor so that the liquid-filled portion of the tube is in contact with
the energy source (high temperature heat reservoir) while the other end is in contact with the
energy sink (low temperature heat reservoir). The liquid filled portion of the tube is called the
boiling section and the vapor filled section is called the condensation section. Depending upon
the application, these two sections may be separated by an insulated section.
In a particular application of the device, two streams of water, one stream at 85 C, the
other at 50 C, are separated by an adiabatic membrane. A thermosyphon made from a stainless
steel tube, k = 14.9 W/m K, with I.D. = 19 mm and O.D. = 25 mm is filled with pure water. As
shown in Figure 13P.31, the hot stream flows at 0.3 mlsec while the cold stream is stagnant (zero
velocity with heat transfer by natural convection). The total length of the tube is 1.3 m with a

Ch. 13 Pg. 122

boiling section 0.3 m long and a condensation section 1 m long. Vapor condenses on the inside
of the condenser section and falls as a film to maintain the level in the boiler section. Calculate
the heat transfer rate from the hot stream to the cold stream.
Note that the state of the water inside the tube needs to be determined. HINT: The state of the
water inside the tube is approximately saturated H
0 at a temperature in the neighborhood of 65
2
C.
ff/

Stagnant cold water

T = 325 K

Falling water film

Adiabatic boundary
-

Boiling water

T=360K
2
7
i

JfFJ4

Figure 13P.31

13.32 For forced convection boiling in smooth tubes, one approach to estimating the heat flux
combines the heat transfer coefficients in a linear fashion for the separate effects of boiling and
forced convection. In this method, the Rohsenow correlation for nucleate boiling of equation
(13.68) is used together with Newtons law of Cooling to determine a heat transfer coefficient hh,
and the Dittus-Boelter correlation is used to predict the forced convection contributions with the
constant 0.023 in the Dittus-Boelter correlation replaced by the value 0.0 19, viz.
Pr
8
0.019Re
NuD = 4
The convection heat transfer coefficient h is then simply added to h,, to get ht(,fUl. In this analysis,
we wish to compare this simple approximation with the results of the more complex approach
suggested in the boiling heat transfer correlation of equation (13.98). As a test case, consider
water with a bulk mean velocity of 1.5 mlsec and a bulk mean temperature of 95 C flowing
through a horizontal brass tube (ki,,.ics 127.8 W/m K) with an I.D. = 15 mm and a tube wall
temperature of 110 C.
(a) Estimate the rate of heat transfer per unit length of the tube for the two correlations.
(b) Which correlation would you choose? Why?
(c) For the approximate method estimate the length of tube necessary to convert saturated
liquid into saturated vapor at 95 C. What is the pressure drop for this tube?
The thermal properties of water at 95 C are:
, p,, = 5.0457 x l0 kg/rn
3
, hfg = 2270.2 x l0 J/kg, c
3
1 = 4212 J/kg K,
Pi = 961.82 kg/rn
= 2014 J/kg K, p
1 = 295.8 x 10 kg/rn see, p, = 11.81 x 106 kg/rn see, k, = 0.678 W/rn K,
k,=24.34x 10
W/rnK, u=599x 10
3
N/m
3

Ch. 13 Pg. 123

13.33 Saturated steam from a manufacturing process is to be condensed at a pressure of 1 atm
(T = 100 C) in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and two tube passes.
Cooling water enters the tubes at th = 15 C with an average velocity of i = 3.5 rn/sec. The
tubes are thin-walled and made of copper with a diameter of D 14mm and a length of L = 0.5
m.
(a) Find the number of tubes/pass required to condense steam at the rate of 2.3 kg/sec.
(b) Determine the bulk mean outlet temperature of the water.
(c) What is the maximum possible condensation rate that could be achieved with this heat
exchanger with the same mass flow rate for the water and inlet temperature of the water?
13.34 The fuel rods, known as pins, in a boiling water nuclear reactor are designed with hollow
cylindrical cores that act as a channels for coolant flow. In a particular design shown in Figure
13P.34, the diameter of this circular channel is 5 mm with a length of 1.2 m. Water at a pressure
of 5 x 106 N/rn
2 and a temperature of 210 C enters the channel with an average velocity of 6
rn/sec. The heat flux due to the fission of the uranium fuel is uniform along the length of the pin
and has a value of

2
MW/rn
A
Assume that the flow is fully developed thermally and hydrodynamically. Assume that the wall
of the pin is thin enough that it is at uniform temperature across any plane normal to its axis.
That is, assume that the temperature of the pin is a function of x only where x is the direction of
flow of the coolant. Assume that nucleate boiling dominates along the channel.
(a) Plot the wall temperature of the pin as a function of x. What is the temperature of the
wall at the coolant exit?
(b) What is the state of the coolant at exit?
(c) Estimate the pressure drop for the coolant over the length of the channel.
For uranium: k = 32 W/m K
p =5 x10
6 N/rn
2

Uave

1
Q
/A

2.2 MW/rn
2

6 rrse

l.2m
Figure 13P.34
13.35 As shown in Figure 13P.35, an aluminum rod 10 cm in diameter emerges from the final set
of rollers in a rolling mill at a velocity of 1 rn/sec and a uniform temperature of 450 C. As the rod
leaves the rollers, a low-velocity stream of water at a temperature of 100 C flows across the rod.
As an expert in thermal-fluids engineering, you are being asked to evaluate the cooling process.
Specifically, the manufacturing engineers wish to know the length of the water stream such that
film boiling will persist over the entire length of rod cooled by the water.
The transition from film boiling to nucleate boiling occurs at (Twa
11 Tat) = 30 C. Assume
that the rod is at uniform temperature at any cross-section throughout the film boiling process.
(a) Estimate the length L.
(b) Prove that the rod can be modeled as being at uniform temperature over any cross
section.
-

Ch. 13 Pg. 124

For the aluminum: p = 2770 kg/rn
, c = 875 J/kg K, k.,. = 186 W/rn K,
3
The Stefan-Boltzmann radiation constant is USB = 5.67 x 108 W/m
2K
4
Water

0.3

Aluminum rod, D
Rollers

L
Figure 13P.37

10 cm

Ch. 14 Pg. 1
Chapter 14
Mathematical Foundations of the Pure Substance Model
14.1

Introduction

In the previous chapter we treated the pure substance model from a phenomenological
point of view. That is, we subjected a pure substance to a series of hypothetical experiments that
enabled us to determine qualitatively the general behavior of the pure substance. We then showed
how the various phases interact to maintain equilibrium, and we illustrated the use of the
properties to determine the thermodynamic behavior of the system.
In this chapter, we shall show that as a consequence of the first and second laws of
thermodynamics, the properties of the pure substance model are related to one another by a set
of
mathematical relations that we call thermodynamic functions. Further, we shall show the
influence of this interrelationship on the equilibrium among phases and the manner in which we
can develop simple models to describe the behavior of the pure substance model in certain
localized domains. We further demonstrate the use of the thermodynamic functions to determine
all of the properties of the pure substance model from a minimum number of experimental
measurements. Finally, we conclude by establishing the criteria for the stability of
thermodynamic systems and the implications of these criteria for the relative magnitudes of
certain properties.

14.2

Thermodynamic Functions

Recall that for a closed system we have defined the canonical relation of
thermodynamics, equation (13.1), to be
du=TdsPdv
where we have written equation (14.1) for a unit mass. The first law of thermodynamics
guarantees that u is a property so that equation (14.1) can always be integrated to give the
functional relation between the internal energy, the entropy, and the volume. Thus,

(14.1)

u=u(s,v)

(14.2)
where the specific entropy, s, and the specific volume, v, are the independent variables of the
function. The state principle guarantees that equation (14.1) is complete so that the variables
s
and v are sufficient to specify completely every equilibrium state of the pure substance for which
s and v are actually independent.

14.2.1 Equilibrium States on the Energy Surface

Before we explore the mathematical properties of the energy surface, equation (14.2), and
their implications for the thermodynamic properties of a system, it is worth noting that this
relation represents all the information concerning the equilibrium states of a system. For
example, consider an isolated system comprised of several subsystems separated from one
another by various constraints which become internal to the larger composite system. The
composite system is initially in an equilibrium state consistent with the constraints. When
these
internal constraints are removed, the system seeks a new equilibrium state consistent with the
requirements for an isolated system, namely that the energy and the volume be constant (du
= 0
and dv = 0). During the run down to equilibrium, the system maximizes the entropy by internal
heat transfer and work transfer processes that generate entropy. The final equilibrium state
is the
state with the largest value of entropy consistent with the fixed value of energy and volume of
the
original state of the composite system.

Ch. 14 Pg. 2
Alternatively, the situation can be viewed from an energy perspective. If the entropy and
volume are fixed (ds = 0 and dv = 0), the run down to equilibrium is characterized by the energy
seeking a minimum value consistent with the fixed valued of entropy and volume. Since the
composite system is no longer constrained with respect to heat transfer, we have from the second
law
dS=+6Sgen

=0

(14.3)

Then
=

(14.4)

Then the first law gives

duQ3W=3QJd

(14.5)

du = _ThSgen

(14.6)

Thus, the system decreases in energy as entropy is generated during the run down to equilibrium.
In the equilibrium state, the process is complete and the energy decreases no further. Then du = 0
and the energy is a minimum for the fixed value of s and v.
The surface represented by equation (14.2) in the three-dimensional space spanned by it,
s, and v contains all the equilibrium states of the system and provides all thermodynamic
information about the system. That is, all of the equilibrium properties of a system can be derived
from this surface, u = u(s,v), and the first and second laws of thermodynamics. The function that
represents the surface is holomorphic meaning that it is infinitely often differentiable and can be
described by its Taylor series. As we shall see, this type of behavior is extremely important in the
determination of the thermodynamic properties from the surface and in the practical
determination of the surface from experimental data.
Example 14E.1: As shown in Figure 14E.1(a), a system consists of a rigid volume, V= 1
, divided into two compartments, A and B, by a frictionless, adiabatic piston. Initially, the
3
m
compartments are of equal volume and contain air that can be modeled as an ideal gas with R =
287 JIkg K and c,, = 716 J/kg K. In the initial state, TAI = 300 K and TBJ = 600 K with A1 = Bl =
iO N/m
. Consider the two following situations.
2
(a) In the first case, the rigid volume is adiabatic so that the composite system consisting
of the two compartments constitutes an isolated system with fixed energy (du = 0) and fixed
volume (dv = 0). At some point in time, the adiabatic nature of the piston breaks down and the
piston develops a finite value of thermal conductivity greater than zero. Thus, the contents of the
two compartments are allowed to experience heat transfer with one another. Determine the
equilibrium state and show that during the run down to equilibrium, the entropy of this composite
system is maximized and attains its maximum value in the equilibrium state.
(b) In the second case, the rigid volume is no longer adiabatic but the value of entropy is
fixed (ds = 0) as is the value of the volume (dv = 0). Again, the adiabatic nature of the piston
breaks down and the piston develops a finite value of thermal conductivity greater than zero. The
contents of the two compartments are now allowed to experience heat transfer with one another.
Determine the equilibrium state and show that during the run down to equilibrium, the energy of
this composite system is minimized and attains its minimum value in the equilibrium state.
(c) Compare the results of parts (a) and (b) above and discuss their differences.

Ch. 14 Pg. 3
Fr r S S S S S S S

er r r r S S S S S S S S

A
-,

S S S 55555

w..S S Sr r S S S S S S

Frictionless piston

Rigid 7
container

Figure 14E.1(a)

Solution: (a) The mass of the gas on each side of the piston is given by the ideal gas
property constitutive relation, viz.
=

Al

Al

(io

(287 J/kgK)(300 K)

RTAI
=

PBI VBI

N/m
)
2
(0.50m)

=0.581 kg

(i0 N/m2)(0.50m3)
=

(287 JIkgK)(600K)

RTBI

0.290 kg

Since the total energy of the composite system is fixed in this case and since the total volume is
also fixed, the first law establishes the final equilibrium temperature, viz.

2
(U

1
U

2
(U

1
U

) + (U,

1
U

=
8

m
Tl
U
T
U
)+
A
U
])
l)
mA
c,
+
=
J
(T
(T
(U
0
)
(0.581 kg)(716 J/kg K)(T, 300 K)+(0.290 kg)(716 J/kg K)(1 600 K)=0
2 400 K
T
The equilibrium volume is given by the property constitutive relation and the mechanical
equilibrium of the piston, viz.
82
mAR TA
2 D
mBR T
=

A2

A2

B2

From the conservation of volume,

VA 1 VB
2
2
Combining these last two equations and solving for the equilibrium volumes, we get
RI
9
m
VB2
1flBRT. +
=

(0.290kg)(287J/kgK)(400K)

3
(0.290 kg)(287 I/kg K)(400 K)+(0.581 kg)(287 J/kgK)(400 K) =0.333 m
3 0.333 m
3 0.667 m
2 I m
VA
3
These properties define the unique equilibrium state that satisfies the first law and the condition
that the temperatures on both sides of the piston be equal. However, if we allow the temperatures
on the two sides of the piston to be unequal, there are many combinations of TA
2 and TB
2 that will
satisfy the first law. A sample of these is shown in Figure 14E. 1(b).
=

Ch. 14 Pg. 4

600

(K)
7
TB
400

600

2 (K)
TA

Figure 14E. 1(b) Gas Temperatures that Satisfy the First Law
The change in entropy for the composite system that results from the lack of thermal equilibrium
between the gases in the two chambers can be determined from the second law applied to the
composite system, viz.
2 Sl)AB =(S2 Sl)A +(s
(S
2 Sl)B
2
TA
2
VA
2
TB
2
VB
cIn+rn A Rln+m By
(S 2 S) A+B =m A
c ln-+m B R1nTAl
vAl
TBl
Bl

If we substitute the temperatures shown in Figure 1 4E. 1(b) into this expression, we obtain the
results shown in Figure 14E. 1(c).
200
0
200
-400
-00

s
2
(s
)
1

A+B

(J/K)
-800
1000
1200
14001(

Figure 14E. 1(c) Entropy Change in the Composite System

Notice that of the results shown in Figure 14E.1(c), only those for which (S
2 Sl)A+B 0 are
physically meaningful. Most importantly, notice that the maximum value for the change in

Ch. 14 Pg. 5
entropy occurs in the equilibrium state and that in this state, ds = 0.
(b) If we now adopt the energy point of view, we have ds = 0 and dv = 0. The equilibrium
state can then be determined by finding the temperature for which the entropy change is zero.
7 Sl)A+B =(S2Sl)A +(S
(S
Sl)B 0
7
T
V
T
V
(S 2 S)
1 A+B =m A c In-+m A R1n-+m B c v 1n-+rn B Rln-=0
TAl
A]
B1
1
B1
V

Figure 14E.1(d) shows the values of TA

2 and TB
2 that satisfy this constraint. The first law for this
situation is
7
Q
1
2 j=(u

2
Qj-

7
=(u

Ul)A

2
+(u

U])AB

2
=(U

U)B

Ac(

Ul)A

2
+(u

Ul)B

l)+hhlAcV(T
4
T

)
41
T

(0.581 kg)(716 J/kg K)(1 300 K)+(0.290 kg)(716 i/kg K)(T

7 600 K)
If we plot the change in energy for the temperatures shown in Figure 14E. 1(d), we obtain Figure
14E.1(e). We note that the energy change attains its minimum value in the equilibrium state for
which TA
2 = 369.49 K.
=

TB
(
2
K)

500

800

TA
(
2
K)
Figure 14E. 1(d) Gas Temperatures that Satisfy the Constraint ds

Ch. 14 Pg. 6
1.2 1 0

I 10

81

61 0

7 U,
(U

)A+B

(J)
41

21

210

4
300

400

500

600

700

800

2 (K)
TA
Figure 14E.1(e) Change in Energy of the Composite System
(c) In comparing the results of parts (a) and (b), we note that the equilibrium states for the
two cases are different which is to be expected since the constraints on the system are different
for the two cases. In part (a) the system is isolated and no heat transfer is allowed; however, in
part (b), the system is no longer isolated with respect to heat transfer and the system ends up in a
lower energy state. In each case, we are looking at a particular plane that intersects the surface
described by the characteristic function. In the first case the surface is s = s(u,v) and we are
looking at the states on a plane u = constant [Figure 14E.1(c)]. We note that the equilibrium state
is the one for which the entropy is maximum on this plane. In the second case, the surface is it =
u(s,i) and we are looking at states on a plane s = constant [Figure 14E.1(e)j. The equilibrium
state is the one for which the energy is minimum on this plane.
14.2.2 Mathematical Properties of the Energy Surface
Equation (14.2) implies mathematically that the internal energy is a state function and that
we could write the total differential of the internal energy in the form
(u
(it
(14.7)
du=i
I dv
I ds+i
vL
sL
Upon comparing equations (14.1) and (14.7), we conclude that the following identities must
exist, viz.
(14.8)
-PW
vL
In an abstract mathematical sense, these identities can be taken as the definitions of temperature
and pressure. These definitions are abstract in that they presuppose the existence of the function
u(s,v). In a practical sense, the reverse is true. That is, we must first have working definitions of
temperature and pressure in order to establish the actual function u(s, v) from experimental data.
In the canonical relation, equation (14.1), we observe that the thermal variables
(properties) T and s are associated in a single term (the reversible heat transfer interaction).
and

Ch. 14 Pg. 7
Although so associated, the variables (properties) T and s are different in nature in that the
temperature is intensive and dependent while the entropy is extensive and independent. For these
reasons, the variables (properties) T and s are termed conjugate. For analogous reasons, the
mechanical variables (properties) P and v are also termed conjugate. Note that in each conjugate
pair of variables the intensive property, T or F, acts as the force(or the potential) for the
associated interaction, heat transfer or work transfer, and the extensive property is the
displacement i.e., the quantity that is transferred across the system boundary during the
interaction.
If we examine equations (14.2), (14.7) and (14.1), we see that equation (14.2) contains all
of the information necessary to completely specify all reversible interactions for a given path for
the pure substance in terms of the independent properties s and v. The temperature and the
pressure are obtained from equations (14.8) in terms of s and v. Thus, the reversible heat transfer,
and the reversible work transfer for a given path are completely specified in terms of s and v, viz.
=

j2TdJud

(14.9)

(Q
)
2
ree

$2Pd

th

(-2)rev

(14.10)

Note that although equations (14.9) and (14.10) are path dependent, the first law guarantees that
their difference is not path dependent. As a consequence, the canonical relation is an exact
differential. That is, if we consider two different equilibrium states 1 and 2 on the surface a =
u(s,v) and we proceed from state 1 to state 2 along two different paths A and B, the values of the
integrals in equations (14.9) and (14.10) will be different so that

[(Q

2) rev

j,afhA

1
[(Q

2) rev

pathB

and

[(w

2) rev

pathA

[(

2) rev

pathB

(14.11)

However, the first law of thermodynamics guarantees that

2 )rev
_
1
[(Q

(14.12)
2 )rer (_2 )rev Ij,athB
_
1
)rev j,atlA [(Q
14.2.3 The Characteristic Thermodynaniic Functions and the Legendre Transformation
Since u(s,v) interrelates both pairs of the conjugate variables (properties) for the two
reversible energy transfer interactions, the function u(s, v) may be thought of as a complete
constitutive relation for the pure substance. In contrast, given T and F, in order to have the same
information as is implied by u(s, v), we must have both T as a function of s and v, i.e., T(s, v), and
P as a function of s and v, i.e., P(s,v). The function T(s,v) is necessary to integrate Tds (the
reversible heat transfer) and the function P(s, v) is necessary to integrate Pdv (the reversible work
transfer).
A single thermodynamic function of one thermal variable (T or s) and one mechanical
variable (P or v) that yields the two conjugate variables (s or T) and (v or F) by partial
differentiation is called a characteristic thermodynamic function. Thus, u(s, v) is one such
function. A characteristic thermodynamic function contains complete information about the
thermodynamic properties of a pure substance and is therefore a complete constitutive relation
for the substance. Given the set of four variables (properties) s, v, T, and F, we can construct four
such characteristic thermodynamic functions by taking different pairs of properties as
independent. The choices of pairs that will lead to the four possible characteristic functions are:
s,v s,P T,v T,P
Each characteristic function is the integral of an exact differential expression similar to the

(v2

Ch. 14 Pg. 8
canonical relation, equation (14.1). The corresponding characteristic thermodynamic functions
for the pairs of properties given above are, in the order given, the internal energy, u, the enthalpy,
h, the Helmholtz free energy,f, and the Gibbs free energy, g.
We can think of the independent variables (properties) as a set of coordinates, so that the
various characteristic thermodynamic functions should be obtainable from one another by means
of a suitable transformation of coordinates. This transformation can be readily executed by
employing the Legendre transformation (cf Callen, H. B., The rmodynainics and an Introduction
to Thermostatistics, 2 edition, John Wiley, New York, 1985, pp. 137 145.). The Legendre
transformation leads us to the following rule for transforming the canonical relation:

To replace one of the independent variables (properties) in an exact differential

such as the canonical relation with its conjugate variable (property), subtract from
the differential of the dependent variable the differential of the product of the two
conjugate variables (properties).
Thus, starting with the differential of the internal energy and applying the rule to each variable
(property) in turn, we obtain the three other characteristic functions. In particular, we obtain
the second characteristic function by replacing v with F, viz.
dii

d [(F) vl

d (a + Pv)

Tds

Pdv + Pdv + vdP

(14.13)

This simplifies to
dli Tds + vdp
where we have made use of the definition of the specific enthalpy, viz.

(14.14)
(14.15)

hu+Pv

Equation (14.14) can then be integrated to give the characteristic thermodynamic function
(14.16)

h=h(s,P)

By comparing the total differential of equation (14.16) with equation (14.14), we obtain the
identities

T=1-

and

v=I--

(14.17)

Observe that in applying the rule for the transformation of independent variables (properties) we
have carefully associated the proper sign with the variable as required by the canonical form,
equation (14.1). For example we used (F) instead ofF. The third characteristic function is
obtained by replacing s with T, viz.
dud(Ts)=d(uTs)=TdsPdvTdssdT
(14.18)
which simplifies to
df =sdTFdv
where we have made use of the definition of the specific Helmholtz free energy,f, viz.
fuTs
Integration of equation (14.19) then gives the characteristic function

(14.19)

(14.21)

and the identities

f(T,v)

(14.20)

Ch. 14 Pg. 9
and

-P

5
vJ

(14.22)

The fourth characteristic function and the associated relations are obtained by replacing v with
-P and s with T, viz.
dud[(P)vld(Ts)=TdsPdv+Pdv+vdPTdssdT
d(u + Pv Ts)

d(h Ts)

dg

sdT +vdP

where we have made use of the definition of the specific Gibbs free energy, g. viz.
ghTs
Integration of equation (14.25) yields the characteristic thermodynamic function
g=g(T,P)

(14.23)
(14.24)
(14.25)

(14.26)

with the definitions

and

s=

v=

(14.27)

--

iP)T

14.3

Maxwell Relations

The first and second laws of thermodynamics guarantee that the quantities ii, h, f and g
themselves
are
properties and that variations in these properties can be expressed as exact
differentials. When these properties are expressed in terms of the proper set of conjugate
variables (properties), they become characteristic functions, and the conjugate variables
(properties) can be obtained from the coefficients of the differentials of the independent variables
(properties). Since the total differential of a property is an exact differential, the second-order
partial derivatives of the dependent variables (properties) are symmetric. This implies that the
order of partial differentiation is immaterial so that the mixed second-order partial derivatives are
equal. That is, given an analytic function z = z(x,y) with an exact differential dz,

x[yJ] I

=r1

LLJii

(14.28)
z

If we apply this requirement to the canonical relation, equation (14.1), we obtain

1[)]

I,

Lr1
LLJ]

(14.29)

Substituting equations (14.8) into equation (14.29), we have

ii =i
sL

(14.30)

v),

Similarly, for the enthalpy, equation (14.16), we have

Lr1

Lr1
LsLJJ j

PS

(14.31)

SP

Substituting equations (14.17) into equation (14.31), we obtain

=

P}S

s)

(14.32)

Ch. 14 Pg. 10
For the Helmholtz free energy, equation (14.20), we have
T[vJ]TJ

=W1
vLTJjvjT

(14.33)

Substitution of equations (14.22) into equation (14.33) yields

--

=---

(14.34)

JT

Finally, for the Gibbs free energy, equation (14.25), we have

=

[T)]pjT

LT [J]Tj p

(14.35)

Substituting equations (14.27) into equation (14.35), we obtain

dT,)

(14.36)

The four equations (14.30), (14.32), (14.34) and (14.36) are known as the Maxwell
relations in honor of James Clerk Maxwell (1831 1879) who presented them formally in a
lecture on thermodynamic surfaces in 1876. These expressions show that the properties s, v, 7
and Pare interrelated while equations (14.8), (14.17), (14.22), and (14.27) relate these four
properties to the characteristic thermodynamic functions (complete constitutive relations).
Notice that these partial differential relations, the Maxwell relations, have a certain
symmetry to them. On one side of the equal sign, the numerator contains a thermal property
(either s or I) while the denominator contains a mechanical property (either P or v) with the
conjugate thermal property held constant. On the other side of the equal sign, the numerator
contains a mechanical property (either P or v) while the denominator contains a thermal property
(either s or 1) with the conjugate mechanical property held constant. As we shall soon see, the
Maxwell relations contain a wealth of information regarding the physical behavior of substances.
For this reason, it is useful to summarize them in a systematic manner as shown in Table 14.1.
It is worth noting that the mathematical relations summarized in Table 14.1 provide more than
just a formal mathematical relationship amongst the various properties that we use to describe the
thermodynamic behavior of substances. In particular, the Maxwell relations provide a metric of
the thermodynamic coupling that exists in the substance to which they are applied. For example,
as we shall soon show for the case of the incompressible fluid model, which is uncoupled, all four
Maxwell relations reduce to zero, a sure indication of uncoupled behavior. For the pure substance,
in general, each of the Maxwell relations provides specific information about some aspect of
thermodynamic coupling. Equation (14.45) provides the classic measure of coupling, the
magnitude of the temperature change that results from an isentropic expansion. Equation (14.46)
gives the magnitude of the volume change that results from a heat transfer to the substance at
constant pressure. Equation (14.47) gives the pressure increase that results from a temperature
increase at constant volume. Equation (14.48) reveals the expansion of the substance as the
temperature increases at constant pressure.
Most importantly, these eight equations taken together enable us to evaluate a complete
and consistent set of thermodynamic properties from experimental measurements of a minimal
number of properties. They also make it possible for us to determine the values of certain
thermodynamic properties that cannot be measured directly. We now proceed to illustrate the
utility of the relations contained in Table 14.1.

Ch. 14 Pg. 11
Table 14.1
Thermodynamic Relations
L The characteristic thermodynamic functions

Proper
u = ii
h=u+Pv
f=u-Ts
g = ii Ts

Characteristic
Function
a = u(s,v)
h=h(s,P)
f=f(T,v)
g = g(T,P)

Exact Differential
dii Tds Pdv
dh=Tds+vdP
df=-sdT--Pdv
dg = -sdT + vdP

(14.37)
(14.38)
(14.39)
(14.40)

II. The first partial derivatives of the characteristic functions

T=-IJ

=J

(14.41)

Sp
3

_=J =LJ
5
iV

-s=-(.TJ
\dPL

(14.42)

T
=-

J3TJp

=1-1

(14.43)
(14.44)

/T

ifi. The symmetric, mixed second partial derivatives of the characteristic functions, the Maxwell
relations
(f

dsv

a
h
2
3s3P

ElTv

5
\avJ
=

=-(-2
jis/)v
=

as,)p

)T

=-(
,
1
kT/)
=

g
2

---

3TaP

T)p

J
1
T

(14.45)

(14.46)

(14.47)

(14.48)

Example 14E.2: The Clapeyron relation, equation (13.45), gives the slope of the locus of
two-phase states on the P-Tplane, viz.
hfg
(dP

dTsat

TVfg

Ch. 14 Pg. 12
In section 13.12, we derived this relation from the fact that the Gibbs free energy per unit mass
for a two-phase state was the same value for the two phases, g = gg Show that the Clapeyron
relation also can be derived directly from one of Maxwells equations.
Solution: An alternate method of deriving the Clapeyron relation involves the use of one
of Maxwells relations, equation (14.47), viz.
(ds
(dP
dVJT
dTJ
The left side of equation (14.47) represents the change in entropy per unit change in volume for
an isothermal change of state. Thus for isothermal change of phase, the left side of equation
(14.47) becomes

dv JT

SgS

Vf

If we substitute this expression into equation (14.47), we obtain

(.!ti
dTJ

SgSf
vg

1
v

For the case in which there are two phases in equilibrium, the left side of this expression
becomes an ordinary derivative since the pressure is a function of the temperature only.
Furthermore, the intersection of a plane of constant volume and the P-v-T surface in the two
phase region is a a single line representing the locus of two-phase states. Then
s
1
(dP
dT Jsat Vjg
Again, substitution of equation (13.14) into this equation yields equation (13.45).
14.4

Calculation of Thermodynamic Properties from P-v-T Data and Partial Derivatives

From a phenomenological point of view, we have already discussed in considerable detail

the thermodynamic behavior of the pure substance model. We have shown how this behavior can
be demonstrated by experiment. We also have shown how we can use the properties of the pure
substance model, in tabular or graphical form, to evaluate the response of the pure substance
model to various processes. However, this approach presupposes that by some means we have
already established the properties of the pure substance. The most obvious method to establish
these properties is by direct measurement; however, there are certain properties that cannot be
readily measured, and we must rely on some other indirect method for their evaluation. This
indirect method takes advantage of the interrelationships that exist between properties that can be
measured and those that cannot. In fact, the formation of this indirect method is one of the
motives for developing the relations of Sections 14.2 and 14.3.
The properties most readily and accurately measured are the pressure, specific volume,
and temperature. These three properties together form the P-v-T data and the P-v-T surface that
we have already discussed in detail. In addition to measurements of P-v-T data, the various
partial derivatives of the P-v-T surface are often measured directly. The most readily measured
partial derivatives are the coefficient of thermal expansion, (l/v)(/T), the isothermal
compressibility, (lIv)(/dP)T, and the constant-volume pressure coefficient, (l/P)(7P/5T).
Although P-v-T data are usually the most accurate and readily available thermodynamic
properties, these data by themselves are not sufficient to formulate a complete constitutive
relation (characteristic thermodynamic function) for the substance. A minimum amount of

Ch. 14 Pg. 13
thermal data must be combined with the P-v-T data to complete the constitutive relations and
specify the internal energy, the enthalpy, and the entropy. Normally the specific heats at zero
pressure are the most reliable data for this purpose. Other thermal data which may be useful are
the specific heat at constant pressure, the specific heat at constant volume, the Joule-Thomson
coefficient, and the constant-temperature coefficient.
14.4.1 Definitions of Partial Differential Coefficients
A number of useful properties are defined in terms of various partial derivatives of the
thermodynamic functions for the pure substance.
The specific heat at constant volume is a property defined by the partial derivative
(14.49)

For a quasi-static constant volume process in a pure substance, the first law of thermodynamics
shows that the property c relates the differential heat transfer interaction to the differential
change in the temperature. Thus,
(6Q
mPdv mdu
(14.50)
)quai_.cr(tic

constant oltf,1Ie

If we write u u(T,v), the change in the internal energy for an infinitesimal change of state at
constant volume can be written
=

du

dT

cdT

since dv is zero. Then equation (14.50) becomes

(6Q

)quasi_static

mc,dT

(14.51)

th=O

Thus, physically, the specific heat at constant volume represents the quasi-static heat transfer per
unit temperature change per unit mass for a system whose volume is held constant, viz.

(6Q

)quai_static

(1V0

(14.52)
in
dT
The specific heat at constant pressure is a property defined by the partial derivative
c

J
1
=

(14.53)

For a quasi-static process in a pure substance at constant pressure, the first law of
thermodynamics shows that the property c relates the differential heat transfer interaction to the
differential temperature change.
(t5Q
inPdv nidi,
(14.54)
)qtcasi_tatic

constant

pressure

Since the pressure is constant, equation (14.54) can be written

(Q)qj

If we write h

in [du + d (Pv)1

mdh

(14.55)

h(T,P), the total differential of the enthalpy in this case becomes

dT +1P

dlz

cdT

(14.56)

since dP is zero. Then equation (14.55) can be written in the form

(YQ
mcp dT
)quasi_staric

(1P=o

(14.57)

Ch. 14 Pg. 14
which may be rearranged to give
(6Q )quai_ static
(14.58)
dT
Thus, physically the specific heat at constant pressure represents the quasi-static heat transfer per
unit temperature change per unit mass for a system whose pressure is held constant.
The Joule-Thomson coefficient, I-JT is the property that gives the increase in the
temperature per unit increase in the pressure for a process in which the enthalpy remains
constant. Thus,
c

in

/iT

=-J

(14.59)

The constant-temperature coefficient, CT, is the property that gives the increase in the
enthalpy per unit increase in the pressure for an isothermal process. Thus,
cT

=1--

(14.60)

The coefficient of thermal expansion, /3 is the property that gives the fractional increase
in the specific volume per unit increase in the temperature while the substance remains at a
constant pressure. Hence,
(14.61)

This property, /3, is a measure of the coupling between the thermal property temperature and the
mechanical property volume.
The isothermal compressibility, K, is the property which gives the fractional decrease in
specific
volume per unit increase in the pressure while the substance remains at a constant
the
temperature. Thus,
I)

(14.62)

This property, K, is a measure of the compressibility of the substance in the absence of any
thermal effects due to temperature changes. In a sense, this property is the isothermal spring
constant.
14.4.2 Mathematical Relations Between Partial Derivatives
In order to be able to use successfully the differential relations amongst thermodynamic
properties summarized in Table 14.1, we need to recall several relations particularly useful for
the manipulation of variables as previously developed in the differential calculus of a function of
two variables. The most useful are:
the reciprocal relation:

(14.63)
(d)
=

the chain rule:

/i

yJz

dwJ/ wJ,

(14.64)

Ch. 14 Pg. 15
the cyclical relation:
=-l
(14.65)
zL dx)
In addition, the substitution rule is often useful. For example, suppose there exists a function z =
with total differential

z(x,y)

(z
(z
dz=jI dx+Ij dy
(14.66)
X)
y)
If we wish to reformulate the function z(x,y) in terms of properties w and as independent
variables, we first write the implicit relation for z in terms of the new variables, viz.
z=z(w,y)
(14.67)
and the total differential expressed in terms of the new set of independent variables, viz.

(z
(z
dy
dz=I
I dw+

(14.68)

y)

In order to eliminate the old independent variable x in equation (14.66), we write x in terms of
the new independent variables w and viz.

y,

x=x(w,y)

(14.69)

(dx
(x
dx=pI dw+jp dy

(14.70)

with the total differential

Substituting equation (14.70) into equation (14.66), we obtain

(z
dz=II
w)

(x
dw+ dy
1
dw)

(dz
+

dy

(14.71)

or
dz

1 ldw+ 1

X)),dy)

ldY
+1Y}]

(14.72)

But equation (14.72) must give the same value for dz as equation (14.68) for all values of dw and
dy. Hence, the coefficients of dw and dy must be equal. Equating the coefficients, we obtain
the substitution rule:

=(-

(14.73)

and

=L

+
(14.74)
YJ
14.4.3 Guidelines for the Manipulation of Thermodynamic Properties
The results of the preceding sections provide the mathematical basis for the relations
amongst equilibrium thermodynamic properties and their derivatives. We now provide a set of
guidelines for the manipulation of these properties from one form to another. Typically, as we
shall show in the next section, the properties available for such manipulations are in the form of

Ch. 14 Pg. 16
P-v-T relationships. It is convenient, then, to express the derivatives of the properties in these
terms. Following the example of Callen (Callen, H. B., Thermodynamics and an Introduction to
Thermostatistics,
edition, John Wiley, New York, 1985, pp. 186 189.), we offer the
following set of guidelines that have been shown to be useful for this purpose:

1. If any of the derivatives contain any of the propertiesf, g, h, and u, bring

them one by one to the numerator and eliminate them by means of equations
(14.41) through (14.44) or the substitution rule and equations (14.37) through
(14.40).
2. If any of the derivatives contain the entropy, bring it to the numerator by
means of one of the mathematical relations for partial derivatives. If one of the
four Maxwell relations, equations (14.45) through (14.48), does not eliminate the
entropy, use the chain rule for partial derivatives to obtain a partial derivative of
the form dc/L This derivative is then one of the specific heats, equations (14.49)
and (14.53).
3. Now eliminate the dependent variable (property) of the P-v-T
formulation by bringing it to the numerator by means of the cyclic relation and the
chain rule. If the P-v-T formulation is in the form v(P,T), eliminate the volume in
this manner. Conversely, if the P-v-T formulation is in the form P(v,T), eliminate
the pressure in this manner. The remaining derivatives are now expressed in terms
of the derivatives of the P-v-T formulation.
4. The original derivatives have now been expressed in terms of ci,, c and
the derivatives of the P-v-T formulation. If desired, one of the specific heats can
be eliminated by the equation
=

Tvfl

(14.75)

or

LTLJ

cp

-,

(14.76)

VJT

Example 14E.3: (a) Show that the Joule-Thomson coefficient can be expressed in the
following form:
=--(T-1)

PIT
h

(b) Show that for the ideal gas model, the Joule-Thomson coefficient is identically zero.
Solution: Following guideline number 1, we bring the enthalpy to the numerator with the
aid of the cyclical relation, equation (14.65), viz.
(3h
_(fLNl

PIT

__JT

__)J

TJ
For the numerator in the above expression, we make use of the substitution rule, equation (14.74)

Ch. 14 Pg. 17
in the following manner. We write h
Then

h(T,P).
Ii zh(T,P)

dh=(-- dT+11 (IF

TJ
From equation (14.38) we have
dh
If we now write s

Tds +

s(T,P), we have
s=s(T,P)
ds dT+( dP

We now substitute this result into the exact differential for the enthalpy to get
(IhTr_ dT+(
dF)

dPl+vdP=

dh=T dT+rT

)T

dT+ (IF
F}T

+vldP=
]

dT+ dP
P}T

Equating coefficients, We get

(ds

T_J

(h

=J

=c

where we have made use of equation (14.53) and

ii

=Tii +v=Tii

T
1
I
3
J1

+v

iJ)T

where we have made use of one of the Maxwell relations, equation (14.48). Then using equation
(14.53) for the denominator of the Joule-Thomson coefficient, we have
(T

=jTjl
Pjr11
,
1
aP)
Cp

\T)

From the definition of the coefficient of thermal expansion, equation (14.61), the first term in
square brackets becomes

fl
Then the Joule-Thomson coefficient becomes
aP/

PJTH

[T -v=-(flT-l)
c

(b) For the ideal gas model, Pv = RT and the coefficient of thermal expansion becomes
1(v
1 E (RT
1(R 1
(,8)
=

=--j =j=

Then the Joule-Thomson coefficient for the ideal gas model becomes
(pj)ideaI
g

T_1)T_1(1_l)o
c, T
c,,

Ch. 14 Pg. 18
Example 14E.4: As shown in Figure 14E.4, a rigid, adiabatic container is divided into
two chambers of equal volume by means of a frictionless adiabatic piston. One chamber contains
a unit mass of gas at a pressure of P
1 and a temperature of T
1 while the other chamber is
evacuated. The piston is held in the initial position by means of a pin. The pin is removed and the
gas expands to a new volume V
.
2
(a) Show that the temperature change experienced by the gas is given by

J,

ciC]

,
1
[C

(b) Show that the temperature change for the ideal gas model is identically zero.
Adiabatic container

Vacuum

Frictioniess piston
Figure 14E. 1 Free Expansion of a Gas
Solution: (a) Consider the system consisting of the gas. Given the nature of the boundary
of this system, there is no heat transfer experienced by the gas during the motion of the piston.
Also, since there is no force exerted by the vacuum on the piston, there is no work transfer
experienced by the gas even though there is motion of the boundary. Then from the first law, the
energy of the gas is constant. Then the temperature change of the gas is given by
d

Following guideline number 1, we have

(u
-

vJu-

vJT

(du

1
CVVJT

where we have made use of equation (14.49). We now write the internal energy as a function the
volume and the temperature, viz.
It =

dii

u(v,T)

dv +

,
1
T,)

dT

However, the canonical relation also gives an expression for the differential of the internal
energy, viz.
du = Tds Pdv
If we now write the entropy as a function of the volume and the temperature, we have

Ch. 14 Pg. 19

s(v,T)

(ash

(s

ds=i dv+Hl dT
T}
}T

We now substitute this last expression into the canonical relation to get

d=T[1 dv+ dTl_PdrT1 Pldv+T1

T}
J
[
]
Equating coefficients in the two expressions for the differential in the internal energy, we get
[v)T

=1-

T1--
and

=T -P=T(
V)T

}T

where we have made use of Maxwell relation (14.47). From the cyclical relation, equation
(14.65), we have

(v
TJ

/3v

/3

icy

ic

(7

PJT

where we have made use of equations (14.61) and (14.62). Then the temperature change during
the free expansion of the gas becomes
1 Tfl--P dv
dT=
cvJc

ii

12

I_=

1
JV

\C

Ci(,)

(b) For the ideal gas model

(RT

1(Rl
P JvPJT

1
(RT
vP P )T
Then

IV2_dv=
()i1ea1

xa

14.5

c,1cJ

rI
J

l(RT)
}
2
vP

1
P

Ld=

c,T J

Iv2P

c,

Determination of the Characteristic Functions from P-v-T Formulations

The problem of determining the complete and consistent constitutive relation for a pure
substance will illustrate the use of the thermodynamic and mathematical relations that we have
just enumerated. Normally, the starting point is the P-v-T data for the substance. These data are
obtained by measuring the equilibrium pressure and the corresponding equilibrium temperature

Ch. 14 Pg. 20
for a measured mass of the substance contained in a vessel of known volume. The P-v-T data can
be measured with the best accuracy since the volume is the easiest extensive property to measure,
and the intensive properties P and T are uniform at equilibrium. Next, curve fitting techniques
are used (in three dimensions) to smooth the experimental P-v-T data. This must be done with
accuracy in the derivatives of the P--T surface since these derivatives are necessary to determine
the other properties.
In principle the P-v-T data are fitted with an explicit analytical function with sufficient
accuracy for the determination of the entropy and the internal energy or the enthalpy. This
explicit analytical function is the P-v-Tconstitutive relation and is usually called the equation of
state for the substance. The ideal situation would be to have a single P-v-T function (equation of
state) that can be valid for the solid, liquid, and vapor phases; however, the P-v-T behavior of the
various phases is so significantly different that the development of a single P-v-T function
(equation of state) valid for all three phases is virtually impossible to achieve. The common
approach is to develop P-v-T functions that are valid only for certain regions of the P-v-T surface.
It is then necessary for us to insure that these different P-v-T functions match at the boundaries of
the various regions a difficult task that involves matching not only the properties themselves
but their derivatives as well. More recently, improved computational capabilities have allowed
the formulation of a characteristic function directly from experimental data (cf Keenan, J. H.,
Keyes, F. G., Hill, P. G., and Moore, J. G., Steam Tables, John Wiley, New York, 1969, p. 134.).
With this technique it has been possible to describe both liquid and vapor phases with a single
equation which yields all of the other thermodynamic properties by appropriate differentiation.
The problem of evaluation of properties can be simplified considerably if we use simple
models that embody the essential features of certain limited regions of the P-v-T surface of the
pure substance. These simple models are expressed as simplified equations of state (P-v-T
functions) which actually form subclasses of the more general pure substance model. In the
following sections, we develop in a more formal manner than heretofore, two such models that
represent two important regions of the P-v-T surface, namely the incompressible fluid model and
the ideal gas model.
14.5.1 Incompressible Fluid Model
For example, in the liquid phase region of the P-v-T surface we note that the specific
volume is relatively insensitive to changes in pressure and temperature. That is, it is necessary to
change the pressure or temperature by very large amounts in order to effect a significant change
in volume. Since in many engineering situations the temperature and pressure changes are
relatively small, we can safely model the behavior of liquids in these cases by a fluid of constant
specific volume known as the incompressible fluid.
The equation of state which defines the incompressible fluid is simply
v = constant
(14.77)
The P-v-T surface is thus a plane perpendicular to the specific volume axis, and all equilibrium
states of the fluid lie on this plane. Thus, the two derivatives (/[) and (v/c
P)T are both zero
9
which means the coefficient of thermal expansion, fi, and the isothermal compressibility, ic, are
identically zero. When we employ this model in actual engineering situations, we allow the
intersection of this plane with the specific volume axis to shift from one location to another,
depending upon the circumstances. In this sense, the specific volume at the point of intersection
represents the average specific volume of the fluid suitable for the prevailing conditions of
pressure and temperature.
In spite of the extreme simplicity of the model, it is very useful in many engineering
situations; therefore, it is important to establish its properties. Specifically these are the enthalpy,

Ch. 14 Pg. 21
the internal energy, and the entropy. Since we have an equation of state of the form v(TP), we
seek expressions for the properties of the form h(TP), it(TP), and s(T,P). To determine h(P,T)
we integrate

dh=1 dP+1--

dT

(14.78)

The coefficient (n/9I) is by definition c, equation (14.53). The coefficient (?n/c2P)T is

expressed in terms of the P-v-T formulation by using the substitution technique, equations
(14.70) through (14.74), on the characteristic function equation (14.38), viz.
dh Tds + vdP
(14.79)
Equation (14.79) implies h(s,P) which we must reformulate as h(T,P). To change the
independent property from s to T, we consider s(T,P) which implies the total differential of s is

ds= dT+ dP

(14.80)

Substituting fords in equation (14.79), we have

+vldP+T

dh=[T

)T

dT

(14.81)

Thus, comparing equations (14.78) and (14.81) we have

=c

=T1--

(14.82)

and

=TI-

(14.83)

+v

a1)T

PJT

When we use the Maxwell relation, equation (14.48), we have

=v-T

(14.84)

Equation (14.78) then becomes

dh

ldP + c P dT

(14.85)

Since the coefficient of thermal expansion for the incompressible fluid is identically zero,
equation (14.85) reduces further to
clh = vdP+cdT
(14.86)
Since v is constant and the second mixed partial derivatives are equal,

dP[jiTJp]T

LP

1
]T

(14.87)

iTLPJTjp

=T =0
)
2
T

(14.88)

which implies that c is a function of temperature only. Equation (14.86) can then be integrated
simply to give
1
_
2
h
=
V(F_J)+2C
h
(T)dT

From the definition of h we get

ii =

Pv. Thus,

(14.89)

Ch. 14 Pg. 22
cp(T)dT

Equation (14.91) now can be used to evaluate

(14.90)

viz.

c,

=c

cv

(14.91)

Hence, for the incompressible fluid the specific heat c, and the specific heat c,, are the same.
Therefore, the incompressible fluid has a specific heat, c, that must be a function of the
temperature only. Equation (14.90) then becomes
2(T)dT

1
U

112

(14.92)

Often the temperature dependence of the specific heat is weak and the specific heat can be taken
to be constant so that equation (14.92) can be integrated simply to obtain the energy constitutive
relation of the incompressible fluid as presented earlier in Section 4.4, viz.
1 = c(T
u
2 1)
(14.93)
The entropy of the incompressible fluid can be determined by integrating equation
(14.80). When equation (14.82) and the Maxwell relation, equation (14.48), are substituted,
equation (14.80) then becomes
ds=- dP+dT
T

(14.94)

Again since the coefficient of thermal expansion of the incompressible fluid is identically zero,
equation (14.94) reduces to
c(T)
ds=
dT
(14.95)
T
Integrating equation (14.95), we have
2c(T)
T
JT

dT

(14.96)

Again, if the temperature dependence of the specific heat is weak, it can be treated as a constant
and equation (14.96) can be integrated to obtain the entropy constitutive relation of the
incompressible fluid as presented earlier in Section 4.4, viz.
s
2
s
1

=cln-

(14.97)

Equations (14.93) and (14.97) show that the equilibrium properties of the incompressible
fluid are identical to those of a pure thermal system, equations (3.9) and (7.44). Since the specific
volume is constant, the reversible work transfer associated with the normal displacement of the
boundary of an incompressible pure substance is zero. That is,
1-2

mnfPth0

(14.98)

Then the first law of thermodynamics for reversible processes in the incompressible fluid is
identical to that of the pure thermal system, viz.

2
Q

U =rnfcdT
2
=U
1

(14.99)

since the normal displacement of the boundary is the only relevant work transfer. In spite of its
simplicity, the incompressible fluid model finds widespread use in predicting the thermodynamic

Ch. 14 Pg. 23
behavior of liquid systems. It is particularly useful in the science of fluid mechanics since
compressibility effects are often negligible, and the uncoupled mechanical aspects associated
with the bulk motion of the fluid are dominant.
Example 14E.5: Consider the situation in which a viscous incompressible fluid is
flowing at a steady rate through a well-insulated horizontal tube.
(a) Show that the temperature of the fluid must increase in the direction of flow.
(b) Estimate the magnitude of the effect for water modeled as an incompressible fluid.
Solution: (a) Consider a control volume consisting of the fluid inside the tube that lies
between planes normal to the tube axis located at x and x+dx. The first law for this control
volume is given by
_5Y[+dh+dz3+gdz =0

Since the kinetic energy of the flow and the gravitational potential energy of the flow are
constant, the first law reduces to
dh =0
This implies that h = constant. Since the fluid is viscous, we can expect a pressure drop in the
direction of flow; thus, dP < 0. Then the temperature change in the direction of flow is given by
2
P,)

dP

But
(dii

l(h

pJ,

(dh

cFJ

ir
c[

T
1
dTJ]

where we have made use of equation (14.84). Since the coefficient of thermal expansion of the
incompressible fluid is identically zero, we have
dT

dP

Since dP < 0 in the direction of flow, it follows from the above result that dT> 0 in the direction
of flow. Notice that this result could have also been obtained directly from the first law and the
characteristic function form of the enthalpy, viz.
dh 0 = Tds + vdP
For the incompressible fluid model, the entropy has a unique form for its constitutive relation,
viz.
ds

dT
T
cdT = vdP
=

dT=----dP
CF

(b) For water,

iO 3
m
/
kg and = 4187 J/kg K. Then
l0 m
/kg
3
dT=dP=
dP=(2.388 x i0 Km
/N)dP
2
4l87J/kgK
Clearly, the pressure drop would have to be very, very large for the temperature change to be
=

Ch. 14 Pg. 24
anything significant.
14.5.2 Ideal Gas Model
The ideal gas model is the simple model for the P-v-T behavior of the vapor phase of the
pure substance. The ideal gas model is an approximation of the behavior of the vapor phase that
steadily improves as the pressure approaches zero. In fact, it describes exactly the behavior of a
vapor in the limit of zero pressure. As previously cited in Chapter 4, the P-v-T constitutive
relation (equation of state) for a unit mass of an ideal gas is
(14.100)
Pv=RT
This P-v-T surface is a hyperbolic paraboloid.
This unusually simple form of the P-v-T constitutive relation for the ideal gas model,
equation (14. 100), is responsible for its simple thermodynamic behavior. One of the significant
aspects of this behavior is the fact that both the internal energy and the enthalpy depend on the
temperature only. We can illustrate this fact by the following arguments. Let us assume that the
pressure and the internal energy are functions of the temperature and the volume. Then,
(14.101)
P=P(T,v)
and u=u(T,v)
The total differential dii is then
du

dT+ dv

(14.102)

VJT

The coefficient (t/2[) is by definition ci,, equation (14.49). The coefficient (t/c
)T is
9
expressed in the P-v-T formulation by using the substitution rule on equation (14.37), viz.
(14.103)
du Tds Pdv
Assuming that there exists a function s(T, v), we obtain

=/

ds

dT+ dv
v}T
Substituting equation (14.104) into equation (14.103), we obtain
du=T +rT
, L v)T
1
T)

Pldv
J

(14.104)

(14.105)

Comparing equations (14.102) and (14.105), we obtain

=T(--

(14.106)

=T -P

(14.107)

=c

and
v)T

vJT

Substituting one of the Maxwell relations, equation (14.47), into equation (14.107), we obtain

=T1-1

P
dT}
From the ideal gas equation of state, equation (14.100), we get
R

(14.108)

VJT

Substituting equations (14.109) and (14.100) into equation (14.108), we obtain

(14.109)

Ch. 14 Pg. 25

I-l

=L_P==PP=0
(14.110)
v
kjiv)
Thus, the internal energy is independent of the volume, and equation (14.102) reduces to
du=cdT
(14.111)
which permits us to write

(14.112)
dT
Hence, for the ideal gas model, the partial derivative of equation (14.106) reduces to an ordinary
derivative. Equation (14.111) can be integrated simply to give
=--

2 u
u
1

From the definition of enthalpy,

ii

2c,dT

(14.113)

Pv, we have from equation (14.113)

2
h
2
=R(
1)+
T

c2CVdT

(14.114)

Differentiation of equation (14.114) with respect to Tgives

(14.115)
dT
which we have already stated without proof in equation (5.66). In an alternate method of deriving
the energy and enthalpy of an ideal gas, we assume that the volume and the enthalpy are
functions of temperature and pressure, viz.
v = v(T,P)
and h h(T,P)
(14.116)
The total differential dh is then
dh=(-

dT+I----

dP

(14.117)

This is the same formulation that we employed for the incompressible fluid. By using the
substitution rule on the characteristic function, we obtained equations (14.82) through (14.85)
which are generally applicable for this formulation in terms of T and P. We need only form the
appropriate partial derivatives of the ideal gas equation of state, v(T,P) and substitute them into
the equations. The ideal gas equation of state yields
T}

!
P

(14.118)

Thus, equation (14.84) becomes

--1

=v-=vv=0
P

(14.119)

and the enthalpy of the ideal gas model is independent of pressure. Therefore, equation (14.85)
reduces to
dh=cdT

(14.120)

which permits us to write

(14.121)
Thus, for the ideal gas model the partial derivative of equation (14.82) becomes an ordinary
derivative, and equation (14.120) can be integrated to give

Ch. 14 Pg. 26
7 h
h
1

(14.122)

JcpdT

In general, the specific heats c and c, are functions of temperature. As a typical example,
the specific heat c, for a gas composed of diatomic molecules is shown in Figure 14.1 as a
function of temperature.

.zz: zzi::
zz

!
2
II)

..

t
UJJ0

101)

TK
Figure 14.1 Specific Heat at Constant Volume for the Diatomic Ideal Gas Model
(from Introduction to Modern P/i vsics, Richmyer and Kennard, 1947, by permission McGraw-Hill Book Co.)

The simple classical statistical mechanical model for the ideal gas shows that the specific
heat c
, is related to the number of mechanical coordinates, n. required to specify the mechanical
1
state of a single molecule by the relation
c. =-R

(14.123)

In Figure 14.1 the three plateaus for which the specific heat is constant over a temperature range
correspond to temperature regions within which the bahavior of the gas is well represented by the
classical statistical mechanics model. For the lowest temperature plateau, the required
mechanical coordinates are simply the three translational coordinates. In the middle plateau, two
rotational coordinates are necessary in addition to three translational coordinates. In the highest
plateau, additional coordinates are necessary because of a vibration between the two atoms in the
diatomic molecule. A quantum statistical mechanical model is necessary to represent adequately
the behavior of the specific heat in the regions between the classical specific heat plateaus.
Quantum statistics predicts the occupation of the energy levels associated with rotation and
vibration of the molecule as the temperature of the gas is increased. In more complex molecules
the regions of classical behavior are eliminated by overlapping regions of quantum mechanical
behavior.
In spite of its limitations for more complex molecules, the classical microscopic model of
the ideal gas gives useful results for ideal gases composed of simple molecules. For example the
specific heat

Ch. 14 Pg. 27
c=-R

(14.124)

is quite accurate for monatomic ideal gases over a wide range of temperatures, while the specific
heat
cR

(14.125)

is quite accurate for diatomic ideal gases over a wide range of temperatures. In addition, this
model shows that the specific heat ratio, y = ce/c,., should vary from a maximum of 5/3 for a
monatomic gas to a limit of unity for a gas composed of complex molecules, such as a
hydrocarbon.
1.67y>1
(14.126)
For most of the common gases the quantum mechanical model has been worked out in detail
from spectroscopic measurements. The evaluation of the ideal gas specific heat or internal energy
for the substance from this microscopic model is a numerical procedure, and the results are
presented in tabular form. These results for a number of common gases have been collected in
hard copy form (Keenan, J. H. and Kaye, J., Gas Tables, John Wiley, New York, 1948) and
electronic form (cf http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/ published by the National Institute for
Standards and Technology). The ideal gas specific heats have also been empirically curve fitted
with simple functions of temperature over a limited range of temperature. These specific
functions are usually given in thermodynamic data books (cf Hilsenrath, Joseph, et al., Tables of
Thermodynamic and Transport Properties, Pergamon Press, New York, 1960 and Data Book,
Thermophysical Properties Research Center Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, 1964, Vol. 2,
Chapter 5.).
There are in common use two formulations of the entropy of the ideal gas that depend on
the particular set of properties considered independent. In one case, we have s(v,I) while in the
other we have s(P,T). Let us now consider the first possibility, s(v,I). Then
ds

dv+- dT
T}

(14.127)

From equation (14.106) it follows that

=L
T

(14.128)

From the Maxwell relation of equation (14.47) we have

(14.129)
v)T

Then combining equations (14.127), (14.128), and (14.129), we obtain

ds=

dv+--dT
T

(14.130)

For the ideal gas we can substitute equation (l4A09) into equation (14.130), viz.
ds=-dv+dT
T
Integrating equation (14.13 1), we obtain

(14.131)

Ch. 14 Pg. 28

s,s

2dT
T
R1n+ r
v iTT

(14.132)

Now consider the second possibility s(T,P). Then,

ds= (lT+

(14.133)

From equation (14.82), it follows that

1__
j3T,)

=-

T
From the Maxwell relation of equation (14.48), we have
JT

=-1-dT)

(14.134)

(14.135)

Then combining equations (14.133), (14.134), and (14.135), we obtain

ds1---

dP+?dT
T
For the ideal gas we can substitute equation (14.119) into equation (14.136) to obtain

(14.136)

ds=-dP4-dT
(14.137)
T
P
Integrating equation (14.137), we obtain the entropy constitutive relation for the ideal gas model,
viz.

sos =R1n+ IdT

(14.138)
I
IJT
In the more general case, the specific heat is a function of temperature only and the
integral in equation (14.132) or equation (14.138) depends only upon T
. If we define a
2
1 and T
function q5(T) by the relation
-

-dT
T

(14.139)

then equation (14.138) becomes

S2

)-(1fl
2
-si =-R1n-+(T

(14.140)

The function q5(T) has been evaluated for a number of common gases and is given in the
tabulation by Keenan and Kaye (Keenan, J. H. and Kaye, J., Gas Tables, John Wiley, New York,
1948). The use of the function b(T) and equation (14.138) makes the calculation of entropy
changes for the ideal gas with variable specific heats as simple as those with constant specific
heats. The Gas Tables also tabulate functions for rapid calculation of the pressure and volume
ratios for isentropic (constant entropy) processes of an ideal gas with variable specific heats. A
complete explanation and further reference in the use of these functions can be found in the Gas
Tables. The use of these tabulations has become somewhat obsolete in recent years in light of the
software available for personal computers, particularly the databases available from NIST.
If the states of interest lie in a region where the temperature dependence of the specific
heat is weak, we can treat the specific heat as a constant and integrate equations (14.111),
(14.114), (14.132), and (14.138), respectively
2
U
2 :1; )
(14.141)
c (T

Ch. 14 Pg. 29

2
s

2
h 2
c(T

I)

(14.142)

Rin -+ in

(14.143)

and
2
s

7
s =clnRln
-T

(14.144)

which we have stated previously in the context of the constitutive relations for the ideal gas
model.
Example 14E.6: The speed of sound, a, in a pure substance is defined as

(a) Show that for the ideal gas model the speed of sound becomes
2 yRT
a
where y = ce/c,).
(b) Calculate the speed of sound in Nitrogen at a temperature of T = 300 K and a pressure
of P = 1 x iO N/rn
. For nitrogen R = 296.81 J/kg K and y= 1.4.
2
Solution: (a) Note that the Maxwell relations and the characteristic functions are given in
terms of v not p. Then it is worthwhile to express the definition of the speed of sound in terms of
v instead of p, viz.
(P

(P (dv
vJdp

pJ
Since p = 1/v,

(dp

dvJ

and
a 2 =v

Then following guideline number 2, we get

(s
(ash (dT
(T
(dv
VJp TJvJ - 2
2
CpVJp
-- 2
a 2j
v
v
v
PJ

For the ideal gas model, the partial derivatives appearing above are given by
(T
a(Pv
F
vJpdv R JR
-

PJ

(Pv
R

J, R

Then
a2

= yPv
Rv
(b) Substituting the appropriate values, we get
=

yv

yRT

Ch. 14 Pg. 30
a

\/(1 .4)(296.81 J/kg K)(300 K)

353.07 rn/sec

This value is quite close to the value given in NIST Database 23, viz, a = 353.16 mlsec. Note that
the value of the speed of sound for the ideal gas model depends only upon temperature and is
independent of pressure. The pure substance model shows that this not the case. For example, at
a temperature of T = 300 K and a pressure of P 1O N/rn
, the value given in NIST Database 23
2
is a = 379.52 mlsec. Thus, we have further proof that the ideal gas model is limited in its
applicability to states at low pressure.
Example 14E.7: In the combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine, nitrogen
gas, a natural component of the air used in the combustion process, experiences a change of state
1 2 such that T
1 = iO N/rn
1 = 300 K, P
2 and T
2 = 1500 K, P
2 6 x io N/rn
. Model the
2
nitrogen as an ideal gas and calculate the change in entropy of the gas taking into account the
temperature dependence of the specific heat. From the NIST Chem Web Book, the Shomate
correlation for the specific heat is given by
1000K(
E
2
3
(T)=
0
c
I A+Bt +Ct i-Dr +
M
where t = T(K)/1000 K, M is the molecular weight of nitrogen (28.0 13 kg/kg-mole) and
A = 26.09200 J/kg-mole (K/1000)
-

8.218801 J/kg-mole (K/1000)

C = 1.976141 J/kg-mole (K/1000)

D = 0.159274 J/kg-mole (KJl000)
E = 0.044434 J/kg-mole (KJ1000)
Solution: The function c
0 is shown in Figure 14E.7. From equation (14.139), we have
(T)
c
T
1
lOOK 1t2cp0(t)d
)()=
2
(T
T
M
t
0(1500 K)0(300 K)=

100 K
I+B+Ct+Dt2 +dt
28.013 kg/kg-mole J 0.3
,)
3
t

0(1500K)0(300K)=1.790x i0 J/kgK

Ch. l4Pg.31
1250
1225
1200

1175
1150
c
(
0
J/kgK)

1125

1100
1075
1050
1025
100003

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

T(K)
1000 K

Figure 14E.7 Temperature Dependence of the Specific Heat at Constant Pressure for Nitrogen
From equation (14.140), we have

R in

0 () 0 ()

(296.808 J/kg K) in
6

x jO N/rn
2
+1.790 x I
iON/rn

J/kg K

2 s
s
1 = 1258 J/kg K
we
If
had assumed that the specific heat were constant at the temperature of 300 K, we would
have obtained

x
2
N/rn
1500 K
s 2 s 1 =R1n+c P 0
1n=(296.808 J/kg K)1n
6
+(1o31 J/kg K)ln
5 2
i0
N/rn
300K
1 =1127 J/kgK
s,s
The assumption of constant specific heat results in an error of about 10 percent.
14.6

Thermodynamic Properties from P-v-T Surfaces

In the previous section we developed techniques for calculating the thermodynamic

properties of simple models of the P-v-T surface of the pure substance. In this section, we will
show how these techniques can be applied to the more general case. The major difference
between the simple and general case is the manner in which we integrate the differential
expressions of the properties. For example, in Sections 14.5.1 and 14.5.2 we saw that certain
partial differential coefficients, notably the specific heats, played an important role in the
evaluation of other properties such as the internal energy, the enthalpy, and the entropy. For
simple models like the incompressible fluid and the ideal gas, these partial differential

Ch. 14 Pg. 32
coefficients assumed very simple forms (usually constants) which made the integration of
relevant expressions trivial. In general, however, the formulations of the partial differential
coefficients in terms of the properties pressure, volume, and temperature are exceedingly
complex and render the integration of relevant expressions difficult. Fortunately, we can partially
reduce these complexities by selection of a path of integration that passes through states for
which the ideal gas model is valid. This will allow us to express the partial differential
coefficients in very simple form. By employing such paths for integration, we can evaluate all of
the thermodynamic properties from minimum experimental data. A complete set of P-v-T data
and the specific heats for the ideal gas (low density) states are all that are required. The P-v-T
data must provide accurate values for the partial derivatives of the P-v-T function.
The specific heats,
, of the ideal gas states are themselves measured by indirect
0
and cr
methods. As outlined earlier, there exist quantum mechanical models for the behavior of the
ideal gas. When we use these models together, with the emission and absorption spectra for the
substance at very low pressures, we obtain the specific heats
and cr
.
0
There are two methods of proceeding with the calculations of the thermodynamic
properties depending on the way that the P-v-T data have been formulated (curve fitted). One
method is used for P = P(v,T) and a second method is used for v = v(P,I). When the formulation
is P = P(v, I), the convenient independent properties are v and T. The other thermodynamic
properties are in the form ii = u(v, 1), h = h(v, 7), and s = s(v, T). To determine the internal energy,
u(v,T, we must integrate equation (14.102).
(14.145)

dT+ dv

du

When we perform the operations described in Section 14.5.2, equation (14.145) becomes
dii

(14.146)

cdT+[T _Pldv

Here we have combined equations (14.106), (14.108), and (14.145).

If we select the path of integration for changes in u so that the temperature changes only
when the substance is in ideal gas states (P 0, v cc), the specific heat c becomes the ideal gas
specific heat c
00 and the volume contribution to the internal energy change vanishes. Then, the
,
1
change in u is composed of an ideal gas term that depends on temperature only plus non-ideal
gas correction terms. To perform the integration in this manner, we need explicit functions for
c(7) and P(v, 7). Note, however, that the accuracy of the resulting internal energy will depend
upon the accuracy of the derivative of P(v, I).
For computing the difference in internal energy between two states 1 and 2 by this
method, the most convenient path for integration of equation (14.144) is at constant temperature
(T = T
) from v to v cc (p = 0). Next integrate at constant volume v cc (p = 0) from T to T
1
. For
7
this part of the integration the substance is in ideal gas states. Finally, integrate at constant
temperature (T= T
) from v cc to v
2
. This path is shown on the v-Tplane in Figure 9.2 (a) and
2
on the p-T plane in Figure 9.2 (b). The mathematical formulation for this path of integration is
-

[J

[T

Pldvl

cccdTl
+

[J

[T

Pldvl(14.147)

In most practical cases the expressions for P(T,v) and c

, are too complex to be integrated in
1
closed form; therefore, the integrals of equation (14. 147) are normally evaluated numerically
with the aid of a computer.

___________

_______

Ch. 14 Pg. 33

The entropy, s(v, 1), can be evaluated in a manner similar to the internal energy, u(v, I). In
this case we must integrate equation (14.127) to get
ds= dv+ cIT
T)
V)T

2*

(14.148)

-----.

s---

---

T
I]

-t

L.
1
p

1
p
p

ib)

Figure 14.2 (a) and (b) Paths of Integration for Property Calculations
Following the steps shown in Section 14.5.2, we obtain equation (14.130).
c1s=( dv+dT

(14.149)

If we wish to employ the ideal gas specific heats for the integration, equation (14.149) must be
modified to avoid the unbounded entropy at infinite volume, but the modification must permit
equation (14.149) to be separated into the ideal gas entropy plus a correction term. From equation
(14.131), it is apparent that adding and subtracting the term (R/v)dvin equation (14. 149) will
achieve the desired result. Then
dv+dv+--dT
1
ds=r1
-
, v]
1
[T}
v

(14.150)

Here the last two terms are the ideal gas terms of equation (14.13 1), and the first term approaches
zero as the volume becomes infinite.
For the difference in entropy between two states 1 and 2, the most convenient path for

Ch. 14 Pg. 34
integration of equation (14.150) is the path shown in Figures 14.2 (a) and (b). That is, first
integrate at constant temperature (T = T
) from v to v co (p = 0), then integrate at constant
1
volume v
. Finally, integrate at constant temperature (T = T
2
) from v
7
(p = 0) from T to T
to v
. Equation (14.150) then becomes
2
-

-s 1

IdTl +
[J T
]

R1fl+r
,

-ldv
rri
[ L ]

T=

rI

[TJ

-ldv

->

(14.151)
T=T2

Here again, the actual integrals are normally evaluated numerically.

The enthalpy can now be determined from the internal energy by means of the definition
of h.
h (v,T)

u(v,T)+ v[P(v,T)]

(14.152)

The free energies,f and g, can also be evaluated from the definitions

f (v,T) = u (v,T)_T[s (v,T)]

(14.153)

g (v,T)

(14.154)

and
h(v,T)_T[s(v,T)]

When the P-v-T data have been formulated as v = v(P, T), a method very similar to the one
previously described is normally employed to obtain the calculated thermodynamic properties. In
this case the independent variables are P and T so the appropriate starting point is the evaluation
of the enthalpy h(P, T). Thus, we must integrate equation (14.79).

dh=1--- dP+1-----

dT

(14.155)

F}T

When we follow the steps shown in Section 14.6.1, equation (14.153) becomes

dh=[v_T]dP+cdT

(14.156)

Normally the path of integration used in integrating equation (14.156) is chosen so that
the ideal gas specific heat c
0 is employed. Then, for the difference in enthalpy between two
states 1 and 2, the path of integration is the one shown in Figure 14.2 (c). That is, T = T
1 from P
1
to P = 0, at P = 0 from T
1 to T
, and at T = T
2
2 from P = 0 to P
.
2

i---

--.2

p
)
Figure 14.2(c) Path of Integration for the Enthalpy and Entropy Constitutive Relations
of a Pure Substance

Ch. 14 Pg. 35
For this path, the integrated form of equation (14.156) is

[J[v

T (]dP]

+[

cp
d
0
T

[f2[v

(1dP1

(14.157)

To determine the entropy s(P, 1), we must integrate equation (14.131).

ds= dT+ dP

(14.158)

When we follow the steps shown in Section 14.5.2, equation (14.158) becomes
ds=I dP+dT
(14.159)
T
When we integrate equation (14.159) along the path shown in Figure 14.2 (c), we obtain the
difference in entropy between any two states 1 and 2.
2

-s I =-R1n-+E IdTl
T
[J
0
J

iE
ldP
[P TJ]

+
T=

I ri
ldP
TJ]

(14.160)

J
[
0
P

The other properties can now be determined from the following definitions:
u(P,T) = h(P,T)P[v(P,T)1

T=T2

(14.161)

f(P,T)=u(P,T)T[s(P,T)1

(14.162)

g (P,T)

(14.163)

h(P,T)T[s(P,T)1

We have now developed methods for determining a characteristic thermodynamic

function from the P-v-T formulation (and its partial derivatives) and a specific heat as a function
of temperature at one particular pressure. Since this information provides us with a complete
constitutive relation, it will always be possible to express any combination of thermodynamic
properties and their derivatives in terms of the measurable thermodynamic properties. An
adequate set of measurable properties is the P-v-T formulation (and its partial derivatives) plus a
specific heat.

14.7

Special Formulations of the P-v-T Data for the Pure Substance Model

From the discussions of the preceding section, it is clear that the functional form used to
represent the P-v-T data plays an important role in the calculation of thermodynamic properties.
It should come as no surprise, then, that many (in excess of 85) formulations, or equations of
state, have been reported in the literature. In general these formulations are restricted to the vapor
phase, but some can be extrapolated to the liquid phase. They vary considerably in complexity,
and with one exception, the van der Waals equation, are not based upon rational physical
arguments. All have two or more adjustable constants; hence, they are quite useful for curve
fitting and interpolating existing P-v-T data. In this section we present several of the more widely
used P-v-T constitutive relations, usually referred to as equations of state, in the order of their
increasing complexity.
14.7.1 Van Der Waals Equation of State
The equation suggested by J. D. van der Waals in 1873 represents in a qualitative manner

Ch. 14 Pg. 36
the P-v-T characteristics of both the liquid and vapor phases. In addition, the equation has a
critical state and approaches ideal gas behavior as the pressure approaches zero. Although the
van der Waals equation does not represent the properties of any given substance with accuracy, it
is still very useful since it is the simplest model of a substance which explains the departures
from ideal gas behavior. Whereas in the ideal gas model the molecules exert no mutual influence
on one another except possibly during short time collisions (The ideals gas model is sometimes
referred to as a collisionless gas.), van der Waals suggested a molecular model in which the
molecules each have a finite volume and exert long range attractive forces on one another. The
net result of this model is that not all of the physical volume of the container is available to the
molecules of the gas and that the force that the molecules exert on the container wall is reduced
by the attractive force exerted on a molecule by its neighbors. The van der Waals equation of
state then assumes the form
RT
(14.164)
vb V
Here the constant b is the volume excluded by the dimensions of the molecules themselves and
the constant a accounts for the attractive forces between molecules. The numerical values of
these two constants can be related to the critical state by recognizing that the critical isotherm
must have a horizontal inflection point at the critical state. That is, in the critical state
=0
1i =1-1
v}

(14.165)

)T

Applying this condition to the van der Waals equation of state and solving the resulting equations
for the properties in the critical state, v, P and T, we obtain
=
a
(14.166)
RT,=
P
v=3b
c
27b
2
27b
Solving for the constants a and h, we obtain the results
a=--7-R
22
(14.167)
b=---8F
64P,
At temperatures below the critical temperature, the van der Waals equation of state
provides a qualitative description of liquid-vapor two-phase states. If we rewrite equation
(14.164) in the form
(14.168)
2 +avab=0
3 (bP+RT)v
Pv
we have a polynomial that is third order in volume. At temperatures below T, a given isotherm
(line of constant temperature) has three volumes for each pressure over a range of pressure, as
is shown schematically in Figure 14.3. The multiple values of volume at a given T and P allow
the van der Waals equation to represent two-phase states which have a range of volume for a
given combination of T and P. In fact, the van der Waals equation provides a simple model of the
1 shown in Figure 14.3 the slope (P/) is positive in the
phase change. For the isotherm T = T
region from in to ii. As we shall show later in this chapter, this positive slope indicates that the
gas is mechanically unstable in this region. If we have some gas at state o and a part of the gas
happens to decrease in volume slightly, its pressure will decrease. The remainder of the gas
expands and increases in pressure. This process accelerates, and finally a part of the gas has
condensed to liquid atf and the remainder of the gas expands to vapor at g. The linef to g then
represents the two-phase states composed of saturated liquid, statef, and saturated vapor, state g.

Ch. 14 Pg. 37
For mechanical and thermal equilibrium, the pressure and temperature must be the same for
statesf and g. In addition we showed in Section 13.9, equation (13.16), that the Gibbs free energy
must be the same for statesf and g to remain in equilibrium. This requirement for equilibrium
with respect to mass transfer between phases determines the saturation pressure for each
isotherm, that is, determines the vertical position of linef to g in Figure 14.3.

Figure 14.3 Isotherms of a van der Waals Gas

The equilibrium condition between the vapor and liquid phases is expressed by the
equality of the Gibbs free energies for these two states g andf as shown in Figure 14.3, viz.
(14.169)
gg = gf
Since dg = sdT + idP and T= constant, we have along the pathf-m-o-n-g
=gg

gf =0= fvdP+

$vdP+

j vdP

(14.170)

which we can rewrite in the form

I vdP I

JF

vdP= I vdP I vdP

.JP

(14.171)

The first integral on the left hand side of equation (14.171) represents the area under that portion
of the curve rno while the second integral on the left hand side of equation (14.17 1) represents
the area under that portion of the curvef-rn. Thus the entire left hand side of equation (14.17 1)
represents the area enclosed by the curve rn-o-f-m. Similarly, the right hand side of equation
(14.17 1) represents the area enclosed by the curve g-n-o-g. Clearly, by equation (14.17 1) the two
areas in question are equal. This is equivalent to writing

Ch. 14 Pg. 38

f Pdv EF(vg vf)

(14.172)

which determines the vertical position of the line f to g which is known as the saturation pressure
corresponding to the temperature represented by the isotherm on Figure 14.3.
The saturation pressure for the isotherm may also be determined by considering a cycle
proceeding along the path f-m-o-n-g and returning along g-o-f If by some hypothetical means we
could keep the unstable equilibrium states from collapsing, this would be a reversible cycle in
communication with a single heat reservoir (all states in the cycle at the same T). The second law
then requires no net heat transfer for the cycle which means that, by the first law, the net work
transfer for the cycle is also zero; hence, the isobar g-o-f is located so that the area between the
curvef-m-o and the isobar is equal to the area between the curve o-n-g and the isobar.
The states represented by curve g-n are metastable vapor states which are stable except to
the formation of a finite drop of the liquid phase. The states represented by curve f-rn are
metastable liquid states which are stable except to the formation of a finite bubble of the vapor
phase.
The behavior of the van der Waals model perhaps can be made more revealing if the
properties are expressed in dimensionless form such that
=

T=

Vr=

(14.173)

where the subscript r is used to denote reduced properties. Making use of equations (14.166),
(14.167), and (14.173), we can rewrite equation (14.164) in the dimensionless form
8Tr
r
3

(14.174)
Vr

Figure 14.4 shows a typical isotherm, Tr = 0.87, for the van der Waals model for nitrogen. From
the pure substance model for nitrogen (NIST Database 23, v. 7.0): P = 3.3958 x 106 N/rn
, T=
2
126.19K, and v
/kg.
3
0 = 3.19198 x i0 m
In dimensionless form, equation (14.172) becomes
dVr = (at)r [(vg) -(vf )rl

(14.175)

Ch. 14 Pg. 39

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2

0.1
0

5
V

10

Figure 14.4 The Dimensionless Form of the vaii der Waals Model for Nitrogen
In Figure 14.4, the dimensionless isobar for the saturation pressure corresponding to the
dimensionless isotherm 1,. = 0.87 can be determined by substituting equation (14.174) into
equation (14.175) and carrying out the integration. There results an equation for (Vg)r and
(vj)r as a
function of T,., viz.
ln[3(v

1
) _i1+2
41 (vg)

1
=

3(Vjr

lr3(
L

) i]+_2_
r

1
(Vir

)r

(14.176)

Equation (14.176) yields a unique combination of (Vg)r and () for each value of T,. 1. These
values of (Vg)r and (Vf)r can be substituted into equation (14. 164) to obtain the value of the
dimensionless saturation pressure corresponding to Tr. If these calculations are carried out for all
values of T, 1.0, we can generate the locus of saturated states as shown in Figure 14.5.
Then for the isotherm Tr = 0.87 of Figure 14.4, (1sat)r = 0.5589 with (V), = 2.7909 and
=
0.57
12. For nitrogen, we can compare these results with those obtained from the
(Vt)r
aforementioned pure substance model as shown in Table 14.2.

Table 14.2
Comparison of the van der Waals Model and the Pure Substance Model
of Nitrogen for T= 109.79 K
Model

)
1 (NImj
P

v, (m 3 1kg)

v (m 3 1kg)

van derWaals

1.8979 x 106

8.9089 x iO

1.8233 x iO

pure substance

1.4480 x 106

1.6202 x 10-2

1.6049 x10
3

Ch. 14 Pg. 40
1.1

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

10

15

20

25

30

1
V

Figure 14.4 Locus of Saturated States for the van der Waals Model
From Table 14.2 it is evident that while the van der Waals model does a reasonable job of
representing the overall physical behavior of thermal fluids, it does not yield the properties with
any degree of accuracy that would make it a useful predictive model.
One interesting feature of the van der Waals model is shown in Figure 14.5. For certain
values of the temperature, the values of the pressure predicted by the van der Waals model are
negative. While at first glance this may seem to be physically unrealistic, it has been shown by
careful experimentation that liquids are capable of sustaining quite large values of tension
(negative pressure) under the right circumstances.
14.7.2 Dieterici Equation of State
This equation is an empirical improvement upon the van der Waals equation of state. It
has the form
RT
a
(
P=
expj-
(14.177)
vb
vRT
Here the two constants may be expressed in terms of the critical temperature and pressure, or
they may be adjusted to fit the P-v-T data for two particular states. Ir this latter case the equation
of state is used as an interpolation formula for the P-v-T data between the two fixed states.

Ch. 14 Pg. 41

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

0
0.2

0. 6
0.8
1
V

Figure 14.5 van der Waals Isotherm with Negative Pressures

14.7.3 Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State

In order to obtain a fit to the P-v-T data of gases over a broader range of states, Beattie
and Bridgeman proposed the following equation of state which contains five constants in
addition to the gas constant R, viz.
P

(14.178)

where
(1!E0
and B=B
vT
3
v
The values of the constants for some common gases are given in Table 14.3.
E=

(14A79)

Ch. 14 Pg. 42
Table 14.3
Constants for the Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State
R

Gi?s
inria

-t

F
.
1
Ii:
.r9

H,

3 15

Au

I.:HH]2 E2
2

l4.i

5345?

ll1L

2f2.O7

1.1213 E-2

2M:i3

F. 4

L5919

F3

.45l --4

1.1

4.2391 E-3

1.6225 ]]

t27

2.iII E3

I.4$4 P-

I 4E)7 E-4

I 4E-3

2C.14
H

2.cI52 E3

Es

I 4 E3
I 4 E4-3

E,i-4

Cr l:*jr

,jiU i1
III_rkJi.

Er

Co

z,

9.3457 F4

CN
.;J3fj

CiJLe
thvI eth

I.5U2

i2 F

I.?7U2 F.3

2O?Mi

I.4i a:2

83.)]

1
H
CR

41 I5.4

44Ii

I I)

i.cei5 F:

2. ll53) E 3

l.C3Th 2

I5;! [:

LKI3II E3

l,t,2:i)

I ? .56

4197 F4

I 4452

Ill 4i1 3 4

22.2

i.i.is i:

4,tO:2

9.7SD E4

IKH.)

F.

Ii

)i

be

2.L942 Ff2
!.1H22 E+3
:11 1l*

9.33$ E-1

173.54

E4

I;9

1eI3 E3

7.I)7 !.i

1
CN

E- 3

I H2IY f

iiL

r. :

2O39!4
49(14.92

3 5Ui:34

?4I) f

F.

(. [35( E

1 1212

tILun

HyJion

I219 !3

2.4NI F4

I4 It

,64I -3
4L

Ee

2,7ra Ff4

14.7.4 Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State

Benedict, Webb, and Rubin have generalized the Beattie-Bridgeman equation of state,
equation (14.178), to cover a broader range of states. The resulting equation of state has been
tailored to represent the P-v-T data of hydrocarbons in particular and contains eight constants in
addition to the gas constant.
P

L +B
RT0

+(bRT-a)++

exp-

The values of the constants for a number of different gases are given in Table 14.4.

(14.180)

Ch. 14 Pg. 43
Table 14.4
Empirical Constants for the Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State
CE.

(114

ELh hrie

.3uc5 i

I7S [

E6

4.3455[) E2

.9ftzc) LJ

I9071 E+7

2 114 E3

2M1.93 E+7

2R23C E-3

2i1642 F 7

2(l55 E3

2.ci5[94 Et7

4.fS2M

PFip3 i

;;

Xi?5 E+2

3Jii(IX E +

E3

255256 E17

4
iH

2-1 L+2

I(if9 E3

C)Rtj7J E-t
7

4H
C

:Li E+2

214127 E3

29l68 E

CH

2.493Y i+

2.22 h:!

t4iIl.c7

2.3? i:.

2i74 E3

4.134241 Fi7

I9724 E2

2OM9 E-3

4.34S7 E7

I77J3r E2

9W5 E-3

4.79543 E7

Hep ILJ

!.

\ .L
4

-.

1he

12i4

LIhi

11911

Ethre

[92

J[?

i?

L094.%1 F

&27 4

3.DL5 fi

23349 E5

9.7139 F:4

:9

Li749 E5

12if1

IY1 [

97i2I 1Y

1.O7O E

] fl542

I 9c29

6 U.o!$ E 9

1 13453 F

Prip.iii

112224

]15 F.5

1.5759 E+5

7JJ9776 F9

i.1317 E-

i-EiIarte

100L95

I 25 E5

j47$9] j+s

5.8279 E!

i.tic9 ps

1.111774 E5

5H56 Et5

516%] F 9

941i5U L6

.i52 F. s

L636m Fs

.62I4 nc

FS

rijpyIi

i-BilyL.r

973341
I

FS

WI7 .-s

43Q

F6

i-Pcnane

LLOi9

l.23545 F--S

2.22&7 :5

43U 1Y

9.1393 E- 6

?l-L

[,19[:

l47iL E

2.4cKI3 ]+5

4.$l.I! j

35. E--6

,-Jkpan

LNII2

1,51575 E5

[-

4.339I2 F-9

S.9775 E

14.7.5 Virial Equation of State

Closer inspection of equations (14.164), (14.177), (14.179), and (14.180) reveals that all
of these equations of state are of the form
B(T)

C(T)

D(T)
+...

(14.181)

RT
v
where B(T), C(T), D(T), . . are all functions of temperature oniy and are known as the second,
third, fourth, . . virial coefficients respectively. Equation (14.181) itself is known as the virial
.

Ch. 14 Pg. 44
equation of state and was originally proposed by Clausius as an improvement over the ideal gas
model. By arguments involving a microscopic model, it can be shown that the virial coefficients
account for the interaction forces among molecules and that their magnitude depends upon the
nature of the microscopic model used to describe the forces of interaction. Of course, equation
(14.181) can also be used in an empirical fashion in which case the virial coefficients simply
become parameters whose magnitudes can be adjusted to fit the P-v-T data of the particular gas.
For this reason, some form of virial equation of state is frequently used to fit P-v-T because it
offers the advantage that the number of virial coefficients can be increased to whatever number is
necessary to achieve the desired level of accuracy for the numerical representation of the data.

14.8

The Principle of Corresponding States and the Generalized Equation of State

The principle of corresponding states is used in engineering practice when the

thermodynamic behavior of the substance is not known and the ideal gas model is not adequate.
J. D. van der Waals, who was the first individual to formulate this empirical principle, noted that
all substances possess a critical state the state on the critical isotherm for which the inflection
point and the point of zero slope are coincident, van der Waals idea was to express the P-v-T
data of a pure substance in terms of the pressure, temperature, and the volume of the critical
state. He postulated a universal function among these critical properties to establish the P-v-T
data in any other state. The properties, which are normalized with respect to the critical
properties, are called the reduced properties F,, Tr, and v,. They were defined previously in
equation (14.173) as

Pr =-,Tr
p

=--,

and v.
I

=--

(14.182)

where the critical properties are denoted by the subscript c. (Values of the critical properties for
some common pure substances are listed in Table 14.5.) The empirical principle of
corresponding states may then be expressed as follows:
All substances obey the same equation of state expressed in terms of the reduced properties.
According to the state principle, a stable, single-phase equilibrium state may be
established by specifying any two independent properties chosen from of the three properties F,
v, and T. Then, the principle of corresponding states implies that any dimensionless group of
properties is a universal function of any two of the three reduced properties. In particular the
compressibility factor, z, where
z=-RT
can be written as a universal function of the reduced volume and temperature, viz.
Z==f(I.,Vr)

(14.183)

(14.184)

Ch. 14 Pg. 45
Table 14.5
Critical Constants
w..rj).J

c1.,]:

lfti
.
1
r
(i

id

CH
C
4
..)

Anykn

P
l}i)3

941

2612

)0?D6

56
729.

Fh

ri2 F + 6

i.

I. i2 R + ?

0.0724

4ft

4( F

7W r

:3

:012

4WI

2 F

1052

02

Csi1,ri iflicJ.:

(V

?.

Cirbn

cd.

Thkiftirrn

CFJCI
CJ

Dcutcriiirn m.,rmi.I.i

D,

I4.$

Ifl

]53.4
?0.9M

547.2
5.4i

0.j2

0! F. + 7

i. I)S

]. 32

I E. + r

. 2i4

i.

(1.0941

05.25

t:.

35

4.56 E

7&[

7,7j E f 6

II, 1233

119.39

536.6

915511

!4.tI

547 ]

fl,2$I4

J42.7

[9,4

21,34

2152 E

$.0(

3&3

69.1

I&4

[, t

692.4

9 6

1.111 E

richni Fri-2T

CHCF

II).93

HP.)

51(

s. Il

4&2

41 E

3J)

15J E

52

5.27

35

3.) E. +

46.0

i6.J

Cl1.Cl

64.50

4.I.4

EThyl

Cj1,O

?4.U

4.0

Fthyln

CJ

$H.05Z

2IZ.4

SOH.3

31.105

55

9.5

919(1

3.34
CTH,.

1D012

s.

9721i

15

(1.2179
ft 7;).

15

[iS

1.115 [

2.

(1,494)
(1130
(I, 176

F. l)

0.22

512 E. r

2 2F

1J,jJ73

14.StI

Ii4I

26

27x

[5

34,7

10S3

120.92

I1iyl itThrid

ii.

75[

UCI1

C
[
1
IOH

(1,043(1

l17

1I5

0.

0.2I!4

ThiIidi!Iuc.r
inli.:i 1-rian1 2

EThyl .ilih:>1

I ).!0

01i4

7 3F
54.

)[M3LS

(I44

I)74

S
44 t1

0.i7)

[1 .3

?1

(01

CI

+ f

CIs)ti :uiu

(hrin

79

62

C
H
4
.

hk:d

.11;/&

JiJ44

I5.

j..

7.

F.irI!.i

243

0.05?

{LOHS

E:

Although equation (14.184) is the form in which the principle of corresponding states
was
originally proposed, the critical volume has proven to be difficult to measure with
any degree of
accuracy. Therefore, it is more convenient to express the compressibility factor
in terms of the
reduced pressure and temperature. Thus,
z=--=z(T,P)
RT
In place of the actual reduced volume we use a pseudo-reduced volume,
V/

=z-

(14.185)
Vr

where
(14.186)

Rather than attempting to formulate the analytical expression of equation (14.185),

we find it

Ch. 14 Pg. 46
Table 14.5 (continued)
Critical Constants
(r1rh

(.I!i,

I!hJI;r

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more practical to establish the compressibility factor from experimental measurements and to
present the data in the form of a graph of z as a function of F, with Tr and V,. as parameters. The
original compressibility charts were prepared by averaging data for the following seven gases:
2 C0
, NH
2
3 CH
,C
4
,N
2
H
,.
8
H
3
12 The latest versions of the compressibility charts, for
H
5
C
example Figure 14.6 (Reprinted by permission of E. F. Obert, University of Wisconsin.), have
increased this number to thirty. Because the gases used in the averaging process include many
types of molecules, the resulting chart cannot be expected to reproduce absolutely the properties
of any one of the gases listed. However, more accurate charts can be prepared by averaging data
of molecules which are more nearly the same type. In spite of these limitations, the use of Figure
14.6 to obtain a value of z at a given T,. and r should lead to errors less than 4 to 6 percent
except near the critical state where z is a strong function of I,. and
In employing the
compressibility chart for engineering calculations, any two of the three properties T,., F,, or Vr are
used to find the compressibility factor, z. This quantity is then used in the relation
,

Ch. 14 Pg. 47
Pv zRT
(14.187)
to find the third property of state. Equation (14.187) is known as the generalized equation of
state. As such, it is a two-parameter equation of state.

I,

40

Figure 14.6(a) Generalized Compressibility Chart

J1L.hL

Figure 14.6(b) Generalized Compressibility Chart

Ch. 14 Pg. 48

tH 1+f+H4+

$tijM

I1-w1 1114

i
090

ci

-.

414kW4It3

I4-F

T
1
-

>-

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.:

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GNER4L1r
M555iLiT

44fJ

CHRiS

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c)

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:[

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14:

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0.5
PE55Lj9E,

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Figure 14.6(c) Generalized Compressibility Chart

In an attempt to improve the accuracy of the two-parameter generalized equation of state,
it has been suggested that an additional third parameter be introduced into the expression for z
given by equation (14.185). Lee and Kesler ( Lee, B. I. and Kesler, M. G., A Generalized
Thermodynamic Correlation Based on Three-Parameter Corresponding States, AIChE Journal,
Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 510-527, May, 1975.) have suggested that the Pitzer acentric factor, , defined
by the expression
(14.188)

1.000

be used for this purpose. In equation (14.188),

is the vapor pressure of the fluid
evaluated at I,. = 0.7. This factor, which is a measure of the non-spherical nature of the molecular
force field ( = 0 for a noble gas with spherical symmetry, such as helium), is then used in a
linear expansion of the compressibility factor.
z

(14.189)

(Tr,F)+WZ (I,])

where
applies to spherical molecules and
is a deviation function. Values of
and
are
tabulated in Tables 14.6 and 14.7 (from Lee and Kesler, op. cit.) for various values of Tr and
The value of ato be used in equation (14.189) is given for various fluids in Table 14.5.
Once we have generated the P-v-T data of a substance by means of the generalized
compressibility factor, z, we can use these data and the methods of Section 14.7 to establish the
other properties such as the enthalpy and entropy. The values of these two properties are most
conveniently presented in terms of the deviation from the ideal gas model. Since these properties

Ch. 14 Pg. 49
Table 14.6
Values of z in Equation (14.189)

fr

ii

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Thii

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Ch. 14 Pg. 50
Table 14.6(continued)
Values of
for Equation (14.189)
z

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Ch. l4Pg.51
Table 14.7
Values of z for Equation (14.189)
I

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43

Ch. 14 Pg. 53
can be readily evaluated for the ideal gas model, the enthalpy and entropy of the generalized real
substance can be evaluated by simply adding to the ideal gas result the contribution due to real
effects as determined from the generalized compressibility factor. To evaluate the enthalpy we
employ equation (14. 156) since the independent variables in equation (14.189) are temperature
and pressure. The real effect due to the deviation from the ideal gas model is defined as the
enthalpy departure function. Specifically, the enthalpy departure function for a state defined by T
1
and P
1 is given by
(hidl

hactuat

)T

hT

(14.190)

hT

Equation (14.156) then allows us to evaluate the enthalpy departure in terms of v(T,P), viz.
_hauai)T

=J

[v_T(

dP

(14.191)

We must now express equation (14.19 1) in dimensionless form in terms ofF

, Tr and the
1
compressibility z. From the definitions of F,, Tr and z we have
P=FJ dP=FdF
(14.192)
T=TT =dT=1dI.
(14.193)
and
zR11

(14.194)

With these relations, the derivative (2v/9T) becomes

(-TJ

(14.195)
r

The integrand of equation (14.191) then becomes

=

T}

zRT. i

zR1.

J.

(14.196)

Equation (14.194) can then be written in terms of the reduced properties as

(hide((l

hf,,(q )

R1

[JT2

d (In

(14.197)

[p

where the limits of integration have been reversed. By using an analytical expression for the
compressibility factor given in equation (14.18 1), Lee and Kesler (op. cit.) have been able to
express the enthalpy departure function in the form
(h.,

ICCU

ha(tua

1
hi
M

(0)

RI

h,cieai h(,(,,,,/
k
,)
RT

(1)

(14.198)

where the terms [(hidec,! - h,ct,ai)/R Tel (0 and [(hd

l - h,,etuai)/RTe j are given in Tables 14.7 and
0
14.8 and have the same meaning as z and
in equation (14.182). A pseudo-analytical
technique suitable for programming this approach on a computer is described in detail by Lee and
Kesler. (Lee, B. I. and Kesler, M. G., A Generalized Thermodynamic Correlation Based on
Three-Parameter Corresponding States, AIChE Journal, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 5 10-527, May,
1975.)

Ch. 14 Pg. 54
Table 14.8
Values of

ac run!

RT

for Equation (14.198)

Pr
i

(iO

C30

.f45

i.Ck13

fOfl

S lHS

94,4

S qi

s s
1l2

45

S.4!

4A9

1032

5JiX

I)

12
S 1t
2
1

4) (

[II

1 li
0
-

i1c
iIIl

liii

I I_II

&I

I I

I il[

o
11 YL

II -d

o
II lIlt

s
1 2
4

II

I _.4
i2LS

Ii 22!

1 u4

0 ti
() IO

tJil-2

4) ros

Ii Iij
o. :5o

II (49
Ii H4i
il 11.32
ii Iii
I).{)3

O.4)
LIt)4
1 i

1) IIi

uU7,3

0. 13

012?
i till

4).O I)

10
I

I0
io

.20

:Iu7

I .30
I 4U
L (r

00O6
4
0

4)3I

O.063

It IJ2
Ii U2

I .iI
i 7

.clcl4

i:.02i
0019

I
I l14-4
:[ 043

i xi:

:ioo3

I 911
200

01)111
H .0)11

0014

it HlI
Ii. l2

(1,010

240

$ flO

64

LI 1

01111

ii

225

U S

52?

.S314

52
5 J2)

5265

4 iL4)

4 k2

4 t
t II4

?2

4 tt-

I
4

It

4 4

-4 Hf
3M1

1 9211

U D4

1 3
I 2

i)

U v
ii 4
II 45

I P1
I CiJ

1 !41

0.434

U.W

4 .1U

II

4).3ei7

j ii

ii
II
ii

Ii 1
Ui, [75

fl

7iLi

i.

U. 1

0 2

4).43

O.57

0259
4) 224
I I4f
(. [73

0.399

0.545

Ii 441
II 2
I:. 21

U
I I(4l

4) 4
(1305

ft)3

ijl7

(lj51

0.231

0.309

U.CI
II flil
UU2:

ii

IUi2
U .o.

0. i
0 I2
0, 1

4). 167

024fi
0.222

I
111)19

0 flr-.
0.(L

I I3

ii 12

(I .07

, 114

0 150

(I (164
it
Il li4i
1 lIz)

,),005
)

I JUlS

HIi

II i1

0 01
0.o2f

Li

0,0Oi

iji)l,

(1

Ii lII
Ii 1101

Ii H

1) II

1111111

1j1J4

II i I
Il Oil
U tHY

II ii2
111115

IJ. 0{))

o.I:102

n r5

i:

ii 111K

4 ir
.4 i09

U
il_i...

L)t

3 l-l
I f.r

141

II UI

4 41N

i29

jq

lit I

I 4

S 91
.5,43

.b1 1
1
5 2r

tll

U Jr
Iii
i
I lS

&022
5 2

q
T

II IILU

1.4)2

6.01

it

I 1I4
013

Ch. 14 Pg. 55
Table 14.8(continued)
I

Values of

I 2w

hiecii hcictitai

R7

for Equation (14.198)

I4
57(10
5.551
5 4i

S 252
uN
4.956
4

4.655
4:494
4 -L
4Ik
.

,i1

3$25

3.376
44

I 3,5)
1.120

5.5
5 5R

5,73)
(Y41
4.945
a
-.646

3.974

3.935

3.744
3
3.34

4J03

I 2
4119
I fl2.1
3,5

j71

3.670
3
.516
3.441

0.185
(Lus$
(1 12)
.3 (lI

4,1?3

$ (,t

4.413

3.558
441

k413
0.368
iI
c 2i9
4)222

4.353
4 22
4.095

49$
4 42
4.7D2

4.4?.
I 112
4127

3.53

:1.531

4.434

4,49
4 ()4
4565
44
-1 .03

1135

4.IJ?

3,796

:1 l,i34
1,4W?
239

$JI
4 95t
329[

5,4-42

3.632

3.732

1:1440

fl49
I
(I 011

5.111
4
4J3
43
4554

3.90-1

0.387

0.155
0130

4,927

5.IS
4)41
4.

4,45?
2
4.132
4 U2fl
3.9.10

I] .54)5

1.187

3.22

5.372
s.i
5.Th

4,$
4 316
4.11
3
3.865

0.7I
0.611

0,30?
2

5,519
5.]9

c 469
5.31]
554
4,9fr

5.63!i
54J
536

hl)

.343
i3

3.910

3.815

3.890

J56

3,77

3.758
9
3.652

3.818
1 7

3.84)1

3.719

3.4

3.746

3.671

3505

3.?i]S

3.7[8
3J32
1.4114
3.329

3.C7
3.575
3.453
3.329

3.4114

2.203
1.719
i

3.53
398
2.65
2.479
2.4:?)

[.1 1%
11,915
4)773

1.564)
1253
I.I)4

0.33
1.51 S
0.458
II
I
ii 4
Il.75

L.2:!
D.
CI,
I L,f4
1iifr

3,5s
3.3,53
34Y1

r14

3S69
548
I

1.22

3.3L5
3211
3. c?

2i.2
2,4A

2.2

07?7

2.24
t,857
I.S49
1318
F fl9

[,9f4
I .?2

2.421
2. [77
1 .)53

$ n92
2.486
2.25
2M1

(l.*4

l].99

0.6%
4) 4]
4) 4
(1.35)

0.8
Ii Th2
ii

1 .46
L309
I I
0 937

9513

071

].5 I
L571
I 411
I
0.929

1.736
I 57
I 195
IA)51

o,

3.2y
0.7$

1I,$2

0.2i

(I.75

1,3.48

(i,5fl

0.205
0 ]

0.2
I 4

3 614

4)115
2)
il [[r,

J4)5

{)

0689

II i

4) 2l4

(liii,

Ch. 14 Pg. 56
Table 14.9
Values of

034)
035
lL4o
0.45

[iz deal

h,
1
R1

(I)

for Equation (14.198)

j.vc)

1). fJ1!

I) .I) )

IJ

i1.09g
Io.65
io ii
9. ]

II 1)96
ii:.
Iii 121
9.5 5

] 1)95
1 II.

!IA91

111121

to. L21:I

9 5ts

9.517
$.H72

.2 I I

.2I2

.,21.s
7.573

0,54)

0.55
0&

i
o.crs
I 04

0in

) .:.

-j-j-;;-

n n-4
0.4)27

Ii. 142

1 16

c,7d)

oio

o.i:i:i
UI.fl1?

i:.

j:,gs

1L23.4
CL1I2

D.2
JJAOI

0.90

li.U

fl

L)

II f1j

i
H 07
Lt 171)
II Ui,k

1)95

1)01 I

(I 144
I 12
Ui 15

11 9
0 9S
fl 91)
I 4)
1.01

[110
II )
fl 01)9

I fl7
I 1)lIJ

0 41

H 14)
4) 101
0

Cl ii

UI

0111)9

0.04-1

0A19

V IY
1

1)042
Cl

Ii4)S5
Cl

iIi1)

HISl
ii

fl56

I iTh

ii

Ii.4)

1.1,4)2(1

.ii)

1.30
I III
I I
I .0
I 70

OAX)3
0
I4iI

11013
Ii 4
II 1)UI
0.01)2

1)1126
H hV
Ii 1F9
01104
n,4:io

L.
I 4I
2 1)

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20

IWJ I
II HilL
II 14)1

2.44)

O,{lOi

.60

o.ii
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2 I1J
MO
3, 5)
1 4Wl

OMO1
I) 002

[I

002

11003
H
II iY

S.27X

0.75

475
4 254

4 2-

H .JS

0s12

0,241

0.5-2

0 94

3.737

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I (J 6
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1 L-
I

0 2I

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.IX1

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2119

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0 I
0.1S3

II

0. 175
Ii I
0 [23
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0.OSO

0.370

4)1152
0 *2
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0AX7

Li00
0 ilI

0.42

ll 0k...

0,i]Ij

(i 3(0

H I12
11013
{),

0(1] 7

o.oi

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11037

0.01 :

I:Lo2

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1. Ci I 6
UI III,

0 02
0.029
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7.59]

7.55
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5.271

I:.Iof

5.Th6

U.lJ[2

10.121

5 .! If

00111

II 1101

I L.0ii9

I) 4sS
flfC

0.001
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7.579

lL.0

0.0
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4)01
00711
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1 1.1e76
In M
IIl. 111

9.519

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0.7S

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I
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0.012

722
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1632

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D.59
I

J 691

II

Ii

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H. 21

0. [77
4? 1011
0
0.01 I

II 1fl

fl

II I.)30
01131
k7

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4) IY2

n. 052

OA)7X

0.1 4

11 I i5
(L01
0)j:

II
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0 1 JO

11 192

I 77

II (Wvt

fl1

-0

(WiS

0 CI4

0071

ii

0. I 14
0 ir

Ch. 14 Pg.
Table 14.9(continued)
I

Values of

h. deal Ii acn,al

\O)

for Equation (14.198)

RT,
Pr

1.1,

i)

1.509

Li.0(2

11.055

I (144
652
O, 121
!>.53 I
K Y,9

II .U27
i.624

.2
6.997

.267
7.2
7.017

7
-fl

4 42?

[W64fl

E(P. 121

LO 121
9.527

9.525

L!4:
.

3.%)

7J4

9Pi
(.. :%%

L]3

5.i32

5.45

5.2X5

5.293

5,5I)f,

s.n

4.Th

4.771

4.784

4.Elt)

I2f

.4

3,712

4.255
3.937
3713

3.S]
3.7M1

.l.Q7
3.773

3 470
3.32

.457

3.327

3,fr$
:!A?]

2.952

3.42
3363
3.223
3()65
240

5.551
3 434
3.313
1IX6
3.051

:.[64

[. l.J

1.723

I).W77

0.673

0.617

2,if

I .3iti

2.381
I,2i

1617

Ii 1S

3
0iIl

I0.7i

1 ft JY
1). I2

LO.935
ii). I I
). L2S

in rr

10.529
IlISO

11.932

F. 97

9fl I
9 .E0

Y.i!I

L29.

!{16U

1..125

S.531

1
i
759

7745
7. 47
t _4
,D27

591S

2.650

fi.Ylo

.5 X24
4,916

425

.149
4f1.R
422

4 0f3

$.24

:i.35X

3251
1.
2.11H:I

3 91))

3.52

3.25
342

4J00
4.023

3.435

1661

3.947

3. I,7

1
4
[S
3.023

1722

2
L..-10

2 MI
2 273

3 Ui?
2,692

LOM

i .59.
1 1112
0

z. i
I
IL 934

o3x1

i61

ii

Ui,!I

II
Li I V

ij

Ui Thi

l Ui4.

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Ci.2I
Ii kI
1

Li 4XI,

ii I i7

Ii

II {.ild

Ei 02

II 5

Ii 3 J

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0.

:.i:iu

l.133

0.202

0.223

00?

0 I7
I

L2ri
f ii

o.ci

0.
II

Ii [fr

l14
IJ 105
I

CIJ2IJ

0. 144

i:i.

II IIiI
it

Lt

Ii

ft 3(1

ii

Ii [42

H. IS

Ii

0i5

i1:

Ii

ji

I:i. lk4

ii

II

I I

II

0. [78

0.

2(14
211

Li .!.
iJ,233

ii

24 I
.2 I

II l4
-II [iiI

II

I22I
:1.242

LI i1

I:i,2
I 2i

7b
3
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Ii 1i1
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1
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0305.

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0.356

it

0.432

4.336
4.257

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i3S

3.992

0.349
it

... .-

5,I32

35
1795
3705
J.i5

3.454

f,

6,3i

4.530

3.670

7239
i,

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5.5c5
5.nn

4?2
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4,fl7
3.l?3

111554

142

U
II

42

i)3
3535

3f2

I 54
I 0L1
0
0. 369

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424

0,112

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fl

U.67

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I)

-H 1II

II 4
0
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04

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2S

14S)

0754
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ij .,)9

(1

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1.097

57

14 Pg. 58
An actual change in enthalpy between two states is expressed as the sum of an ideal gas
term and two enthalpy departure terms, viz.
2
(h

)actuai

2
(h

1 )ideal
h

2 )ideal
[(h

)
2
(h

+
2
T=T

r(h1 ) ideal
L

(h,

actua/

(14.199)

where the ideal gas term is given by

2
(h

1 )ideal
h

(14.200)

dT
0
c

We can execute a similar set of calculations for the generalized entropy departure. When the ideal
gas terms of equation (14.160) are transposed to the left side of the equation, we can write the
entropy departure, viz.

rIP=orR (v
11 Sf
(S.
1

)T
=

[J

ldpl

(14.201)

[Pi]

iT

When equations (14.192) through (14.195) are used to express equation (14.201) in dimensionless
form, we have
R
(Sid,al

Sactual )T

(14.202)

In a manner similar to the enthalpy departure, the entropy departure can be written
R
/
1
S
t1
5
M[
R

(S/deal

acrual )T
5

(0)

WI

Sitleat

Sactuai

(14.203)

where the terms [(Sitiecti Sactuc,i)/R} and [(S/deal Sacntal)/RIW represent the spherical and nonspherical contribution to the entropy departure. Values of these terms are tabulated in Tables
14.10 and 14.11 taken from the data of Lee and Kesler (op. cit.). An actual change in entropy
between two states is calculated in terms of the entropy departures in the same way that the
change in enthalpy is computed in terms of the enthalpy departures, equation (14.191). The ideal
gas contribution to the entropy change is
-

2
(S

).ideal
1
s

IdTRln
T

(14.204)

JT,

As an alternate approach, tabulated values of ideal gas entropies can be used in place of equation
(14.204). In such cases, care must be exercised to account for differences in pressure between the
ideal gas states of interest and the tabulated states since tabulated values are often for pressures of
1 atm or 1 bar.

LI
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Ii
II

ih.

i.

0i5 i
L1:iIi
!)O

s 0

[9O
Jil

1.l(i II

j4II

n I

.SJZ

11
L6

Io
v I i:

ii

iLIi

16O
I
RU: i
I
1i

9ii.

LZ 1

L1
r

LlL

sUL

,.

Si.Z

16LI

iioi.
i

YlL.

Li

UO

tI -

(iSi1

6IL

(ILL
L-;

i-L

61

Z
6J

Ifl

lit

-Et

tit t
I
o[:

S-0Yt

IZ

I1 E
ci L

hi

19L

WI t

66
-j -

fill I

St L

kIJY 1

CWUJ

tiU

i.Z i
U

qj;i c

Ot9
0L I

(.Zt
.9L I
lIh

tLUi
L. 1
6I S

rjyf s

i9t
t.ti

1 t
r

:ii c

c c

P9 S

0
1
i
r

S
6W c
9
y

,.?c

rI

LPI
..Si

Mu

l1I9

fr-Et

c
c

S 9

6I 9

iyi

jc1

/iiU.PS

JO

(o
(pnutuoo)o

t Th I oquj
09 d j7J Z)

Ch. l4Pg. 61
Table 14.11
Values of

i.61U

03

16.7
4I

16.774
IS$Uh

040

) 94

(L311

{)4
0.30

II 0

fl 4
&.45O

0 I IS
4)07S

.65

0.055
0 11411
tLU9

I Th
0.75

1
S

J5O

i.

for Equation (14.203)

j,I pI

I;

1.764
I40I
13 1

I2I
l1.2f)

11 l9

7$4
[.5

16.71)5

16.665
I 3.
1

U lS

ii

I] J

44

4 4
S

ii J4)
0
f), 156

0. .WYi

12 .55k

?.32

Iii

c i

4)246

II 1I
II

UCL
I jr

]7

KI 1
7..j9

4)340

o.:

6.167
4).57
11 44

4 3

II 0I
ii

I 44
ii

n r

r-

6,

6. l5

I) 9

0 lIlt

4? 1
0 1411
o l:I

04)111

u iu3

4)

I) 144

0 ]9

11 (Wi

1 2J

jy4
11 00

96
0 IJ

Ii 4.29
0

0 V3.4

Ifl

II HI)
I I 1119
LI 1)09
II 1

II

1.01

4).4X1

C?
0.169

11 1i2
4?.361

lJ

II 99

4) 044

04) 2
0044)

1.02

4).01

LIL1L9

I CS
I. 10

4) (K
0.45

II 111-1
I) lJ2.I

I I

0IHl

I .2(1

4)4)lJ4

0.1
Iii) 19

I.3U

0.0(13
0 ()12
0 (kIl

1 -41
I
I l

.7u

i .o
I 911

4) II1l
.1.01.1

cxio

IJ.02

4 [1i

4 2

-1 269

4 2-

21
,

i
I 3:1)

ii 4
I M2
U.3J

U
(L3
II

4).32

1 N

C 22

ii 4jil

0.4)55

0. ] L1

0.229
o i
4). i

n.5o

1)474)

II

II

0.4)37

9
r
fl 1
UJi7

li.2ii

ft

1)013

04)26

0.052

II 1110
II
II IJ)

0.102

U.i

Ii PlY

II LI

0 072

I 4)14

1)

II 2
II 1121

4) (3

II

0,016

0.03 L

[I

1101 I

0. fl4

o.o

2 2

I) Ll0
I) I
13 ]

4)

2.311

0.001)

2.61:1

. l.Ll
1 1111
I
4 (xl

....fl

(l,:$117

104

II 4)37
1:1.044

ft i

;i.i

4)1)05

11 1110

1 14
t(I3

0 t1
11 .V,

0C4)1

0002

4) Olfi

OAXi4

II LII)
U II
H fl I

lJ.i:H:i

a.0i2

o.i:ic

4).oI

i.un:

0.00

1) fll[)

4 0111
1 11W

ii 1101

C I H I

I). Ip4)i
I) I

0 LIOl

4)0112

iJ lIII

o
II IN L
(1 1146

I I

0 CX1

0.C3 1

1101
11001

II I3
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O,16E

Iji)7
0 4i9

i
4)1101
LI fl4)4)
II IjlH

2 1)11

13 t5
[2 509
II U.

9 95

S23

L.X29

o .vj

II
II 911
11

ii

[S.dI

II

11 IN
4)
0.002

4 U2I
4? 1121

11 I4
0.4X)3

1? IU
U IW
II fl
1

1)A144
4) 4)
4) (129

1) 0.21
0.01.5
0012
4) J Ii)
4?
0 iN)r
1104)5

oir
1._li

L1II
1fj[ 6

iifi 1
ii

tO
[O 11

Yt1 Li

Lfr U
ULi. U
iI

Ci
1 [
6cr

:t I

z:i Ci

3-ZiJ

9sC

cLL6
0

UF )

s61

t [ Ii
_i ii
I!
p.i H
ETI

tc 1

Zr
LI I
4
[H 6

I)VZ

liii
iiIi
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: o

t9t1
.1

ii

il6

90U
cir o

t0G

LZIJFl

i ii
n

flt

6Y1

EU II
Z([L ii

941 Ii
O ii
lH i:

in

s
9H ii
iJt Li

LU Li
IILCI0

ii
II

Ill Ii
II

i 00
J CI
C,ZU u
h0 Li
6CI U

LLJI U
41h1 U
II

ci (VU
I
co ii
flU

60

L9f?0

LiJ II

kU ci

Lti H
e) H

0
ifI)

1L [

I
IL [

U.1 0
,1 LI

tco

SI I 0
1 ii

ci(l

FL I
c!i I

sL

II4 U

.tIJ L

ii

U
ij 6

J II

4)Ii
LYIJ

[
ocii

IC

IiNLi

!.Vt.

%Y
Jo

tci.

:oc

9ii

9Z1i.

lh .
.ii

LL

LV9

liZL
1ttY

li*:L
iz

o:-

CiZt

6iit

pq

ificc

zy
(KFL
IIW
l

66 9

0Z.

C6

ti

6I *
6i49
1iLL
I.
tSi

ii

li0[

CTI[

i)ri9

Z69

Lt[9

.:ri
LS 4:

. Li
1
t1
[IU[

IV LE
1cLI

961
fFI I
tPl LI
1tL

VLZI
t[

4&. i

L_..

c1

sj1

6S
1

:r II

LU6 6

I[

I I
t9II

VII

tircR

fli1

fAjY.l C

(MXi.

(L,v;

its I
ii

tL
izi

1i

F11i r1

i[
9c:tZL
qI il

-d

(EoI) uoinb joj

/mJ)?

JO

(I)

(pnunuoo)j

T Thi IqL
9 d 1*1

qD

Ch. 14 Pg. 63
14.9 Stability of Thermal-fluid Systems
The various models described above, including the pure substance model, assume that the
state of the fluid is a stable equilibrium state, i.e., stable with respect to perturbations or
fluctuations in its properties. In general, this may not necessarily be the case. We have already
seen that the van der Waals model admits a whole host of states that are unstable as well as a
domain of unstable states. Furthermore, it is common in engineering practice for the pure
substance to be in a metastable state such that the smallest perturbation to that state will drive the
fluid into a stable equilibrium state. It would be valuable, then, at this point in our development to
examine in detail the conditions that determine the stability of the states of the pure substance
model.
For this purpose, we consider an isolated system with fixed values of energy U and
volume V. At equilibrium, the entropy of this system is maximum. Thus, any departure from
equilibrium will decrease the entropy. In response to this departure, the system undergoes
irreversible processes that generate entropy and drive the system back toward equilibrium. It
follows, then, that the state of equilibrium is stable with respect to any departure that results in a
decrease in entropy.
In a perturbed state, the entropy S can be expanded in a power series such that

62S+...
1
+8S+

=S

(14.205)

where 65 represents the first-order departure of the entropy from the equilibrium value, Seq, and
S represents the second-order
2
contains first-order perturbations T, 617, oF, The term 6
7
departures (61) 2 (OV), (OP) 2
Since entropy is a maximum in the equilibrium state, the first-order term in equation
(14.205) vanishes, i.e., OS = 0. Then it is the second-order term that we need to consider in
establishing the conditions for stability. True stability requires that the system be stable with
respect to both thermal and mechanical perturbations. Let us consider each of these in turn, first
the conditions for thermal stability.
14.9.1 Thermal Stability
The approach is to consider the aforementioned isolated system with fixed values of
energy and volume. We now divide the system into two subsystems as shown schematically in
Figure 14.7: a large subsystem denoted by the symbol L and a small subsystem denoted by the
symbol S with the departure from equilibrium occurring in the small subsystem.
...

Isolated system boundary

r
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

L
II

LJ

Figure 14.7 Subsystems of the Isolated System

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

Ch. 14 Pg. 64
The entropy of the composite system is given by
S = S, +SL

(14.206)

where
S

= S(U,V)

and

= SL(UL,VL)

(14.207)

If we now expand the entropy in a Taylor series about its equilibrium value, we have
-

eq =

(u
uJ

Uj

J
2
U

)2

+1

(6UL)
2
2

25L

(14.208)

Physically, there is a perturbation in temperature of the small subsystem which causes a heat
transfer interaction between subsystems S and L. This, in turn, produces a disturbance in energy.
Since the total energy of the isolated system is constant
(14.209)
5 = JUL =
6U
Since by definition

i_fl
aS)

(14.210)

we have upon combining equations (14.208), (14.209), and (14.210)

2
(i1(u)
i
(l
z\S=IIU+I-II+-III
TJ ULTLJ] 2
5
[U
5 TLJ
LT
Comparing like terms in equations (14.21 1) and (14.208), we observe
5
T

+...

(14.211)

(14.212)
TLJ

and
1S2Sr11

L3UsTsJ

ULTL

2
(ou)
2

(14.213)

Since the entropy at equilibrium is a maximum, it follows that S 0. Then from equation
(14.212), we have at equilibrium
(14.214)
TS=TL=T
If we neglect the higher order terms in the Taylor series expansion of equation (14.208),
the departure from equilibrium is then described in terms of the second-order terms which must
cause the entropy to decrease. That is,
S < 0 which we apply to equation (14.2 13). In equation
2
(14.213) we note that

__J

UT

=__

LJ

=__{J_
T

mci,

(14.215)

where we have made use of the definition of the specific heat at constant volume, c, equation
(14.49). We also note that because of their relative sizes, the small subsystem changes in
temperature by an amount T as a result of the disturbance while the large subsystem remains at
the equilibrium temperature T. In effect, the large subsystem appears to the small subsystem as
though it has an infinite heat capacity. Then equation (14.209) becomes
6U =in
(14.216)
c6T
5
and the second-order term given by equation (14.2 13) becomes with the aid of equation (14.215)

Ch. 14 Pg. 65
1
2

SS=

(T + 5

which can be written in the form

1
2
S

(T + ST

m <<niL,

ui

2
u(mcST)
S r

c
2
2 (ST)
(mcj
2
+1ms
T
1+!
2
T

2 (m
5 )

fl7LC,)

(14.217)

(14.218)

Since
the second term in the square brackets of equation (14.218) can be neglected
compared with the first term. Then equation (14.2 18) reduces to
2
55=

2
1 (mac ) (ST)

j
2
(T+ST)

(14.219)

However, from our previous observations, we know that T << T. Then equation (14.2 19)
becomes

(n c

2
)(ST)
5
S
2
=
(14.220)
2
2T
2
Since the second-order term must cause a decrease in entropy as a result of the disturbance, it
must be the case that

(m c)(ST)
2
<0
S

(14.221)

2
2T

From equation (14.22 1) it follows that

, >0
1
c

(14.222)
This is the condition of thermal stability.
Thus, a stable equilibrium state is stable to perturbations in temperature if CV> 0.
14.9.2 Mechanical Stability
We now turn our attention to the condition that determines the stability of a thermal-fluid
system subjected to a disturbance in mechanical equilibrium. Following the example of the
previous section, we once again consider an isolated system divided into two subsystems, a small
subsystem denoted by the symbol S and a large subsystem denoted by the symbol L. In the
present case, the two subsystems are separated by a frictionless diathermal piston. The conditions
of isolation for the composite system result in a situation in which the total volume is constant
while the diathermal piston ensures that the temperature will be constant throughout the
composite system. The situation is depicted schematically in Figure 14.8.
Isolated system boundary
I
I
I

I
I
I

c.
1.

Frictionless diathermal piston

Figure 14.8 Isolated System with Two Subsystems Separated by a Frictionless Diathermal Piston

Ch. 14 Pg. 66
Since the volume and temperature of the isolated system are both constant, it is appropriate to
describe the system in terms of the Helmholtz free energy, F = F(T,V) = U TS. Then
dF = dU TdS SdT
(14.223)
From the canonical relation, we have
dU =TdSPdV
(14.224)
From the second law, we have
dS = 5Stranqe. + gen
(14.225)
Then combining equations (14.223) (14.225), we get
dF = SdT PdV T8Stra,r TYSgen
(14.226)
For the isolated system,
dT 0
and dV = 0 and T6Stiair = 0
(14.227)

Then equation (14.226) becomes

dF = T5S

>

(14.228)

It follows, then, that the equilibrium condition is one for which the Helmholtz free energy is a
minimum.
We now want to explore the departure from equilibrium that results from a small
displacement of the piston between the two subsystems. Then expanding the Helmholtz free
energy in a Taylor series about the equilibrium value, we obtain
2F

()2

+1a2FL

(L)2

+...
(14.229)
2
2
VsJT
JT
2
Vs
where
represents the disturbance in the Helmholtz free energy due to the aforementioned
displacement of the common boundary between the subsystems S and L. Since the total volume
is constant, we have
=
(14.230)

F-Feq

oh

By definition,
(14.231)
Then with the aid of equations (14.230) and (14.23 1), equation (14.229) becomes
F

Feq

F = (PS

PL )Sv +

3Vs

3V]

+...

(14.232)

The power series expansion of the Helmholtz free energy is

F = Feq +5F+O2F+...

Comparing equivalent terms in equations (14.232) and (14.233), we get

OF =(] +PL)OV

(14.233)
(14.234)

and
io2FE+PL1()

aVLJ

(14.235)

Since the Helmholtz free energy is a minimum at equilibrium, OF = 0 and equation (14.234)
shows that the boundary between the two subsystems, the piston, is in mechanical equilibrium
with P =
= P. If we neglect the higher order terms in the Taylor series expansion, the

Ch. 14 Pg. 67
departure from equilibrium is due to the second-order terms which cause the Helmholtz free
energy to increase. Then
F> 0.
2
From equation (14.62) we have
=___i__
(14.236)
icV
V)T
where is the isothermal compressibility. Then the second-order term of equation (14.235)
becomes
--

6F
2

2
1(6v)

--

s
7
L

1(VL]

(14.237)

Equation (14.237) can be written in the form

2Fr1wS1()

(14.238)
2V
But from the geometry of the isolated system, V << VL. Then the second term in square brackets
in equation (14.238) is negligible compared to the first term. Then
2

[K

iCVLj

i
>0
2
1c2V
It follows, then, that the condition for mechanical stability is
ic>0
or equivalently
>0

(14.239)

(14.240)
(14.241)

iT

or

<0

(14.242)

Thus in order for a state to be mechanically stable, the slope of the isotherm passing through the
state must have negative slope in P-V coordinates. It is for this reason that the states along the
path m-o-n in Figure 14.3 are not stable. This condition exposes one of the deficiencies of the
van der Waals model.
14.9.3 Physical Significance of the Stability Criteria
Quite apart from simply establishing the conditions for stability in any model the might
be used to describe the behavior of matter, the stability criteria also establish the relationship
among many of the parameters used to characterize matter. For example, in equation (14.75), we
presented a general relation between the specific heats of a model, viz.
2
Tvfl
c c
(14.243)
where /Jis the coefficient of thermal expansion and is the coefficient of isothermal
compressibility.
By the criterion of mechanical stability, equation (14.240), we have K> 0. It followsfrom
equation (14.243), then, that
c

>

c,

(14.244)

and
(14.245)

Ch. 14 Pg. 68
Thus, the specific heat at constant pressure is always greater than the specific heat at constant
volume.
If we now define the coefficient of adiabatic compressibility, KS, by the relation
K

v P)

(14.246)

we can show that

Tvfl

(14.247)

Then by the criterion for thermal stability, equation (14.222), it follows that
1c>1

Substituting the defining relations for

and

,
5
K

(14.248)

we obtain

i( >-1
v3PJ

(14.249)

VP}T

Then

I
vL

(14.250)
V}T

Then for any stable equilibrium state located on the P-v plane, the slope of the isentrope through
that state is steeper (more negative) than the slope of the isotherm through the same state. It is
this fact that makes the Carnot cycle possible.

Ch. 14 Pg. 69
Problems
14.1 One kg of liquid is compressed in a reversible, adiabatic process from P
1 to P
.
2
(a) If the liquid is modeled as a fluid with constant specific heats and a constant
coefficient of thermal expansion, ,8, show that the final temperature after compression is
approximately
7 =exP[(_Pi)
where
l(dv

vT
(b) Experimental measurements of /3 and c show that for saturated liquid water at a
pressure of 7 x iO N/rn
,
2
8=3.708x lO- (K)
1
1
and c=4.l24J/kgK
What is the change in temperature for a reversible adiabatic, compression from this saturated
state to a final pressure of 5 x lO N/rn
?
2
(c) Suppose that saturated vapor at the same initial pressure of 7 x iO N/rn
2 is
compressed in a reversible adiabatic manner to a final pressure of 5 x lO N/rn
. What would the
2
change in temperature be for this compression process? (Note from the temperature-entropy
diagram that the initial state lies in a region where the vapor can be well represented by the ideal
gas model.) How do you account for the difference between your answers to parts (a) and (b)?
14.2 Prove that the specific heat at constant pressure, c, for an ideal gas is a function of
temperature only.
HINT: Use proof by contradiction. That is, assume c, = c (T,P) and show that
(cpthP)T = 0.
14.3 Consider the classical example of a free expansion. A rigid, insulated container is divided
into two compartments by a diaphragm. One compartment of volume V
1 contains a gas at a
temperature T
1 and a pressure P
. The other compartment of volume V
1
2 is evacuated. If the
diaphragm separating the compartments is suddently fractured, the gas will spontaneously
expand to the volume of the whole container.
(a) Show that the temperature change for such a process is
1 +v,
V

1-1dV

1
2
T
1=

tflC

where /3 is the coefficient of thermal expansion and

compressibility.
-

K is

C/(,)

the coefficient of isothermal

l(V

1 (v
VkdP T
(b) Show that for an ideal gas there is no temperature change.

Ch. 14 Pg. 70
14.4 One method of liquefying gases is to compress the gas to a very high pressure and then
expand the gas to a much lower pressure by means of a throttle. Since in a throttling process the
enthalpy at inlet is identical to the enthalpy at outlet, the relevant performance parameter for this
process is the Joule-Thomson coefficient defined as
(T

l\PJJ
(a) Show that in general

I-liT

(b) Can an ideal gas be liquefied in this manner?

(c) Determine the Joule-Thomson coefficient for the incompressible fluid model.
14.5 The saturation pressure, P (N/rn
), for solid-vapor equilibrium in ammonia (molecular
2
weight = 17.03 kg/kg-mole) is given by
3255 (K)
lnP=l l.552(N/m)_
T
where T is the temperature in K. The saturation pressure for liquid-vapor equilibrium in ammonia
is given by
3032 (K)
)_
2
lnP=lO.4l0(N1m
T
(a) What is the temperature of the triple point?
(b) What are the latent heats of sublimation and vaporization at the triple point?
(c) What is the latent heat of fusion at the triple point?
14.6 The expressions listed below have been proposed as characteristic thermodynamic functions
for a system of mass m. Decide whether they are consistent with the requirements that must be
fulfilled by functions of this type. For the ones that are physically acceptable, derive expressions
for T and P.
The quantities v
, 0, and R are positive constants.
0
(a)

(Ro

0s
0
(v
2

(s

(b) u=exp--

3
s
2
0 m
(v
(c) u=2J
14.7 The speed of sound a in a homogeneous medium is defined as
(2

(1

where p is the density and p = 1/v where v is the specific volume.

(a) Show that the speed of sound can be written
a

Ch. 14 Pg. 71
where
= isothermal compressibility

VP}T
cP

cv

(b) Show that for an ideal gas

2
a

yRT

(c) Compute the speed of sound in R-22 saturated vapor at T = 120 C where the
saturation pressure is
= 230 N/rn
2 and pg = 0.01585 kg/rn
, (C)g = 373.9 J/kg K, and (cp)g =
3
470.3 JJkg K. Compare this with the reported value of a = 136 rn/sec.
(d) Compute the speed of sound for both the saturated liquid and saturated vapor phases
of R-22 at 20 C given the following data:

Liquid:
Vapor:

, (CV)f= 686.4 J/kg K, (c= 1236 J/kg K, Zf= 0.02668

3
= 1210 kg/rn
1
p
38.48 kg/rn
, (cl)R = 619.5 J/kg K, (c,) 840.4 i/kg K, z
3
1 0.8390

where z is the compressibility factor defined as

PiP
z=
RT

14.8 As shown in the sketch below, a piston-cylinder apparatus contains 1 kg of H

0 in a
2
metastable state, P
1 = 5 x 106 N/rn
2 and T
1 = 260 C. The area of the piston is A
. In
2
, = 0.25 m
1
effect, this is a supersaturated vapor since T
1 <Iat The H
0 undergoes a spontaneous transition
2
to the stable equilibrium state, state 2.
(a) What is the temperature T
?
2
(b) Using the van der Waals equation of state to describe the metastable state, estimate
the change in volume V
2 V
.
1
The following data may be helpful: R = 461.51 J/kg K
0.83893 0.219989 0.244619 0.0970466
0 = 0.046r + 1.47276 +
c,
+
in units of i/gram K
2
3

where
1000 (K)
T
atm

Piston

Cylinder

Ch. 14 Pg. 72

14.9 Using the van der Waals model, explain qualitatively how the value of the compressibility
factor, z, can be greater than unity.
14.10 For the van der Waals model, we wish to formulate expressions for the various
thermodynamic properties.
(a) Find expressions for s = s(T,v), it u(T,i), ii = h(T,v).
(b) Find expressions for s s(T,P), it = u(T,P), h = h(T,P).
(c) Find /JT = PJT(T,).
(d) Find c, = c(T,v).
14.11 For an elastic material, the conjugate mechanical properties are the strain, c, and the stress,
a. The thermodynamic coupling between the thermal and mechanical properties of an elastic
material is weak. Nevertheless, when a load (stress) is applied to such a material, both the strain
and the thermal properties, s and T, will change. One of the coefficients that provides a measure
of this coupling is the thermal expansion coefficient /3 where
a
TJ
For the physical situation consisting of a bar under axial tensile load with uniform tensile stress,
we wish to compare the extent of the coupling in bars made of steel, aluminum, and tugsten.
(a) For each of the materials, given the thermal expansion coefficient of the material,
calculate the entropy change per unit mass for a change in stress from 0 to 50 x 106 N/rn
2 if the
bar is maintained at a temperature of 300 K.
(b) For each of the materials, calculate the heat transfer required to maintain the
temperature at 300 K for the condition specified in part (a) above.
(c) Now suppose that the load is applied in a reversible, adiabatic manner. Formulate an
expression for
=f(/3,,Y)

where c
8 is the specific heat at constant strain and Y is Youngs modulus, viz.
(u
and Y=i
CEIj
(d) For each of the materials, calculate the temperature change if the stress is changed
from 0 to 50 x 106 N/rn
2 in a reversible, adiabatic manner.
(e) What conclusions can you draw regarding the degree of coupling in these three
materials? How does this coupling compare with that found in H
O?
2
The following properties may be useful:
Steel: ,6= 10.8 x 106 K, c
, Y= 207 x l0 N/rn
3
= 419 I/kg K, p= 7850kg/rn
8
2
106
Aluminum: /3= 23.9 x
, Y= 71 x l0 N/rn
3
K, = 962 J/kg K, p= 2700kg/rn
2
Tungsten: /3= 4.3 x 10-6 K
, Y= 355 x l0 N/rn
3
, c= 138 J/kg K, p= 19,300 kg/rn
1
2

14.12 Paramagnetic materials can have a change in internal energy due to a magnetic work
transfer interaction. The magnetic work transfer per unit mass for these materials is given by
vHdM
0
6W = -,u
0 is the permeability of free space, v is the specific volume of the material, H is the
u
where 1

Ch. 14 Pg. 73
magnetic field intensity, and M is the magnetization of the material.
(a) Formulate the canonical relation for a paramagnetic material.
(b) Formulate expressions for
=d(u
v
HM)
p
1 0
dh,
dL =d(uTs)
7 v
dg,
0
=d(u
HM
p Ts)
(c) Formulate the equivalent Maxwell relations for a paramagnetic material.
Suppose now that the property constitutive relation for a paramagnetic material is given by
Curies Law, viz.
M =C
T
where Cis a constant.
(d) Formulate an expression of the form u = u(T,H and the specific heat at constant H =
0, Cho.
(e) Formulate an expression of the form s = s(T,I-1) and the specific heat at constant H = 0,
CHO.

(f) One method of attaining very low temperatures is the adiabatic demagnetization of a
paramagnetic material. Using the results of parts (d) and (e) above, explain how one would carry
out such a cooling process.
14.13 Show that the difference in the specific heats c, c, may be expressed as
2
Tv/3
cP cv

where Ji is the coefficient of thermal expansion and

compressibility.

K
K is

the coefficient of isothermal

I (v
-

V T

i (av
vL\dP

14.14 The pressure of a 1 kg block of copper at a temperature of T

1 = 0 C is increased
isothermally and reversibly from P
1 = i0 N1m
2 to P
2 = 108 N/m
. Assume that the coefficient of
2
thermal expansion /, the isothermal compressibility K and the density p are constant.
(a) Calculate the work transfer and heat transfer for the copper during the compression.
(b) Does your answer violate the first law of thermodynamics?
(c) What would have been the rise in temperature if the process had been adiabatic
instead of isothermal?
For copper:
fl=5.04 x 10 K
1
K=8.56 x 102 2
m
/
N
p=8009 kg/rn
2

Ch. 14 Pg. 74
14.15 An elastic rod has a length X and a temperature T when the tensile force on its ends is F.
For this system, the energy U and the entropy S are given by the relations
U=CT
and
2
S=C, lnTKX
where C and K are constants.
(a) Find the equation of state f(F,X,T) = 0 for this system.
2 K and C 9.76 JIK is taken through a Carnot
(b) The elastic rod with K = 17.2 N/rn
cycle between heat reservoirs at 335 K and 315 K. The minimum length at the higher
temperature is 3 m and the work transfer per cycle is 70 J. Show the Carnot cycle on the T-S and
the F-X diagrams.
14.16 Tn a particular combustion test apparatus, it is necessary to provide a supply of ethane at a
constant pressure of P
2 and a constant temperature of T
1 = 7.3 x 106 N/rn
1 = 340 C. To meet these
requirements the research team built a piston-cylinder apparatus, shown in the sketch below,
which uses a weighted piston to maintain constant pressure and a sensor and guard heater to
maintain constant temperature. During one night while the supply valve is closed (no mass
flow), the janitor unknowingly turns off the power supply to the guard heaters, and the
temperature of the ethane falls due to heat losses to the environment. By the time the error is
discovered the following morning, the temperature of the ethane has dropped to T
2 = 63 C. At
this time, the research assistant turns on the guard heaters; however, unknown to her, the piston
is now seized in the cylinder resulting in a gas volume V
2 corresponding to the temperature and
pressure at the time the guard heaters were turned on. With the piston now locked in this
position, the guard heaters return the temperature to T
3 = 340 C. The zero pressure specific heat
of ethane is c
0 = 1767 J/kg K.
(a) Show the sequence of events on a P-v diagram assuming all processes are quasi-static.
(b) What is the pressure of the gas at the operating temperature of T
3 = 340 C if the piston
remains seized?
(c) What is the heat transfer (per unit mass of ethane) for the surroundings during the cool
down time 1 2 while the power is off?
(d) What is the heat transfer (per unit mass of ethane) for the guard heaters during the
process 2 3 while the piston is seized?
-

-I

-----

!4
V

[h;in
.1:;I!

C:.E1

QQOOQQO
Etiarli hizai.t
---

Iii

iIrrhrI.%iirJi

Is

ifl

i:iii

Ch. 14 Pg. 75

14.17 The equilibrium radiation within an evacuated uniform temperature enclosure is called
blackbody radiation and Plancks law for blackbody radiation can be applied to this radiation.
With the aid of Plancks law it can be shown that the energy density U/V of the radiation is
U
4
a = = uT

0
C

where c
0 is the speed of light in the vacuum and ais the Stefan-Boltzman radiation constant. The
formulation of macroscopic thermodynamics can be applied to this equilibrium radiation field.
(a) For this constant volume system, derive an expression for the entropy of the enclosure
in terms of T and V. Assume that s = 0 at T = 0.
(b) What are the Helmholtz free energy and the pressure of the equilibrium radiation
field?
(c) What are the Gibbs free energy and the specific heats c and c for the equilibrium
radiation field? Explain the physical significance of each result.

14.18 For a closed system, the specific heat is defined, in general, as the reversible heat transfer
per unit mass per unit temperature change, viz.

=--imdT),
where the subscript y denotes some property held constant or some constraint on the system
during the heat transfer process.
(a) Show that for a single phase state, the specific heat at constant pressure is
1(YQ
(3s
(ah
=Tii
mdT,)
TJ 9T
(b) Show that for a closed system consisting of two phases in equilibrium, if we write
S =Sf[TP(T)iat
and ss =Sg[T,F(T)]
c

the specific heat of the saturated liquid along the locus of saturated states is

mdT,)

=TI-l1-dTJ

dT

and the specific heat of the saturated vapor along the locus of saturated states is
Cg

mdT}g

dTJ

dT

(c) Show that if ,6 represents the coefficient of thermal expansion

Cf

CpffifVf
Vfg

and
8
C

Cpg

figVg

(d) Show that the variation of the latent heat hf

8 along the locus of saturated states is given
by Plancks formula, viz.
dh
dT

h,
CP
8

C P.f +

h,(,,
I

1
f
g

Ch. 15 Pg. 1

CHAPTER 15
Behavior of Steady-How Components of Thermal-Fluid Systems
15.1

Introduction

As we showed in Chapter 8, many complex thermal-fluid systems operate in a steady

flow or periodic flow manner which greatly simplifies the analysis of their behavior. Typically,
these systems employ a working fluid that can be modeled in terms of one of the fluid models
already discussed in some detail in Chapters 4 and 13. The thermal-fluid systems themselves are
constructed by interconnecting steady-flow components via pipes through which the working
fluid is circulated. These steady-flow components are usually grouped into four classes according
to function: (1) shaft work machines, (2) nozzles and diffusers, (3) throttles, and (4) heat
exchangers. We have already addressed the analysis of heat exchangers in Chapter 12, and we
now turn our attention to the other three classes of components. An understanding of the
behavior of these components is essential to understanding the thermal-fluid plants to be
presented in the Chapter 16.
Our objective in the present chapter is to determine the thermal-fluid behavior of the
components of each class by modeling the component as a control volume and applying the
equations that describe the thermal fluid behavior of the control volume in the manner of Chapter
8. This approach yields the black box characteristics of the component that must be known in
order to evaluate the performance of the complete system of interconnected components. This
does not mean that these equations do not apply or are not useful in determining the detailed
internal processes of the component. On the contrary, in designing such a component, thorough
consideration must be given to the complex internal processes. Whenever possible, we shall
elaborate upon the details of these internal processes within the context of the present approach;
however, in some cases, the analysis of these internal processes is outside the scope of our
present objective and is better left to more advanced treatments of the subject.

shaft

I
Control volume

Control surface

Figure 15.1 Steady-flow Control Volume with One Entry Port and One Exit Port
In the analyses of the present chapter, we shall apply the governing equations to a steady
flow control volume with one inlet port and one exit port such as that shown schematically in
Figure 15.1. In addition, it will also be useful to consider a control volume of infinitesimal extent

Ch. 15 Pg. 2
in the direction of flow. In such a control volume, the fluid experiences an infinitesimal change
of state between inlet and outlet in response to infinitesimal rates of heat transfer and shear work
transfer across the control surface. Under these circumstances, the governing equations then
become differential relations.
The governing equations and their differential counterparts are:
Continuity Equation:
dMCV

=th. th
in

Out

=0

(15.1)

d(th)0

(15.2)

First Law of Thermodynamics:

dECV
Qhaft

h++gz
011
h++gz th

11
+in

in

(15.3)

Out

(15.4)

=dh+zdz+gdz
shear

Second Law of Thermodynamics:

dSCV

+(ths). (ths)

out

+S

gen

=0

(15.5)

(15.6)

T th)
Equation of Linear Momentum:
dt

$pv= $(_P)dA+ $()dA + pdv-(th)

CV

CS

CS

CV

+(th) =0
or

dF =PiidAdA
5 dz =d(tht9)

(15.7)

in

(15.8)

Equation ofAngular Momentum:

[S(x)Pdv] =
/icift

xdF +(x) pdV +dTIft

, (x)
01
th

0 (x) =0 (15.9)
+th

d[th(xL)1

(15.10)

Notice that in each governing equation, the unsteady term will vanish in the present context since
we are considering only steady-flow components.
For each category of components, the analysis will be illustrated by application to the
flow of an incompressible fluid, the flow of an ideal gas, and the flow of a pure substance in two
phase states through the component. These cases will serve to illustrate the basic behavior of
each class of steady-flow components.
15.2

Shaft Work Machines

The first class of components is comprised of machines that change the state of a fluid

Ch. 15 Pg. 3
stream by positive or negative shaft work transfer. Machines with positive shaft work transfer are
commonly called turbines, reciprocating engines, expanders, or fluid motors, depending upon the
application and the method of developing the internal forces that produce the shaft work transfer.
Machines with negative shaft work transfer are commonly called compressors, pumps, or fans
depending upon the application.
The operation of a shaft work machine does not depend upon the attainment of thermal
equilibrium between the flowing fluid and the walls of the apparatus; consequently, the rate of
work transfer is not limited by the relatively slow processes of heat transfer. Rather, the work
transfer depends upon the forces due to pressure acting on the moving surfaces internal to the
apparatus. As we have shown previously in Chapter 4, pressure is distributed throughout a
system by means of pressure waves that propagate at the speed of sound which is on the order of
several hundred meters per second in gases and several thousand meters per second in liquids.
Since these velocities are typically an order of magnitude or more faster than the velocities of
moving boundaries, the time constants associated with work transfer processes are on the order
of milliseconds or less.
There are two means by which these internal forces can be generated. In the first case, the
machine is based upon the piston-cylinder configuration that we have examined in considerable
detail heretofore. These machines are known as reciprocating or positive displacement machines
since they operate by shuttling the piston back and forth in a reciprocal motion inside the
cylinder. In this case, the internal forces are the result of equilibrium pressure (spatially uniform)
acting on a moving piston face or the equivalent moving surface. The movement of the piston
displaces the same amount of working fluid, usually a gas, over the course of its travel.
Traditional internal combustion engines are examples of this type of shaft work machine as are
reciprocating compressors.
In the second case, the internal structure of the machine consists of specially shaped
blades that are mounted on a disk or rotor and extend outward in a radial fashion. The rotor,
together with the attached blades, rotates about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the disk as
the working fluid passes through it. In addition, depending upon the design, there may be other
blade-like surfaces that are affixed to the housing of the machine and remain stationary. These
surfaces form the stator of the machine and serve, in part, to control the direction of flow of the
working fluid. In these machines, known as rotary machines or turbomachines, the operation of
the machine is a consequence of the change in angular momentum of the working fluid as it
passes through the machine.
Turbomachines can be grouped into two broad classes depending upon the direction of
flow of the working fluid as it passes through the machine. If the flow path is essentially parallel
to the axis of rotation of the rotor, the machine is said to be an axial flow machine. On the other
hand, if the flow path is radially outward from the axis of rotation, the machine is said to be a
radial flow turbomachine.
In a positive work transfer axial flow machine, the blades attached to the rotor are shaped
so that the internal forces responsible for the torque output of the machine are generated by
means of the change of momentum of the fluid stream as its direction is changed by the blades.
There is a component of the resultant force that acts normal to the axis of rotation of the rotor
thereby generating a torque. The blades of the stator form nozzle-shaped flow passages that
accelerate the fluid, as well as change its direction of flow, before it passes over the rotor blades.
Gas turbine engines found in commercial and military aircraft as well as stationary gas turbine
power plants are examples of this type of shaft work machine. In fact, as we shall see in Chapter
16, gas turbine engines actual contain both positive and negative rotary shaft work machines in a
single unit.

Ch. 15 Pg. 4
In a negative work transfer axial flow machine, the situation is somewhat more
complicated since the objective of the operation is to increase the pressure of the working fluid in
the direction of flow by decelerating the fluid. Since the flow is counter to the pressure gradient,
this is an inherently unstable situation which requires the roles of the stator and rotor to be less
specialized than is the case for a positive shaft work transfer axial flow machine. Both rotor and
stator contribute to the deceleration process.
In radial flow turbomachines, the flow path can be either radially outward or radially
inward. The choice is dictated by considerations of both size and the behavior of the working
fluid. In most cases of radial flow machines, the flow is actually a combination of radial flow and
axial flow. For example, radial inflow turbines with axial exhaust are the choice for the turbine
component of automobile turbochargers. Water turbines used in hydroelectric dams are typically
radial inflow with axial outflow. In radial inflow turbines, positive shaft power results from the
decrease in kinetic energy of the working fluid as it passes from large radius to small radius on
the rotor. The angular momentum of the fluid decreases as it passes through the rotor. In contrast,
centrifugal pumps used, for example, to pump cooling water through automotive engine blocks
are axial inflow and radial outflow. In radial outflow pumps, the pressure increase in the working
fluid is the result of the deceleration of the fluid as it moves radially outward. The angular
momentum of the fluid is increased as it passes through the rotor.
An alternative, but equally valuable classification of turbomachines is according to the
manner in which fluid power is converted to shaft power and vice versa. In the impulse
turbomachine, the pressure drop in the fluid (in the case of the impulse turbine) occurs in one or
more nozzles outside the rotor. This accelerates the fluid stream which is then directed onto a
series of blades on the rotor. As the fluid passes through the rotor, it experiences essentially no
change in pressure, merely a change in direction which results in a change in angular momentum.
Radial inflow turbines are frequently impulse turbines, for example. In the reaction
turbomachine, the pressure drop (or pressure increase) in the fluid stream occurs as the fluid
passes through the rotor. A centrifugal pump is an example of a reaction turbomachine. In
practice, it is frequently the case that turbomachines are partly impulse machines and partly
reaction machines. The axial flow air compressor is an example of this sort of operation.
In both reciprocating shaft work machines and turbomachines as outlined above, the limit
on the rate of work transfer is related to the velocity of propagation of pressure waves (sound) in
the fluid. This rate is often fast enough that the rate of work transfer for the machine is actually
limited by the forces that result from the accelerations of the solid parts of the machine (inertia
stress limit). Since the work transfer rate is rapid, the shaft work machine is small enough that
the fluid remains within the machine for a time period that is small compared to the time period
required to attain thermal equilibrium. Thus, the apparatus is essentially adiabatic. Note that
some heat transfer does occur in virtually every case; however, the magnitude is negligible
compared to the magnitude of the shaft work transfer, regardless of whether it is positive or
negative.
A second result of the relatively rapid work transfer rate and the resulting small size of
the machine is that the change in gravitational potential energy is usually negligible. This is
usually true even for the large water turbines used in hydroelectric power stations provided the
control volume does not include the penstock.
The preceding discussion indicates that shaft work machines can be reasonably modeled
as adiabatic devices with negligible changes in gravitational potential energy. Further, in many
practical cases the change in kinetic energy of the bulk flow is also negligible. Thus the first law

Ch. 15 Pg. 5
of thermodynamics, equation (15.3), applied to a control volume represe
nting a machine
of this type reduces to
ii

,
0
(h

)
,
1
h

(15.11)
For a machine with a unit mass flow rate of a fluid experiencing an infinite
simal change of state,
equation (15.4) reduces to

=dh

(15.12)

Equations (15.11) and (15.12) indicate that positive shaft work transfer occurs
at the
expense of the enthalpy of the flowing fluid and that negative shaft work
transfer increases the
enthalpy of the flowing fluid. In addition to equations (15.11) and (15.12
), mechanical
equilibrium requires that in a machine with a positive shaft work transfe
r, e.g., a turbine, the
pressure of the flowing fluid must decrease as it passes through the device
. On the other hand, in
order to increase the pressure of a fluid stream in a shaft work machine
(a pump or compressor),
mechanical equilibrium requires a negative work transfer.
In applying equation (15.11) or (15.12) to a physical situation, one must always
be careful
to insure that the actual physical circumstances are consistent with the assum
ptions associated
with these equations. For example, in gas turbines it is not uncommon for
the kinetic energy of
the flowing fluid to be significant. Also in a steam turbine exhausting steam
at low pressure, the
kinetic energy of the exhaust steam is often significant. In these more compl
ex cases, equation
(15.3) must be used to include changes in kinetic energy.
The evaluation of the performance of a shaft work machine is especially
simple in the
limiting case of the adiabatic machine that operates in a reversible manne
r with a negligible net
change in the kinetic energy of the fluid as it passes through the machin
e. From equation (15.5)
or (15.6) it is clear that the entropy of the fluid leaving the control volume
is equal to the entropy
of the fluid entering the control volume. Since according to the state princip
le
Section 13.2)
we need only specify two independent properties to establish the state of
the fluid, the inlet
entropy and the inlet pressure fix the inlet state of the working fluid. The
outlet pressure and the
outlet entropy (equal to the inlet entropy) then fix the outlet state of the reversi
ble adiabatic shaft
work machine.
To be more specific, consider the reversible adiabatic machine involving
an infinitesimal
change of state of the working fluid. From the definition of the enthalpy,
the change in enthalpy
can be related to the changes in entropy and pressure by means of the canoni
cal relation, equation
(13.1), viz.

(cf

dh

du + d (Pv)

Tds

Pdv + Pdv + vdP

For a reversible adiabatic machine, equation (15.6) gives ds

constant in such a machine, equation (15.13) reduces to
(dh )consranr

Tds + vdP

(15.13)

0. Then since the entropy is

vdP

(15.14)

=dh=vdP

(15.15)

entropY

Then equation (15.12) reduces to

shaft

reversible
adiabatic

Thus, the shaft power of a reversible adiabatic machine is

(Iiap )revers,Iile =

adiabatic

th[

f vdP]

ss,,

(15.16)

Ch. 15 Pg. 6
Because the path of the process is specified as one of constant entropy, the volume is uniquely
related to the pressure. Then the integral in equation (15.16) can be evaluated directly for a
specific model for the fluid properties.
If the machine is adiabatic but irreversible, the second law of thermodynamics, equation
(15.5), requires that the outlet entropy,
be greater than the inlet entropy, sm. As a result, the
irreversible adiabatic machine has a smaller work transfer rate and a larger outlet enthalpy than
the reversible machine with the same mass flow rate, inlet state, and outlet pressure. We can
show this result of the irreversibility from the second law of thermodynamics and the relations
for the properties of a pure substance. Let us compare an irreversible adiabatic machine with a
reversible adiabatic machine, both with the same inlet state and the same outlet pressure. In this
case, the outlet state of the irreversible machine will have the same pressure but a higher entropy
than the outlet state of the reversible machine. Equation (15.13) implies that there exists a
function h = h(s,P) such that its differential is given by
dh

ds+1- dP
=1
s}
5
PJ

(15.17)

Comparing the coefficients of ds in equations (15.13) and (15.17), we conclude that

(15.18)

Js

which is always positive. As a result, the locus of states with the same pressure (lines of constant
pressure) on the h-s plane have a positive slope (cf Figure 15.1). Thus the enthalpy of the outlet
state for the irreversible machine will be greater than the enthalpy of the outlet state for the
reversible machine at the same outlet pressure. From equation (15.11), the shaft work is
proportional to (hi,, )
5515 for both machines. Thus for a given inlet state and exit pressure
h

(Wshaft ) reversible (Wshaft ) irreversible =m[(h ).irreversible (h ) reversible ]

01St

alit

(15.19)

From equation (15.18), equation (15.19) becomes

( )
shaft

reversible

shaft

irreversible

=th

ds

=thEfTdsl
L s

(15.20)

The irreversible work transfer rate is smaller in an algebraic sense. Consequently, the irreversible
turbine will have a smaller positive work transfer than the reversible turbine; however, the
irreversible compressor with its negative work transfer will require a work transfer of greater
magnitude than the reversible compressor.
In practice, it has been found convenient to measure the work transfer rate of an actual
adiabatic shaft work transfer machine in terms of the performance of a reversible adiabatic
machine with the same inlet state and the same outlet pressure as the actual machine. It is
conventional to express the ratio of these two work transfer rates as an efficiency; therefore, it is
necessary to have one efficiency for machines with positive work transfer rates and a second
efficiency for machines with negative work transfer rates. For the machine involving a positive
work transfer, we use the conventional definition
=

01
,
1
wart

(15 21)

reversible

Here i is frequently known as the adiabatic turbine efficiency or the adiabatic expander
efficiency. In equation (15.21), Wactual is the power output of the actual machine, and 14
reversihle
1

the power output of the reversible machine with the same inlet state and outlet pressure.

IS

Ch. 15 Pg. 7
Substituting equation (15.11) into equation (15.21), we obtain
[th(h. a -h
(h. -h (rut
((Cr11111
(flit

[. (

)]

LU

(h,

)leversihle

actual

0h
111 )reversihle

(15 22)

For the machine involving a negative work transfer, we use the conventional definition
= Wreverible

(15 23)

actual

where i is frequently known as the adiabatic compressor efficiency or pump efficiency. Again
use of equation (15.11) yields

)1
1 )I
h

[th(h. h
(II

[m (h
11

(lilt

rerer.cible
actual

(h. h
ill

(h

alit

reter.iible

1 )actual
h

By formulating the definitions of efficiency as in equations (15.22) and (15.24), we always obtain
a value of the efficiency which lies between zero and unity. Further, as the actual machine
becomes more nearly reversible, its efficiency improves and approaches unity. Both of these
features are consistent with our intuitive interpretations of efficiency.
Although most authors use the term efficiency to mean the adiabatic efficiencies as
previously defined, other definitions for efficiency are sometimes used. It is prudent to verify the
exact definition for the efficiency being employed when working with information from various
sources. For example, in the study of compressors, it is common to employ the term isothermal
efficiency which is used to compare the actual compressor to a reversible isothermal compressor.
15.2.1 Shaft Work Machines Processing an Ideal Gas
These conclusions can now be illustrated in detail for machines processing fluids with
properties that can be adequately described by a simple model of the constitutive relations. If the
fluid can be modeled as an ideal gas with constant specific heats, equation (15.11) becomes
;hc (Tout
(15.25)
(clulIi )iileal

gas

which shows that in this case the rate of shaft work transfer (for a given mass flow rate) is
determined solely by the temperature change of the gas. For the limiting case of the reversible
adiabatic machine, the outlet temperature is related to the inlet temperature and the pressure ratio
through the second law of thermodynamics. Thus, from the entropy constitutive relation for the
ideal gas, equation (4.6), we have
111
0 s
s

cpln1it_Rln1t

(15.26)

Equation (15.26) then establishes the outlet temperature

from the pressure ratio /P,
011 and
P
1
the inlet temperature .
111 The rate of shaft work transfer is then given by equation (15.25)
T
in terms of the inlet and outlet temperatures, T,
1 and
Alternatively, we could have used equation (15.16) and the fact that the pressure and
volume of an ideal gas in a reversible adiabatic process are related by the expression
7 = constant
Pv
(15.27)
where y c/c. Then equation (15.16) can be integrated to give

(15.28)
[rut 1OiiI
2
where ,
011 is uniquely related to v
v
111 through the pressure ratio and equation (15.27). Note that
equation (15.28) could have been obtained directly from equation (15.25) simply by substituting
the ideal gas property constitutive relation and by making use of the definition of y. Since
-

sIiaft

ideal gas

Ch. 15 Pg. 8
equation (15.25) holds for all adiabatic machines whether reversible or ineversible, it must be the
case that for the ideal gas in general
2 P ui -P
1
(15.29)
in J
[
(an )a(liai,atlc =
ideal gas
7
The significance of the reversibility is that only in the reversible case can we reduce equation
(15.29) to the form
alit

alit

iii

=
(W)reversihle
adiabatic
ideal gas

my

(15.30)

That is, for a given mass flow rate the inlet state and pressure ratio uniquely determine the shaft
work transfer rate for the reversible adiabatic machine. In an irreversible machine, both the inlet
state and the outlet state must be known before equation (15.29) can be evaluated.
>

pii ir

p.ith fo[ iicLua

rvthii
or

iittiii

LkiiVi

E
Ij[ ijJ

:.tv
1

Figure 15.2 (a) States of the Ideal Gas Model in an Adiabatic, Positive Shaft Work Machine

Ch

ir

ia.hinit

jj

ii flW1

Lq

Figure 15.2 (b) States of the Ideal Gas Model in an Adiabatic, Negative Shaft Work Machine

Ch. 15 Pg. 9
This point is perhaps more clearly revealed in Figure 15.2 which shows the locus of states
for the ideal gas as it passes through the shaft work machine. The information of Figure 15.2 is
presented in terms of the coordinates h and s. The locus of states would have exactly the same
appearance in terms of the coordinates T and s since the enthalpy and the temperature are directly
related for the ideal gas. Note that in the case of the irreversible (actual) machine, the path of the
process cannot be specified since some of the states involved may be non-equilibrium states. It is
clear from Figure 15.2 that knowing the inlet state, the path, and the outlet pressure is the
equivalent of knowing both the inlet state and the outlet state.
For the ideal gas, the adiabatic shaft work efficiencies reduce to
(T -Tt actual
(15.31)
(+ )icieai
= /
gas
iT
T / reieisthle
\
iii

0111

and
(T -T

(ii_)

0iit

Iii

01(1

eierthlo

(15.32)

actual

These efficiencies can be geometrically interpreted on Figure 15.2 as the ratios of the vertical
distances between the inlet and outlet states for the reversible path and for the irreversible path.
Example 15E.1: Modern commercial aircraft are powered by turbo fan engines
consisting of a gas turbine engine driving a single-stage axial flow fan. In a typical design, at take
off power the gas turbine engine produces 25 MW. The conditions of the air at the fan inlet are
1 = i0 N/rn
F
, T
2
1 = 300 K, and z2 = 250 mlsec. The exit conditions from the fan are P
2 = 1.36 x
, and i = 250 mlsec. The efficiency of the fan is
2
iO N/m
= 0.85 based on the same kinetic
energy at the inlet and exit states. The ratio of the specific heats for air is y 1.4.
(a) What is the mass flow rate of air through the fan?
(b) What flow area is required at the fan inlet?
(c) What is the exit air temperature?
(d) What is the rate of entropy generation in the fan?
Solution: (a) The control volume selected for the analysis is shown in Figure l5E.1.
For the reversible adiabatic fan the entropy of the fluid is constant. Thus from equation (5.47)
and the ideal gas property constitutive relation
FIX

Tsrei =(300 K)36

I x 10 N/rn

=327.55 K

The first law for the control volume, equation (15.3), around the reversible adiabatic fan gives
1
.
21
]=h
For the present case,

lrel, =

2rev

Then
,)
0
r
2
cp(T
1
reversible

Substituting equation (15.32), we get

_cp(Tsre
,
1
)
actual

Ch. 15 Pg. 10
cx:: Vi:b2
Ijvy

(icLaLiiJ

iran

irk j ii

i.-nnir:.I
I..

Figure 15E.1
Then
th

(r1iaft)
c (rei

(I CIII cii

(25 x 106 w)(o.85)

iii

(1003 J/kg K)(327.55 K300 K)

769 kg/sec

(b) The area of flow is given by

A=

thRT
A==
t5P
z
(769 kglsec)(287 J/kgK)(300 K)
(250 mJsec)(10 N/rn
)
2

2
=2.65m

(c) The exit temperature is given by the first law for the control volume around the actual
fan. Thus, since the flow is adiabatic and z2 = i, we have
[1t(T

=1
2
T

haft3OOK

-)

25 x 106 W
=332.4 K
(769 kg/sec)(1003 J/kg K)

(d) Since the flow is steady and adiabatic, the rate of entropy generation is the net rate at
which entropy is convected out of the control volume, viz.
+
=

+ Sgefl

Ch. 15 Pg. 11
Substituting the entropy constitutive relation, we get

gen

=(769

kg/sec)(JOO3

Jkg K) 111
gen

332.4 K_(
287 J/kgK)
2
36
1nL x io N/rn
300 K
I x l0 N/m

=11,240W/K

15.2.1.1 Reciprocating Shaft Work Machines: Reciprocating shaft work machines are the
oldest examples of shaft work machines in engineering practice, dating back at least as far as
the
machines of Thomas Newcomen (1664 1729). In their simplest form, reciprocating machines
consist of one or more cylinders, each fitted with a piston that moves back and forth within the
cylinder (hence the term reciprocating). The piston is connected to a crankshaft via a connecting
rod that transmits force between the crankshaft and the piston and converts the reciprocating
motion of the piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft. This force exerted on the crankshaft
results in a torque that in the case of a positive shaft work machine can be used to turn some
other mechanism such as an electric generator or the wheels of a vehicle, or, in the case of a
negative shaft work machine, the torque input to the crankshaft can cause the piston to compress
the gas contained between the piston face and the end of the cylinder.
For the purposes of illustrating the analysis of the foregoing section, we are going to
focus our immediate attention on this latter example, namely that of the reciprocating
compressor. In our analysis, we shall examine the internal details of the system and show how
these details are consistent with the results obtained via the control volume approach.
The reciprocating compressor finds widespread use in industry to produce high pressure
gas, most commonly high pressure air, that can be used in a variety of ways which include: (1)
the operation of air motors in pneumatic tools for drilling, grinding, reaming, polishing, and
sawing; (2) the operation of reciprocating pistons in tools like paving breakers, forge hammers,
riveting hammers, and rock drills; (3) the atomization of liquids in paint sprayers; (4) the
transport of materials like concrete or grain, or the transport of materials like sand for sand
blasting operations in cleaning processes or shot for work hardening materials by shot peening;
(5) the transmission of pressure in automatic control systems; and (6) the delivery of oxygen in
combustion systems. Reciprocating compressors are also used to compress natural gas to the high
pressures necessary to overcome the head loss in natural gas transmission lines and to compress
various gases used in gas liquefaction systems such as air separation plants. Perhaps even more
common is the use of reciprocating compressors in small scale refrigeration plants.
The performance of reciprocating machines can be determined by examining the details
of the cyclic motion of the piston as it moves within the cylinder. Strictly speaking these
machines are not steady flow since they operate in cyclic fashion with the apparatus, the cylinder,
actually closed for a portion of the cycle. In steady flow machines, even though some time lapses
between the time the gas is admitted to the machine and the time that it is discharged to its end
use, to an observer stationed at the discharge from the machine the flow appears steady.
However, in a single cylinder reciprocating machine, the discharge from the machine appears
periodic to such an observer. Since the equations governing the behavior of steady flow devices
apply to periodic flow devices as well, the performance of a cyclic device can be determined by
applying these equations to the cyclic device. In practice, however, these devices usually consist
of multiple cylinders whose pistons move in some phased manner at high speed so that the
discharge state of the gas appears essentially constant with time to the observer stationed at the
exit port.

Ch. 15 Pg. 12
Figure 15.3 is a schematic representation of a typical reciprocating compressor. The
cylinder is fitted with an intake valve that facilitates the admission of a fresh charge of gas into
the cylinder and an exhaust valve that enables the high pressure, high temperature gas to be
discharged from the cylinder. The cycle of operation consists of the piston at bottom dead
center (the extreme limit of its travel) and the cylinder filled with gas at the intake pressure
(typically atmospheric pressure for air compressors). Both valves are closed. This is denoted as
state 1 on Figure 15.4. The piston now begins to travel toward the cylinder head where the valves
are located. During this inward motion of the piston, the pressure and temperature of the gas rise
due to its thermodynamic coupling. This inward travel of the piston continues until the pressure
of the gas reaches the design delivery pressure for the application. The position of the piston at
this point is some distance from the cylinder head and is denoted as state 2 on Figure 15.4. When
this state is reached, the exhaust valve opens and the piston continues its inward motion while
delivering the high pressure, high temperature gas to a receiver, usually a large volume storage
container. When the piston reaches the inward limit of its travel, a small volume, known as the
clearance volume, remains in the cylinder. This clearance volume is filled with high pressure,
high temperature gas. At this time, the exhaust valve closes and the piston reverses direction.
This state is denoted as state 3 on Figure 15.4. The volume of gas within the cylinder expands as
the piston moves outward. Due to the thermodynamic coupling of the gas, the pressure and
temperature decrease during this motion. At some point in the outward motion of the piston, the
pressure of the gas reaches the intake pressure. At this time, denoted as state 4 on Figure 15.4,
the intake valve opens and fresh gas flows into the cylinder as the piston moves toward the
extreme limit of its travel. When the extreme limit is reached in state 1, the intake valve closes
and the cycle begins once again.
Cylinder

Connecting rod

otion
Ic>
Intake valve
Piston
Figure 15.3 Schematic Representation of Reciprocating Compressor
Care must be exercised in the analysis of the gas compressor since part of the time the
apparatus operates as an open system while the other part of the time the machine operates as a
closed system. For the cycle shown in Figure 15.4, during processes 1 2 and 3 4 the
compressor acts as a closed system with a fixed mass of gas experiencing reversible, adiabatic
processes. During processes 2 3 and 4 1, the compressor operates as an open system and
exchanges mass with the environment. For our purposes here, we are interested in the work
transfer between the compressor and the environment. This information can be obtained by

Ch. 15 Pg. 13

vc

Figure 15.4 Gas Compressor Cycle

examining each process in turn and then summing the results to obtain the net work transfer for
the cycle. The path of the process from state 1 to state 2 in the fixed mass of gas contained within
the cylinder is reversible and adiabatic and is given by PV
7 = constant. Then the work transfer for
the gas for this process is
=

)
2
(W

[v

2
-

PdV

2
(rv

(15.33)

1)

For the process from state 2 to state 3, the compressor is an open system as the mass of gas
contained within the cylinder changes as the piston moves, but the force on the piston is constant
at P
2=P
. Then the work transfer from the environment to the piston for the process 2 3 is
3

(15.34)
For the process from state 3 to state 4, the compressor is a closed system and the path is again
reversible and adiabatic with PW = constant. Then in a manner similar to equation (15.33), the
work transfer is

-v
4
(v
)
(-)= 3

(15.35)

For the process from state 4 to state 1, the compressor is again an open system as mass is
transferred to the environment, but the pressure on the piston face is constant P
4=P
. Then in a
1
manner similar to equation (15.34)
4
4 =I-V ]V
W
(15.36)
Then the net work transfer between the environment and the compressor is given by the sum of
the work transfers for the individual processes that make up the compressor cycle, viz.
6W
=

Wnet =

23 +W
4 +W
2 +W
W
41

)
4
-Fv

4et

1
=2
v
-(P
Jv,
1

-P
4
+P
)
3
v

(15.37)

Ch. 15 Pg. 14
Equation (15.37) can be rewritten in the form
flU

l_T2_PV
y-l[

)]
4
V

J
1
V

y-l

1l_-1(15.38)
Ji

Since
and
(15.39)

L)
Equation (15.38) can be rewritten in terms of the pressure ratio across the compressor, viz.
(l4ei)

Q=o

71

1
JV

4
IV

ry
(141et)r

QO

Rl 4
1
(in
RT
3
rn
)

7I

Since (in
1 in
) is the mass of compressed gas delivered each cycle and the compressor executes
4
N cycles per second, the power required to drive the reversible adiabatic compressor is given by

(ner )rev

_Z_R7 (NmIe,jered)

Py_x

With the aid of equation (15.39) and the fact that y/(l
(15.41) in the form

P7_z

y)

thRI
1

-thR -1 = -thc
o

(15.41)

IR, we can rewrite equation

1
c

[()

(15.42)

which is precisely the same result as equation (15.25) obtained by treating the compressor as a
control volume. Thus, the analysis of the details of the internal operation of the apparatus inside
the control volume and the control volume analysis itself are equivalent as they should be.
Departures from reversible operation of the gas compressor can be treated by means of
the efficiency given in equation (15.32). The paths of the processes in the reversible and
irreversible compressors are as shown in Figure 15.2(b). From Figure 15.2(b) it is apparent that
the temperature of the gas following compression is increased substantially above the
temperature at the inlet port. For example, an air compressor operating with a pressure ratio of 6
in one stage of compression would produce compressed air with an outlet temperature in excess
of 500 K. These high temperatures can cause problems in devices downstream of the compressor,
and for this reason, most compressors are fitted with heat exchangers at the exit port of the
system. These heat exchangers use ambient air or water as the heat exchanger fluid to cool the
compressed gas back down to the inlet temperature.
There are several noteworthy features of the compressor operating cycle. For example, in
Figure 15.4, we note that if the extreme limit of travel of the piston is fixed, the clearance volume
determines the amount air that can be delivered by the compressor. The greater the clearance
volume, the less air that can be delivered. This influence of the clearance volume can be
expressed in quantitative fashion in terms of a quantity known as the volumetric efficiency which
is an important performance parameter for all reciprocating machines, be they positive or

Ch. 15 Pg. 15
negative shaft work machines. The volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the mass of gas
discharged per cycle to the mass of gas that would fill the volume displaced by the piston per
cycle measured at inlet conditions. For air compressors (and internal combustion engines), inlet
conditions are typically atmospheric temperature and pressure.
From Figure 15.4, it is apparent from the definition that the volumetric efficiency
r) is
given by
VFVO

(15.43)

liv
VPD v

where v
0 is the specific volume of the gas at inlet conditions and v
1 is the specific volume of the
gas in the cylinder during the intake stroke. If the pressure drop across the intake valve is
negligible (not necessarily the case for a real compressor), it follows that v
0 = v
. Then
1
VVV
The clearance C is usually expressed in terms of a fraction of the piston displacement, viz.
C=

(15.44)

(15.45)

Then for the reversible adiabatic machine

41+CN

and

(p

v
=
4
V.Iip)j

(15.46)

Combining equations (15.46) and (15.44), we get

_i]

(15.47)

Equation (15.47) shows that as the pressure ratio across the compressor increases, the
compressor volume is used less and less effectively. lii practice, clearance fractions are in the
range of 5 to 15 percent; thus, for a clearance fraction of 5 percent and y = 1.4, the volumetric
efficiency decreases to zero for a pressure ratio of approximately 71. Since it is not uncommon
for some applications to require pressure ratios as high as 200, it is clear that some other
approach is required. The solution is to stage the compression, i.e., use several compressors in
series, each with a modest pressure ratio, so that the volumetric efficiency is a reasonable value.
In these cases, it is necessary to place a heat exchanger between any two stages so that the
temperature of the gas at entry to the succeeding stage is as close to ambient as possible. Not only
is the volumetric efficiency improved with this approach, but the power required to drive the
compressor is substantially reduced over what might have been required for a single stage of
compression. The optimum intermediate pressures for multi-stage compression will depend upon
the overall pressure ratio and the number of stages. For example, for two stages of compression,
it can be shown (See Example 15.2.) that with perfect intercooling, the intermediate pressure that
results in the minimum power requirement is P
1 = (Pj,/etP,ut(et)h/2. Note that as the number of stages
approaches infinity in the limit, the compression process becomes isothermal and the required
power approaches an absolute minimum (See Example 15.3).
In comparing the idealized models for reciprocating compressors with the actual
hardware, several issues are worth noting. The valves typically used in these machines are spring

Ch. 15 Pg. 16
loaded so that the exhaust valve opens when the pressure of the gas in the cylinder exceeds the
design delivery pressure just enough to overcome the inertia of the valve mass. There results
some very small oscillations in pressure as the gas pressure adjusts to the motion of the valve and
the gas, and the gas pressure gradually decreases to a value at which the valve closes. A similar
set of events occurs during the intake stroke as the spring loaded intake valve opens when the
pressure of the gas in the cylinder drops below atmospheric pressure and then oscillates slightly
until it increases to a steady value of nearly atmospheric pressure at the end of the intake stroke.
Clearly, if the spring loads on the intake and exhaust valves are too large, the volumetric
efficiency will suffer. Other important issues for the real hardware are the leakage past the seals
between the piston and the cylinder walls and the friction and lubrication of these seals as the
piston moves relative to the cylinder walls.
Example 15.2: Consider a two-stage reciprocating air compressor (y = 1.4) operating on
a reversible, adiabatic cycle such as that shown in Figure 15.4. A heat exchanger with a heat
exchanger effectiveness of c = 1 is used as an intercooler between the two stages with a coolant
at ambient temperature.
(a) Show that the power required to operate the machine will be a minimum when the
intermediate pressure between the two stages is given by P
1 = (Pj,,/etP(,ltIet).
(b) For the case in which the overall pressure ratio is 20, compare both the power required
and the volumetric efficiency of the optimum two-stage machine with those of a single stage
machine. The clearance fraction in both machines is 5 percent.
Solution: (a) For the reversible, adiabatic two stage machine, the power for each stage is
given by equation (15.41). For a heat exchanger with = 1 and cooling provided by a fluid at
ambient temperature, the temperature of the air entering the second stage is identical to the
temperature of the air entering the first stage, i.e., T
1 =T
. Then if the pressure of the gas entering
5
the first stage is P
1 and the pressure of the gas leaving the first stage and entering the second
stage is P
2 and the pressure of the gas leaving the second stage is P
, it follows that
6
(et)rev

=o

-thRl
1y

(et)rev

thRJ
1
=

Taking the derivative of this expression with respect to P

2 and setting the result equal to
zero, we get

2
P

/
/Yf

_i/
2

1-7/

1-27/

pI /7_p2 7p6

I_y/
/7 =

7
(PP)

127/

2
p
F
7

r-/l

LEo

y1/

= p
(I-7)
2

(b) For an overall pressure ratio of 20, the intermediate pressure that gives the minimum power

Ch. 15 Pg. 17
requirement is P
2

4.472. Then

(Wnet),taec

(wnet )

2(0.534)
1.354

stage

=0.789

Thus the saving in power is 21 percent. The effect of staging on the volumetric efficiency is even
more pronounced, viz.

(i

)2.srage.s

0.904
=1.447
0.625

(i )lsrage

Thus there is a 45 percent increase in volumetric efficiency with the two-stage machine
which results in a machine that is considerably smaller in size than the single-stage machine. The
cost of this benefit is that there is an additional heat exchanger in the two-stage machine that is
not required in the single-stage machine.
Example 15.E3: Consider a single stage reciprocating compressor with a pressure ratio
of 20. Let the reversible, adiabatic paths during the compression stroke and the re-expansion
stroke be replaced with polytropic paths described by PV = constant where 1 n 1.67 such
that the value ii = 1 corresponds to a reversible, isothermal path and ii = 1.67 corresponds to a
reversible, adiabatic path in a monatomic gas (such as helium).
(a) Show that as the value of n decreases to unity, the power required to drive the
compressor decreases to its minimum value.
(b) Derive an expression for the power required for reversible, isothermal compression in
a reciprocating compressor that follows a cycle similar to that depicted in Figure 15.4 but with
isothermal processes replacing the adiabatic ones. Evaluate this expression for a machine with a
pressure ratio of 20.
Solution: (a) The expression for the power required in a single stage compressor with
polytropic processes is given by equation (15.41) with yreplaced by n. Thus
(et

]1hR1

We can rewrite this expression in dimensionless form, viz.

(et

thR7

ni

For a pressure ratio of 20, we can plot this equation as a function of the parameter n as shown in
Figure 15E.3. Note that as n
1, the value of the dimensionless power approaches the minimum
value.
(b) This minimum value can be determined by replacing the reversible, adiabatic paths
from state 1 to state 2 and from state 3 to state 4 in Figure 15.4 with reversible, isothermal paths.
-

Ch. 15 Pg. 18
Then
=

12

PdV = m
R1
1

dV

Jv,

= in RT

1n = m RTJ In

R
2
(m

R7Pj
1
m

m RTI In
I

iJ

55

let)

4.5

thRI
4

3.5

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

Figure 15E.3 Dimensionless Power for Reversible, Adiabatic Air Compressor

with a Pressure Ratio of 20
Similarly for the process 3

4,

w
3
4 z=37 in(J

Then
et

2
=(m
)
1
3
R1n+V
m
V +V
1 -V
4

=(m
)
1
R
R1n+m
1 in
m
R +in
2
W 3
R m
1
R1
4

Wnet

3 m
(m
1 3
)R1 1n--+RI (m
1
3 m
2 +m
)=(m rn)RI 1n-4
m
(Wnet)

=1n!

thRl
For a pressure ratio of 20,

-() = 2.996 which is precisely the value obtained in part (a) above
.

nzRI

for the case of n = 1. Although the reversible, isothermal compressor achieves the minimum

Ch. 15 Pg. 19
power for a given pressure ratio and mass flow rate, it is not a practical solution since this design
requires thermal equilibrium with the environment for each state. This requirement results in a
machine that runs at an infinitesimally small rate. The practical compromise is to use an adiabatic
design with as many stages as possible with intercooling after each stage.
15.2.1.2 Rotating Shaft Work Machines: Following the example of the preceding section, let
us consider an axial flow compressor as an example of a rotating shaft work machine. The axial
flow compressor represents an alternative design to the reciprocating compressor discussed
above that uses rotary motion only and thereby eliminates the vibration associated with the
reciprocating motion. Compared with reciprocating compressors, axial flow compressors are
ideal for delivering large flow rates of gas at relatively low pressures. Also, the cylindrical shape
and lighter mass of the axial flow compressor makes it well suited for its role as the compressor
component of the gas turbine engine used to power aircraft.
A stage of an axial flow compressor consists of row of rotor blades, shaped like airfoils
and mounted in a radial fashion on a disk that rotates about the axis of symmetry of the machine.
The gas being compressed flows through the blades in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation.
Located on the discharge side of the rotor is another row of blades that are held stationary and
form a stator. In the space between the stator blades, the gas flow is decelerated with an attendant
increase in pressure. The geometry of the stator blades is such that the gas flow is directed
smoothly onto the blades of the next rotor located immediately downstream. The pressure ratio of
compression in a single stage consisting of a rotor and a stator is rather small compared to a
single stage of a typical reciprocating compressor, so many stages are required for even relatively
moderate overall pressure ratios in axial flow compressors.
Figure 15.5 shows the cross-section of a rotor blade at some point along its span, e.g., at
the midpoint, and the resulting velocity diagrams. The fluid enters the blade traveling in the axial
C

C
C)

C)

C)

Axial direction

Figure 15.5 Velocity Diagrams for an Axial Flow Compressor at a Location R

direction with the absolute velocity . This velocity has a component relative to the blade of i.
The absolute velocity can also be resolved into components in the axial direction, 2, and the
tangential direction, i. The tangential speed of the rotor blade at the location R is Rco. The
absolute velocity of the fluid at the exit from the blade is
with components 2 2 and i2 as
shown on Figure 15.5. The tangential component of fluid velocity increases in the direction of

Ch. 15 Pg. 20

flow through the compressor, thereby increasing the angular momentum of the fluid. According
to the Euler turbornachine equation, equation (8.107), this increase in angular momentum is
responsible for the torque required to drive the axial flow compressor, viz.
=th(Rt9,Rz,)

T,ft

(15.48)

since the value of R is fixed in this case. Then the power required to drive the compressor is
given by (thermodynamic sign convention)

2
thRo(r

t9)

(15.49)

If we apply the first law to the control volume enclosing the blade, we obtain for steady,
reversible, adiabatic flow

(Wc

lfl

(172

ao

h )

(2

21

(15.0)

Combining equations (15.49) and (15.50), we get

-iY )+z9
1
2Ra(i3
-z
2
1
2
112/il =
2
From the velocity diagrams of Figure 15.5, we have
=
a + 2Rat9tI
2
R
I
rl

(15.51)

(15.52)

z9 2
=z9
+
a
2Rwr9
R

Then combining equations (15.51) and (15.52), we obtain

2

= 1

(15.53)

Equation (15.53) shows that the enthalpy of the fluid changes as it passes over the blade by an
amount that depends upon the flow geometry of the blade. We note that the quantity
h+=constant

(15.54)

as the fluid passes through the various rotor stages of the machine. The quantity given in
equation (15.54) is known as the stagnation enthalpy.
We can calculate the pressure ratio of the reversible rotor stage by combining equations
(15.54) and (15.30), viz.

vhaft )rev
QO =

iii

yl

(15.55)

A complete stage consists of a rotor and a stator; thus the pressure increase given by equation
(15.55) is only part of the total pressure increase for the stage. Typically, axial flow compressor
stages are designed so that half the pressure rise occurs in the rotor and the other half occurs in
the stator as the fluid is decelerated. This splitting of the pressure increase reduces the risk of
flow separation due to the fact that the flow in the stage occurs in an adverse pressure gradient.
We shall examine the flow in the stator later in this chapter when we take up the subject of
diffusers.
It is important to note that the fluid velocity diagrams like those of Figure 15.5 depend
upon the local tangential velocity of the blade, Ra. Since R varies along the length of the blade,
the local tangential velocity will also vary. The streamlines of the flow are essentially parallel to

Ch. 15 Pg. 21
the axis of rotation, so the velocity diagrams have unique shapes at each value of R. In order to
maintain the axial component of the velocity constant from the root to the tip of the blade, it is
necessary for the blade geometry to vary along this length. The net result is that the blades appear
twisted about the blade axis as the airfoil shape of the blade changes from root to tip. This twist
complicates the manufacture of the blades somewhat but is essential for proper performance of
the compressor. Similar observations apply to axial flow turbines as well.
Example 15E.4: Consider a rotor stage of an axial flow air compressor with blade entry
and exit angles I3 = 52.427 and ,62 35, respectively (See Figure 15.5.). The gas enters at a
temperature ofT
1 293 K and a pressure of P
1 = 2.5 x10
3 N/rn
2 with an axial velocity of =
137.5 mlsec that is constant across the blade. For the ideal gas model, y= 1.4 and R = 287 J/kg
K. The compressor design is a reaction design with half the pressure rise occurring across the
rotor and the other half across the stator. (Note that for a reaction design in which the pressure
rise is split equally between the rotor and stator, the velocity diagrams are symmetric with
1 a
fi
and /2 =
(a) Estimate the pressure ratio of the complete stage (rotor plus stator).
(b) Estimate the tangential velocity of the blade.
(c) Estimate the power required to drive this rotor.
Solution: (a) The change in kinetic energy of the gas as it flows across the blade is equal
to the work done by the gas. Then according to equation (15.55), the pressure ratio across the
blade is given by

JJ

yl

The velocities relative to the blade are given by the velocity diagrams of Figure 15.5, viz.
137.5 rn/sec
=
= 225.494 nsec

1
cosfi
cos52.427
and
z5
cosfl,

137.5 rnlsec
=167.857 rn/sec
cos35

Then
-1

yRl

12_2211

1.41

(225.494 2
sec) (167.857 isec)
2

l.4(287J/kgK)(293K)

=1.1414
Then the pressure at exit from the blade is given by
= 1.l4l4F = 1.1414(2.5 x 2
NIm
5
lO
)
and the pressure rise is
=

] F

2.8536 x lO N/rn
2

2.8536 x iO N/m
2 2.5 x io N/rn
2

3.536 x lO N/rn
2

Ch. 15 Pg. 22
Since an equal pressure rise occurs in the stator, the pressure at exit from the stator is
] =F+z\P=2.8536 x10
5 N/rn
2 +3.536x
2 =3.2071 x l0 N/rn
N/rn
2
Then the overall pressure ratio for the stage is
F3.2071x 10 N/rn
2
=1.2828
F
2.5 x
2
N/rn
This value for the pressure ratio is typical for stages of axial flow compressors designed for gas
turbine engines.
(b) The blade speed can be determined from the velocity diagrams of Figure 15.5, viz.
=

(tan a
1

tan/ )

(137.5 m/sec)(tan 35

tan 52.42T)

275 rn/sec

(c) The power required to drive the rotor per unit mass flow rate can be determined from
the Euler turbomachine equation, viz.
-(wi)

The tangential components of the gas velocity at entrance and exit to the blade are given by
1 =137.5tan35 =96.279 rn/sec
z =i.2 tana
and
=

tan a
2 =137.5tan52.42T =178.722 rn/sec

Then
=(275 rn/sec)[(178.722 sec)(96.279 rn!sec)]=2.267 x l0 W/kg/sec
This example shows the importance of the blade design and the axial velocity on the performance
of the axial flow compressor. The performance of axial flow compressors is limited by the
competition between flow velocity and compressibility effects. In order to minimize the size of
the machine, it is necessary to increase the flow velocity (axial velocity) as much as possible, but
if the flow velocity is too large, shock waves can form locally and the machine becomes choked.
For this reason the maximum Mach number in these shaft work machines is usually limited to
about M = 0.7.
15.2.1.3 Polytropic Efficiency of Turbomachines: Although the adiabatic efficiencies defined
in equations (15.22) and (15.24) are valid expressions of the performance of shaft work machines
in general, they can be a bit misleading when comparing turbomachines of different pressure
ratios. This is most easily illustrated for the case of a negative shaft work turbomachine
processing an ideal gas, such as the multistage axial flow compressor described in the preceding
section. From Figure 15.2(b), it would appear that the compression process occurs in a single
step with the overall pressure ratio of
but for reasons discussed above, for a pressure ratio
of any practical value in a real axial flow compressor, it is impractical to execute the compression
in a single stage. Rather, the compression process is carried out in a series of stages with
identical, modest values of the pressure ratio. The overall pressure ratio of the compressor is then
the product of the individual pressure ratios of the many stages. Since compressor designs vary
with respect to the design of the individual stages, the efficiency of equation (15.24) is of limited
value. We can, in fact, specify an adiabatic efficiency,
for each individual stage in the manner
of equation (15.24). This stage efficiency may be significantly different from the overall adiabatic
efficiency of the compressor. Alternatively, we can define the polytropic efficiency, i7,, in light
of the multi-stage nature of the compression process.
,

Ch. 15 Pg. 23
The h-s diagram for the compression process would then take on an appearance similar to
that shown for a few stages in Figure 15.6. Consider the limiting case of an infinitesimal
compression process in which the state
2
P

1
P
h

Figure 15.6 Multi-stage Compression of an Ideal Gas

of the gas is changed from P to P + dP. By virtue of the thermodynamic coupling in the gas, the
temperature will change from T to T + dT. The work transfer required for this infinitesimal
change of state is given by equation (15.12). For a reversible change of state, the necessary work
transfer per unit mass flow rate is
I

,h

=(dh) reversible
I
j ,ciersthk

(15.56)

For the actual change of state, we have

ihaft

1
(dh)

(15.57)

actual

We now define a polytropic efficiency,

i
,
1
,

for this small stage of compression such that

(dh) reversible
=
(dh) actual

(15.58)

From equation (15.13), we have for the reversible adiabatic compression

(15.59)
(dh)revercible = Td+ vdP
and for the actual compression process, the enthalpy constitutive relation gives
(dh) actual =C ciT
(15.60)
Then
vdP
RT dP
(15.61)
cdT
P cdT
where we have substituted the property constitutive relation for v. For the ideal gas model,
R c Cv c/c, 1
=
(15.62)
c
c
y

Ch. 15 Pg. 24
Then substituting equation (15.62) into equation (15.61) and separating variables, we get
dT = (y1) dP
T

(15.63)

yi7P

Integrating equation (15.63) for the overall compression process with the polytropic efficiency of
each stage constant, we get
(yi)/

/mv

(15.64)

For the reversible compression process, we have from the entropy constitutive relation with s
7

SI,

(7) reversible

(15.65)

Substituting equations (15.64) and (15.65) into equation (15.32), we get

(15.66)

For the case y= 1.4 (typical of diatomic gases like air), Figure 15.7 shows the effect of staging
the compression process on the overall performance of the compressor. Except for the case of

0.9

0.8
17
0.7

0.6

0.5

10

15

20

Figure 15.7 Adiabatic Efficiency of Multi-Stage Compression

Ch. 15 Pg. 25
single stage compression, the adiabatic efficiency of the compressor as a whole is always less
than the efficiency of the individual stages. As the compression ratio increases, the staging effect
becomes more pronounced. In effect, what we have done is to use a polytropic path defined by
Pv =constant
(15.67)
n
with > y, to get from the inlet state to the outlet state of the actual compressor. This path
replaces the locus of states of the actual compression process. Unlike the actual sequence of
states, this polytropic path is not an adiabatic path, but in fact, has a positive heat transfer. It
should be noted that in a multi-stage axial compressor with many stages, the stage efficiency, ,,
may be approximately equal to the polytropic efficiency, r.
A similar result can be obtained for a positive shaft work turbomachine, such as a multi
stage, axial flow turbine. In this case, the polytropic efficiency is defined as
= (dh)
cdT
(15.68)
(dh) reversible
vdP
After integrating equation (15.68) and substituting the result into equation (15.31), we obtain

(15.69)

Again for the case y= 1.4, Figure 15.8 shows the effect of staging the expansion process on the
overall performance of the turbine. In contrast to the compression process, the adiabatic

i/

=0.9

0.9

17
0.8

0.7

0.6

10

15

p/p
Figure 15.8 Adiabatic Efficiency of Multi-Stage Expansion

20

Ch. 15 Pg. 26
efficiency of the overall expansion process is greater than the small stage efficiency. This is one
of the reasons that the adiabatic efficiency of turbines tends to be greater than the adiabatic
efficiency of compressors even though the efficiency of the individual stages are the same in both
cases. In practice, adiabatic efficiencies are usually reported on performance maps of shaft work
turbomachines whereas polytropic efficiencies are usually used in the design process.

20

15
L.

10

5
0

3G

411

50

70

mo

1i

GCRRECTED FiTh FP.E

Figure 15.9 Performance Map of an Axial Flow Compressor

Figure 15.9 shows a typical performance map of a multi-stage axial flow compressor.
Note the contours of constant (adiabatic) efficiency. A similar map can be developed for a
turbine so that when a compressor and a turbine are to be used in tandem as in a gas turbine
power plant, thermal-fluid engineers can make sure that the performance characteristics of the
two shaft work machines properly match to insure continuity of flow and that the two units are
optimized for the application.
Example 15E.4: A turbofan engine of the type shown in Example 15E.1 uses a
compressor of n = 17 stages with an identical pressure ratio Of Pr = 1.2 for each stage. The
polytropic efficiency of each stage is
= 0.9. Estimate the adiabatic shaft efficiency of the
compressor with air as the working fluid (y= 1.4).
Solution: The overall pressure ratio of the compressor is given by
=1.2

=22.186

The adiabatic shaft machine efficiency is given by equation (15.44), viz.

(1.41)/

11_ =

22.186

/1.4_i

=0.8503
1

This is a typical value for an engine of this type.

Ch. 15 Pg. 27
15.2.1.4 Actuator Disks: Although this topic may seem somewhat misplaced
in a section
devoted to the analysis of the fundamental behavior of shaft work machin
es in general terms, we
include shaft work machines that use the atmosphere as the working fluid
in the present context
for two reasons: (a) The internal details of this class of shaft work machines
is analyzed in a
slightly different manner than the broader classes of shaft work machines
such as the turbines
and compressors introduced above; and (b) these machines are finding more
widespread
deployment in the present energy marketplace than at any other time in history
.
Actuator disks represent a class of machines that are a subset of the shaft work
turbomachines described above. By definition, an actuator disk is an axial flow
turbomachine
consisting of a single rotor with an infinite number of frictionless blades that
creates a pressure
change without a change in velocity. That is, the fluid velocity through the actuato
r disk is
continuous, but the fluid velocity far upstream is quite different from the fluid
velocity far
downstream. In this form, an actuator disk is a useful model for two common
shaft work
machines: (1) propellers used to propel aircraft or ships (negative shaft work
turbomachines) and
(2) wind turbines (positive shaft work turbomachines). Although the actuato
r disk uses air as the
working fluid, the fluid velocity through the disk is relatively small (M < 0.3)
so compressibility
effects are negligible for both types of actuator disks. As a consequence, the air
can be modeled
as an incompressible fluid.
In the case of the propeller, the objective is to use the shaft power from a positiv
e shaft
work machine (such as a reciprocating piston engine or a gas turbine) driving
the device to
increase the linear momentum of a fluid stream. From the equation of linear
momentum, it is
apparent that this increase in linear momentum results in a thrust force applied
to the air or water
craft. In the general case, the shaft power delivered to the device appears in
three forms: (1)
propulsive power associated with the thrust applied to a moving mass, (2)
an increase in the
kinetic energy of the moving fluid stream, and (3) an increase in the stored therma
l energy of the
moving stream due to the irreversibility of the operation of the device. Thus,
there is an
efficiency associated with the device.
Consider the case of an aircraft propeller. The situation can be analyzed by
using the
control volume approach as shown in Figure 15.10. The boundaries of the contro
l volume labeled
1 are coincident with a streaintube whose boundaries are stream
CV
lines passing through the
propeller. Thus there is no fluid velocity component normal to the streamtube.
The control
volume CV
1 moves with constant velocity i2 through the quiescent atmosphere.
Cv

I
I
I

I
I
I
I
I

2
U

+x.*
Streamtube boundary
Figure 15.10 Control Volumes for Analysis of Propeller Performance

Ch. 15 Pg. 28
, the equation of linear momentum becomes
1
For control volume CV
(15.70)

PA inz
1
F+PA

2
,
mzYj
2
9

where A
, is the surface area of the streamtube projected on to a plane normal to the axis of
1
,A
7
7 +A
,=A
1
1 A
. Then equation (15.70) becomes
1
rotation of the propeller. Although A
(15.71)

t9
1

2
F=th(z
)

For control volume CV,, the actuator disk, the equation of linear momentum becomes
(15.72)
where A is the cross-sectional area of the actuator disk. Also, by definition, for the actuator disk
=
= i Then combining equations (15.71) and (15.72), we obtain
(15.73)
)=thAz
2
F=(PFjA=iii(z
F+PaAPi,A_thZ,th19a

where we have introduced the notation iiY= (iY,

The pressure difference across the propeller appearing in equation (15.73) can be
determined by applying the Bernoulli equation along a streamline leading into the propeller and
also a different streamline leading away from the propeller. Note that these streamlines are
. Thus
1
straight when they cross the boundaries of CV
-

(15.74)
p
(15.75)

2
2
p
p
If we subtract equation (15.74) from equation (15.75), we obtain

(15.76)
Since i2 =

equation (15.76) can be rewritten as

()2

2
=[(z +Au)

4]=[ ]

(15.77)

Substituting equation (15.77) into equation (15.73), we get

(15.78)
Comparing the left-hand side of equation (15.78) with the right-hand side, we conclude that for
the mass flow through the actuator disk
At9
th=pA +_jPA1L9

(15.79)

Thus
(15.80)
so that half of the total velocity increase through the actuator disk occurs leading up to the disk
while the other half occurs leading away from the disk. Thus the velocity through the propeller
(actuator disk) is the arithmetic average of the upstream and downstream velocities.
a

I,

(15.81)

Ch. 15 Pg. 29
In designing a propeller using the actuator disk approach, the thermal-fluids engineer has
to balance the diameter of the propeller, D, with the thrust, F, and aircraft velocity requirements.
If we combine equation (15.79) with equation (15.73), we obtain an expression for the velocity
change across CV
, viz.
1
8F
o
(15.82)
2
p7rD
where we have expressed the propeller area in terms of the propeller diameter, D. Solving for
we obtain an expression for the velocity at exit from the streamtube, tY,. Thus,
2
(A
2
A
)

=[J1+K_l1
(15.83)
where K is a dimensionless parameter that characterizes the design, viz.
8F
K=
(15.84)
pffD2
Note that ii is the aircraft velocity.
In order to gain some sense of performance of this negative shaft work machine, we
examine the first law applied to the actuator disk.
Wcit

= WpropLjlsive

haft =

0
th[(u

Uth

)+

1 +th[c(T
F,
01

(15.85)

where we have used the property constitutive relation for the fluid model. Equation (15.85)
shows that the shaft power from the engine into the propeller is consumed by the actual
propulsion of the aircraft, irreversibilities of the operation of the device, and the kinetic energy of
the air discharged into the atmosphere.
Some useful information can be obtained by considering the reversible case. In the
reversible case, since the flow through the propeller is adiabatic, the second law applied to an
incompressible fluid flowing through a control volume similar to CV
1 of Figure 15.10 gives
&ut

th(s out s.in )=thclnt=0

i

(15.86)

Thus, the temperature of the fluid is constant as it passes through the reversible propeller.
Then the first law applied to the reversible, adiabatic propeller becomes

(s/iafl ahaharic

1
F,

th

)2

C)ut

2+2+()2

10
(W,

)rei

adiabatic

tht,z\z+ iii

2
2
---

th,
A
1
+

i+
111
tht9

th[1

I
thtLd1j1

+_J
2Z

(15.87)

The first term on the right-hand side of equation (15.87) represents the power required to propel
the aircraft, but the second term on the right-hand side is power that is just dumped into the

Ch. 15 Pg. 30
atmosphere and serves no useful purpose. Thus we would like to maximize the former and
minimize the latter. Unfortunately, the two terms are linked. The ratio of the two terms is a
measure of the propulsiie efficiency of the propeller. Thus,
9plane At9
thc

l,,:op
IflpianeAl +

From equation (15.88), it is clear that in order to make

as large as possible, we need to make
ias small as possible. However, i?= 0 is not an option because as equation (15.73) shows,
there would then be no thrust. Then as we reduce L i, we need to increase the diameter of the
propeller and process more fluid in order to maintain thrust. Obviously, this trade-off has its
limits in order to keep the propeller from hitting the fuselage in flight or the ground when
landing. Note that this efficiency is not an efficiency in the sense of the adiabatic efficiency of a
shaft work machine defined above.
Examplel5E.5: The Cessna Aircraft Company manufactures a particular aircraft design
known as a Skylane (Model 1 82T). This plane uses a single engine (reciprocating piston shaft
work machine) with a maximum power rating of 230 HP (171.5 kW). The aircraft is a
monoplane with a three-bladed propeller with a diameter of D 2 m. At an altitude of 6000 ft
(1828.8 km), the aircraft cruises at 145 knots (nautical miles/br) (74.594 mlsec) at a power level
of 80 percent of maximum. Estimate the thrust of the propeller and the propulsive efficiency of
the aircraft,
under these operating conditions.
Solution: In order to estimate the propulsive efficiency of the aircraft, we need to solve
equation (15.88). This requires an estimate of the change in velocity of the air as it passes
through the propeller of the aircraft. For the purposes of the estimate, we shall assume that the
propeller operates in a reversible manner. Under cruise conditions, the shaft power input to the
propeller is 80 percent of the maximum. Then
/cruise = 08,jax = 0.8 (i .715 x i o w) = 1.372 x I o W
In the absence of any irreversibilities in the propeller slipstream, this power goes into the power
required to overcome the drag on the aircraft as it moves forward through the atmosphere and the
kinetic energy of the propeller slipstream that eventually gets dissipated irreversibly in the
atmosphere in the wake of the aircraft. Then from equation (15.65),
(v/iaft)rev
alialatic

thA+

9
2t

1.372 x

io

where zl =
= 74.594 mlsec and n is given by the continuity equation applied to the
propeller (actuator disk) itself. Thus, from equation (15.79)
=P
4

Lt9

From the U. S Standard Atmosphere model for the air, the altitude of z = 1828.8 m corresponds
to the geopotential altitude of H= 1828.3 m. At this altitude, the pressure isP = 8.1205 x l0
, the temperature is T = 276.27 K, and the density of the air is p = 1.024 kg/rn
2
N/rn
. Then
3
th

(1.024 kg/m3)

2.0m

[(74.594

kg/m)
mJsec)+1= 239.97 kg/sec +(3.217

Substituting this result into the first law, we get

Ch. 15 Pg. 31
239.97 kg/sec + (3.217 kg/rn)l(74.594 m/sec)A
2J
Solving for
F=

2z)

=1.372 x l0 W

we obtain z ?= 3.694 rn/sec. Then the thrust becomes

= (i .024 kg/rn
3

)2.o m

74.549 rn/sec

3694
3.694rn!sec(

sec) = 908.4 N

and the propulsive efficiency becomes

1prop
= 1+

3.694 rn/sec
2(74.594 rn/see)

= 0.976

2t9pia,ie
This high value of propulsive efficiency can be attributed to several factors. The first, most
obvious one, is the fact that this model assumes reversible operation. Clearly, there are
irreversibilities associated with the operation of the device that will in fact degrade the
performance. The second factor has to do with the fact that the operation of the propeller is much
like that of a simple screw with a helical thread. As the screw (in this case, propeller) turns, the
screw advances through the medium in which it is embedded. In fact, early designs of propellers
were based upon this idea. The pitch of the propeller, i.e., the angle of the propeller blade with
respect to the plane of rotation, provides the thrust that advances the aircraft forward, but the
higher the pitch, the greater the possibility of flow separation and the losses that it incurs. Thus,
modern propeller driven aircraft have automatic control systems that adjust this pitch under load
so that the propeller operates in the most efficient manner possible while still maintaining the
forward motion of the aircraft. This variable pitch design results in a high value of propulsive
efficiency. Finally, the actuator disk theory is an overly simplified view of the operation of a
propeller. The propeller blades are in fact shaped like aircraft wings in cross-section and attention
must be paid to the aerodynamic character of the flow over the blades. This gives rise to a design
approach known as blade element theory.
For the design of aircraft propellers, two basic ideas derive from blade element theory.
First, the angle through which the axial flow is turned as it passes through the propeller should be
kept as small as possible in order to avoid flow separation from the blades. Second, the velocity
of the air as it approaches the propeller should be kept well below the speed of sound in order to
avoid the formation of shock waves as the flow passes over the blades. These conditions are met
easily in low speed, small aircraft. It should be kept in mind that blade element theory applies
only so long as the solidity of the flow is small where the solidity is defined as the ratio of the
actual blade area to the area of the actuator disk. Thus, blade element theory is appropriate for
aircraft propellers for which solidity is indeed small, but not for marine propellers for which
solidity is large.
This issue is further complicated by the fact that propeller performance is strongly
dependent upon the number of blades that make up the device. Propellers with large numbers of
blades tend to perform more efficiently than propellers with fewer blades. Modern aircraft
propeller designs often employ as many as 12 blades. We shall return to this issue in Chapter 16
where we discuss aircraft propulsion systems in greater detail.
Propellers can also be run as positive shaft work machines that extract energy from the
wind. Although such devices have been in existence for nearly two thousand years, it has only
th
been in recent years that they have seen much attention from thermal-fluid engineers. In 16
century Europe, windmills or wind turbines provided the bulk of the power used to grind grains

Ch. 15 Pg. 32
and pump water, and the windmills of the Netherlands are classic examples of this technology. In
rural areas of the United States, windmills provided not only the power required to pump water
th
th
for irrigation of farm land, but also to operate sawmills in the late 19
centuries. In
and early 20
th
20
the early to mid
century, windmills even provided electrical power for many farms in rural
America that were not attached to the electrical power grid. In the 2l century as humankind has
been forced to come to grips with the limited energy resources available, there has been a
resurgence of interest in exploiting the wind as a renewable energy source. Germany, Denmark,
and Ireland have been particularly active in developing wind turbines and wind farms for the
production of electrical power. Although wind turbines have been installed in both on-shore and
off-shore locations, the off-shore locations have been most promising because the wind speeds
tend to be higher and more nearly constant. The Middeigrunden Off-shore Wind Farm off the
coast of Denmark is presently the largest off-shore wind farm with a capacity of 40 MW, but the
Cape Wind project planned for off-shore Cape Cod in Massachusetts will have a capacity of 420
MW.
The performance of wind turbines can be analyzed with the aid of the actuator disk model
in much the same manner as propellers. The major difference, of course, is the fact that the wind
turbine is a positive shaft work machine in which the fluid is decelerated instead of being
accelerated. Figure 15.11 shows the streamtube and the corresponding control volumes for the
wind turbine.

I
I
_____I
1
U

V.

P
I
I

3
Streamtube boundary

Figure 15.11 Control Volumes for Analysis of Wind Turbine Performance

From the momentum equation for CV
, we have
1
-F =th(i9
-t9j)
2

(15.89)

Similarly for CV
, the actuator disk,
2
F+(PaPb)A=th(lY,_a)=0

Combining equations (15.89) and (15.90), we get

)
2
F=(-F)A=th(z-ti

(15.90)
(15.91)

If we apply the Bernoulli equation from the inlet to CV

1 to the inlet to CV
, we get
7
a +P_
2
2
If we apply the Bernoulli equation from the outlet from CV
7 to the outlet of CV
, we get
1

(15.92)

Ch. 15 Pg. 33
F,

(15.93)

Combining equations (15.91), (15.92), and (15.93), we get

(15.94)

From continuity,
th=pA
Combining equations (15.94) and (15.95), we get the expected result

(15.95)

(15.96)
That is, like the propeller, the fluid velocity through the actuator disk is the arithmetic average of
the inlet and outlet velocities and half the velocity change of the fluid in the streamtube occurs
upstream of the actuator disk while the remainder occurs downstream.
If we now consider the reversible case, the first law applied to CV
7 becomes

%-

WcIcft =

th

1 +
u,,

+ t_zin)]

=
athaha,,c

(hft )rev
ad,c,/,,,t,c

Combining equations (15.94)

(15.97), we get
=g= pA
2

=pA(z2

(15.97)

2)(

(15.98)
+)
4
where the symbol p denotes the power developed by the wind turbine under reversible, adiabatic
conditions. There is a value of the discharge velocity iY, at which the power developed by the
wind turbine becomes a maximum. This value can be determined by differentiating equation
(15.98) with respect to i and setting the result equal to zero, viz.
(1,afr),ev

adiabatc

2)

(15.99)

Equation (15.99) is satisfied when the term in parentheses is equal to zero. This occurs for the
roots of that expression, viz.
and

2
t9

(15.100)

The first root gives the minimum power, namely zero when the turbine is not rotating. The
second root gives the maximum power which can be determined by substituting this root into
equation (15.99), viz.
nlax

=pA2 __Z

+=---pAt

(15.101)

Ch. 15 Pg. 34
The power in the wind flowing into the turbine is nominally
=

th

pA

(15.102)

(Note that for the sake of convenience in making estimates, this is a nominal value since we have
used the wind velocity rather than the actual air velocity at the disk.) We can define a
performance parameter, the power coefficient for the wind turbine, Ci,er, as the ratio of the
power developed by the turbine to the power of the wind impinging on it, viz.
C pe

pA
3
2
The maximum possible value for the power coefficient can be determined by substituting
equation (15.101) into equation (15.103), viz.

(15.103)

16
(15.104)
==0.593
217
3
pAt
2
This result is known as the Betz factor in honor of Albert Betz (1885 1968), a German physicist
who was a colleague of Ludwig Prandtl at Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt (AVA) in Gottingen.
Betz, a pioneer in the development of wind turbines, first derived this factor in 1920. Through
the efforts of Betz and his co-workers, Germany established a pre-eminent position in the use of
the wind as a renewable energy source, a position it enjoys to this day.
From equation(15.98), it would appear that the power output of the wind turbine could be
maximized by making the exit velocity zero,
= 0. However, this would violate the continuity
equation. Equation (15.100) is the result of maximizing the power output under the constraint of
satisfying the continuity equation. The power coefficient of equation (15.104) then establishes an
upper bound on our ability to extract power from the wind. However, in practice with current
technology, power coefficients of well-designed wind turbines are somewhat less than the Betz
limit and fall in the range 0.40 CJ,(,wer 0.47.
Figure 15.12 shows the performance of some modern wind turbines along with the
performance of some classical windmills. Wind turbines can be designed with the axis of rotation
either horizontal or vertical. The vertical axis wind turbine is insensitive the direction of the
wind, but the horizontal axis wind turbine requires a rudder of some sort that turns the axis of
rotation of the device parallel to the wind direction. Notice that the performance is optimum at a
specific wind speed and falls off as wind speed either increases or decreases. In reality, the wind
rarely blows at a steady speed so wind turbines are not really steady flow devices. The unsteady
nature of the wind dictates a complex propeller design that greatly increases the cost of the
device in order to achieve reasonable performance over a range of wind speeds.
(Cpn.er)

Insert Figure 15.12 here.

Note that due to the viscous nature of air, the wind is a boundary layer phenomenon on
the surface of the earth. That is, the local wind speed is a function of distance normal to the
ground. As a consequence, the axes of rotation of wind turbines with horizontal axes of rotation
(the most common in modern wind farms) are placed at some distance from the ground with
heights of 100 m not uncommon. This requires a supporting structure that becomes a significant

Ch. 15 Pg. 35

fraction of the total cost of the device.

th
th
Example 15E.6: Throughout the 19
century and well into the first half of the 20
century, rural America relied heavily upon windmills of the type shown in Figure 15E.6 to
provide the shaft power required to operate irrigation pumps and a wide variety of other farm
machinery. A windmill was an essential piece of equipment on nearly every American farm. A
th
typical 20
century design was a multi-blade design with a disk diameter of about 5 m. From the
data of Figure 15.8, estimate the maximum shaft power that could be extracted from a wind of 11
mlsec on a day when the air temperature is 20 C and the air pressure is 1 atm. Also estimate the
velocity of the wind downstream of the rotor disk.

Figure 15E.6 Windmill and Water Storage Tank on Farm on High Plains.
Gaines County, New Mexico (Russell Lee, photographer, 1940) Farm Security Administration Office of War
Information Photograph Collection, Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540
-

Solution: We first determine the air density p. The ideal gas model with R = 297 J/kg K
provides an adequate description of the behavior of the air. Then since 1 atm = 1.01325 x 1 o
,
2
N/rn
P
1.01325 x io N/rn
2
p==
=1.204kg/rn
RT (287J/kgK)(20C+273.15 K)
For this design of windmill, the nominal maximum power of the wind is

= pAL = (1.204 kg/mfl

2
( (5m)
) 4

((11 m/sec)
2

= 1.574 x i0
4 W

From Figure 15.8, the maximum power coefficient for the American multi-blade windmill design
is (Ci,owe,),nax = 0.3. Then from the definition of the power coefficient
go = (Cj,ower) (gorna) =0.3(1.574 x io w) = 4.721 kW
It is interesting to note that this amount of power would be sufficient to power a modern home.
For purposes of an estimate of the downstream velocity, if we assume reversible,
adiabatic operation of the windmill, equation (15.76) gives the power extracted from the wind.

Ch. 15 Pg. 36
Then

4.721 x

W=(1.204

kg/m3)[5 rn)
2

[(1l isec)
2 _](ll m/sec+,)

3.606 rn/sec
th
It is interesting to note that as the electric power grid expanded in the mid 20
century to include
S1
rural America, windmills gradually disappeared from American farms. However, in the 21
century, as energy has become a more precious commodity with energy tax credits encouraging
the deployment of renewable energy sources, windmills are once again returning to American
farms.
15.2.2 Shaft Work Machines Processing an Incompressible Fluid
If the working fluid of the machine can be modeled as incompressible with a constant
specific heat c, the enthalpy can be separated into a thermal energy cT and an uncoupled
mechanical property Pv. Then the enthalpy can be written
h=cT+Pv
(15.105)
Then equation (15.11) becomes
=

(uuttt

=
jnconireitjlil

thc

) + thy

(15.106)

According to the entropy constitutive relation for the incompressible fluid as presented in
Chapter 4, the entropy is related only to its thermal behavior. Then for the limiting case of the
reversible adiabatic machine we have
00
s

c ln

(15.107)

=0

Thus the outlet temperature is equal to the inlet temperature, and the shaft work transfer rate is
directly related to the pressure difference and the volume flow rate nv. Thus
)reverithie

adiabatic
incompressible

thy (P

(P )

(15.108)

If the adiabatic machine is irreversible, the entropy of the fluid stream increases as it
passes through the machine. From equation (15.107), it follows that the outlet temperature is
greater than the inlet temperature. Thus, the first term in equation (15.106) is always positive for
this class of adiabatic machines. This term represents the decrease in the shaft work transfer rate
because of internal irreversibility which in this case is simply mechanical energy dissipation
within the working fluid.
The locus of states for the incompressible fluid as it passes through the shaft work
machine is shown in Figure 15.13. Again since some of the states in the actual machine are nonequilibrium states, the path cannot be specified for the irreversible (actual) machine. Also note
that since the entropy and temperature of the incompressible fluid are directly related [equation
(15.107)], the locus of states cannot be presented in terms of the coordinates T and s. For the
incompressible fluid, the shaft work efficiencies reduce to a particularly simple form obtained by
substituting equations (15.106) and (15.108) into equations (15.22) and (15.24).
+

iiconij,ievs,l,le

(15.109)

Ch. 15 Pg. 37

::

i:ri!;I iiiic LI

:
I

HI

Ut

Ii ii

Figure 15.13(a) States of an Incompressible Fluid in a Positive Shaft Work Machine

:

;u1 }jLLLiI

prtIi

:Jzi1aJ ru hin i rjjiow a

ir

Figure 15.13 (b) States of an Incompressible Fluid in a Negative Shaft Work Machine
and
(17).

inco,npresu,bk

=1-

11
c(T,

(15.110)

fl)+v()U

In both cases, the outlet temperature is greater than the inlet temperature because of the
irreversibility. For the positive shaft work machine the inlet pressure is greater than outlet
pressure. However, for the negative shaft work machine the inlet pressure is less than the outlet
pressure. Thus, in both equations (15.109) and (15.110) the second term on the right side is
positive and less than unity and represents approximately the fraction of reversible shaft work
transfer lost to irreversibility.
Negative shaft work machines processing an incompressible fluid are one of the most

Ch. 15 Pg. 38
common the steady flow components. These devices, known as pumps, are found in all sorts of
thermal-fluid systems ranging from home heating systems and automobiles on the one hand to
gigawatt power plants and petroleum refineries on the other. Because of the widespread
application of pumps, thermal-fluid engineers have given special attention to quantifying their
performance. Although the efficiency described above is certainly an important performance
parameter, there is a collection of other parameters that is important in both designing and
selecting these devices for service in larger systems. As shown in Appendix iSA, these
parameters are most readily managed in non-dimensional form.
In Appendix 1 5A, we note that the dimensional analysis cannot give us the specific form
of the function F identified by the Buckingham Pi Theorem. For this information we must
examine the details of operation of the particular pump of interest. For this purpose, the most
reasonable choice of pump is that of a centrifugal pump which, apart from the human heart, is
probably the most common of all pump designs. A centrifugal pump consists of an impeller,
mounted in bearings, that rotates in a housing shaped like a volute. The impeller is connected to
some sort of positive shaft work machine such as an electric motor that drives it. Typically, the
fluid to be pumped enters the rotor on the axis of rotation and then has its angular momentum
increased by virtue of the rotation of the impeller that is fitted with vanes whose purpose is to
guide the motion of the fluid. The fluid exits from the periphery of the circularly shaped rotor.
The pressure increases in the direction of flow due to the increase in angular momentum of the
fluid within the volute-shaped housing. Figure 15.10 shows an external view of a pump and drive
motor assembly.

Drive motor

(discharge)

(suction)

-Housing (volute)
Figure 15.14 External View of Centrifugal Pump and Drive Motor Assembly
(Courtesy of Goulds Pumps)
Figure 15.15 shows a cross-sectional view of an impeller of the closed type that is used in the
pump of Figure 15.14. The fluid enters the impeller axially and flows radially outward.

Ch. 15 Pg. 39
linPelleri4 Flow

Flow

Figure 15.15 Cross-section of Closed Type of Impeller for a Centrifugal Pump

Figure 15.16 shows a view of an open impeller looking down the axis of rotation in the direction
of travel of the fluid. The pump rotates in the clockwise direction in this view. This impeller is
from a circulating pump used in a home heating system. Note the shape of the vanes.

Figure 15.16 Open Impeller from Centrifugal Pump

(Photograph courtesy of Dr. Ruth Tuomala)

Figure 15.17 shows a schematic view of an impeller similar to that of Figure 15.16. Of particular
interest is the velocity of the fluid as it exits the impeller. The velocity of the fluid relative to the
surface of the blade is denoted by the symbol l22 while the velocity imparted to the fluid by the
tangential velocity of the tip of the blade is R
a where a is the rotational speed of the impeller.
2
The vector sum of the velocity components 12 and R
N gives the absolute velocity z of the fluid
2
particle relative to the stationary housing of the pump. The components of this velocity in the
radial and tangential directions are i
2 and 2 respectively. There is a similar set of velocities at
the entrance to the impeller.

Ch. 15 Pg. 40

Al,

Figure 15.13 Velocity Components of a Fluid Particle at Exit

from the Impeller of a Centrifugal Pump
The Euler turbomachine equation, equation (8.107), gives the torque that must be exerted
on the impeller by the drive motor for the reversible operation of the pump.
z9 1
=th(R
z3
R
)
(15.111)
Thft 2
Then the shaft power for reversible operation is given by

z9 R
tho(R
(15.112)
111 = 2
T
z9
1
)rev = N
The pump head, hJ,
f,,), is by definition the reversible shaft power per unit mass flow rate. Then
1
from equation (15.112)

hpiimp

rev 1
ot9
=(R

2
a
)
iz
R

(15.113)

In most centrifugal pump designs, there is no attempt to induce a tangential velocity component
at the pump inlet. Then i = 0 and equation (15.113) reduces to
=2
oz9 = Ro
R
2 2
(15.114)
W13r cot 132
R

which shows the significance of the vane exit angle in determining pump performance. Since
(15.115)
where b
2 is the height of the vane at the outer periphery of the impeller, we can write equation
(15.115) in the form
w2
D
= 2
4

aM
cot 182
2
2.2rb

(15.116)

If we divide equation (15.116) through by 2

thD we get
,
,,,
h
1
liD
2
I
2
cot,8
2
2
w D
2
4 aD
23 2irb
2

heac1 =

fl

D2
cot 132
2irb

(15.117)

Ch. 15 Pg. 41
In a similar manner, we could have started with equation (15.112). Then if
use of equation (15.115), equation (15.112) becomes

2
pVRw

(Ws?Iaft)

w cot 162
2
pVR

0 and we make

pV
w
D
2
cot fi
2
b
2
2.irD

(15.118)

If we divide equation (15.118) through by p}D

, we get
5
2
(T7sait)rev

D
3
pai

pVDw
2
D
3
4po

pOlver
1T

pV
w
D
2
c
D2D
3
pw
2
b
7
=

I
4

fiow

\2

)
110
FI

V
4wD

D
2
V

2 D2b
a,
2

L
cot 62
)
2
2b

co

(15.119)

Equations (15J17) and (15.119) establish the functional relationships amongst the
dimensionless parameters guaranteed by the Buckingham Pi Theorem. These relationships are
shown schematically in graphical form in Figure 15.18 for a pump of a given diameter operating
at fixed value of Reynolds number with a given fluid. It is worth noting that equations (15.117)
and (15.119) apply to any negative shaft work machine processing an incompressible working
fluid, be it a fan or a pump, provided the inlet is along the axis of rotation and the flow path is
radially outward from the axis of rotation. Pumps that process a liquid always use vanes with ,6,
itI2 since the operating point becomes unstable otherwise. Vanes with
162 < 7t/2 are said to be
backward curved while vanes with 162 = rc/2 are said to be radial.
Fans, on the other hand, process gases that tend to have more stable operating points due
to their lower values of viscosity. As a result, fan rotors (impellers) frequently have forward
curved vanes with 162> rt/2, especially in the smaller sizes.

head

flw
11

Figure 15.18 Dimensionless Performance Characteristics for a Negative Shaft Work Machine

Ch. 15 Pg. 42
While the head coefficient and the power coefficient of the pump are determined by the
vane outlet angle 67, the vane inlet angle ,6 determines the flow coefficient. The flow coefficient
in turn determines the efficiency of the pump. For the case of a pump with pure axial flow at the
inlet, there is no tangential component to the absolute velocity as shown in Figure 15.19. Then
i
tanj
=
1
-=
0
1
R
irD Dw
b
1

(15.120)

Figure 15.19 Velocity Components of a Fluid Particle at Entrance

to the Impeller of a Centrifugal Pump
and it follows that the inlet vane angle is determined by V, a, D
, and b
1
. Then a pump of fixed
1
dimensions D
,b
1
, and /3 operating at a given rotational speed a, will have a single volumetric
1
flow rate V at which the operation will be optimal. This would be the point of maximum
efficiency for the pump. At any other flow rate, the efficiency of this pump at this speed would be
reduced. Figure 15.20 shows schematically this dependence of efficiency on flow rate for a given
pump operating at a given rotational speed.

11

Flow rate matched to system

Flow rate
mismatch I
flow

Figure 15.20 Optimal Operating Condition for Centrifugal Pump in Piping System
The optimal operating point for the pump can be characterized by another dimensionless
parameter derived from the dimensionless parameters already formulated by eliminating the

Ch. 15 Pg. 43
pump geometry from the characterization. If we form the ratio of the square root of the flow
coefficient to the one-fourth root of the head coefficient, we will have a new dimensionless
parameter known as the specific speed of the pump, viz.

(15. 121)

When a particular pump is operated at the precise conditions for which its internal geometry is
designed, the values of the parameters a.,
and V are uniquely defined and the efficiency is at
its maximum value,
The resulting value for the specific speed is the value usually reported
by the manufacturer. The value of the specific speed characterizes the design of the device.
Pumps with low values of specific speed are typically radial flow designs with high values for the
pump head and low values for the volumetric flow rate. Pumps with high values of specific speed
are typically axial flow designs with low values for the pump head and high values for the
volumetric flow rate. A pump can be operated at a value of specific speed that is not the value
specified by the manufacturer, but in that case, the efficiency will not be its maximum value.
These results apply to fans as well as pumps.
There is another important issue that needs to be addressed in these pump/piping systems,
namely the phenomena of cavitation. If the static pressure anywhere in the system falls below the
vapor pressure of the flowing liquid at the prevailing temperature, the liquid will vaporize and
form bubbles of vapor dispersed in the liquid. Over time, these vapor bubbles are capable of
doing considerable damage to pumps, primarily in the form of erosion of pump surfaces exposed
to two-phase flow. The process of erosion is caused by spalling of the pump surface due to
alternating positive and negative Hertz contact stresses imposed by collapsing bubbles. Small
particles of the pump material at the liquid interface literally jump off the surface as the surface
experiences highly localized tensile forces. If the process is allowed to continue unchecked,
pump performance degrades rapidly. The formation and collapse of vapor bubbles is usually
accompanied by noise that becomes the death rattle of the pump.
Cavitation usually occurs within the pump, typically in the suction connection. Cavitation
can be avoided by insuring that the there is available a net positive suction head, NPSHA, at the
pump inlet, viz.
=

(15.122)
pg
where P
0 is the static pressure within the fluid at the pump inlet flange, P, is the saturation
pressure of the fluid at the prevailing temperature, and p is the liquid density. Because of the
nature of the internal flow geometry of the pump, there is usually a pressure drop within the
pump so that at some internal location, the local static pressure is less than P
. This minimum
0
pressure establishes the required net positive suction head, NPSHR. For a given pump design, the
manufacturer measures the value of NPSHR and it then becomes incumbent upon the thermal
fluids engineer to ensure that for the piping system under consideration, the value of NPSHA
exceeds the value of NPSHR.
The value of NPSHA is just one of the parameters that the thermal-fluids engineer must
determine in the application of a pump to a piping system design. The pump head and the
volumetric flow rate are two parameters that are usually set by the piping system. The likelihood
NPSHA

Ch. 15 Pg. 44
that a pump will be found that exactly matches these requirements at maximum efficiency is
small. However, the thermal-fluids engineer does have the option of introducing a throttle valve
(to be discussed later in this chapter) into the system to match pump head and total head loss, as
well as using a motor controller that allows the adjustment of the rotational speed of the pump.
By means of these two control variables, the thermal-fluids engineer can find an appropriate
pump to meet the requirements.
15.2.3 Shaft Work Machines Processing a Pure Substance
The locus of states of the pure substance as it passes through various shaft work machines
is shown in Figures 15.21 and 15.22 on h-s and T-s coordinates. Note that one effect of the
irreversibility present in the actual machine is to increase the amount of vapor resulting from the
expansion process to a two-phase state in a positive shaft work machine. If the outlet state is a
single-phase superheated vapor state, the irreversibilities increase the degree of superheat.
Similarly, the vapor at the outlet of a negative shaft work machine is also superheated as a result
of the irreversibilities present during the compression process. For both negative and positive
shaft work machines operating in the subcooled liquid region, the irreversibility of the process
reduces the degree of subcooling.
The example of a shaft work machine processing a pure substance that is of greatest
interest in this context is an axial flow steam turbine. However, the internal construction of such
a machine consists of two components: (1) a stator in the form of a nozzle and (2) a rotor with
radially extending blades similar in form to those of the axial flow compressor discussed
previously. The role of the nozzle is to accelerate a fluid stream to high velocity which is then
deflected by the blades in such a manner as to produce a change in momentum of the fluid stream
that results in a force on the blade. Since the blade is mounted on a disk that is free to rotate
about a central axis, the force on the blade produces a torque about the axis of rotation. As a
consequence, the internal details of the performance of the steam turbine are inextricably linked
to the performance of the nozzle. Thus, our discussion of the internal details of the steam turbine
must be delayed until we have developed the means to analyze the performance of the nozzle.
(See Appendix 15B.) At this juncture, we content ourselves with an example of the control
volume analysis of the steam turbine.
PHi

In

uul

Figure 15.2 1(a) States of a Pure Substance in a Positive Shaft Work Machine

Ch. 15 Pg. 45

YJt n

Figure 15.2 1(b) States of a Pure Substance in a Positive Shaft Work Machine

i_ JI:rI;

1u1

Figure 15.22(a) States of a Pure Substance in a Negative Shaft Work Machine

Ch. 15 Pg. 46

Figure 15.22(b) States of a Pure Substance in a Negative Shaft Work Machine

Example 15E.7: A four-stage steam turbine is to provide 1 MW to drive a boiler feed
pump. The steam conditions at the turbine inlet are P
1 = 3.0 x 106 N/rn
2 and T
1 = 260 C. The
turbine exhaust pressure is P
2 = 2 x 105 N/rn
. The turbine efficiency is i = 0.85.
2
(a) What mass flow rate of steam is required to achieve the necessary power?
(b) What is the quality of the exit steam?
(c) What is the rate of entropy generation in the turbine?
Solution: (a) The control volume selected for analysis of the turbine is shown in Figure
15E.7.

v!JJlIIe

srui

Figure 15E.7 Four-Stage Steam Turbine

Ch. 15 Pg. 47
The inlet state is a superheated vapor state with the following properties:
1 = 3 x 106 N/rn
P
, T
2
1 260 C, h
1 = 2886.4 kJ/kg, s = 6.3459 kJ/kg K
We first consider a reversible adiabatic turbine with the same state 1 and the same exhaust
pressure Two independent properties are required to specify the state at the exit of such a
turbine. For this case the relevant properties are the exit pressure and the exit entropy, viz.
=P
2 = 2 x i0
,S
2
5 N/rn
1 6.3459 kJ/kg K
r = s
2
Since Sf < S
<
at
7
P
2
s
iO
x
,
2
N/rn
2r
state
is
a
two-phase
state. Then the exit quality for the
r
2
reversible adiabatic turbine is given by
.

= S,.
2r

Sf =

sjg

6.3459 kJ/kg K1.5302 kJ/kg K

=08604
5.5967 kJ/kg K

Then the enthalpy at exit from the reversible adiabatic turbine is

1 +X
r =h
2
h
rhjg = 504.70 + (0.8605)(2201 .5 kJ/kg)
2

2399.0 kJ/kg

Then from equation (15.11) in which changes in kinetic and potential energies are neglected
raft

in
[Wsicait

I reversible

= 2886.4 kJ/kg2399.0 kJ/kg = 487.41 kJ/kg

recercihie

From the definition of turbine efficiency, equation (15.22), we have

Wshfi

mJ

Wshft

mJ

actual

= 0.85 (487.41 kJ/kg) =414.30 kJ/kg

reversible

The mass flow rate for a power output of 1 MW is

in=

(wft )c,ct,l
.

1000 k\V
414.30 kJ/kg =2.414kg/sec

172

I actual

(b) The quality of the steam at the turbine exit, state 2, is calculated from the enthalpy, h
.
2
From equation (15.11), we have
2 =h
h

fli
a
1
it

in

actual

2 = 2886.4 kJ/kg414.30 kJ/kg = 2472.1 kJ/kg

h

/12

hfg

2472.1 kJ/kg504.70 kJ/kg

08936
2201.5 kJ/kg

(c) To calculate the entropy generated in the turbine we need the entropy at state 2.
2
S
S +X
Sfg = 1.5302 kJ/kg+(0.8937)(5.5967 kJ/kg)=6.5318 kJ/kg K
2
Then the rate of entropy generation is
2 s
)=(2.414 kJ/kg)(6.5318 kJ/kg K6.3459 kJ/kg K)=0.4488 kW/K
1
5gen =th(s

Ch. 15 Pg. 48

15.3 Nozzles
The operation of many engineering systems requires a fluid stream of high kinetic energy.
For example, as we saw in Section 15.2, power output of a turbine is due to internal forces
produced by the deflection of high velocity fluid streams. These high velocities can be achieved
by accelerating the fluid stream in a device called a nozzle. A typical nozzle with a single inlet
and a single outlet is shown in Figure 15.23. The fluid enters the nozzle with a low velocity at a
specified temperature and pressure, and leaves the nozzle with a high velocity at a lower
pressure. The pressure difference imposed across the nozzle accelerates the fluid. The mass flow
rate is related to the nozzle cross sectional area by the continuity equation. The distribution of
fluid velocity and state along the length of the nozzle is determined by its shape.

tii ii
o.v

fiji Id fiLyw

tiow in

high .kii1

eiiitv

w
higii

ut

!.:rie

low

prts!curc

tic crier

prsur

Figure 15.23 Nozzle with Converging-diverging Flow Area

The fluid velocity in the nozzle is high so the fluid does not attain thermal equilibrium
with the nozzle walls. In addition, the surface area of contact between the fluid and the nozzle
walls is relatively small. As a result, the heat transfer experienced by the fluid is negligibly small
relative to the change in kinetic energy of the fluid stream, and the flow through the nozzle can
be modeled as adiabatic. Also, the size of a typical nozzle is such that regardless of its
orientation, the changes in the gravitational potential energy are negligible.
Since the flow through the nozzle is steady and adiabatic, and there is no shaft work
transfer for a control surface coincident with the nozzle walls, the first law of thermodynamics,
equation (15.3), applied to a control volume bounded by the inlet port and the outlet port
becomes

ii.t_L.J = th(h, h
)
011

(15.123)

For the nozzle in which unit mass flow rate experiences an infinitesimal change of state, the first
law of thermodynamics, equation (15.4), becomes
9d=dh
(15.124)
Although equation (15.123) describes the performance of most nozzles in steady flow operation,
one must always be certain that in a given situation all of the underlying assumptions of its
derivation are satisfied.
Physically, equation (15.123) requires that the increase in the kinetic energy of the fluid
stream is produced at the expense of the enthalpy of the fluid. From the definition of enthalpy,
equation (15.123) can also be written

Ch. 15 Pg. 49
,
11
(u

,
0
U
11

)+

(15.125)

or for a control volume of infinitesimal extent in the direction of flow

zYdz5=dud(Pv)
(15.126)
From equations (15.125) and (15.126) it is apparent that any increase in the kinetic energy of the
fluid may be the result of a decrease in the internal energy of the fluid and/or the net flow work.
As in the case of the shaft work machine, the evaluation of the performance of a nozzle is
especially simple in the limiting case of reversible adiabatic operation. Since in this case the
entropy of the fluid remains constant as it passes through the machine, it is necessary to specify
only the inlet state and the outlet pressure in order to fix the states throughout the nozzle. The
inlet state is normally specified by the pressure, temperature, and velocity. The pressure and the
entropy (which is the same as the inlet entropy) then completely determine the exit state.
Consider, for example, the nozzle described by equation (15.126). For the reversible
adiabatic case, the entropy is constant and the enthalpy is related to the pressure and volume by
equation (15.13). Thus, equation (15.124) becomes
(15.127)

(Z.d3),evercjhle =
adiabatic

Integrating equation (15.127), we obtain

(y2

)I
) reversible

r
i
=mI P vdP I
I

(15.128)
,s, =s,,,
1

adialianc

where the integral on the right side is evaluated along the path of constant entropy. For a nozzle,
the value of the integral is clearly less than zero. The physical interpretation of equations
(15.127) and (15.128) is that the change in the kinetic energy of each fluid particle at each point
as it passes through the nozzle is produced only by the net normal forces due to pressure acting
on the particle at that point. In addition, the local change in kinetic energy is proportional to the
local specific volume of the fluid. This implies that for reversible fluid acceleration, the fluid
shear stress must be zero everywhere throughout the fluid. The requirement of zero shear stress
for reversible flow can be further verified by deriving equation (15.128) by integrating the
momentum equation (with no shear stress) along the stream from inlet to outlet. As a result, the
irreversible nozzle produces a smaller increase in kinetic energy of the fluid than the reversible
nozzle with the same inlet state and outlet pressure.
This result may be shown from Figure 15.24 and equations (15.18) and (15.123). In
Figure 15.24, (s
1 is greater than (s
)u,,,,,
011
,),,, and (dh/ds)> 0 by equation (15.18). Since the
011
decrease in h is smaller in the actual nozzle, the increase in kinetic energy is smaller than in the
reversible nozzle.

0,
h
11 )acrnal

(h,,

=
actual

0,
h
11 ) reve,sible

[J
[

[t reversible

is1

Tdsl

(15.129)

(15.130)

Ch. 15 Pg. 50

hi

i:

LI

nozzle
ii

IIJt

n ke,cv [I

ii

I
S.

Figure 15.24 States of an Ideal Gas Flowing through a Nozzle

The origin of the irreversibility is the shear stress in the fluid due to the fluid viscosity and the
relative velocity between the fluid and the wall. In a nozzle with smooth, gradual contours, the
effects of the fluid shear stresses are usually confined to these thin boundary layers near the
walls. (The flow of a veryviscous fluid is of course an exception. In that case, the boundary layer
may extend across the entire flow area depending upon the magnitude of the viscosity.) As a
consequence, the major part of the stream outside the thin boundary layer is accelerated
reversibly and the flow can be treated as though it were inviscid.
We can define a nozzle efficiency that will provide us with an indication of the magnitude
of the irreversibility of an irreversible (actual) nozzle. This efficiency is simply the ratio of the
actual increase in kinetic energy of the fluid to the increase in kinetic energy that would have
resulted from reversible, adiabatic operation between the same inlet state and the same outlet
pressure. Thus,
2

actual

(15.131)

reversible

15.3.1 Nozzles Accelerating an Ideal Gas

If the fluid being accelerated can be modeled as an ideal gas with constant specific heats,
equation (15.123) can be written
2

thc (I

(15.132)

ideal
gas

By making use of the relation between the specific heats and the gas constant,

R, and the

Ch. 15 Pg. 51
ideal gas constitutive relation, we can write equation (15.132) in the form
th

th

yl

ideal

(P

(15.133)

gas

Equation (15.133) shows that for an ideal gas with constant specific heats, the increase in kinetic
energy of the fluid stream depends upon the nature of the expansion process (the manner in
which V( depends upon P) and upon how strongly the fluid is coupled in the thermodynamic
sense as determined by the value of y.
For example, if the acceleration of the fluid through the nozzle is reversible as well as
adiabatic, the path of the states for the ideal gas as it passes through the reversible nozzle is given
by Pv
7 = constant. Then equation (15.133) becomes

(15.134)

71

Thus for a particular ideal gas, the increase in kinetic energy in a reversible, adiabatic nozzle is
uniquely determined by the inlet state and the outlet pressure. Note that by means of the ideal gas
constitutive relation, we can write equation (15.134) in the form
r_L
2

2 ,)ideal
gas

15

2
=th-,
-RT
y1

(15.135)

Thus for a fixed inlet temperature and pressure and a fixed outlet pressure, the ideal gas with the
largest value of y and R will provide the largest increase in kinetic energy. From Chapter 4 it is
clear that a monatomic gas with a low molecular weight provides the desired combination. It is
for this reason that helium is often used as the working fluid in a high velocity wind tunnel.
(Actually hydrogen would be a better choice because of its extremely low molecular weight;
however, helium is inert and therefore much safer to work with than the potentially explosive
hydrogen.)
If the nozzle operates in a adiabatic but irreversible manner, the increase in kinetic energy
of the ideal gas will be less than in the reversible case as shown in equation (15.130). For the
ideal gas, the nozzle efficiency, equation (15.131) becomes
=

(,su

)i(leal

gas

(sur

n
7

)acruai

T, )reversil,le

(15.136)

when combined with equation (15.132). Clearly the outlet temperature for reversible operation is
lower than the outlet temperature for irreversible operation. Since To,
! < 1,,, regardless of
5
whether the process is reversible or irreversible, ii < 1. The locus of states of the ideal gas as it
passes through the nozzle is shown in Figure 15.24 in terms of the enthalpy and entropy.
Because of the relationship between temperature and enthalpy in the ideal gas, the locus of states
shown in Figure 15.24 would have exactly the same appearance in terms of temperature and
entropy. Geometrically the nozzle efficiency of equation (15.136) represents the ratio of the
vertical distances between the inlet and outlet states for reversible and irreversible operation as
shown in Figure 15.24.
The flow of an ideal gas through a nozzle is actually the basis of rocket propulsion.
Modern rocket engines such as those used on the Space Shuttle are essentially a combustion

Ch. 15 Pg. 52
chamber used to produce a high temperature, high pressure gas that can be modeled to a first
approximation as an ideal gas. This gas is discharged to space through a nozzle that provides the
thrust necessary to propel the spacecraft through space. As we have already seen in Section 15.2,
nozzles form an integral part of turbines used to provide shaft power. In gas turbine engines, the
working fluid can be modeled as an ideal gas to a first approximation so that the flow of an ideal
gas through a nozzle is an important aspect of the performance of gas turbine engines. For these
reasons alone, it is worth investigating further the details of the performance of nozzles flowing
an ideal gas. The following discussion is largely patterned after that presented by Ascher H.
Shapiro (1916 2004) in his pioneering work The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of
Compressible Fluid Flow, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1953.
We now model the flow as one-dimensional such that the properties of the flow are
uniform over any cross-section of the flow but change in the direction of the flow. Specifically,
we are interested in analyzing the way an ideal gas behaves as it flows through a conduit, a
nozzle, whose cross-sectional area changes in the direction of flow. The only conservation
equation that explicitly contains the area is the continuity equation so this is the logical place to
begin the analysis. For steady flow, the continuity equation can be written
pAz= constant
(15.137)
Taking the logarithm of equation (15.137), we get
hip +ln A+ln i9= constant
(15.138)
Differentiating equation (15.138), we get

(15.139)
z2
pA
As we saw in Section 15.3.1, the flow outside the boundary layer can be modeled as though it
were inviscid. For one-dimensional, inviscid flow, the Euler equation (equation of linear
momentum) reduces to
dx

pdx

(15.140)

which can be rewritten in the form

(15.141)
dpp
p
p
where for adiabatic flow without viscosity, the entropy is constant. Then by definition, the speed
of sound, a, is
(15.142)
=a
dp)
Jntroducing the already familiar Mach number, M, which is defined as the ratio of the local fluid
velocity to the velocity of sound
dp

(15.143)

equation (15. 141) becomes

(15.144)
p
Substituting equation (15.144) into equation (15.139), we get

Ch. 15 Pg. 53
(15.145)
l-M
A
2
Equation (15.145) contains the essence of the influence of the compressibility of the fluid on the
nature of the flow. In equation (15.145), we note that there are four possibilities:
1. M = 0: For this case a decrease in area gives a proportional increase in
velocity and the fluid behaves as though it were incompressible.
2. 0 <M < 1: For this case the flow is subsonic and the behavior of the
velocity is relatively the same as the incompressible fluid case except that as M
increases above M 0.3, compressibility effects become important and velocity
increases disproportionately as area decreases since (1 M) is in the denominator of
equation (15. 145).
3. M> 1: For this case the flow is supersonic and the continuity equation
requires dA to be positive for dto be positive as it is in the case of the accelerating
flow of the nozzle. This is a consequence of the fact that the density decreases faster
than velocity increases and the flow is driven by continuity.
4. M 1: For this case the flow is sonic and dA/A 0 if diYiis to be finite.
Thus, this is the region of the conduit for which the area is a minimum in the
direction of flow. This is called the throat of the conduit. Then if M = 1 anywhere
in the flow, it occurs at the throat, but it is not necessarily the case that the flow in the
throat is sonic, i.e., M = 1 at the throat.
We now identify a unique state in the flow, sometimes called the critical state (not to be
confused with the thermodynamic critical state of Chapter 13 which is a universal definition in
the science of thermodynamics), which we denote by the symbol * In the present context, the
critical state is simply a reference state in the flow where sonic conditions prevail, i.e., M = 1
:
with
= a. All the properties of the flow in that state are denoted by the symbol * From
continuity
pAz5=p*A
(15.146)
where A denotes the area in the flow where the sonic conditions prevail. Then solving equation
(15.146) for the area ratio, we get
A

pz

(15.147)

but by definition
(15.148)
We now define a dimensionless velocity M such that
(15.149)
At first glance, the definition of equation (15.149) can be somewhat confusing. It does not denote
the state in the flow where i = a . Rather, in the case of flow in a nozzle, there may be at most

Ch. 15 Pg. 54
one, if any, location in the flow where the local velocity is the sonic velocity. At that location, a
has a unique value, and this value can be used to non-dimensionalize the velocity at any other
location in the flow field. The resulting non-dimensional parameter is denoted by the symbol M
and has a different value at each location. M is a more convenient dimensionless velocity rather
than the local Mach number M which depends upon the local sonic velocity which changes at
each point in the flow as a consequence of the expansion process in the gas and the
thermodynamic coupling of the gas. As we shall soon see, this non-dimensional parameter M is
a convenient way of relating the local velocity to other parameters that describe the flow.
Consider the conditions in this one-dimensional flow field at two different points 1 and 2.
From the first law for steady, one-dimensional bulk flow, we have
(15.150)
2
2
Suppose now that the flow originates from a reservoir where i21 = 0 and T
, and p
0
1 =T
,P
0
1 =F
1 =
. These are known as the stagnation conditions. Also, suppose that the ideal gas model is a
0
p
valid model for the fluid. Then we can substitute the ideal gas constitutive relation for the
enthalpy and the first law becomes
+--
1
h
+
7
h

0
cT

cT +

(15.151)

7 =T+--
2c

where the un-subscripted parameters can be the values of those parameters at any location in the
flow. For the ideal gas model, we have
and
where y=

a=.qyRT

(15.152)

Then equation (15.151) can be written

T=T+Ma=T+yRTM2=TEl+M2
2cr,
2c
2c

=1+7M2
T
2

(15.153)

If the flow is reversible and adiabatic, the entropy is constant throughout the flow and the locus
of states with the same entropy is given by Pv constant. Then with the aid of the ideal gas
model property constitutive relation
(15.154)
Then

=E

+M2l
and
(15.155)
2
2
]
PL
]
In Figure 15.25, we have plotted equations (15.153) and (15.155). It may be seen from Figure
15.25 that up to a Mach number of about M = 0.3, changes in density are essentially negligible. It
is for this reason that we have been able to treat air as an incompressible fluid in so many flow
situations that we have considered up to this point in our treatment of the subject.
=

FL

+M2t

Ch. 15 Pg.

55

01

0
T

JZ)
j:
p

I
PU

aoi
.

I
.

I
I
II

I
I

10
M

Figure 15.25 Isentropic Flow of a Gas with y= 1.4

Let us now relate the reservoir and sonic conditions. Applying the first law to this
situation, we have

But

(15.156)
2c,,T

*2
a

2cT

Then combining equations

(15.156)

yRT

y-l

2cT

2cT*

(15. 157)

and (15.157), we get

T
2
0
T
y+1

(15.158)

Similarly,
P

For an ideal gas with

y=

e1

2 y-1
2
and
y+lJ
p 7+1)
0
1.4, equations (15.158) and (15.159) give

L_
0833
3

and

-=O.5283

The dimensionless velocity M is defined as

and

0
p

(15.159)

(15.160)

Ch. 15 Pg. 56

=--=M
a aAa)
YT
Then combining equations (15.153), (15.158), and (15.161), we get

(15.161)

(15. 162)

M{r1[l7M2i}

Equation (15.162) is plotted in Figure 15.26.

2.5

1.5

M*

0.5

00

M
Figure 15.26 The Relation Between the Dimensionless Velocity M and
the Local Mach Number M for the Flow of an Ideal Gas with y = 1.4
Figure 15.26 has several interesting features. The Mach number M can be conveniently thought
of as a measure of the square root of the ratio of the kinetic energy (velocity) of the flow to the
internal energy of the fluid (since the denominator is the speed of sound which depends only
upon the temperature as does the internal energy) whereas the dimensionless velocity M is a
measure of the square root of the kinetic energy (velocity) only. In Figure 15.26, we see that for
M < 1, the dimensionless velocity and the Mach number are essentially identical numerically.
Thus, the acceleration of the fluid is a result of the flow work done on the fluid. The internal
energy of the fluid contributes virtually nothing. However, as the fluid accelerates beyond the
speed of sound, compressibility effects dominate the flow and the Mach number increases
disproportionately relative to the dimensionless velocity (since the denominator is decreasing
faster than the numerator is increasing). This means that the internal energy contributes a
disproportionate amount to the acceleration of the fluid. In fact, as equation (15.162) shows, there
is a limit to the acceleration of the fluid:

Ch. 15 Pg. 57
as

Moo,

when

M=1,

when

M*

(15.163)
V71
Equation (15.163) shows that for y= 1.4, the limiting value of M is 2.449. This can be clearly
= 2.449as. Thus,
seen in Figure 15.26. Thus, the maximum velocity of the flow is
M*<l
when M<1,
M*>l
when M>l,

M*=1

7+
yl

00,

In practical applications of nozzle designs, it is worthwhile to know the mass flux through
the nozzle. For example, the application of nozzles as thrusting mechanisms on spacecraft
requires knowledge of the mass flow rate through the nozzle in order to determine the thrust
available. The mass flux, i.e., the mass flow rate per unit area can be determined from the
definition, viz.
pz =

/E /

---M /1+
2
M
(15.164)
VRJ
2
V
where we have made use of equation (15.153). If we solve equation (15.155) for M as a function
of F/P
0 and substitute the result into equation (15.164), we can obtain an expression for the mass
flux in terms of the pressure ratio. This can be expressed in dimensionless form, viz.
A

RT

.JYRTVR\T/

y1

1y

/21P27

J
0
\IylP

0
AF

-1
FOJ

(15.165)

Equation (15.165) has been plotted in Figure 15.27 which clearly shows that the mass flux has a
maximum value at the critical value of the pressure ratio. At values of the pressure ratio greater
than the critical value, the flow is subsonic. At values of the pressure ratio less than the critical
value, the flow is supersonic. In both cases, the dimensionless mass flux is less than the
maximum value. The maximum value of the dimensionless mass flux can be obtained by
recalling that the cross-sectional area for isentropic flow passes through a minimum when the
Mach number is unity. Then the maximum value of the mass flux can be obtained by setting the
Mach number equal to unity, M = 1, in equation (15.164), viz.
y1
I

(1

y+1J

(15.166)

For y= 1.4, equation (15.166) becomes

L}n
a
2
x
This value is clearly shown on Figure 15.27.

=0.8102
4
jy=

(15.167)

Ch. 15 Pg. 58

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6

0
tha
0
AP

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

0
P
Figure 15.27 Dimensionless Mass Flux for Isentropic Flow with y= 1.4
We now need to determine the shape of the flow passage that will insure that the flow is
isentropic throughout. This will be a nozzle of converging-diverging configuration known as a de
Laval nozzle in honor of Gustav de Laval (1845 1913), the Swedish engineer who first
designed it. Combining equations (15.149), (15.156), and (15.161), we obtain

y+1

4=_i_I

2 rl+LjM2T

(15.168)
M y+1L
2
JJ
Equation (15.168) is plotted in Figure 15.28 which clearly shows the converging-diverging
geometry of the nozzle, but there is another interesting feature. For each value of the local Mach
number, there is a unique value of the ratio of the local area to the area where the flow is sonic
(the throat if the flow is sonic at all); however, for any ratio of the two areas, there are two
conditions of flow that satisfy the isentropic solution of the equations of motion. One of these
solutions results in subsonic flow while the other results in supersonic flow. Which of these
solutions prevails in a given situation depends upon the ambient pressure (back pressure)
imposed on the discharge flow from the nozzle as we shall show below. This latter aspect of
Figure 15.28 is important because once the nozzle is designed, the area is fixed for each location
x along the flow axis, and the nozzle may operate at conditions other than the design conditions.
The flow pattern that prevails is then dependent upon the conditions imposed.
Since de Laval nozzles find widespread use in thermal-fluids engineering, it is
worthwhile to examine the manner in which these conditions influence their mode of operation.
A

Ch. 15 Pg. 59
60

50

40

A
A

30

20

10

M
Figure 15.28 Area of Flow for Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas with y= 1.4

Consider the case of an ideal gas flowing in a de Laval nozzle of fixed configuration determined
by the specification of the cross-sectional area of flow at each point x along the direction of the
flow axis as shown in Figure 15.28. The nozzle exhausts to a quiescent atmosphere where the
pressure is maintained constant at ,.
11111 The flow originates from an upstream reservoir where the
P
pressure is fixed at P
0 and the temperature is likewise fixed at T
. There are four different regimes
0
depending on the ratio (j,7zhO and these regimes are delineated by three unique flow patterns
resulting from the following static pressure ratios:
1.

0
P

where P
1 is the static pressure at exit that results in subsonic,

isentropic expansion in the converging section, sonic flow at the throat, and
subsonic, isentropic compression in the flow in the diverging section. The value of
1 = P in Figure 15.29 is determined from equation (15.168). The area of the exit
P
plane Ae is known from the geometry of the nozzle and the ratio A/A* is
substituted into equation (15.168) to find the subsonic solution forM. This value
of M M
1 is then substituted into equation (15.155) to find the value of 0
/P viz.
1
P
,
=[1+ YlM
F[
2
J
2.

--

where P
2 is the static pressure at the exit plane that results in

subsonic, isentropic expansion in the converging section, sonic flow at the throat,
and supersonic isentropic expansion in the diverging section. P
2 = Pin Figure

(15.169)

Ch. 15 Pg. 60
15.29 where M
2 is the supersonic solution to the areaMach number relation of
equation (15.168) and
(15.170)
3.

where P
3 is the static pressure achieved downstream of a normal

shock wave at the exit where the conditions immediately upstream of the shock
wave are supersonic with conditions specified by equations (15.154), (15.155) and
(15.168). The pressure ratio across the shock wave is given by
p

(15.171)

y+l

where M-, is the Mach number of the flow immediately upstream of the shock
wave.
Regime!: 1
, (points a, b, and con Figure 15.29) flow is isentropic and
1
U,,Zb < P
subsonic everywhere and the nozze behaves like a Venturi meter. At the exit plane of the nozzle
= wnh and the mass flow rate is sensitive to changes in the ambient pressure cm,h and is given
by
th

poaoA,,ruat

_[!bn1

(15.172)

The Mach number at exit is given by

M

(15.173)

The boundary of Regime I is the isentropic flow condition determined by the pressure ratio of
equation (15.169). With the exception of the case P
1 = P, throughout Regime I, there is an
infinite number of pressure distributions in the direction of flow along the flow axis depending
upon the ambient pressure. When a,ih P = F
, the flow accelerates with decreasing pressure in
1
the converging section to the sonic velocity at the throat and then decelerates with increasing
pressure in the diverging section to reach the ambient pressure a,nh = P. In this case, the flow is
subsonic everywhere except at the throat where it is sonic. This is the limiting condition specified
by equation (15.169) that marks the boundary between Regime I and Regime U.
Regime II: If P
, (the region between points c andf on Figure 15.29) the flow
1
3 <Pa,,lh <P
is subsonic in the converging section, sonic at the throat, and supersonic over a portion of the
diverging section and subsonic over the remainder. There is a shock wave normal to the flow
within the diverging section and the pressure at the exit plane P is equal to the ambient pressure
The mass flow rate is given by equation (15.166), viz.
lfl =

p
)
1
/
7
A
a
0
(

( 2

y+1
2(y-1)

y-- l,i

(15.166)

Ch. 15 Pg. 61
This is choked flow at the throat. Note that n is independent of the ambient pressure. The exit
Mach number is given by

M=I+I
yl

2
2fi

J(yi)2

(y1)

where

(15.174)
7+1

= 0
P
A
,,

2(y-i)

,ni,k y+1J

Within Regime II there is a unique condition worthy of note. This is the condition that
occurs when c,,nh = P
3 = Pf of Figure 15.29 and marks the boundary between Regime II and
Regime ifi. In this case the flow accelerates with decreasing pressure in the converging section
and reaches sonic velocity at the throat. In the diverging section, the flow continues to accelerate
in the supersonic regime with decreasing pressure until the exit plane is reached. At this location,
the pressure which has been attained through isentropic expansion does not match the ambient
pressure and a normal shock wave forms to produce a discontinuity in pressure to reach the
ambient pressure. That is, the normal shock wave that characterizes Regime II has moved
downstream to the exit plane as the ambient pressure has decreased from P to P
1 A significant
amount of entropy is generated in the shock wave. Immediately downstream of the shock wave
the pressure at the exit plane is the ambient pressure u,nb = F
, but immediately upstream of the
1
shock wave, the pressure at the exit plane is determined by the area ratio as is typically the case
in the supersonic regime. In the present case, knowing the area at the exit plane, we can solve
equation (15.168) for the upstream Mach number at that location. With this value of the Mach
number, we can solve equation (15.155) to determine the pressure upstream of the shock wave.
There results
2y
flZbl
1)
2
(M
(15.175)
F
P
y+l
where M
2 is the Mach number in the exit plane immediately upstream of the shock wave.
Regime III: 1fF
2 <P(,,,?h <F
, (the region between pointsfandj on Figure 15.29) the flow
3
is isentropic within the nozzle. It is subsonic in the converging section, sonic at the throat, and
supersonic in the diverging section. Then the pressure in the exit plane is lower than the ambient
pressure, F. = P
, and the gas is recompressed to the ambient pressure
7
in an irreversible
manner with a system of oblique shock waves external to the nozzle exit. This is referred to as an
over-expanded nozrle. The flow is choked and the mass flow rate is given by equation (15.166)
once again, viz.
2-1)

(15.166)

and the exit Mach number is determined by the supersonic solution to equation (15.168).
2
Me =M

When a,nh = P
2=P
1 of Figure 15.29, we have the design condition for the given geometry of
the nozzle. The flow expands reversibly and adiabatically from the reservoir pressure F
0 to the
ambient pressure P/). There is a perfect match between the pressure in the exit plane and the

Ch. 15 Pg. 62
ambient pressure. 111 this case, the exit Mach number is precisely that determined from the
supersonic solution to equation (15.168) and the pressure is given by equation (15.170). This
condition marks the boundary between Regime ifi and Regime IV.
Regime IV: If (i,1h < P
, (the region between pointj and the horizontal axis in Figure
7
15.29) flow in the nozzle is supersonic throughout identical to that above except that now the
pressure expands to the ambient pressure (J,,?b by a series of rarefaction waves that form external
to the nozzle exit. This is an itnder-expaizded nozzle. The flow is again choked and the mass
flow rate is given by equation (15.166)
7+1

r)
2 (2
th = POOO4hr,at
(15.166)
y+1
and the exit Mach number is determined by the supersonic solution to equation (15.168), viz.
2
M =M

Figure 15.29 Effect of Pressure Ratio on Flow of an Ideal Gas with y= 1.4 in a de Laval Nozzle
(From Elements of Gasdynomics, by H. W. Liepmann and A. Roshko, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1985, Fig. 5.3, p 127.)

Nozzles used for rocket propulsion, such as those used in the main engines of the Space
Shuttle, usually have to operate in conditions that change during the ascent of the spacecraft. As a
result, some of the flow conditions described above can be observed in photographs or television
images of rocket propelled aircraft. In particular, during the launch of the Space Shuttle, the main
shuttle engines operate in Regime ifi noted above. The atmospheric pressure during launch
exceeds the design back pressure so that the engines operate in an over-expanded mode with the
result that oblique shock waves form on the lips of the nozzles. As these shock waves interact
with one another in a three-dimensional fashion due to the axisymmetric shape of the nozzle,
they produce an observable phenomenon known as Mach diamonds where the flow turns parallel
seen as light-colored cones in the exhaust plumes from the Space Shuttle main engines in Figure
15.30. These Mach diamonds are also shown schematically in Figure 15.31.

Ch. 15 Pg. 63

Figure 15.30 Mach Diamonds in the Exhaust from the Nozzles of Space Shuttle Main Engines
(From http://www.aerospaceweb.org/guestion/propulsion/g0224.shtml)

Figure 15.31 Schematic Representation of Mach Disks and Mach Diamonds

in the 3-dimensional Over-expanded Flow from a Rocket Nozzle
(From http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/propulsion/q0224.shtm1)

Example 15E.8: We wish to build a small nozzle for a classroom demonstration of

nozzle design. The design is to be quasi-one-dimensional in the sense that the nozzle contour will
be configured as a one dimensional nozzle sandwiched between two flat plates that are
transparent for visualization. In order to have a design that can be seen easily, we arbitrarily set
the throat dimensions to be 1 cm x 1 cm. The exit Mach number is to be M
2 2.0. The gas supply
(nitrogen, y = 1.4, R = 297 J/kg K) comes from a reservoir with fixed conditions of temperature,

Ch. 15 Pg. 64

T 300 K, pressure, and density. The ambient pressure is a,,jh = io N/rn

0
2 and the nozzle
operates at the design condition with the pressure at the exit plane equal to the ambient pressure.
(a) Determine the supply conditions, P
0 and p
, in the reservoir.
0
(b) Determine the exit area of the nozzle.
(c) Determine the mass flow rate of nitrogen through the nozzle.
(d) Determine the temperature of the nitrogen at exit from the nozzle.
Solution: (a) From equation (15.155),
=rl+M 2 217
2
L
imb
=(iO N/m2)[1+14

1(20)2]L41

7824

2
N/rn

The density of the nitrogen in the reservoir can be calculated from the ideal gas property
constitutive relation, viz.

7.824 x io N/rn
2

=8.781kg1m 3

==

0
RT

(297 J/kg K)(300 K)

The speed of sound at reservoir conditions is

0 =/yR1
a

353.19 rn/sec

(b) From equation (15.168), the area ratio is

y+1

M y+1L
Since the flow is sonic at the throat by design,

= (1o2)2

1
Y+

I ( 2
.44 L y+ IL

Ae =Arh,oat

Ae

r1

2
1.4+1

+ 1.41 (2.0)2 12(14

1)

2.01.4+1L
A

112(7-1)

vI

1.688 x I0 rn
2

Since the side plates are separated by a dimension of 1 cm, the vertical dimension of the nozzle
exit isLe 1.69 cm.
(c) The flow is determined by the sonic conditions at the throat, equation (15.166), viz.
7+1

2(yl)

poaoAtjzrt,t I
y+1
1.4+ 1

th

(8.781 kg/rn
) (353.19 sec) (I o m
3
2

2(1.4-1)

0.1795 kg/sec

(d) The exit temperature is that which results from a reversible adiabatic expansion, viz.

Ch. 15 Pg. 65
12

0
=
2
T
j
-j
T

11.4

7 824 x i0
5 N/rn
2
=(3ooK)
l0NIm 2
-

=166.69K=106.48C

15.3.2 Nozzles Accelerating an Incompressible Fluid

If the fluid flowing through the nozzle can be modeled as an incompressible fluid, the
situation is somewhat different from that previously described. The difference arises because the
thermal and mechanical aspects of an incompressible fluid are not coupled as they are in a gas. In
fact, the temperature and pressure are completely uncoupled so the enthalpy can be separated into
a thermal energy and an uncoupled mechanical property, Pv, in the manner of equation (15.105).
Then for the incompressible fluid flowing in a horizontal nozzle, equation (15.123) can be
written
1
ih[(u

ih

u,,,) + v

(n,,

I)]

(15.176)

where the specific volume v is constant. According to the energy constitutive relation for the
incompressible fluid, the internal energy depends on temperature only. Then equation (15.176)
becomes
2

11

T )+(P P
Oft

If

Oil!

)1]

(15.177)

The change in entropy experienced by the incompressible fluid as it flows through the nozzle is
given by the entropy constitutive relation. Since in a reversible adiabatic expansion the entropy is
constant, equation (15.107) requires that the temperature is also constant. For this situation,
equation (15.177) reduces to
ththv(J,,I,,)

(15.178)

Note that since the specific volume is constant, equation (15.178) could have been obtained
directly from equation (15.127) by means of a simple integration. In any event, equation (15.178)
again indicates that in the reversible adiabatic nozzle, the fluid is accelerated and increases in
kinetic energy solely as a result of the net normal pressure forces on the fluid at the control
surface (no shear stresses).
If in equation (15.178) we were to replace the specific volume with the density and were
to consider unit flow rate, equation (15.178) becomes the familiar Bernoulli equation of
incompressible fluid mechanics.
(15.179)
2
2
p
p
For a flow in which the acceleration process is irreversible and adiabatic, the second law of
thermodynamics requires that the entropy should increase. Then from the entropy constitutive
relation for the incompressible fluid, the temperature must also increase. Since the inlet state and
outlet pressure are externally imposed, equation (15.178) shows that the increase in temperature
and the associated increase in internal energy can occur only by dissipating uncoupled
mechanical energy to uncoupled thermal energy. Thus, as shown in equation (15.130), the
irreversible adiabatic acceleration of an incompressible fluid in a nozzle does not, for a given
inlet state and outlet pressure, produce as large an increase in kinetic energy as a reversible

Ch. 15 Pg. 66
adiabatic expansion. This result becomes more obvious in the calculation of the nozzle
efficiency. For the incompressible fluid, equation (15.13 1) reduces to
c(Tout -T)
1

Jinconipressibte

(P

OUt

(15.180)

Physically the second term on the right side of equation (15.180) represents the fraction of
potentially available kinetic energy dissipated into internal energy through the action of
irreversible processes.
The locus of states for the incompressible fluid flowing through the nozzle is shown in
Figure 15.32. The nozzle efficiency has the usual geometric interpretation on this diagram.

t._1

ii

ii

II:

i!

path oF ac

ii tLIIL

ri Y

I I
I :1

tUU L
S

Figure 15.32 States of an Incompressible Fluid Flowing Through a Nozzle

Example 15E.9: The water in a fire hose flows steadily at P = 106 N/m
2 and T 25 C,
and approaches the nozzle with negligible kinetic energy. The stream leaving the nozzle is at
atmospheric pressure, P
. The nozzle efficiency is (7N) I, )I71P1Ci1SIe = 0.95.
2
2 = iO N/rn
(a) What is the velocity of the water leaving the nozzle?
(b) What is the temperature change of the water as it passes through the nozzle?
(c) What is the maximum height of fire that could be reached by the stream from the fire
hose?

Ch. 15 Pg. 67

Hr
__*_J

W
1
25 C

=
=

0-

ni

Figure 15E.9(a) Fire Nozzle Cross-section

=7
3 rr
L0

--

St rtr

Figure 15E.9(b) Fire Nozzle

Solution: (a) The first law applied to the control volume shown in Figure 15E.9(a) gives
the exit velocity from a steady-flow reversible nozzle with the same conditions as the actual
nozzle.
=#ctithh

+/+]-rnr++

where 2I2 has been assumed to be negligibly small compared to i/2, the nozzle has been
modeled as adiabatic, and the shear work transfer is zero. Changes in elevation are also assumed
negligible.
2r

=
2
h
2
For the reversible nozzle, S2r = s
1 since the nozzle is adiabatic. If we model the water as an
incompressible fluid, then T
1 since, according to the entropy constitutive relation, the
r=T
2
entropy of an incompressible fluid depends only on temperature. Also, for an incompressible
fluid h = cT + Pv. Thus for water with v = lO m
/kg,
3

Ch. 15 Pg. 68

r)+V( r)

= 2v(F

/kg)(106 N/rn
3
2
Pr) = 2(0.001 rn

N/m2)

= 1800 Nrnfkg = 1800 2

/sec
m
The kinetic energy of the fluid leaving the actual nozzle is determined from the definition of
nozzle efficiency, equation (15.131), with
= 0.
t

17\t095 (i 800 )
/sec = 1710 2
2
m
/sec
m
2

=41.35 m!sec

(b) The temperature change is determined by applying the first law to the actual nozzle.

= 2

c( -)+v(

l
7
T

-)=

0.001 105
/kg(
3
m
1710 2
/sec
m
2 10 2
N/rn
N/rn
)

=0.011 C
4180 J/kgK
2(4180 J/kg K)

(c) The maximum height is determined from the first law applied to the reversible
constant pressure deceleration of the free stream from the nozzle exit (state 2) to the maximum
height where the velocity is zero, state 3 in Figure 15E.9(b). For a reversible adiabatic
deceleration at constant pressure, the first law becomes
=

iti

+ th

th

+ gz

Since s
2= T
3 for the incompressible fluid model. With P
2 s
, T
3
2=F
, we have h
3
2 since h is
3=h
fixed by T and P. Then

3 =0
gz

t9
1710 2
/sec
m
=87.l6rn
z=-=
2g 2(9.81 rn/see
)
2

At this juncture, we would normally take up the matter of the detailed behavior of a
nozzle accelerating an incompressible fluid; however, for the case in which the fluid viscosity
can be ignored, we have already discussed the details of the fluid mechanics of the nozzle in
Chapter 8. In particular, in Section 8.10.2 we discussed the details of the use of such a nozzle as a
fluid metering device. Furthermore, when fluid viscosity is important, the details of the internal
fluid mechanics of the nozzle accelerating an incompressible fluid can be reviewed in Chapter 9.
15.3.3 Nozzles Accelerating a Pure Substance
Nozzles accelerating a pure substance find widespread application in the stators of steam
turbines as described in Appendix 15B. The behavior of a pure substance when accelerated in a

Ch. 15 Pg. 69
nozzle is between the two extremes represented by the incompressible fluid and the ideal gas
models. The loci of states for a pure substance flowing through nozzles with various inlet states
are shown in Figure 15.33. Of particular interest on these figures are the cases in which the fluid
can undergo a change in phase from the vapor phase to the liquid phase. That is, the exhaust
stream from the nozzle is in a two-phase state with both liquid and vapor phases present. When
this phenomenon occurs in the nozzles of a steam turbine, the results can be quite damaging. The
liquid forms as small droplets in the exhaust from the nozzle, and these droplets, which are
traveling at high velocities on the order of the speed of sound, impinge upon the surface of the
blades in the rotor. The liquid droplets are essentially incompressible and act as small projectiles
when they strike the blade surface. The impact produces a compressive Hertz contact stress that
actually causes a minute elastic deformation (depression) in the surface. When the contact stress
is relaxed when the droplets bounce off, the local deformation also relaxes as the surface returns

critica t state
h

Figure 15.33(a) States of a Pure Substance Flowing Through a Nozzle

Ch. 15 Pg. 70

;S

Figure 15.33(b) States of a Pure Substance Flowing Through a Nozzle

to its normal shape. However, if the stress that produced the deformation was high enough, the
relaxation of the deformation through the elastic displacement of the surface produces local
movement of the surface at velocities high enough that the resulting inertial forces are sufficient
to exceed the tensile limit of the blade material and a small particle of the surface actually tears
away from the surface. This phenomenon is called spalling and is the process by which the liquid
droplets erode the surface. Over the course of time, this erosion produces a surface so rough that
the friction between the fluid and the surface is high enough to increase the pressure drop in the
rotor. As a result, the performance of the stage is degraded. Eventually, the loss in performance
becomes so great that the turbine must be taken out of service and the blades repaired by welding
new material on the surface and re-machining the blade in order to return the blade to its original
design condition. This process of blade erosion determines the "mean time between failures" that
sets the maintenance schedule for the turbine. Clearly, as can be seen from Figure 15.33, the
erosion process is confined to the low pressure stages of the turbine where the liquid phase is
most likely to be present.
Example 15E.I0: Steam at a pressure PI = 5 X 105 N/m2 and a temperature of TI = 300 C
enters a nozzle of a steam turbine. The initial velocity is essentially zero, bl :::: 0, and the steam is
expanded adiabatically and irreversibly to a pressure of P2 = 105 N/m2 The nozzle efficiency is
1JN = 0.96.
(a) Determine the state of the steam at the nozzle exit.
(b) Determine the velocity of the steam at the nozzle exit.
(c) If the mass flow rate of steam through the nozzle is ni = 1 kg/sec, determine the rate of
entropy generation by the nozzle.

Ch. 15 Pg. 71

Solution: (a) The path followed by the steam in temperature-entropy coordinates would
appear as shown in Figure 15.33(b). We first consider the reversible, adiabatic operation of the
nozzle. Then the specific entropy of the steam remains unchanged as it passes through the
reversible nozzle and s2r = SI' From the properties of the pure substance model of the H20, the
initial state is a superheated state with SI = 7.4614 kJ/kg K and hi = 3064.6 kJ/kg. Then the exit
state in reversible operation is established by the two independent properties, P2 = lOS N/m2 and
s2r = 7.4614 kJ/kg K. From the pure substance model, h2r = 2714.1 kJ/kg. The exit specific
enthalpy for irreversible operation can be determined from the definition of nozzle efficiency,
viz.

T/
N

(h, -h,)~,"",

(It, ~;t,

= (~-hJrev
(~ -~)aclllal

(3064.6

kJlk~.~:714.1 kJlkg)

365.1 kJlkg

~ = hi - (hi - ~ )aclllal = 3064.6 kJ/kg - 365.1 kJ/kg = 2699.5 kJ/kg

Since the exit state of the steam is in the superheat region, the pressure and the specific enthalpy,

P2 and h2' are sufficient to establish the exit state for irreversible operation.
(b) From the first law for the nozzle, the exit velocity is

13; _ 13/ =~_~

272

132 =~2(h,-~) =~2(3064.6 kJ/kg-2699.5 kJ/kg)

132 = 854.52 mlsec
Although not specifically asked for in this case, we can calculate the Mach number at exit from
the nozzle.,; 'Since the ideal gas model does not apply to the properties of H20 in the vapor state,
the speed sound must be determined from the definition, viz.

of

a'

=(~;l

From the pure substance model, for the exit state, a2 = 480.27 mlsec. Thus, M2 = 1.78 which is
clearly supersonic.
(c) The rate of entropy generation can be determined from the second law for the nozzle
for adiabatic steady-flow, viz.

=%r'

dS~ .
7dt
Sgen

+m(s, -S2)+Sgen

m( S2 - Sl) = (1 kg/sec )(7.4614 kJ/kg K -7.4237 kJ/kg)

Sgen = 37.70 WIK

15.4 Diffusers
In some engineering systems, it is desirable to decelerate a fluid stream from a high
velocity to a low velocity. One example is at the inlet to a jet aircraft engine. Here it is necessary
to decelerate the air entering the engine so that it can be efficiently compressed in the engine

Ch. 15 Pg. 72
compressor. Another example is the inlet to the combustor on a jet engine. In this case it is
necessary to decelerate the gas flow so that the heat transfer process inside the combustor can be
more effective. In yet another example discussed in Section 15.1.3, the stators in an axial flow
compressor act to decelerate the gas and increase the pressure.
The device in which this deceleration is effected is called a diffuser and the flow
geometry by which it is accomplished involves a gradual increase in the cross-sectional area of
the flow in the direction of flow. From continuity considerations, this increase in flow area
results in a decrease in the average velocity, and the resulting change in momentum causes the
static pressure to increase. In effect, the operation of the diffuser is essentially the inverse of the
operation of the nozzle. As a result, some of the kinetic energy of bulk motion is converted into
enthalpy of the flowing fluid. Thus equation (15.123) or (15.124) describes the operation of a
diffuser as well as that of the nozzle. In fact, the reversible adiabatic diffuser is exactly the
inverse process of the reversible adiabatic nozzle and the same relations apply to either. In
practice, the difference between the nozzle and the diffuser results from the irreversibility of the
processes, especially in the magnitude of the irreversibility. Ultimately, the difference can be
traced to the dynamical behavior of the fluid itself.
The acceleration of a fluid produced by decreasing the pressure in the direction of motion
as in a nozzle is inherently stable. The favorable pressure gradient is externally imposed and the
fluid will accelerate smoothly through any reasonably smooth convergent flow passage in an
almost reversible manner. However, as we saw in Section 15.3.2, the design of the supersonic
(divergent) portion of a nozzle does require the proper passage contour to obtain reasonably
reversible flow. We might then infer that by simply inverting the converging nozzle design, a
diffuser should result in which it would be possible to increase the pressure and thereby
decelerate the fluid almost reversibly. Although certainly true in principle, the realization of this
situation is, in fact, another matter entirely.

Figure 15.34 Flow in the Region of a Curved Wall Similar to the Wall of a Diffuser
(From Figure 38, p. 27 of An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke, Parabolic Press,
Stanford, CA, 1982.)

Ch. 15 Pg. 73
The difficulty is that the deceleration of the fluid is inherently unstable. The fluid is
decelerated by an increase in the pressure forces which oppose its motion. Furthermore, in the
boundary layer near the wall of the diffuser, the fluid is being further decelerated by the action of
viscous shear stresses. Unless careful consideration is given to the boundary layer of the flow,
it is decelerated at a higher rate than the rest of the flow. The pressure forces and viscous shear
stresses that oppose the fluid motion eventually overcome the forward motion in the boundary
layer. The pressure gradient established by continued deceleration of the main flow then produces
a region of backflow near the wall causing the main flow to separate from the wall as shown in
Figure 15.34. In the backflow, eddies are formed in which kinetic energy of the fluid motion is
dissipated irreversibly resulting in an increase in entropy. If the incoming flow velocity is
increased above this threshold, the eddies form right at the start of the enlargement of the duct
and the flow from duct becomes a jet as shown in Figure 9E.l O(b). In the separated mode of
diffuser operation, the flow is quite irreversible and pressure recovery is very poor.
Specifically, equation (15.123) shows that if the deceleration process is without work or
heat transfer, the change in kinetic energy is the same for a given change in enthalpy regardless of
the irreversibility of the process. However, note that equation (15.123) does not relate the change
in kinetic energy directly to the pressure change. This relationship depends upon the
irreversibility and the constitutive relations for the fluid. The effect of the irreversibility is shown
in Figure 15.35. Since the slope ofthe constant pressure lines must be positive, an increase in
entropy during the deceleration results in a lower final pressure for the same increase in enthalpy
(or the same decrease in kinetic energy), Figure 15.35(a). Stated in another way, the increase in
entropy due to irreversibility requires a larger increase in enthalpy (decrease in kinetic energy) to
reach the same final pressure because the irreversible dissipation of some of the kinetic energy
increased the entropy of the fluid as well as the enthalpy. If the objective were simply to
eliminate the kinetic energy, the irreversible diffuser would be as satisfactory as the reversible
diffuser.

path
'J:

f~r :reve;[sil)~e

.eUm!:5OcIl

____ path fm irrc"ersible

diff~Tun}mown

in

I
I
I

Figure 15.35(a) Pressure Increase for an Ideal Gas Flowing Through a Diffuser with Ilh P:-

Ch. 15 Pg. 74

In engineering practice, the most convenient measure of the influence of irreversibility on

the pressure recovery capability of a given diffuser design is the pressure recovery factor, Cp,
defined as
C

= ~/I,-P;II

P -

(15.181)

2" Pilll?;"
Figure 15.35(a) illustrates the pressure increase that results from a given change in kinetic energy
in a diffuser. Clearly (PolI,)rev > (PouI)irrev' As we shall show shortly, the value of Cp , which is
dimensionless, is usually determined by carefully controlled experiments and presented in terms
of dimensionless characterizations of the geometry and flow of various diffuser designs. It is
often compared with the value that would be obtained in the case of reversible, adiabatic
operation of the diffuser, (CP)rev' The value of (CP)rev for a given diffuser geometry will depend
upon the nature of the fluid flowing through the diffuser. In the sections that follow, we shall
provide more detailed information on the pressure recovery factor for the various fluid models.
Pl,lut

prHh for
T~~ diml-Sel

s
Figure 15.35(b) Kinetic Energy Decrease for an Ideal gas Flowing Through a Diffuser
with P OUI Fixed

In contrast to the situation depicted in Figure 15.35(a), we can adopt an alternative view
of the diffuser and examine the way in which a given outlet pressure is achieved through a
change in the kinetic energy of the flow. In this case the pressure of the outlet stream is fixed, and
we compare the magnitudes of the kinetic energy changes necessary in the reversible and
irreversible modes of operation to achieve this outlet pressure. As we would expect, the
reversible diffuser utilizes the kinetic energy of the flow more effectively to create a given
pressure rise than the irreversible diffuser, and the diffuser efficiency is the performance
<rrameter that expresses the effectiveness of the conversion. The diffuser efficiency is defined as

Ch. 15 Pg. 75
the ratio of the kinetic energy decrease in an ideal reversible, adiabatic diffuser to the kinetic
energy decrease in an actual irreversible, adiabatic diffuser where the two diffusers have the same
inlet state and outlet pressure. Thus,

1JD

( ~ _a~lt)
=
( ~I a~l/)actllal
2

(15.182)

rev

Substituting equation (15.123) into equation (15.182), we get

(h -h)
1JD = (h Ollt_ hi,) rev
alit

ill

. (15.183)

actllal

Note: Several definitions of diffuser efficiency other than equation (15.182) are currently in use.
This must be kept in mind when reviewing the literature. One additional definition, in particular,
is the total pressure recovery factor, (Po)o,/(PO)ill' defined as
P,
(

1)
(p+_pa
2

tllr

(Pot

0111

(p+!pa
2

(15.184)

).
In

where the total (stagnation) pressure is determined by bringing the fluid to rest adiabatically and
reversibly. We now show how equations (15.183) and (15.184) are related to one another
depending upon the model for the fluid flowing through the diffuser.
15.4.1 Diffusers Decelerating an Ideal Gas
The effect of the constitutive relations for the fluid on the performance of the diffuser can
be illustrated by considering the two simple models - the ideal gas and the incompressible fluid.
If the fluid can be modeled as an ideal gas, the change in kinetic energy can be determined from
equation (15.133) in the general adiabatic case or from equation (15.134) in the reversible
adiabatic case. For the irreversible case the diffuser efficiency, equation (15.183), reduces to

(TOIII - 'F;II )rev

(15.185)

(TOllt -T)
in actual

Figure 15.35(b) illustrates the change in kinetic energy that results for a given pressure increase
in the fluid for both reversible and irreversible deceleration. The diffuser efficiency can be
interpreted geometrically as the ratio of the vertical distances between the inlet and outlet states
on Figure 15.35(b). The details of the ideal gas case are shown in Figure 15.36.
We can rewrite equation (15.185) in the form

T(Tour -1)
( 1JD ) ideal =

gas

In

'F;n

'f;n (;ur -1)

(To"r
rev

'F;n

-1)

-1)

rev

(;lIr)
m

-1
rev

(~", )actllal (Tollr)

(15.186)
-1

(Tour
(T)
T rev
out rev
actual
'F;n
actual
We now need to evaluate the ratio of the temperatures for the reversible case and the irreversible
case. From the first law, the total enthalpy of the flow is constant, viz.

in

III

Ch. 15 Pg. 76

(15.187)

If the flow is brought to rest adiabatically and reversibly, equation (15.186) becomes

h, = ( h + ~'),

= constant

(15.188)

where i denotes any location in the flow field. As shown in Figure 15.36, the maximum value for
the stagnation pressure in the flow must occur at the intersection of the locus of states given by h
=ho and the locus of states with entropy s =s I. All other possible values of the stagnation

s
Figure 15.36 States of the Ideal Gas for Flow Through a Diffuser

pressure must lie along the locus of states h = ho and lesser values of pressure as entropy is
generated by the irreversibility of the flow. In order to evaluate the temperatures at the discharge
of the reversible and irreversible diffusers as they appear in equation (15.186), we need to
establish the relationship between states 2r and 2 as shown in Figure 15.36 since T 2r = (TolI/)rev and
T2 = (Toul)acll/al. Along the isobar P =POI/I' the temperature change is given by

dT = (aT)
ds
as

(15.189)

but by definition, the specific heat at constant pressure is given by

cP =T(~)
aT
Then equation (15.189) becomes

(15.190)
P

Ch. 15 Pg. 77

dT=~ds

(15.191)

cp

Then the entropy generated by the irreversible operation of the diffuser becomes

= J.r

fT

dT
T2
(15.192)
cp-=cpln~I
Tl ,
T
~r
It now remains to evaluate the entropy generated.
Along the locus of stagnation states h = ho = constant shown in Figure 15.36, we have
from equation (15.13)
(15.13)
dh = Tds+vdP
Then
dho = 0 = Tods o + vodPo
Sl

S2- S I

ds

=- 3L dPo = _ RTo dPo

To

r'0l

S02- S 01

ds=

= J.

To

ds=-R

POl

1111

SOl

Po

dPo
POI
-=Rln-

Po

P02

(15.193)

The entropy changes in equations (15.192) and (15.193) are identical. Then it follows that

or
r

!L = (POI JYcP = (POI J -;:

~r

For the reversible operation of the diffuser,

(;IIIJ =(;UIJ
11l

rev

(15.194)

Po2

P02

III

r-x,
r

=(~J

r-x,
r

(15.195)

Then substituting equations (15.194) and (15.195) into (15.186), the diffuser efficiency for the
ideal gas model becomes

(15.196)

Equation (15.196) is plotted in Figure 15.37 for the case Y= 1.4. Since the stagnation pressure
ratio serves as a measure of the irreversibility, Figure 15.37 clearly shows the effect of the
irreversibility of the flow on the efficiency of the diffuser in utilizing the kinetic energy of the
fluid to produce a given increase in pressure through deceleration of the flow. For a given static
pressure ratio across the diffuser, the poorer the recovery of stagnation pressure, the greater the
irreversibility of the flow and the smaller the value of efficiency.

Ch. 15 Pg. 78

0.8

0.6

(17D )ideal
gas
0.4

0.2

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

~
~
Figure 15.37 Effect of Pressure Recovery Ratio on Diffuser Efficiency for an Ideal Gas (r= 1.4)
The details of the internal fluid dynamics of the flow of an ideal gas through a diffuser
naturally divides into three regimes:
(1) If the flow is slow enough to be modeled as incompressible (M ~ 0.3), the
compressibility effects can be neglected and the gas can be modeled as incompressible. This
situation is treated in both Chapter 9 and the following section.
(2) If the flow Mach number is such that 0.3 < M < 1.0, the case of reversible flow can be
treated by the equations of reversible flow given in Section 15.3.1. For the irreversible case, flow
should be divided into two regions: (1) the viscous boundary layer and (2) the inviscid core. For
the latter region, the details of the flow field can be determined from a solution of Euler's
equation or from potential flow theory, but for the former, the shape and thickness of the
boundary layer must be determined from a solution of the Navier-Stokes equation. If the diffuser
is long enough for the onset of turbulence, the turbulence is an additional factor that must be
included in the analysis. The important point in this case is that the flow passage through the
diffuser must be designed to minimize the possibility of flow separation.
(3) If the flow Mach number is such that the flow is supersonic (M ~ 1.0), the situation
becomes very complicated by the presence of shock waves in the flow, both external to the
diffuser as well as internal. In these cases the reader is referred to the many specialized treatments
of this topic.
It should be noted that one of the most common applications of ideal gas flow in a
diffuser is the case of diffusers at the inlet to gas turbine engines, specifically the inlet to axial

Ch. 15 Pg. 79
flow compressors. In such cases, one of the most important issues is the uniformity of the flow,
so much so that the efficiency of the diffuser is often of secondary importance.
Example 15E.ll: A subsonic diffuser suitable for use on the engine of a commercial
aircraft has been tested at sea level conditions (Tw = 288.15 K, Pw= 1.01325 X 105 N/m2) with an
inlet area of AI = 0.140 m2 and an inlet Mach number of MI = 0.9. At the outlet of the diffuser,
M2 =0.2 but due to irreversibilities in the flow, the total pressure recovery is not complete and
the total pressure at outlet is P 02 =0.9Pol ' The fluid flowing is air which can be modeled as an
ideal gas with Y= 1.4 and R = 287 J/kg K.
(a) Determine the change in kinetic energy per unit mass flow rate for the fluid as it flows
through the diffuser.
(b) Determine the cross-sectional area A2 of the diffuser at the outlet.
(c) Calculate the adiabatic efficiency TID of the diffuser.
(d) Evaluate the static pressure recovery factor, Cp , for the device.
Solution: The Mach number of the flow is such that the analysis must include
compressibility effects as presented in Section 15.3.1.
(a) Since we seek the change in kinetic energy of the fluid as it flows through the diffuser
and we have information only for the Mach number, we need to evaluate the speed of sound at
the entrance and exit. Using the ideal gas model we have

a l = .JYRT_ = ~1.4(287 J/kg K)(288.15 K) = 340.26 mlsec

Then the velocity at entrance is
z91 = alM I

= (340.26 mlsec )(0.9) = 306.24 mlsec

At the exit plane, we need to determine the local thermodynamic temperature first so that we can
evaluate the local speed of sound. In equation (15.187) we showed that the stagnation enthalpy
(total enthalpy) is constant throughout an adiabatic flow. If the specific heat at constant pressure
is constant for the ideal gas model, then the stagnation temperature is also constant throughout
the flow. Then at entrance, we have from equation (15.153)
TOI

T_ [1 + y~ 1 M~ ] = (288.15 K)[1 + 1.~-1 (0.9)2] = 334.83 K

Also from equation (15.153) we have

T2

=T02 [1 + y~ 1 M;

JI =

(334.83 K)[1 +

1.~-1 (0.2)2

JI =

332.17 K

Then the local speed of sound is

a 2 = )yRT2 = ~1.4(287 J/kg K)(332.17 K) = 365.33 mlsec

and the local velocity at exit is
z92 = a 2 M 2

= (365.33 m1sec )(0.2) =73.066 m1sec

Then the change in kinetic energy per unit mass flow rate becomes

(M<~)aclllai
= 2.(tJ?
- tJ.2) aClllai =2.[(73.066
m1sec)2 - (306.24 mlsec )2J =4.422 X104 l/kg
m
2
2
2

(b) To determine the area at the exit plane of the diffuser, we make use of equation
(15.164), viz.

Ch. 15 Pg. 80

y-I 2
~MI'JI +-2-MI

y-I 2
~M2'Jl+-2-M2
If we substitute equation (15.155) for the static pressure in terms of the total pressure, we can
take into account the irreversibility of the flow, viz.
~

y-l 2]I~Y
= POI [ 1+-M I

and

y-l

2]I~Y

~=P02 [ 1+-2- M2

We get
~

P M
_

01

[1 +

I+r

y-l M 2]2(J-r)
2

--:A HI

I+r

1+1.4

3.2639

(0.9) Pol (0.2) [I + l.~-1 (0.2)2 T(J-1.4)

[ y _ I 2]2(I-r)
PrnM2 1+--M 2
2

Then
~ = (3.2639)( 0.140 m2) = 0.457 m2

(c) To determine the adiabatic efficiency of the diffuser, we can make use of equation
(15.196), viz.

The ratio of the static pressures is given by

Then

( ~~ )Y-,Yr Y-,Yr
-

(77D)ideal =
,.,

[(~:)(;,)]

-I

1.4-1

(1.4803)1.4 -1

0.776

r_ 1

(d) The static pressure recovery factor, Cp , is given by equation (15.181), viz.

Ch. 15 Pg. 81

~p.-p.
I
I

C - ~-~ __P.....:.l~~_
p -

! PIl9j2
2

- 0.5(JL]tJ.2
RT.I

(1.01325

N/m2)

X 10
(1.4803 -1)
--;:::--....:.....------~;_---5

= 0.847

(1.01325 x 10 N/m2) ]
2
0.5 (
)(
) (306.24 mlsec)
[ 287 J/kg K 288.15 K

15.3.7 Diffusers Decelerating an Incompressible Fluid

For those cases in which the fluid can be modeled as an incompressible fluid and the
outlet pressure is fixed, reversible diffuser operation can be described by equation (15.178). For
the irreversible case, equation (15.177) must be used. From equation (15.177), it is apparent that
in the irreversible case some of the mechanical kinetic energy is dissipated into uncoupled
thermal energy. For this case the diffuser efficiency reduces to

(17D) i"compressible = 1

c (ToIII - 'I;" )

C (T

0111

(15.197)

- T ) + v (Pout _ P )
In

111

Equation (15.197) has much the same interpretation as equation (15.180), i.e., the second term on
the right-hand side represents the fraction of the kinetic energy converted into stored thermal
energy as a result of the irreversibility in the flow. The locus of states for the incompressible fluid
flowing through the diffuser with a fixed outlet pressure is shown in Figure 15.38(a).
Pout

fin

< Pl)u~

(hl:)~ ~ )iJC1U l

..

(12 ~I)re~

_____ _

11

s
Figure 15.38(a) States of an Incompressible Fluid Flowing Through a Diffuser with POIII Fixed
For reversible operation with an incompressible fluid.
(

h)

h
0111 -

ill

rev -

(~UI-P;,,)
p

(15.198)

and for irreversible operation

( h -h) actual
0111

ill

_(l?;;'2 _l9:2

(15.199)

ul ]

aClllal

Substituting equations (15.198) and (15.199) into equation (15.183), we get another expression

Ch. 15 Pg. 82
for the diffuser efficiency with an incompressible fluid flowing, viz.
2(Pollt
(

1]D

p=consl

-p)
IIJ

(15.200)

(2 _ 2 ]

P z9;n z901lt

aClllal

Note that the outlet static pressure is the same in both the reversible and irreversible modes of
operation but the velocities at outlet are different. Equation (15.200) can be expressed in terms of
pressures only. Rewrite equation (15.183) in the form

-hin]
( holll
rev
1]D =

(15.201)

(hollt -hollt]+(holll-hin]
aClllal rev
rev

but

h01l1 - h01l1
actual

rev

= (haul
- hi" J- (holll - hi" ]
actllal
rev

(15.202)

Substituting the first law and equation (15.200) into equation (15.202), we get

h
-h
alit
aUf
actual
rev

AQ2

z9;"1
actual

~_

J (P
_

out -

P]
[( Po ).
in
=

In

- (Po )0111
]
actllal
p

(15.203)

where we have made use of the total (stagnation) pressure, Po. Substituting equation (15.203) into
equation (15.201), we get
(1]D) p=co"SI =

[
1+

(Po t

-(Po )0111aClllal

(15.204)

( p -p)
This is a particularly convenient form for the diffuser efficiency for the incompressible fluid
model since stagnation pressures and static pressures are easy to measure with relatively simple
instrumentation.
Alternatively, the thermal-fluids engineer might be interested in the pressure rise that
could be achieved with a given decrease in kinetic energy. In this case the change in enthalpy of
the fluid would be fixed and the path of the process would appear as shown in Figure 15.38(b).
Then if the fluid (gas or liquid) can be modeled as an incompressible fluid, we can evaluate the
pressure recovery coefficient for reversible, adiabatic operation rather simply. From the first law,
Ollt

z9;;, + P;"
2 P
p0111 - p

11/

From continuity,

ill

= z9;"1 + ~1I1
2

= p(z9;;'
- z9;"1
2
2

(15.205)

Ch. 15 Pg. 83

AQ

tJi l~JI
l-

-V a'" -

(15.206)

AOIII

pstn for il'e'..t:,rsibl.e

djffll.ser

pailh.

rm irreversible

dif~1

unj;;lIlown

I in

I
I
I
I

Figure 15.38(b) Pressure Increase for an Incompressible Fluid Flowing Through a Diffuser
with Ah Fixed
Combining equations (15.205) and (15.206), we get for the reversible case
P

(0111

- P'i3;11 1 _

_P
ill )

rev - 2 2 [

~II J2]
( AOIII

(15.207)

Substituting equation (15.207) into equation (15.181), we get

(C p )rev

p~! [1-(2~J] 1-(~J2

(15.208)
P&;n
AOUI
2
The area ratio AR = AouIA;" is one of the dimensionless parameters used to characterize the
geometry of a diffuser. Then equation (15.208) can be written
p=const

(C p )rev

p=colIsI

= 1-

OIII
(~J
= 1- (tJ J2
AR
&;11

(15.209)

The total (stagnation) pressures at inlet and outlet are given by

(Po );11

P;n + -2 p&;;,

and

(po )0111
aClual

= (F:,lIt trey

+ -2 ptJ;"1

(15.210)

Ch. 15 Pg. 84
Then

-(P)
= [pIII -(p)
]+.!.2 P (tJ2
(1lR)
o actual = (P)
0 ill
0 Ollt
out irrev

III

aCllla/

~<l2

actual

2. pi1;n

~( P_~ _';lIa~,J + (1 _tJ;,ui}2 J= P_in_1

_pi}2
2

2
)
Ollt

(1- tJo~uJ

(1lR)
-POllt J+,!,pi}2
o actlla/ -(p
ill
2
in

(6.Pa )aClllal

_tJ

/in

(C)

P actllal

ill

+ (C )
P rev

III

(Cp )acwal =(Cp )rev

(Mo)actllal

(15.211)

2. Pi1;11

In thermal-fluids engineering practice, it is commonly the case that data obtained from
carefully performed experiments are used to determine the values of the pressure recovery
coefficient appropriate for a given situation. The geometry for a typical conical diffuser is shown
in Figure 15.39 with experimental data in Figure 15.40.

Figure 15.39 Geometry for a Conical Diffuser

..

..
:9

.g

15

.c-

-II:

....

':
..

I .U
tJJ

~~~~~

1;5

__L-~__~~~~__~~~

'ID

1!ra

SI

til

JlQII.fIIII(lI$iDIIII.\ U,!!G"".III'it 1

Figure 15.40 Static Pressure Recovery Coefficient for Conical Diffusers with Re > 75 x 103
(From Fig. 7-12, p. 152, Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, by R. D. Blevins, Krieger Publishing Co., Malabar, FL, 1984.)

Ch. 15 Pg. 85
Note that for conical diffusers
(15.212)
Also note that on Figure 15.40, Cp is the locus of points that defines the diffuser area ratio AR
that produces the maximum static pressure recovery for a given dimensionless length, NIR I , and
Cp is the locus of points that defines the diffuser dimensionless length, NIR l' that produces the
maximum pressure recovery for a given area ratio, A R
It should also be noted that some investigators define a diffuser effectiveness, eD' such that
(15.213)
Data for the diffuser effectiveness can be found in the literature.
Example 15E.12: An air conditioning system in a large building has an air duct with a
diameter of DI = 0.5 m. Air with a density of PI = 1.2 kg/m3 and a temperature of TI = 20 C flows
in the duct at a velocity of 2.5 mlsec. A diffuser must be installed to reduce the velocity and
increase the air pressure to atmospheric pressure before the air can be discharged from the duct
into a room. Space limitations suggest a dimensionless length ratio of NIR, = 10. The viscosity of
the air is j.J = 1.8249 X 10- 5 kg/m sec.
(a) Determine the area of the outlet of the diffuser.
(b) Determine the pressure at entrance to the diffuser that will result in an exit pressure of
atmospheric pressure.
Solution: (a) The velocity of the air is clearly small enough that we can model the flow as
incompressible. Then we can use Figure 15.40 to evaluate the pressure recovery factor so we
need to make sure that the Reynolds number requirement is met. The Reynolds number for this
flow is
(2.5 mlsec)(0.5 m)(1.2 kg/m
1.8249 x 10-5 kg/m sec

Re= tJ..D,p,
PI

3
)

82.196 x 103

The Reynolds number exceeds the lower limit of 75 x 103 for the data of Figure 15.40 so we can
use these data. In Figure 15.40, we use the data for C/ since these values would give the
maximum pressure recovery ratio for a given dimensionless length. From Figure 15.40 we have
at the intersection of NIRI = 10 and the locus of C/, an area ratio of 1.75 and C/ = 0.66. Then

Az -1=1.75
AI

Az

= 2.75

AI

Then the area of the diffuser outlet is

2

Az = 2.75 "D1

= 2.75,,(0.5 m)2

0.540 m2

This gives a diffuser outlet diameter of D2 = 0.829 m. The velocity at the diffuser outlet would
then be
t}

= ~t} = 2.5 mlsec

~ 1
2.75

0.909 mlsec

Ch. 15 Pg. 86
This velocity is not so high that the occupants of the room would feel chilled by it, but it is a
large enough velocity to move loose papers about. Therefore, the diffuser discharge should be
directed into a region of the room where this is not likely to occur.
(b) The pressure of the air in the duct can be determined by the pressure recovery factor,
viz.
5

1.01325 x 10 N/m

0.66 (1.20 kg/m 3 )( 2.5 m1sec)2

2
Clearly, the second term on the right-hand side of the above expression is negligible, so the
pressure in the duct just upstream of the diffuser is essentially atmospheric. To be sure, there is a
measurable pressure difference, but it is so small that a differential manometer with water as the
fluid is usually used to measure it. The duct-work of these air conditioning systems is usually
sized on the basis of continuity considerations initially, and then the various head losses are
determined using the analysis presented in Chapter 9 to determine the necessary blower capacity.
15.3.8 Diffusers Decelerating a Pure Substance
The behavior of a pure substance when decelerated in a diffuser is between the two
extremes represented by the incompressible fluid and the ideal gas models. The loci of states for
a pure substance flowing through diffusers with various inlet states are shown in Figure 15.41. In
the compressed liquid region, the behavior of the fluid is essentially the same as that of the
incompressible fluid model. In the superheat region, the behavior of the pure substance is
essentially the same as that of the ideal gas model. However, the definition of the diffuser
efficiency, equation (15.183), should be used rather than the expression derived explicitly for the
ideal gas model, equation (15.196).
F",u!

Figure 15.41(a) States of a Pure Substance Flowing Through a Diffuser

Ch. 15 Pg. 87

ou l iltluaD

' "

Foot

' Pin

out reV

in

Figure 15.41(b) States of a Pure Substance Flowing Through a Diffuser

When the pure substance enters the diffuser with two phases present, it is usually the case
that the exiting flow is superheated vapor. The evaporation of the liquid present at entry causes
the density of the flow at exit to be substantially less than would have been the case with liquid
present. The exit area of the diffuser must be designed with this in mind.

15.4 Throttle

In the two previous sections, it was stated that the pressure difference (or equivalently the
pressure ratio) across the device was externally imposed. The throttle is the most common system
component for controlling the pressures of a flowing stream. For specific applications the throttle
is also known by various other names such as control valve, expansion valve, Joule-Thomson
valve, porous plug, orifice, and flow resistance. Although the names are different, the principle of
operation is the same.
In its simplest form, the throttle is nothing more than a port with an adjustable flow area
which provides an adjustable resistance to the flow of fluid through the system. An increase in
flow resistance requires a greater pressure difference across the throttle for a given flow rate. By
adjusting the flow resistance of a throttle on the inlet of a device, we may adjust the inlet pressure
while the supply pressure is fixed. Typically, the increase in flow resistance is produced by
decreasing the cross sectional area of the flow at one section inside the throttle.
A typical throttle installation is shown schematically in Figure 15.42. The residence time
of the fluid within the throttle is insufficient to permit significant heat transfer. The throttle can

Ch. 15 Pg. 88

fluid flow out

fluid flow in
~

low velocity
low kinetic energy
high pressure
low entropy

Vl77ll77l7227l2l2Zll71722zn

low velocity
Jow kinetic energy
low pressure
high entropy

Figure 15.42 Throttle Valve

then be adequately modeled as an adiabatic device. In principle, the throttle is a nozzle in series
with a very poor diffuser. In the nozzle section, the flow is accelerated to some velocity while the
pressure is decreased to a value P. In the diffuser section, the flow is decelerated to the original
velocity lJ;1I' but because the diffuser section operates in the separated mode, pressure recovery is
poor and the stream returns to the inlet enthalpy with only a small pressure rise. The net result
overall is a pressure drop with a significant generation of entropy. Essentially all of the flow
irreversibility associated with the throttle is located in the diffuser section. By combining the
governing equations for the nozzle and the diffuser, we obtain

m[(h,,, -h)+ (h-h,,",)] ~ m[( tJ' ~&,;

J+( ~:.; tJ' J]

(15.214)

or
(15.215)

In typical applications of the throttle, we locate the outlet port of the control volume far enough
downstream so that the outlet velocity has essentially reached its final value. Typical values of
the inlet and outlet velocities are such that the kinetic energies at the inlet and outlet ports are
negligible (compared to the enthalpy). Thus,
(15.216)
Then equation (15.215) becomes
(15.217)
For the case of unit mass flow rate with an infinitesimal change of state, equation (15.1) reduces
to
(15.218)
dh=O
From equation (15.13)
dh = Tds+vdP
(15.219)
Combining equations (15.218) and (15.219), we see that for the throttle
Tds =-vdP
(15.220)
From equation (15.220), it is apparent that in order for there to be a pressure decrease in the

Ch. 15 Pg. 89
direction of flow through the throttle, the entropy must increase in the direction of flow. Since the
throttle is adiabatic, it follows from the second law of thermodynamics that the operation of the
throttle must be irreversible if the throttle is to operate in the desired manner. In fact, the throttle
is the only thermal-fluid device that must be irreversible in order to operate properly.
Note that because the throttle operates in an irreversible manner, the locus of states of the
fluid as it passes through the throttle is unknown. That is, even though the inlet and outlet
enthalpies of the fluid are identical, the path is not necessarily one of constant enthalpy. The
irreversibility internal to the throttle makes it impossible to identify the intermediate states.

15.4.1 Throttling an Ideal Gas

If the fluid can be modeled as an ideal gas, the enthalpy constitutive relation for the ideal
gas model shows the enthalpy to be a function of temperature only. Then fore the ideal gas
flowing through the throttle, equation (15.217) reduces to
(15.221)
The inlet and outlet states for the ideal gas flowing through the throttle are shown in Figure
15.43.

irreversfule pro~.ss
(p,aLh l,mkrlown)

l~n = T{)ul

Ort

1. .

~--~~~--~--------------~------~------~~-------

Figure 15.43 Inlet and Outlet States for an Ideal Gas Flowing Through a Throttle
The details of the dynamic behavior of the ideal gas flowing through the throttle cannot
be readily elucidated because of the highly irreversible nature of the flow. The thermal-fluids
engineer must be content with utilizing the expressions for head loss as presented in Chapter 9.
For adjustable throttle valves, many manufacturers provide data for the flow coefficient of gases
through their valves.

15.4.2 Throttling an Incompressible Fluid

If the fluid can be modeled as an incompressible fluid, equation (15.217) reduces to
U 01l1

-u in

= v{P;n - ~UI)

(15.222)

Ch. 15 Pg. 90
or
c (7;"

- Tout) = v (p;" - ~/II

(15.223)

Since Pill> P equation (15.223) shows that the temperature of the incompressible fluid
increases as the fluid passes through the throttle. The source of this temperature increase is the
irreversibility located in the diffuser section of the throttle. The inlet and outlet states for this case
are shown in Figure 15.44.
Ollt

'

Pim >P011t

It

Figure 15.44 Inlet and Outlet States for an Incompressible Fluid Flowing Through a Throttle

15.4.3 Throttling a Pure Substance

In the case of a pure substance, the changes of state that may occur as the fluid passes
through the throttle may be significantly different from either of the cases just discussed. The
pure substance may either increase or decrease in temperature as a result of the internal dynamics
of the throttle. If both the liquid and vapor phases are present, either at the inlet or at the outlet,
the temperature of the pure substance will decrease. However, if only the vapor phase is present,
at both inlet and outlet, the temperature may increase or decrease depending upon the inlet state.
The performance parameter that indicates the outlet temperature of the pure substance as a result
of a throttling process is known as the Joule-Thomson coefficient which is denoted by the symbol
jJlT and defined as
(15.224)
Although the sequence of states of the pure substance in the throttling process is not a sequence
of states with the same values of enthalpy, the inlet and outlet states do have the same values for
the enthalpy, and, hence, must lie on the locus of states of constant enthalpy. This is the reason
that the partial derivative in equation of equation (15.224) must be formed while holding the
enthalpy constant.

Ch. 15 Pg. 91
In Figure 15.45 we have plotted the locus of states of constant enthalpy as a function of
temperature and pressure for the vapor phase of a pure substance. Also shown in Figure 15.45 is
the locus of the maxima in the curves of constant enthalpy. This locus is called the inversion
curve for the Joule-Thomson coefficient. For states to the left of the inversion curve, jJJT is
positive, while for states to the right of the inversion curve, PJT is negative. Thus, the inversion
curve is the locus of states for which PJT = O. This is precisely the behavior of the ideal gas
model.

- 50

-2S0L---~----~----L---~----~----L-~~-----

100

200

300

400

500

600

100

800

p. alnt

Figure 15.45 Inversion Curve for the Vapor Phase of a Pure Substance (Nitrogen)
If both of the end states are on the right of the inversion curve in Figure 15.45, the
temperature must increase. This is behavior is typical of the incompressible fluid model as we
saw above and could be termed liquid-like behavior. If both of the end states for a throttle are to
the left of the inversion curve on Figure 15.45, the temperature must decrease as the fluid passes
through the throttle. This type of behavior is true pure substance behavior. If the two end states
are on opposite sides, the temperature may increase or decrease depending upon the exact states.
Some typical throttling processes in the pure substance are shown in Figure 15.46.
In the region of positive Pm the internal energy of the pure substance depends strongly on
the volume as well as the temperature. In fact, the internal energy increases with volume at
constant temperature which accounts for the pure substance behavior that differs from that of the
ideal gas and the incompressible fluid which both have an internal energy which depends only
upon T .

Ch. 15 Pg. 92

en ics]

~ Ie

Figure 15.46(a) Throttling Processes for the Pure Substance

Figure 15.46(b) Throttling Processes for the Pure Substance

Example 15E.13: A supply of nitrogen is available at a pressure of PI = 107 N/m2 as
might be the case for high pressure nitrogen stored in a typical size A storage "bottle" similar to
those used for the storage of welding gases or medical quality oxygen. We pose the following
question: Can we take advantage of the pure substance behavior exhibited in Figure 14.45 and
liquify the gas by throttling it from high pressure PI to low pressure P2 = 105 N/m2 through a

Ch. 15 Pg. 93
simple orifice?
Solution: The physical situation is shown schematically in Figure 15E.13( a).

Storage bottle

Figure 15E.13(a)
We need to find the state of the gas entering the throttle such that the state exiting from the
throttle is just in the two-phase region. The limiting exit state would be that of a saturated vapor
at the pressure P2 If we apply the first law to the control volume shown in Figure 15E.13(a), we
find from the tabulated properties of the pure substance model for nitrogen
hi = h2 = hsar = 77.073 kJ/kg
vapor

The state ofthe nitrogen entering the throttle is then PI = 107 N/m2 and hi =77.073 kJ/kg. From
the tabulated properties of the pure substance model for nitrogen, these two independent
properties correspond to TI = 160.24 K. If the temperature of the nitrogen entering the throttle is
160.24 K, there will be no liquid exiting the throttle, only vapor. For any inlet temperature less
than 160.24 K, there will be a mixture of vapor and liquid leaving the throttle. The lower the inlet
temperature, the greater the mass fraction in the liquid phase. For example, if the inlet
temperature were 120 K, the enthalpy of the inlet fluid would be hi =-27.821 kJ/kg. At the outlet
pressure of P2 = 105 N/m2, we have hf = -122.25 kJ/kg and hfg = 199.323 kJ/kg. Then the mass
fraction in the liquid phase would be
y

= 1- x = 1- ~ -

hI
hlg

=1

-27.821 kJ/kg -( -122.25 kJ/kg)

199.323 kJ/kg

1- 0.474 = 0.526

Thus the fraction of mass flow in the liquid phase can be increased considerably by lowering the
temperature at inlet to the throttle. The problem is, how can we accomplish this without
introducing external refrigeration? The most direct method is to place a heat exchanger between
the gas supply and the throttle valve. By also placing a phase separator downstream of the
throttle, the mass flow that remains in the saturated vapor phase can be directed through the heat
exchanger countercurrent to the supply stream to the throttle and the saturated liquid can be
drawn off to a storage Dewar. By this means, the "waste" vapor can be used to pre-cool the
nitrogen feed to the throttle. The configuration would be as shown in Figure 15E.13(b).

Ch. 15 Pg. 94

r r,---------.2
---------------,1
r--:-----iL...t-l

Heat exchanger

CV2

1 3

1_______
L.:: - - - - - - __
- -\sat.
.. vapor
Discharge to atmosphere

Thl-ottle
valve
1

1
1

\
\
\
Sat. liquid

mf

Nitrogen storage bottle

1 CV

1
_____ 1

Figure 15E.13(b) Simple Joule-Thomson Liquefier

If we assume that the heat exchanger effectiveness is one, e = 1, we can establish the limiting
performance for this apparatus under conditions of steady flow. Then T3 = Tsllr =77.244 K and T4
= 300 K. The first law for control volume 1 in Figure 15E.13(b) becomes

rhj~ -rhfhf -(rhj-rhf )h4 =0

If we set nil equal to unity in this expression, we can determine the fraction of the nitrogen
supply stream that can be liquified in this manner, viz.
rh f

~ -h4

hf -h4

From the pure substance model for nitrogen, we have

~ = 291.93 kJ/kg
~ = 77.073 kJ/kg
h4 = 311.20 kJ/kg

hf

= -122.25 kJ/kg

The negative value for hfis simply a consequence ofthe particular state selected as the datum
state for the pure substance model for nitrogen. Then
rh = 291.93 kJ/kg - 311.20 kJ/kg = 0.044 k Isec
f

-122.25 kJ/kg - 311.20 kJ/kg

Thus, 4.4 percent of the nitrogen supply stream can be liquified in this manner. The physical fact
that makes this Joule-Thomson liquefier work is that the thermal-fluid properties of nitrogen are
such a strong function of pressure for the pressure levels chosen. As a consequence, the heat
exchanger can operate with an imbalance in mass flow rates between the high-pressure and lowpressure sides. If the properties were independent of pressure as is the case for the ideal gas
model, the heat exchanger could not operate in this manner.
We can determine the state of the nitrogen entering the throttle by applying the first law
to control volume 2 in Figure 15E.13(b). Then

~ +(I-rhf )hg -~ -(I-rhf )h4 =0

~ =~ -(I-rhf )(h4 -hg )
~

= 291.93 kJ/kg -(1-0.044 kg/sec )(311.20 kJ/kg -77.073 kJ/kg)

~

=68.212 kJ/kg

Ch. 15 Pg. 95
We now have two independent properties to establish state 2, namely P2 = 107 N/m2 and h2 =
68.212 kJ/kg. Then from the pure substance model for nitrogen, we have T2 = 156.97 K.
For the throttle valve, h2 = h 3 Then
~ = hi +x3 hlg
X3

= ~ -hi
hg -hi

68.212 kJ/kg-(-122.25 kJ/kg)

77.073 kJ/kg-(-122.25 kJ/kg)

0.956

Then the fraction of nitrogen in the liquid phase is

Y3 =1-~ =1-0.956=0.044
This is precisely the result we obtained from the first law for control volume 1.
The system shown in Figure 15E.13(b) is the essence of a system known as a JouleThomson liquefier that is the most basic of liquefiers. One notable feature of this design is that it
is able to operate with a mass imbalance in the heat exchanger even though the fluid flowing in
both the hot and cold streams is the same pure substance. This phenomenon is a consequence of
the fact the properties of the pure substance are a function of both pressure and temperature,
unlike those of the ideal gas model for which the properties are at most dependent upon
temperature only. In designing liquefaction systems used for a wide variety of industrial
processes, such as air separation plants to produce oxygen, nitrogen, and argon from atmospheric
air, the challenge is to produce as much liquefied gas as possible from a given stream. As we
shall see in Chapter 16, there are a number of innovative features that thermal-fluid engineers
have introduced into the basic Joule-Thomson liquefier to increase the output significantly.

Ch. 15 Pg. 96

Appendix 15A
Dimensional Analysis of the Performance of a Negative Shaft Work Machine
Processing an Incompressible Fluid - a Pump

In Section 9.10.3.5, we discussed briefly the characteristics of a pump and noted that
pump characteristics that were useful for design of piping systems were volume flow rate, V , and
total dynamic head, Hpllmp- At that time we deferred further discussion of the other important
pump characteristics until this point in our development of the subject. We now would like to
develop a means of quantitating the performance of a pump in terms of all the parameters
required to describe the characteristics of the pump. This can be most easily accomplished by
means of the method of dimensional analysis.
Based upon our discussion of the Buckingham Pi Theorem of Section 10.6, we follow the
list of steps presented there for dimensional analysis of pump characteristics:
Step 1: List and count the n parameters required to describe the physical situation. If any
important parameters are missing, dimensional analysis will fail.
In addition to the volumetric flow rate, V, and the total dynamic head, H pllmp' or
alternatively the pump head, hpllmp ' the evaluation of pump performance requires the rotational
frequency of the pump, 6), that characterizes its speed, the diameter of the pump, D, that
characterizes its size, and the power required to operate the pump, Wshaft The performance of the
pump will also depend upon the character of the fluid that flows through it. The fluid can be
characterized in terms of its density, p, and its viscosity, f-J.
Step 2: List the dimensions of each variable according to M, L, T, and B.
For the volumetric flow rate,

IJ

[V]=T
For the "head" developed by the pump, different investigators and different pump manufacturers
use different terms to specify this quantity. The most common terminology used by pump
manufacturers refers to the total dynamic head, H pllmp ' defined in equation (9.310) as the relevant
pump characteristic. However, in the process of non-dimensionalization of the head of the pump,
most treatments use the pump head, hpump , defined in equation (9.307) as the relevant parameter.
These two parameters differ by the factor g, viz.
h pump = gH pump
Clearly, the dimensions of the two parameters are different.
Following convention, we use the pump head as the parameter to be nondimensionalized. Thus

For the rotational speed of the pump

1

[m]=T

For the diameter of the pump

Ch. 15 Pg. 97

[D]= L
For the pump power

For the fluid density

M

[p] =l!
For the fluid viscosity
M

[fL] = LT
Thus there are 7 parameters required to characterize this situation.
Step 3: Find the value of r. Initially guess r to be equal to the number of different dimensions
present and then make sure the there are r parameters that do notform a II-group. lfthis is
unsuccessful, reduce r by one and look again.
Let us guess the value of r to be the same as the number of dimensions required to
characterize the situation. Then r = 3 and there would be 7 - 4 dimensionless groups. The
possible candidates for the parameters that do not form a dimensionless group are p, cu, and D.
To test the hypothesis that these parameters do not form a dimensionless group, we need to find
values of the exponents p, q, and r other than zero such that
[pp{i)QDr] = 1
Then if these values exist, it must be the case that

but

M:p=O
L:

3p+r=O~r=O

T: -q=O~q=O
Since all of the dimensional exponents must be zero, it follows, then, that the parameters selected
do not form a dimensionless group.
Step 4: Select r parameters which do notform a II-group among themselves. These parameters
are the repeating parameters that will appear in all the II-groups.
According to the results of Step 3, we select p, cu, and D as the parameters to use in the
non-dimensionalization process.
Step 5: Select one of the remaining parameters that is not one of the r repeating parameters and
non-dimensionalize that parameter using the r repeating parameters. Repeat the procedure until
all the remaining parameters are non-dimensionalized. There should now be n - r II-groups.
For the volumetric flow rate, we seek the values of the exponents a, b, c such that
[V pQ{i)bDc] =1
Then

Ch. 15 Pg. 98

IJ
(T

J(MIJ )" ( T1 )" (L)-1

c _

M:a=O
L: 3-3a+c=O~3+c=O~c=-3
T: -1-b=O~b=-1
and the first dimensionless group becomes

=-mD
- 3 = II jlOIV

III

This dimensionless group is known as the flow coefficient,

To determine the second dimensionless group,
[ hpl/mp pd me Df ] =1

(15A.l)
IIjlow'

M:d=O
L: 2-3d + f =O~ f =-2
T: -2-e=O~e=-2
Then
Il2

hpl/nlP
=-mD
2 - 2 =Il head

(15A.2)

and this dimensionless group is known as the head coefficient, II"ead'

To determine the third dimensionless group,
i
shaft P g mhD
-

J-l

[w

M:l+g=O~g=-1

L:
T:

2-3g+i=O~2+3+i=O~i=-5
-3-h=O~h=-3

Then
II -_
3

~'haft

pm3 D5

(15A.3)

II power

and this dimensionless group is known as the power coefficient,

Finally, for the fourth dimensionless group,

IIpower.

[,upj mk DI ] =1

(~ )(~H~), (L)' ~1
M :1+ j=O~ j=-1
L:
T:

-1-3j+I=O~-1+3+I=O~I=-2
-1-k=O~k=-1

Ch. 15 Pg. 99
Then
TI4=-/12

p{J)D

It is actually the inverse of this dimensionless group that is of interest.

p{J)D 2
Re pllnJP = - - -

(l5A.4)

/1
This dimensionless group is the Reynolds number for a pump.

Step 6: Check to see that all proposed II- groups are dimensionless and write the functional
relationship among them in dimensionless form.
We have checked, and all the dimensionless groups are indeed dimensionless. According
to the Buckingham Pi Theorem, there exists a function F such that
F (TII'TI2,TI3,TI4) = 0
This is as far as dimensional analysis can take us. In order to determine the specific form of the
function F, it is necessary to examine the details of the operation of the particular machine of
interest.
At this point we should note that in some treatments of this subject and in much of the
literature, especially that distributed by pump manufacturers, the dimensionless groups presented
here are replaced by a set of groups that are not dimensionless, but rather are dimensional. These
are derived from the set presented here by replacing the rotational speed, lV, in radians/sec by the
rotational speed, N, in revolutions/sec or revs/min. Then
TI'flow

=~
ND3

TI'

= N2D2
hpllmp

!read

TI Reynolds

pND 2

=-/1--

Ch. 15 Pg. 100

Appendix 15B
Axial Flow Steam Turbines
15B.l Introduction

In large-scale steam plants, it can be argued that the steam turbine plays the most pivotal
role in the performance of the plant. However, in recent years, in modern, large-scale combined
cycle energy conversion systems, the role of the steam turbine has been diminished somewhat in
favor of that of the gas turbine plant. Nonetheless, the steam turbine finds such widespread use in
both stationary and mobile energy conversion systems, it is worth examining the details of the
performance of this steady-flow component.
The steam turbine has been in existence, in one form or another, for a long time. As early
as the first century, Hero of Alexandria, an Egyptian engineer, demonstrated a crude form of
steam turbine, the classic Aeolipile. Although it was little more than a toy, it did operate in a
manner similar to modern turbines. (See Figure 15B.1.) It was basically a steam generator in
which the steam exhausted into a sphere fitted with steam jets oriented perpendicular to the axis
on which the sphere could rotate. The momentum of the steam leaving the jet produced a reaction
force that caused the sphere to rotate.

Figure 15B.l Aeolipile of Hero

In the millennia that followed Hero's early efforts, the first positive shaft work machines
that used steam as the working fluid were of the reciprocating piston type. However, in the late
nineteenth century, Charles Parsons (1854 - 1931), an Irish engineer who was a junior partner in
the firm Clarke, Chapman, and Parsons, recognized the advantages of a rotating shaft work
machine and built a multi-stage reaction turbine in 1884. In his first demonstration of the
potential of the device, he utilized it to drive a dynamo, also of his own design, that generated
about 7.5 kW of electrical power. He patented the device in April 1884 and shortly thereafter
demonstrated of the potential of his invention as a marine power plant by using the machine to
power his yacht Turbinia. Parsons's design was subsequently modified by Charles Curtis (18601953) who built a combined impUlse-reaction turbine that incorporated the converging-diverging
nozzle design of Gustav De Laval (1845 - 1913) for the stator. Curtis patented his design in
1896, and it was immediately adopted for use as the prime mover in stationary power plants. In
the ensuing years, considerable development has gone into the steam turbine for both stationary
and marine use, but the designs of Parsons and Curtis still form the basis for present
configurations.

Ch. 15 Pg. 101

In modern applications, steam turbines are usually axial flow and range in size from one
kW to 1.9 GW in output. Although the details of the internal construction vary somewhat with
the application, the basic design consists of alternating rows of stators and rotors. Typically, the
stators are configured as nozzles designed to accelerate the working fluid to high velocities while
the rotors consist of blades shaped like airfoils and arranged radially on a disk centered on the
axis of rotation. The deflection of the high velocity fluid stream by the rotor blades and the
attendant change in momentum of the fluid stream result in a force applied to the blade. The
rotation of the blade about the disk axis results in a torque that can be used to drive an electric
generator or turn the propeller shaft of a vehicle.
Steam turbines are of two types: impulse turbines in which the stators are used simply to
redirect the flow to the next rotor and reaction turbines in which the stator is configured as a
nozzle and is used to accelerate the flow for the next rotor. In the ideal pure impulse turbine, the
pressure drop in the flow occurs in the stators only and the fluid flows in a frictionless manner
over the blades of the rotor. In the reaction turbine, a portion of the pressure drop occurs in the
stator while the remainder occurs as the fluid passes over the blade. In typical designs, the
pressure drop is divided equally between stator and rotor in the reaction turbine.

lSB.2 Impulse Blade Design

The analysis of a single stage of an impulse turbine can be most easily accomplished with
the aid of Figure 15B.2 and the velocity diagrams of Figure 15B.3. In performing such an
analysis, one radial location on the blade is selected (typically the midpoint of the blade axis) and
the velocity diagrams are constructed as in Figure 15B.3. Although the tangential velocity of the
blade varies with radial position, one location is sufficient provided the fluid pressure is not too
low. The lower the pressure, the longer the blade and the more approximate the analysis since the
low-pressure blades can be quite long (on the order of a meter or more in large machines).

Rotor blades

Figure 15B.2 Some Stator and Rotor Blades of a Single Stage Pure Impulse Turbine

Ch. 15 Pg. 102

Figure 15B.3 Velocity Diagrams for a Pure Impulse Turbine with Constant Axial Velocity
In the present analysis, we consider an ideal machine in which the fluid flows across the
blades with no pressure drop so that~1 = tJr2 Thus, the orientation of the relative velocity
component along the blade determines the performance of the blade. If we take the axial velocity
as constant through the machine, the tangential component of force produced in this machine is
given by the tangential component of the equation of linear momentum, viz.
F, =ril1J,1 (cos /31 - cos /32)
(15B.l)

According to the Euler turbomachine equation, equation (8.107), the power produced by the
stage is then
(15B.2)
where tJb is the tangential component of blade velocity. If there are no net forces due to pressure
acting on the rotor, which must be the case since the fluid flows along the blade with no pressure
drop in this model, the axial component of the equation of linear momentum gives the axial force
acting on the rotor, viz.
(15B.3)

If the rotor blade is symmetric with respect to the entry and exit angles of the fluid stream, it
follows that /32 = 1800 - /31 and there is no net axial thrust on the rotor.
Consider the case of the first stage of such an impulse turbine in which the first stator is
actually a nozzle. If the fluid enters the stator with negligible velocity and is accelerated to a
velocity tJI , the efficiency of the stage can be defined as the ratio of the power produced by the
stage to the kinetic energy of the fluid stream entering the stage, viz.

(Wshaft ),ev
1Jslage

_ _-::Q::;..=_D

&,2

rh_1
2

4AQ AQ

Ll"bLl",1

cos PI

&,2
I

(15B.4)

Ch. IS Pg. 103

where we have made use of the fact that cos /32 = cos ( K

/31 ) = - cos /31 .

Then from the velocity diagrams of Figure ISB.3

4l?b
(
) 4l?b ( cos a -l?b
(ISB.S)
=2 ~ cos a l -l?b = l ~
~
~
For maximum stage efficiency at a fixed exit angle from the stator, there is a particular
relationship between the tangential component of blade velocity and the velocity at exit from the
stator. This relationship can be determined by forming the derivative of equation (ISB.S) with
respect to the ratio blbl and setting it equal to zero, viz.
1]stoge

l?b
4cosal-8-=0

d (1]stoge )

d(~J

(ISB.6)

Then at maximum stage efficiency

l?b

cosa

- = - -l

(ISB.7)

Then the maximum stage efficiency becomes

(1]stoge)

ma;(

(ISB.8)

= cos a l

Equation (ISB.8) implies that a'i = 0 for maximum stage efficiency, but this is an absurd result
from a practical point of view since the fluid exiting the stator at this angle would be unable to
enter the rotor since it would be traveling parallel to it. At this angle, the optimum ratio of blade
velocity to fluid velocity is 0.5.
From practical considerations, the stator exit angle in steam turbines is usually set
between ISo and 20. For a'i = ISo, bIb) = 0.483 and (1]srage)max = 0.933. For the case of
maximum stage efficiency with a') = ISo and /32 = 180 - /3), it turns out that the absolute
velocity of the fluid leaving the stage is purely axial as shown in Figure ISB.4 and that tan /3) =
2tan a') with /3) = 28.2.

Figure ISB.4 Velocity Diagram for Maximum Stage Efficiency with

a')

= ISO

Ch. 15 Pg. 104

If we were to assume that the flow in the stator is reversible and adiabatic, the first law
applied to the stator gives

h - h
ill

ollr

= tJ,~,r _ l?;;,
2

(15B.9)

If the inlet velocity is negligible, equation (15B.9) becomes

~ =~2 (hill -

(l5B.10)

hour)

If we combine equations (l5B.1O) and (15B.7) and solve for (fb at maximum efficiency, we get

tJ.

l
= cosa
2"'2(h

/11

- h

our

l ~2(f).h)
= cosa
2

(15B.ll)

where ll.h is the drop in enthalpy of the working fluid as it flows through the ideal impulse stage.
Figure 15B.5 is a plot of equation (l5B.11) for the case of a) = 15.
The utility of Figure 15B.5 lies in the fact that steam turbines are limited by the high
stresses induced by high blade velocities rather than by fluid compressibility limits as in the case
of axial flow air compressors. If, for example, stress considerations limit the tangential velocity
of the blade depicted in Figure 15B.5 to a value of (fb =400 mlsec, the maximum allowable
enthalpy drop across the reversible stage would be ll.h = 343 kJlkg according to Figure 15B.5.
450.----.~---,----~----~-----r-----.-----r----~

400
350
300

l?b
(mlsec) 250
200

150
100

50

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

M (kJlkg)

Figure 15B.5 Blade Tangential Velocity for an Ideal Impulse Stage

at Maximum Blade Efficiency with a) = 15

400

Ch. 15 Pg. 105

A typical inlet state for the steam turbine would be Till =565 C and Pin = 107 N/m2. Then from the
properties of the pure substance model for H2 0, the outlet pressure for this isentropic stage would
be Paul = 3.5 X 106 N/m 2 This results in a pressure ratio of Pi/Polll = 2.86 across the stage. The
speed of sound in the steam at outlet from the stage is aOIl/ = 610.7 rnIsec. This results in a blade
Mach number of Mblade = 0.65 at the mean diameter which is a reasonable value. (In low pressure
steam turbines, it is not uncommon for the lowest pressure stages with the longest blades for the
blade tip Mach number to be as large as 1.2.) Note that in this example the absolute velocity of
the fluid exiting the nozzle is 828.16 rnIsec. Then the Mach number at exit of the supersonic
nozzle is Mllowe = 1.36. The velocity along the rotor blades is ~I = ~2 =453.59 rnIsec and the
Mach number is Mr =0.743.

15B.3 Reaction Blade Design

We now take up the case of the reaction stage in which there is a pressure drop across the
moving blade in addition to that across the stator. As a result, the passage between two blades is
actually a moving nozzle. The stator forms a stationary nozzle with a portion of the total pressure
drop of the stage while the rest of the stage pressure drop occurs across the blade. The turbine
literature is somewhat divided on the point of view of what actually constitutes a pure reaction
stage. Some investigators divide the total pressure drop of the stage equally between the stator
and rotor while others divide the total enthalpy drop of the stage equally between the stator and
rotor. In the present treatment, we shall develop the analysis in terms of the enthalpy drop.
Consider the case of a reaction blade designed with the velocity diagram shown in Figure
15B.6. The entering relative velocity has no tangential component and the blade is symmetrical
with I = ~ and P2 = 1800 - I. The stator directs the flow onto the rotor at an angle of I with
the tangential direction and with an absolute velocity of 1 The relative velocity at entrance to
the blade is axial and the blade tangential velocity is 0b = 01cos I.

Figure 15B.6 Velocity Diagram for a Symmetrical Reaction Blade with Maximum Efficiency
For reversible adiabatic flow across the blade, the first law for a control volume attached
to the blade gives
h

tJ~
2 -2

h _ tJ;2

1-''2-

(15B.12)

With the aid of Figure 15B.6, equation (15B.12) becomes

h _

1.
1''2

Ao2
= OJAo2 cos 2 a l = _u,_"

(15B.13)

Ch. 15 Pg. 106

The shaft power associated with this ideal reaction blade is
2
(~'lraft )rev = ml9" t9j cos a l = mt9j2 cos a] = 2m (~ - ~ )

(I5B.14)

Q=O

Then the efficiency of this blade is by definition

("'Shaft )rev

71""","

m( ~ + (h,Q~It,})

2 cos 2 a

1+ cos' a;

(15B.15)

For a fluid entry angle of 15, equation (I5B.15) gives a blade efficiency of 1Jb/ade = 0.965.
If the blade tangential velocity is limited to rJb = 400 m/sec from stress considerations as
in the case of the impulse blade, the maximum enthalpy drop across the blade that can be utilized
is from equation (I5B.13) hi - h2 = 80 kJ/kg. If this is combined with the enthalpy drop in the
nozzle,

ho -

~ = t9j2 = .!.(~J2 = .!.(400 m/~ec)2 = 85.74 kJ/kg

2

2 cosal

cos15

(I5B.16)

we have (Ilh)sfage = 165.74 kJ/kg which is about half that of the impulse stage at the same
conditions of blade stress which reduces the pressure ratio of the reaction stage considerably
compared with that of the impulse stage.
The performance of reaction blade designs compared with the impulse blade design
depends heavily upon the relative balance between the enthalpy drop in the stator (nozzle) and
that in the rotor. The enthalpy drop in the rotor is a function of the blade efficiency and the blade
tangential velocity. For maximum stage efficiency with a given tangential blade velocity, there is
a unique discharge velocity from the rotor, and, hence, enthalpy drop across the stage. To
illustrate this point, let us consider a reaction blade design in which the flow of the fluid is
reversible and adiabatic throughout with /32 = 180 - (XI. The fluid enters the stator with
negligible velocity in state 0 and expands to the pressure at entry to the rotor in state 1.
Subsequently, the fluid expands in a reversible and adiabatic manner through the rotor to the
discharge pressure in state 2. We define the degree of reaction of the design to be n where

n=~

-~

(I5B.17)

ho-~

that is, the ratio of the enthalpy drop in the rotor to the total enthalpy drop in the stage. Referring
to the velocity diagram of Figure 15B.3, we find the shaft power produced in the stage is given
by

("'Shaft )rev
= m19b (~I - ~2) = ml9" (t9j COS a l - 192COS a 2)
Q=O
(",Shaft) rev = m19b ( t9j COS a
Q=O

l -

19b + 19r2 COS a l )

(I5B.18)

The velocity at discharge from the stator is determined from the first law applied to the control
volume containing the stator, viz.
t9j = .Jr-2(-ho---~-) = ~2(1- n )(ho -~) = 193 .Jl-n

(15B.19)

where n :0; 1 and rJ3 is the velocity at discharge from the reversible adiabatic expansion across the
whole stage, viz.
(I5B.20)

Ch. 15 Pg. 107

From the first law applied to the rotor blade, we have

tJ.2

tJ.2

tJ.2

tJ.2

1J;2

--.!1..=.....!:L+(~-h-J=.....!:L+n(h _~)=.....!:L+n_3

(l5B.21)
2
2
2
0
2
2
where we have made use of equation (15B.20). Using the velocity diagram of Figure 15B.3,
equation (l5B.21) can be written in the form

tJ!2

=~2 + tJ; - 2~~ cosal + ntJ32 =tJ: + tJ; - 2tJb~.JI-n

(l5B.22)

We can now use equations (l5B.19) and (l5B.22) to eliminate {)I and {)r2 from equation
(l5B.18). Then
(Wshaft

)(5:0 = mlJ" [tJ3 (~)cosal -

tJb + (cosal ) JtJ3 + tJ; -

2tJb~ (cosal)~ ]

(15B.23)

Then the stage efficiency becomes

17stage

b
tJ3

b
tJ3

2tJ- [ "l-ncosa
r;-tJ (
)
=
l --+ cosal

(l5B.24)

Figure 15B.7 is a plot of equation (l5B.24) and clearly shows that as the degree of reaction
increases, Le., as the enthalpy drop in the rotor increases relative to that in the stator, the
maximum efficiency decreases and the ratio {)/{)3 at which the maximum occurs increases.

0.9

" "
" "

0.8

""

0.7
0.6

1]stage

""
"
n=O.5" "
" "

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

o0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

&b
&3
Figure 15B.7 Dependence of Stage Efficiency on Degree of Reaction for Reaction Blade Design

Ch. 15 Pg. 108

For maximum stage efficiency, the absolute velocity at exit from the blade must be axial.
It should be noted that the ideal impulse stage considered here (n = 0) is different from
the one described in Section 15B.2. For the impulse stage of Section 15B.2, /32 = 180 0 - /31 and
there was no axial thrust. In the case of this impulse stage, /32 = 1800 - a'i and there is an axial
thrust. In the impulse stage design (n = 0), -br2 = -brl. In the reaction stage design, (n = 0.5) ~2 >
-brl. From Figure 15B.7, it is apparent that in the reaction stage design (n = 0.5), the tangential
blade velocity is about 40 percent greater than it is in the impulse stage design. In both designs,
the discharge velocity from the stage is axial.
ISB.4 Multi-staging
We have shown above, for the cases of reversible adiabatic flow, that the ratio of
tangential blade velocity to the discharge velocity from the rotor has a particular value for
maximum stage efficiency with a given blade design in a single stage. Due to stress
considerations, the allowable tangential blade velocity is limited which, in turn, limits the
allowable enthalpy drop across the stage for reversible adiabatic operation. The situation is
further exacerbated by the irreversibilities in the flow. These irreversibilities reduce the stage
efficiency as well as the enthalpy drop for a given pressure drop across the stage. One method of
addressing these limits on performance is to stage the drop in enthalpy, or alternatively the drop
in pressure, over a number of successive stages.
For example, for equal stage efficiencies, four stages with equal drops in enthalpy in each
stage will reduce the required tangential blade velocity by a factor of two compared with a single
stage. In addition, the in the presence of irreversibilities, the enthalpy at entrance to each
succeeding stage will be higher than in the reversible case which in turn provides an opportunity
for greater discharge velocities; however, the increase in entropy in each succeeding stage
gradually reduces performance with each successive stage so that overall performance is reduced.
However, as we saw for the case of the gas turbine, the loss in performance due to
irreversibilities in the multi-stage machine is not so large as the loss in the single-stage machine.
Furthermore, the reduction in velocity level in each stage reduces fluid friction which, in turn,
reduces the loss of stage efficiency due to this factor. Finally, in the multi-stage machine, the
pressure drop across each stage is smaller so that leakage losses between stages are reduced.
Typically in large mUlti-stage turbines, impulse blade designs are used in the high
pressure stages because of their ability to utilize large drops in enthalpy with good efficiency at
moderate tangential blade velocities. On the other hand, the larger leakage areas and lower
enthalpy drops with good efficiency make the reaction blade design the choice for low pressure
stages.
ISB.S Reheat Factor
The pressure ratios of typical large steam turbines used in central power plants can be
quite large and may attain values of 103 or greater. In a manner similar to the case of the gas
turbine, the expansion of the working fluid in the steam turbine does not occur in a single stage,
but rather in multiple stages for the reasons given in the previous section. As a result, the
pressure ratios across the various stages that make up the machine are only a fraction of that of
the entire machine, and the expansion process in the steam turbine is not quite as shown in Figure
15.21. The process is more like that depicted in Figure 15B.8.

Ch. 15 Pg. 109

Figure 15B.8 Schematic Representation of Multi-Stage Expansion in a Steam Turbine

Figure 15B.8 shows just two stages in a multi-stage turbine. Due to irreversibilities in
both the stator (nozzle) and the rotor, the entropy of the working fluid increases as it passes
through each stage. Because the isobars diverge on the h-s plane as the entropy increases, the
potential enthalpy drop across each succeeding stage is higher than it would have been at the
original value of entropy. Thus the potential enthalpy drop for reversible operation of a multistage machine with N stages, is higher than the enthalpy drop for a single stage machine. Thus, in
Figure 15B.8
(15B.25)
N

The irreversible, adiabatic multi-stage expansion has the appearance of a multi-stage expansion
in which the working fluid experiences a positive heat transfer between each stage. In other
words, the fluid appears to have been reheated between two successive stages. This leads to an
expression of the inequality (15B.25) in terms of the parameter known as the reheat/actor, RF,
defined as
N

I(~h )i.rev

RF =--!.i_ _ __
(15B.26)
(hin - h01l1 ) rev
where (flh)i.rev is the reversible, adiabatic enthalpy drop for stage i and (hill - holll)rev is the
reversible, adiabatic enthalpy drop for the given inlet state and the given outlet pressure for the
turbine. Clearly, the reheat factor is greater than unity with typical values in the range of 1.03 to
1.08. There is a relationship between the reheat factor and the adiabatic efficiency.
Since the adiabatic efficiency TJ+ for the turbine can be written
N

TJ

= ( hin -h

Ollt

)actual

(hin -hout )rev

( hIn -h) actual

I(M
)i.rev
i

f(~h)i.rev

(hin -holll)rev

Ollt

(15B.27)

Ch. 15 Pg. 110

the turbine adiabatic efficiency for the case of identical stages with identical enthalpy drops for
each stage becomes
(15B.28)
where l7P is the polytropic efficiency, i.e., the stage efficiency, originally introduced in equation
(15.68). Equation (15B.28) can be used to determine the power output for the turbine, viz.

WSllUft = m[ 17+ (hill -

hollr )rev ]

=m[ l7p (RF) (hill -

hollr )rev ]

(15B.29)

From equation (15B.29) it would appear that we would want the value of RF to be as large as
possible; however, the irreversible processes that increase the value of RF are precisely the
processes that decrease the value of l7p. It turns out that for maximum turbine output for a given
inlet state, the most desirable situation is to have the values of both l7P and RF be as close to
unity as possible. This point can be illustrated as follows.
If we examine the behavior of the pure substance model for H 20, we find that in the
superheat region, along isotropes, i.e., paths of states with the same value for the specific
entropy, the data can be fit with the expression p~ =constant where n > 1 but not equal to the
ratio of the specific heats, c~cv. For example, a typical state at entrance to a modern steam
turbine might be Pill = 2 X 107 N/m2 and Till = 600 C. The value of the specific entropy is Sill =
6.5075 kJ/kg K. The locus of states with the same value of specific entropy would appear as in
Figure 15B.9.
2.107

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08
0.1
3
v (m /kg)

Figure 15B.9 Locus of States of H20 with S

0.12

0.14

0.16

=6.5075 kJ/kg

Figure 15B.9 actually also shows a curve fit Pv" = constant with n = 1.284 superimposed on the
data, but the precision of the fit is so high, the two plots are indistinguishable. Then we can use
equation (15.69) to quantify equation (15B.28) within the limits of the ideal gas model curve fit
shown in Figure 15B.9. A plot of the result is shown in Figure 15B.1O with P/P2 the pressure
ratio across a typical stage.

Ch. 15 Pg. 111

1.08

,...-------r----,-----.,------r---,---.,.------,.----r---.,

1.06

RF
1.04

TIp = 0.90
1.02

I I

10

~
Figure 15B.1O Reheat Factor for Ideal Gas Model for Superheated Steam

Figure 15B.1O and equation (15B.29) together clearly show that although the reheat factor
increases with increasing irreversibility, the polytropic efficiency decreases faster and the
performance of the turbine declines.

Ch. 15 Pg. 112

PROBLEMS

15.1 The steady-state operating conditions of a water-cooled air compressor are shown in Figure
15P.1. The heat transfer between the compressor and the environment is negligible. If kinetic and
potential energy effects are neglected, determine the power required to drive the compressor. The
air can be modeled as an ideal gas with c = 716 J/kg K and R = 287 J/kg K. The cooling water
can be modeled as an incompressible fluid with c = 4187 J/kg K and p= 1000 kg/m3.
y

ilirili

p=

air oot

loS ~/m2

.P = 7 X 10 Nlrn
T = 302 C

T = 21 C

Ii - 1. T'i?ts

Cmnpressor

,ooolhllg water Jll

T
f1Z

cooSing ",'ateif' out

T : 40C

15C
;:;; 4 kgJs
~

W.$I'tllfl

Figure 15P. l Water-cooled Air Compressor

15.2 A steady flow pump receives saturated liquid H2 0 at T) = 25 C. The pump delivers the
liquid at a pressure of P 2 =7 X 106 N/m2
(a) Determine the shaft work transfer rate per unit mass flow rate if the pump is reversible
and adiabatic.
(b) Estimate the outlet temperature from the pump if the efficiency is 17- = 0.5. (State
clearly the model used for the constitutive relation for the fluid.)
(c) Repeat parts (a) and (b) for a pump discharge state with the exit 400 m above the
pump inlet and a pressure at the elevated exit of P 2 = 7 X 106 N/m2
15.3 The centrifugal air compressor is an alternate design for the compressor section of a gas
turbine engine, particularly a small engine of low power output. This design operates in much the
same manner as the centrifugal pump discussed in Chapter 15. In a particular application, the
centrifugal air compressor of a gas turbine engine receives air from the ambient atmosphere
where the pressure is PI =9 X 104 N/m2 and the temperature is T) =27 C. At the discharge of the
compressor, the pressure is P 2 = 3.7 X 105 N/m2 , the temperature is T2 = 205 C, and the velocity is
b2 = 100 mlsec. The mass flow rate into the compressor is a steady ni = 20 kg/sec.
(a) If the air can be modeled as an ideal gas with constant specific heats Cp and c y ,
determine the power required to drive the compressor.
(b) Determine the adiabatic efficiency, 170 of the compressor.

15.4 In the gas processing industry, nitrogen is separated from atmospheric air as a saturated
liquid at a pressure of PI = 105 N/m2 The nitrogen is then stored as a liquid until needed. The
liquid is then vaporized and pumped into tanks for distribution at P 3 = 2 X 107 N/m2 and T3 = 27

Ch. 15 Pg. 113

C for use in industrial facilities, welding operations, etc. Three schemes have been suggested for
the vaporization and tank charging process as shown in Figure 15P.4. The first involves
compressing the liquid from PI = 105 N/m 2 to P2 = 2 X 107 N/m 2 with a reversible, adiabatic
pump and then vaporizing the high pressure liquid by heat transfer with the atmosphere. The
second scheme involves first vaporizing the liquid and then compressing the gas in a reversible,
adiabatic compressor so that the gas leaves the compressor at P3 = 2 X 107 N/m2 and T3 = 27 C.
Finally, the third scheme involves vaporizing the liquid to produce a gas at P2 = 105 N/m2 and T2
= 27 C and subsequently compressing the gas to P 3 = 2 X 107 N/m2 in a reversible isothermal
compressor.
(a) Determine the heat transfer and work transfer per unit mass of nitrogen in each of the
schemes suggested.
(b) Which scheme requires the minimum work transfer and why?

Schelnr 4'1

......--w

Ql'

P = 2 X 10 i Nlmt
T ~ 27C

Figure 15P.4(a) Nitrogen Liquid Pump-Vaporizer System

2 X no' Nlm2

21 (;

Figure 15P.4(b) Nitrogen Vaporizer-Adiabatic Compressor System

Ch. 15 Pg. 114

Scheme II)

sail I.I.q,N2., :J W S N/lm2

!~~~~ p = lOS Nlm2

P=2 X 50 7 N/m2
]'= 27 'C

Figure 15P.4(c) Nitrogen Vaporizer-Isothermal Compressor System

15.5 Internal combustion engines such as those used to power automobiles and some trucks are
basically a collection of piston-cylinder apparatuses much like those we have discussed
previously. They can be modeled according to a cycle developed in the late 19th century by an
engineer named Otto. During the cycle, the pressure inside the cylinder varies as the piston
moves back and forth between the limits of its travel. Analysis of the Otto cycle shows that the
power output of the engine is a function of the mean effective pressure inside the cylinder during
the cycle.
In an effort to keep the size and mass of the vehicles as small as possible so that fuel
efficiency can be as high as possible, thermal-fluids engineers are working to increase the power
density (power per unit volume or power per unit mass) of the engine. One of the means of doing
this is to increase the mean effective pressure inside the cylinder by increasing the inlet pressure
to the engine through a device known as a supercharger. Superchargers are nothing more than air
compressors mounted in the inlet air stream to the engine, and they can be powered by means of
a shaft driven by the engine itself or by means of a small turbine that utilizes the "waste" energy
in the exhaust stream from the engine. The later design is known as a "turbo-charger."
The compressor of a turbo-charger shown in Figure 15P.5 has an inlet flow rate of ni =
3
7.5 m /min of air as measured at the inlet condition of PI = 1.013 X 105 N/m2 and TI =288 K.
The compressor has a pressure ratio of P / PI = 1.5 and an adiabatic shaft work efficiency of 1Jc =
0.80. The compressor is driven directly by an exhaust turbine with an adiabatic shaft work
efficiency of 1JT = 0.70. The turbo-charger and engine are arranged so that they work on the
"constant pressure system" which means both turbine and compressor operate under conditions
of steady flow. The turbine pressure ratio is the same as that for the compressor and the mass of
engine fuel may be neglected. Calculate the inlet temperature to the turbine and the power
produced by the turbine. Assume air and exhaust gas can be modeled as an ideal gas with Y= 1.4
and R = 287 J/kg K.

Ch. 15 Pg. 115

P2

Figure 15P.5 Schematic of Automotive Turbo-charger

15.6 In the present energy market, it is common for power plants to adjust their output to meet
the varying demand for energy. One simple way to do this is to install a throttle valve on the inlet
side of the turbine and drop the pressure at the turbine inlet to reduce the power output as
required. One problem with this method is that it generates a lot of entropy which degrades
overall performance of the plant.
As shown in Figure 15P.6, H 20 is supplied to the throttle valve at a pressure of PI = 3 X
105 N/m2 and a temperature of TI = 540 C. The turbine has an adiabatic efficiency of 0.90. The
condenser operates at a constant pressure of P 3 = 3 X 103 N/m2 and discharges saturated liquid
H 20 at all operating conditions. The temperature of the cooling water at entrance to the
condenser is T cwill = 17 C and at exit is Tcw.(}I11 = 22 C.
(a) Calculate the mass flow rate of H20 through the turbine for a power output of 100
MW at full throttle (no pressure drop across the valve).
(b) What is the mass flow rate of cooling water for the full load condition?
(c) The throttle is adjusted so that the pressure at inlet to the turbine is P 2 = 2 X 105 N/m2
and the mass flow rate through the turbine is reduced to 75 % of the mass flow rate at full load.
Calculate the turbine power output at this throttle setting.
(d) Calculate the cooling water flow rate for this new throttle setting.
(e) Calculate the rate of entropy generation due to the change in throttle setting.
(f) How does this entropy generation impact on plant performance?

Ch. 15 Pg. 116

Throttle valve

t-..... Wturbine
Cooling water out
r-------,....~-- Cooling water in
Condenser

....
-~-------j-7.....,~ Sat. Liquid
P3
P3
Figure 15P.6 Throttled Steam Turbine

15.7 As a consulting engineer, you are asked to specify the installation of a steam-powered turbo
compressor unit for a large industrial plant. The purpose of the plant is to provide moderately
high pressure air to operate air-actuated assembly line components and general service air for the
plant. The two-stage centrifugal compressor is fitted with a combined intercooler and aftercooler
as shown in the sketch below. The air leaving the first stage of the compressor at a pressure of PI
= 3.873 x lOS N/m2 enters the intercooler where it is cooled to a temperature of T, = 300 K. The
air then returns to the compressor where it is further compressed to a pressure of Pair,oul = 1.5 X
106 N/m2 The air then enters the aftercooler where it is cooled to a temperature of Tair,o//I = 300 K.
The volume flow rate from the aftercooler at the pressure of P air,0111 = 1.5 X 106 N/m 2 and the
temperature of Tair,o//I = 300 K is V = 104 m 3/hr. The steam used as the working fluid in the turbine
component enters the turbine at a pressure of PSleam,ill = 2 X 106 N/m2 and a temperature of TSleam,ill
= 400 C and exits at a pressure of PSleam,olll = 105 N/m2 The adiabatic efficiencies of the turbine
and each stage of the compressor are 1]T =0.9 and 1]c =0.85, respectively. Cooling water enters
the intercooler/aftercooler at a temperature of T ew,ill = 20 C and exits at a temperature of TclV,olll =
25 C.
The air entering the compressor can be modeled as an ideal gas with R = 287 J/kg K and
5
2
C p = 1003 J/kg K in state T alm = 300 K and Palm = 10 N/m The cooling water in the intercooler
can be modeled as an incompressible fluid with P ew = 1000 kg/m3 and cew = 4187 J/kg K.
(a) On a T-s diagram for air, show the states of the air as it passes through the compressor
and intercooler/aftercooler.
(b) Determine the mass flow rate of steam required to power this unit.
(c) Determine the mass flow rate of cooling water through the intercooler/aftercooler
necessary to achieve the operation described.

Ch. 15 Pg. 117

Steam in

Turbine

Intercooler/ Aftercooler
Airout 4--1

Cooling water
in
out
Figure 15P.7 Steam-powered Turbo Compressor
15.8 A steam power plant has a steam generator that operates at a supercritical pressure of 25 x
106 N/m 2 As shown in Figure 15P.8, the feed water pump supplies the steam generator with H20
at this pressure by pumping saturated liquid H 20 from the condenser at a pressure of 104 N/m2
The adiabatic shaft efficiency of the pump is TJp = 0.70. The feed water pump is powered by a
small adiabatic steam turbine that utilizes steam that has been throttled to a pressure of P 3 = 106
N/m2 from the steam supply at a pressure of Psupply = 3 X 106 N/m2 and a temperature of 540 C.
The turbine exhausts the steam at a pressure of P 4 = 104 N/m2 The adiabatic shaft efficiency of
the turbine is TJT =0.90.
Saturated liquid
PI = 104N/m2
= 1 kg/sec

mp

P 2 = 25 x 106 N/m2

Psupply

= 3 X 106 N/m 2

Tsupply

= 540 C

P4 = 104N/m2
T =? kg/sec

Figure 15P.8 Turbine Driven Feed Pump

Ch. 15 Pg. 118

(a) Show the processes in the turbine on a T-s diagram. Clearly identify the inlet and
outlet states and their orientation to the locus of saturated states.
(b) Show the processes in the feed water pump on the same T-s diagram. Clearly identify
the inlet and outlet states and their orientation to the locus of saturated states.
(c) For a turbine shaft power output of 1 W, calculate the mass flow rate of steam through
the turbine.
(d) Use the result of part (c) above to estimate the mass flow rate (kg/sec) of steam
through the turbine per unit mass flow rate (kg/sec) of H20 through the feed water pump.

15.9 An ideal gas (y= 1.4) flows through a three-stage axial flow air compressor that has the
following stage pressure ratios and adiabatic efficiencies:
Stage

Pressure
Ratio

Adiabatic
Efficiency

1.6

0.87

1.4

0.89

1.3

0.90

(a) Calculate the overall pressure ratio and the overall adiabatic efficiency of the
compressor.
(b) Assuming that the polytropic efficiency is constant for all three stages, calculate the
polytropic efficiency.
(c) Consider the case in which the temperature ratios and the adiabatic efficiencies of the
individual stages are identical and the overall temperature ratio is the same as that above.
Compare the resulting stage efficiency with the polytropic efficiency.

15.10 The degree of reaction, n, of an axial compressor stage can be defined as the enthalpy
increase across the rotor divided by the enthalpy increase across the stage, viz.

n=(~-hl)
(~ -hi)

where the subscripts 1, 2, and 3 denote the state at entrance to the rotor, the state at exit from the
rotor and at entrance to the stator, and the state at exit from the stator, respectively.
(a) Starting with equation (15.53) and Figure 15.5 and the fact that the absolute axial
velocity is constant through the machine (Dol = Da2 = ""), show that

tJrl 2 - tJr2 2
n = ---'-'--"":"':""2Rw ( lJ,2 -lJ,I)
and
_ 1 ( tan P2 - tan a l ) tJa
n - -+....:....--~--~...::...
2
2Rw
(b) For an axial flow compressor with a ratio of hub radius to tip radius of 0.6 and the
following conditions at the mean radius:
and
calculate PI and n at the tip radius if if, 0< r- I

n=0.5

and

Ch. IS Pg. 119

15.11 Steam at a pressure of PI = 6 X 105 and a temperature of TI = 220 C flows through a nozzle
to a pressure of P2 = 105 N/m2 The mass flow rate through the nozzle is ni = S kg/sec and the
nozzle efficiency is TJN = 0.96. The velocity of the H20 at inlet is negligible compared to the
velocity at exit.
(a) Calculate the exit velocity of the H20 assuming that the H20 is in a uniform state.
(b) Is there any liquid in the exit stream? If so, estimate the droplet size assuming
homogeneous nucleation.
(c) Think about the motion of the droplets in the vapor medium. Under what conditions
would the droplets travel at the same velocity as the vapor?
(d) We would like to estimate the Mach number of the exit stream. The software used to
generate the thermal-fluid properties of H20 calculates the speed of sound by forming the
derivative

but lacking this software we can estimate the speed of sound in the vapor phase by modeling the
vapor as an ideal gas (not a very good model for the saturated vapor) and calculating the speed of
sound accordingly. If we model the H2 0 vapor as an ideal gas, it turns out that Y= 1.3363 and R
= 461.S2 J/kg K. Use this information to estimate the speed of sound and the Mach number in the
vapor in the exit stream. Compare this estimated value of the speed of sound with the value from
the pure substance model: a = 472.0 rnIsec.
(e) Calculate the cross-sectional area of flow at the nozzle exit.

15.12 Consider a rocket engine shown schematically in Figure ISP.12. In a static test firing of the
engine, a force S; known as the thrust force of the engine, must be applied to the housing of the
engine to maintain it in static equilibrium. The engine generates gas steadily at stagnation
conditions of Po and To, and these gases pass to the atmosphere, whose static pressure is Palm'
through a nozzle with throat area AI' At the exit plane of the nozzle, the area is Ae and the
pressure is P e Except under operating conditions far from the design point, sonic conditions
occur at the throat and the flow throughout the nozzle is isentropic.
(a) Show that the thrust is given by
g = rhtJe + Ae (~ - [>,.,m )
where ni is the mass flow rate of gas through the nozzle and ~ is the velocity of the exhaust gas
at the exit plane.
(b) Show that the thrust can be cast in the dimensionless form

~ =y
Po A,

_2 (_2J~:: 1- (P Jr;1
y-1

y+l

e
Po

+ Ae

(Pe - [>,.,m J

A, Po

Figure ISP.12 Schematic of Rocket Engine

Po

Ch. 15 Pg. 120

15.13 A child's toy is a small vehicle of mass M = 0.5 kg mounted on four wheels. The shape of
the vehicle consists of a body of revolution with a cross-sectional diameter D = 5 cm and a drag
coefficient of CD = 0.15. The rolling resistance exclusive of aerodynamic drag is negligible. The
vehicle is powered by the contents of a small cylinder initially containing a mass of rno = 12 gm
of saturated CO2 under pressure at a temperature of To = 20 C. The cylinder volume is V = 14 ml
(1 ml = 10- 3 Liter; 1 L = 103 cm3). The vehicle is set in motion by instantaneously piercing the
end of the cylinder with a hole of diameter d = 1.6 mm. The CO2 exits through this hole at sonic
velocity.
(a) Describe an appropriate model for the state of the contents of the cylinder as a
function of time after it is pierced.
(b) Estimate the speed of the vehicle after it has traveled 30 m.
(c) What mass of CO2 remains in the cylinder after the vehicle has traveled 30 m?
The following table gives some properties of CO2 under saturation conditions. Other
properties can be found in the tabulation of thermal-fluid properties and at the NIST website
http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistrvlfluidl
Temperature (C)

Pressure (MPa)

Vapor Density (kg/m3)

Vapor Speed of Sound (m/sec)

-20.000

1.9696

51.700

220.41

-15.000

2.2908

60.728

218.85

-10.000

2.6487

71.185

216.94

-5.0000

3.0459

83.359

214.68

0.00000

3.4851

97.647

212.04

5.0000

3.9695

114.621

208.97

10.000

4.5022

135.156

205.41

15.000

5.0871

160.730

201.21

20.000

5.7291

194.202

196.09

25.000

6.4342

242.732

189.12

30.000

7.2137

345.102

171.26

15.10 One method of producing liquid nitrogen is the Joule-Thomson liquefier shown in Figure
15P.1O. Nitrogen gas at a pressure of PI = 107 N/m2 and a temperature of TI = 300 K flows at a
rate of VI = 10 m 3/min (measured at lOS N/m2) through the heat exchanger which can be modeled
as a constant pressure device. The high-pressure discharge from the heat exchanger flows through
the Joule-Thomson valve where its pressure is reduced to P3 = lOS N/m2 Some of the N2 in state
3 is liquid and is collected in the storage Dewar. The vapor discharged from the J -T valve is
directed back through the heat exchanger. The exhaust stream from the heat exchanger is at the
temperature Ts = 297 K. State 6 is saturated liquid nitrogen.
(a) Determine the rate m6 at which liquid nitrogen is delivered by this system in the steady
state.
(b) Plot the temperature difference in the heat exchanger vs. the temperature of the low

Ch. 15 Pg. 121

pressure stream in the heat exchanger.

(c) Determine the rate of entropy generation in the heat exchanger and show how it could
be reduced.
(d) Show how m6 is affected if the rate of entropy generation in the heat exchanger is
reduced.

Heat
Exchanger

Storage Dewar

Figure 15P.1O Simple louIe-Thomson Liquefier

Ch. 17 Pg. 1

Chapter 17
Chemical Behavior of Thermal-Fluid Systems
17.1

Introduction

We now take up the situation in which a thermal-fluid system is comprised of several

different components that can undergo chemical reactions that alter the composition of the
system. Our objective in this case is to determine the manner in which the thermodynamic state
of the system affects the composition as well as the manner in which the composition, in turn,
affects the magnitudes of the interactions between the system and its environment. We shall use
the second law to determine the composition and the first law to determine the magnitudes of the
interactions. As an outgrowth of this study, we shall examine the behavior of ideal gas mixtures
and mixtures of an ideal gas and a condensible vapor. Finally, we shall consider systems in the
liquid phase that form solutions of varying composition.

17.2

Chemical Equilibrium

We first consider the case of a system consisting of a single phase in which a single
reaction can occur. We represent this reaction by a chemical equation of the form
viR, +v2R2 + ... +vjRj ~ vj+,Pj + ... +vJ~.
(17.1)
where R, ... Rj are the reactants and Pj +, ... Pc are the products of the reaction. The parameters
VI Vc are called the stoichiometric coefficients of the components 1,2, ... c and their values
determine the conservation of atoms of the species involved in the reaction. It is important to
note that in writing the chemical equation in this manner, the stoichiometric coefficients of the
components that are formed as the reaction proceeds to the right have positive sign while those of
the reactants, i.e., those components consumed in the reaction, are assumed to be negative.
We now introduce the Law of Definite Proportions which states that the increase in mass
of a component i being formed in a reaction is proportional to its molecular mass M j and its
stoichiometric coefficient V; in the reaction. For each of the c components in the reaction, there is
a mathematical expression of the law of the form
mj _m jO = vjMjq
(17.2)
where (is the extent of reaction or the reaction coordinate. At the time t =0, (= 0, and the
initial mass of component i is mj o. When (= 1, v, ... ~ kmoles of RI ... Rj reactants have been
converted into ~+I Vc kmoles of Pj +, ...Pc As the system passes from (= to (= 1, one
equivalent reaction has occurred.
If we sum all equations of the form (17.2) for the reaction, we obtain the conservation of
mass, viz.
(17.3)
"v.M
~,
,. =0

If we differentiate equations (17.2) with respect to time, we obtain

dm j =v.M. dq
dt
"
dt

(17.4)

which can be also expressed as

d q dm,
dm2
dmc
- = - - = - - = ... = - -

(17.5)

Ch. 17 Pg. 2
where d(jdt is the rate of reaction,

tt, at time t, viz.

&= d~(t)
(17.6)
dt
If we divide each of equations (17.2) through by the appropriate molecular mass, we obtain
equations (17.2) in terms of mole numbers, viz.
(17.7)

where the mole number n; is given by

m.

(17.8)

n.=-'
, M ,.
Then
d ~ = dnI
VI

= dn2 = ... = dnc

V2

(17.9)

Vc

It is often convenient to express the chemical composition of a system in terms of mole fractions,
where the mole fraction of component i, is given by

X;,

x.
,

=..!!:L =
Ln;

n;o + vJ
Ln;o +~Lv;

n;o +v;~
no +v~

where we have introduced the short-hand notation

and

(17.10)

(17.11)

Note that 0 ~ x; ~ 1.
Given the fact that the composition of the single phase system can change as a result of
the single chemical reaction, we are no longer dealing with a simple system. Then the
specification of the state of the system requires the specification of more properties than were
required heretofore. According to the state principle, one additional property is required for each
departure from a simple system. Then for the system of interest, we could specify the state by
specifying the temperature, pressure, and mole numbers, i.e., (T, P, n l , , nc )' or we can make
use of the extent of reaction and specify the state as (T, P, (). Note that since each of these
parameters can be expressed in terms of time, we have
P=P(t) and T=T(t) and ~=~(t)
(17.12)
and the reaction rate becomes

-d~ = tJ(T,P,~) = &(t,~)

(17.13)
dt
17.2.2 Entropy Generation due to Chemical Reactions under Various Conditions
We now introduce the notion of partial equilibrium. The systems of interest in the present
case are in equilibrium with respect to certain properties, such as temperature and pressure, and
there are no irreversibilities associated with changes in these properties. On the other hand, the
system is not in equilibrium with respect to the redistribution of matter among the constituents
susceptible to chemical reaction. The simplest example is a mixture of ideal gases capable of
chemical reaction - an example we shall consider in detail shortly.
For the present, we wish to establish the extremum condition that applies under various
conditions. Then from the first law, we have
dU = 8Q-OW = 8Q-PdV
(17.14)
From the second law, we have

Ch. 17 Pg. 3

oQ

(17.15)

dS =T-OSge"

Substituting equation (17.15) into equation (17.14), we get

dU

= TdS -ToS gen -

PdV

(17.16)

For irreversible reactions at constant S and V, we have

ToS ge"

= -dU > 0

(17.17)

If we apply the Legendre Transformation (cf Chapter 14) to equation (17.17) and replace
the property V with its canonically conjugate property - P, we get the extremum condition for a
system experiencing irreversible chemical reaction at fixed values of Sand P, viz.
ToS gen =-[dU-d(-PV)]=-[d(U+PV)]=-dH >0

(17.18)

where H is the enthalpy.

Similarly, if we apply the Legendre Transformation (cf Chapter 14) to equation (17.17)
and replace the property S with its canonically conjugate property T, we get the extremum
condition for a system experiencing irreversible chemical reaction at fixed values of T and V, viz.
ToS gen

= -[ dU -d (TS)] = -[ d (U -TS)] = -dF > 0

(17.19)

where F is the Helmholtz free energy.

Finally, if we apply the Legendre Transformation (cf Chapter 14) to equation (17.17) and
replace both S and V with their canonically conjugate properties T and - P, we get the extremum
condition for a system experiencing irreversible chemical reaction at fixed values of T and P, viz.
ToS ge"

= -[ dU -d (TS)-d (-PV)] = -[d(U -TS + PV)] = -dG > 0

(17.20)

where G is the Gibbs free energy.

In practice it is most commonly the case that chemical reactions occur in systems with
environments that can be modeled as combined heat and work reservoirs so that equation (17.20)
is the extremum condition of greatest interest. Equation (17.20) states that for a system at
constant T and P, the chemical reaction will proceed in the direction that results in a minimum
value of the Gibbs free energy consistent with the fixed values of T and P.
17.2.3 Entropy Generation and the Affinity of Reaction
Consider a system in which a chemical reaction is the only irreversible change that takes
place with (changing by an amount d( during the time interval dt. Then the rate of entropy
generation by the reaction is given by

(17.21)
where we have introduced A, the affinity of reaction. The concept of the affinity of reaction was
first introduced in 1922 by Theophile De Donder of the University of Brussels as a means of using
the entropy generated in a reaction as the determining factor for chemical equilibrium. In equation
(17.21), inequality corresponds to spontaneous reaction in which entropy is generated as a means
of minimizing the appropriate characteristic thermodynamic function, e.g., Gibbs free energy
under conditions of fixed T and P. Equality in equation (17.21) sets the condition of chemical
equilibrium.
We can combine equations (17.13) and (17.21) in the form
A l? ~ 0

T
such that when:

(17.22)

Ch. 17 Pg. 4
A> 0,1J>

(17.22)
A < 0, 1J<
A =0,1J=0
It follows then that the reaction rate always has the same sign as the affinity, and when chemical
equilibrium prevails, the reaction rate is zero. The necessary and sufficient condition for chemical
equilibrium is then
(17.23)
A(T,P,~)=O
which defines an equilibrium surface on which all the states of thermodynamic and chemical
equilibrium lie.
17.2.4 Affinity and the Characteristic Thermodynamic Functions
From the definition of the affinity and equations (17.17) through (17.20), the differentials
of the characteristic thermodynamic functions for a chemically reacting system become
dU =TdS-PdV -Ad~
(17.24)
dH = TdS+VdP-Ad~

= -SdT - PdV dG = -SdT + VdP -

dF

(17.25)

Ad~

(17.26)

Ad~

(17.27)

For the equilibrium energy surface we have

U=U(S,V,~)

(17.28)

Then the differential is

dU

=(au)

dS +(au) dV
V,~
S,~
Comparing equations (17.24) and (17.29), we find

-(~a"

as

and

av

-p~(~~ ),,'

+(auJ d~
a~

and

(17.29)

s,v

(17.30)

-A-(aUJ

a~

sv

In a similar fashion, we can write

(17.31)
with
dH =(aH)

as

P,~

dS+(aH)

ap

S,~

(17.32)

dP+(aHJ
a~ S ,P

Comparing equations (17.25) and (17.32), we find

T -

(~~

and

~ (~~ )"

and

_(aHJ
a~

(17.33)
S,P

Also, we can write

F = F(T,V,~)

(17.34)

with
dF =(aF)

dT+(aF) dV
V,~
T,~
Comparing equations (17.26) and (17.35), we find

aT

-S

= (aF )

aT

V,~

and

av

_P

= ( aF )

av

T,~

+(aFJ d~
a~

and

(17.35)

T,V

_(aFJ
a~

(17.36)
T,V

Ch. 17 Pg. 5
Finally, we can write

=G(T,P,q)

(17.37)

with

dG = (aG) dT +(aG) dP+(aGJ dq

aT P,~
ap T,~
aq

(17.38)

T,P

Comparing equations (17.27) and (17.38), we find

-S -

(aG)
aT P,~

and

V_(aG)
ap T,~

-A-(aGJ

and

aq

(17.39)
T,P

Thus, we have now established the affinity of reaction in terms of the slope along the reaction
coordinate of the appropriate characteristic thermodynamic function, viz.

A--(auJ __ (aHJ __ (aFJ __ (aGJ

aq

aq

s,v

aq

S,P

aq

T,Y

(17.40)
T,P

17.2.5 The Chemical Potential

Suppose that we now replace the reaction coordinate by the mole numbers in our
specification of the state of the reacting system. Then the equilibrium energy surface is given by
(17.41)
2 , ... c )

U=U(S,V,nl'n

Then the differential becomes

dU=(au) dS+(au) dV+ z:(au)

as
av
an;
V ,II

S,II

dn;

(17.42)

S,V,IIj,j>;

where the subscript n indicates that the nj are all constant which is equivalent to (= constant.
Then from equations (17.30), we have

_(au) =T
(au)
as
as v,~

(17.43)

_(au) __ p
(au)
av
av s,~

(17.44)

V,II

and
S,II

Then equation (17.42) can be written

dU = TdS-PdV + z:(au)
; an.
I

dn;

(17.45)

S,V'''i,j'-'

In a similar fashion, we can derive the exact differentials of the other characteristic
thermodynamic functions

H= H(S,P,nl'n
F= F(T,V ,nl'n
G = G (T, P,nl'n

n
n
n

2 , ...

c )

(17.46)

2 , ...

c)

(17.47)

c)

(17.48)

2 , ...

with

dH = TdS+VdP+ z:(aH)
; an.
I

dn;
S,P ,lIj.j.-;

dF = -SdT - PdV + z:(aF)

; an.
I

(17.49)

dn
T ,V,IIi.i'"

(17.50)

Ch. 17 Pg. 6

dG=-SdT+VdP+

I(aGJ
; an.
I

(17.51)

dn;
TlP,IIJ.J~J

If we now perform a series of Legendre transformations on equation (17.45), we get

I(auJ
; an;
dU -d (TS) ~d (U - TS) ~ dF ~ -SdT - PdV + L( au J
an;

dn;

(17.52)

dni

(17.53)

dU-d(-PV)=d(U+PV)=dH=TdS+VdP+

sv
, , lIj .j~

T.v , II j.j";

dU -d (TS)-d (-PV) =d (U -TS + PV) =dG =-SdT +VdP+

I(auJ
; an.
I

dn; (17.54)
T,P'''j,i_i

Upon comparing equations (17.49) - (17.51) with equations (17.52) - (17.54), we conclude that

auJ
(-an.
I

(aH
an.J

= -S,V '''i ,j#

(aF
an.J

= --

S,P ,IIi ,i _;

(aGJ
an.

= --

T ,V'''i ,j_i

(17.55)
T t P t "j .j~

The result of equation (17.55), led J . Willard Gibbs to introduce the concept of the
chemical potential. In his pioneering work "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances,"
(Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, III. Oct. 1875 - May 1876, pp. 108 - 248 and May
1877 - July 1878, pp. 343 - 544) [cf The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, Vol. 1,
Thermodynamics, Oxbow Press, Woodbridge, CT, 1993.], Gibbs defined the chemical potential as
"the differential coefficient of the energy taken with respect to the variable expressing the quantity
of that substance." Then equation (17.55) becomes

Pi

~(~~ L",~ ~ (~:. t.". ~ (~~ 1,v.;~ ~ (~~ 1""".

(17 .56)

so that equations (17.45) and (17.49) - (17.51) become

dU

= TdS -

PdV + L f.L;dn;

(17.57)

dH

=TdS + VdP + Lf.L;dn;

(17.58)

dF

= -SdT -

dG

= -SdT + VdP + L

PdV + L f.L;dn;

(17.59)
(17 .60)

f.L;dn;

The chemical potential is an intensive property and, as such, can have different values from point
to point within the system boundary provided the system is not too far removed from equilibrium.
We now show the relationship of the affinity of reaction to the chemical potential. From
equation (17.49) we have
A-

(aGJ
a~

(17.61)
T ,P

which, with the aid of equation (17.56), we can now write in the form
A=-

I(aGJ
; an.
I

dn; =-

Iv.(aGJ
an.

d~;

T,P '''i .i_;

=- I v .f.L.

T,P,Ili,j.ai

(17.62)

Ch. 17 Pg. 7

At equilibrium, A = O. Then from equation (17.62), the condition for chemical equilibrium is
IVi,lli =0
(17.63)
Before we can make use of equation (17.63) to determine the relative amounts of the reacting
species present in the equilibrium state, we need to establish the relationship between the
chemical potential and the other thermodynamic properties that establish the equilibrium state. To
this end, we exploit some of the mathematical properties of the thermodynamic functions.
Specifically, we recall Euler's Theorem.
17.2.6 Euler's Theorem
The function f = f(x,y ,z ... ) is said to be homogeneous of degree m in the variables x,y,z ... if
we have identically
(17.64)
f (AX,Ay,AZ, ... ) = Am f (x,y, z, ... )
where A. is an arbitrary constant. If we differentiate equation (17.64) with respect to A., we get
af (AX,Ay,AZ, ... )
af (AX,Ay,AZ, ... )
af (AX,Ay,AZ, ... )
,111-1
(
)
(17.65)
aAX
X+
aAy
. y+
aAZ
'Z"'=m/l" f x,y,z, ...
In particular, in equation (17.65) if A. = 1, we have

af x+ af
ax ay

y+ af Z+"'=mf(x,y,z, ... )

az

Two cases are of particular interest in thermodynamics:

1. Homogeneous functions of the first degree, m = 1.
Then
f (AX,Ay,AZ, ... AW, ... ) = Af (x,y, z, ... w, ... )

(17.66)

(17.67)

and

af
I-w=
f(x,y,z, ... w, ... )
aw

(17.68)

IV

2. Homogeneous functions of the zeroth degree, m

= O.

Then

f (AX,Ay,AZ, ... AW, ... ) = f (x, y,z, ... w, ... )

(17.69)

af
I-w=O
aw

(17.70)

and
IV

17.2.7 Partial Molar Properties

As an example of the utility of Euler's Theorem applied to thermal-fluid systems,
consider the volume of a mUlti-component system at fixed values of T and P. Then we can write
V =V (T,P,nl'n 2, ... nJ
(17.71)
If the system is increased in size A. times, we have
V (T ,P,AnI'An2, ... Anc) = AV (T ,P,nl'n2, ... nJ

(17.72)

Then the volume is homogeneous of the first degree in n!,n2, ... nc' Then by equation (17.68) we
have
(17.73)

If we differentiate equation (17.74) with respect to nj at constant T, P, we get for each value ofj

Ch. 17 Pg. 8

(17.74)
We now introduce the concept of partial molar quantities such that in the parlance of Gibbs the
partial molar property is the differential coefficient of the property taken with respect to the
variable expressing the quantity of that substance. Then the partial molar volume, v;, is defined as

v;=

av)
(ani

Then equation (17.73) becomes

(17.75)
T,P,lIj,j#

v = "n.v.
L..J
I

(17.76)

Equation (17.74) can now be written

L:n;(av;J
; an.
1

=0

(17.77)

=0

(17.78)

T,P

or

" (av.)
an;
L..Jn. __
l
;

T,P

Equation (17.78) satisfies equation (17.70). Then the partial molar volume is homogeneous of
degree zero, and for all i we have
(17.79)
Thus the value of v; is independent of the size of the system so that the partial molar volume is an
intensive property.
It is important to distinguish the difference between partial molar properties and average
molar properties. If <I> is a property of a system and O<I> is the increase in that property when On;
moles are added to the system at constant T and P, the partial molar value of that property, rP;, is
the limiting value of the ratio O<I>/On; as On; --+ 0, viz.

=}!'20(:' L=(:. L

(17.80)

The difference between the partial molar property and the corresponding average molar property
can be made more apparent by computing the partial molar property from experimental data.
Consider, for example, a system comprised of two components 1 and 2 with n) moles of
one component and n 2 moles of the other. The total volume of the mixture is V. Then the average
molar volume V; is
_
V
(17.81)
V=-n 1 +n 2
I

This is shown schematically in Figure 17.1 as a function of the mole fraction of component 2, ~.
Also shown in Figure 17.1 is the tangent to the curve of equation (17.81). The tangent intersects
the line X 2 = at the point A and the line x 2 = 1 at the point B.
From equation (17.77), we have for two components

L L

n,(~~ +n,(~~:

=0

(17.82)

Ch. 17 Pg. 9

B
--=::;~_ _- - I

o
A
J

______ ________ __ __ ________ ______

~

0.6

0.4

0.2

~D

0.8

X2

Figure 17.1 Schematic Representation of Experimental Data for Average Molar Volume
of Two-component Mixture
where

Vi

is the partial molar volume. Dividing equation (17.82) by n l + n2 , we get

x'(~~:L +x,(~~

(17.83)

=0

Applying the chain rule to equation (17.83), we get

(a
I an2
VI ]

(dn 2 ] + x (a v2 ]
(dn 2 ]
T,P dX2
2 an2 T,P dX2

= x (a VI ]

I aX2

+X

T,P

(a VI ] =0
2 aX2

(17.84)

T,P

The volume of the mixture is

v = nlvl+n2v 2
Dividing equation (17.85) by n l + n2, we get
U=
+ x 2v 2

XI VI

= (1 - x 2 ) VI + x 2 v 2

(17.85)
(17.86)

Taking the derivative of equation 917.86) with respect to x 2 , we get

au]
(-a
x
2

T,P

=-vl +V2 + ()(avl]

l-x 2 -a
+X2 (aV2]
-a
x 2 T,P
x 2 T,P

(17.87)

Combining equations (17.84) and (17.87), we get

au]
( aX2 = v VI
T P

Multiplying equation (17.88) through by x 2 , we get

2 -

(17.88)

Ch. 17 Pg. 10

X2

av)
(aX2

= X 2V2 -

(17.89)

X 2V I

T,P

If we now add and subtract x I VI from equation (17.89), we get

x2 (

av ) = ( x2v 2 + XI VI ) aX T ,P

( XI VI

+ x2 VI ) = V -

VI

(17.90)

Equation (17.90) can be rewritten in the form

VI

_ (av)
aX

= V -x2

(17.91)

From Figure 17.1, we can express equation (17.91) in terms of the lengths of the lines shown,
viz.
(17.92)

In a similar manner, we can show

(17.93)
When x2 = 0, we have but a single component, 1, and v= VI = CJ. Conversely, when x2 = 1, we
have but a single component, 2, and = Vz DK.
17.2.8 Characteristic Thermodynamic Functions and the Chemical Potential
We can write the Gibbs free energy surface in the form
G = G (T,P,nl'n 2 , ... nJ
(17.94)

If we increase the size of the system by a factor A, we have

G (T,P,An l ,An2 , Anc ) = AG(T,P,n l ,n2 , nc )

(17.95)

Then the Gibbs free energy is homogeneous of the first degree in n l ,n2 , n,. Then from Euler's
Theorem [equation (17.68)], we have

(-aG)
anI

(aG)

n + T ,P,I/"j. .

an 2

(aG)
anc

n + ... + T,P,lI j ,j'2

(17.96)
T,P ,/lj ,joe

If we substitute equation (17.56) into equation (17.96), we obtain

G = Lf.ijnj

(17.97)

Then since
G =U -TS+PV =H -TS =F+PV

(17.98)

U = L ,ujnj + TS - PV

(17.99)

H = L,ujnj + TS

(17.100)

F = L,ujnj - PV

(17.101)

we have

The function G = G(T,P,nl, ... ,nJ is a characteristic thermodynamic function and is

equivalent to knowing all thermodynamic information about the system to which it applies. In
particular, we can derive the various thermodynamic properties of the system by forming the
appropriate partial derivatives, viz.

Ch. 17 Pg. 11

(~ L=o~[(~~)Jp" =o~,[(~~LL =-(:!L =-s,

(17.102)

(~ L=o~[(~l.J" o~, [(~~tlp =(~~l.p =V,

(17.103)

and
=

Now if we differentiate G = U - TS + PV with respect to nj with T and P constant, we have

(aG)
an;

T ,P

=(au) -T(~) +p(av)

an;
an;
an;
T ,P

T ,P

(17.104)
T ,P

Substituting equations (17.56), (17.102), and (17.103) into equation (17.104), we have a relation
between the chemical potential and the partial molar properties, viz.
(17.105)
Similarly from H = U + PV, we have

=(au) +p(av)
(aH)
an; pan;
an;
T,

T ,P

and

(17.106)
T ,P

+Pv;

h; =u j
Then upon combining equations (17.105) and (17.107), we obtain
J.L; = h; - Ts;
Now

[aTa (J.L.)]
1

1 (aJ.L.)

P ,II

=T

ai

_ J.L;
P .II

T2

(17.107)
(17.108)

(17.109)

Substituting equation (17.102) and (17.108) into equation (17.109), we obtain

[o~ (~

)1.

=-

~ s,- :; =-(", ;,Ts}_ :;

(17.110)

which is a result that will prove to be useful later.

17.2.9 Heat of Reaction
For a mUlti-component system undergoing a single reaction, we note that if we reintroduce the extent of reaction in the formulation for the enthalpy, we have an expression for the
of
in terms of the partial molar enthalpy of the components of the reaction, viz.

heat reaction

= L(aH) dn; = Lv;h;

( aH]
a~
an; d~ ;
T,P

(17.111)

T,P

where we have made use of equation (17.9) and the definition of the partial molar enthalpy.
Recall that V; < 0 for reactants and v; > 0 for products of the reaction. Depending upon the
individual values for the partial molar enthalpies of the various species involved in the reaction,
the value of the heat of reaction can be positive or negative. From the first law, we see that for a
reaction carried out at constant T and P, if

(aH]
a~

>0

reaction is endothermic

(17.112)

<a

reaction is exothermic

(17.113)

T,P

but if

( aH]
a~

TP

Ch. 17 Pg. 12
17.2.10 Gibbs-Duhem Relation
If we form the differential of equation (17.97), we have
dG =

n;d /1; + I/1;dn;

(17.114)

Substituting equation (17.60) for dG into equation (17.114), we have the Gibbs-Duhem relation,
viz.
(17.115)
which is a relation amongst the changes in the intensive properties of a multi-component system.
For a system in partial equilibrium, that is a system in thermal and mechanical
equilibrium but not chemical equilibrium, dT = 0 and dP = 0 and
In;d/1; = 0
(17.116)
Thus, as the system seeks chemical equilibrium through chemical reaction the resulting changes
in the chemical potential are not independent of one another.
In order to exploit fully the equilibrium concept embodied in the affinity of reaction, it is
necessary for us to now develop a model of system behavior that will enable us to formulate the
chemical potential in terms of the other thermodynamic properties. The model of the greatest
practical utility is that of the ideal chemical system.
17.2.11 The Ideal Chemical System Model
The ideal chemical system model is defined in terms of the constitutive relation for the
chemical potential, viz.
/1/deal =/1;'(T,P)+RTlnx;

(17.117)

where R = 8.3145 X 103 J/kmole-K and J.l/(T,P) is a function of T and P only and is the value of
J.l; extrapolated to X; = 1 at constant T and P. If a system satisfies equation (17.118) in a
concentration range that extends to Xi = 1, we have
/1;" (T,P) = /1;0 (T,P)
(17.118)
where J.liO is the chemical potential of the pure component i at T and P.
Although the constitutive relation of equation (17.117) is a specialized form of the
constitutive relation for the chemical potential in general, it is of considerable practical value. In
particular, there are two examples of the ideal chemical system model that are of special interest:
1. Perfect Mixture Model: The perfect mixture model is a model of a mixture for which
the ideal chemical system model holds for all values of Xi for all components i. Then
/1;" (T,P) = /1;0 (T,P)
for all i
(17.119)
2. Ideal Dilute Solution Model: When all components of a mixture except for one are

present in very small amounts, the mixture satisfies the constitutive relation (17.117) and is
known as an ideal dilute solution in which the component present in a large amount is designated
the solvent and is denoted by the subscript 1. Then
/11' (T, p) =/11 (T , p)
(17.120)
but for all other constituents of the mixture
/1;" (T,P):;:' /1;0 (T,P)

(17.121)

We shall make use of these models in further developing the relations governing the state of
chemical equilibrium.

Ch. 17 Pg. 13
17.2.12 Heat of Reaction of the Ideal Chemical System Model
We can rewrite the expression for the heat of reaction, equation (17.111), in the form

dHJ _ 2
(h/deaIJ
-2( -d~ T,P --T LVi
i
T

(17.122)

From equations (17.110) and (17.117) we have

h.ideal [d (Ilideal)]
[ d
-J:2= dT
P,"= dT

(11")]
d [ d (11)]
~ p,l I+dT(Rlnxi )p,,,= dT -t P

(17.123)

Then the heat of reaction for the ideal chemical system model becomes

( dHJ
d~ T,P

=-T2LVi[~(l1i')]
I

dT

(17.124)

17.2.13 The Equilibrium Constant and the Law of Mass Action

From equation (17.62), we have for the affinity of the reaction of the ideal chemical
system model
(17.125)
A ideal = - ""'
~ Villi ideal = - ""'
~ Villi (T ' P) - ""'
~ Vi R-T In Xi
Now we let
(17.126)

- LVPi' (T,P) = RT In K (T,P)

where the quantity K(T,P) is known as the equilibrium constant of the reaction. Then the affinity
of the reaction becomes
A ideal =RTlnK(T,P)-RTlnXIV'X2V2 ... XcVc
(17.127)
or alternatively
(17.128)
In the equilibrium state of the ideal chemical model, Aideal = O. Then equation (17.128) gives us
an expression for the equilibrium constant in the equilibrium state, viz.
(17.129)

Equation (17.129) is known as the Law of Mass Action. It is possible to refine the expression for
the equilibrium constant further, but in doing so, the results become model specific. We shall
take just such an approach in the sections that follow.
17.2.14 The van't Hoff Relation
Without specializing the ideal chemical model any further, we can separate out the
temperature dependence of the equilibrium constant. We can rewrite equation (17.126) in the
form

- ~Vi (~ ) = RlnK(T,P)

(17.130)

Then the variation in the equilibrium constant with temperature becomes

R~[lnK(T
P)] =_,,",V.[~(lli)]
dT
'P
~
dT T
I

=_1 (dHideal)

P T2

d]:':>

(17.131)

T,P

where we have substituted equation (17.124). Rearranging equation (17.131) and substituting

Ch. 17 Pg. 14
equation (17.122), we get the van 't Hoff relation, viz.

1...[lnK(T P)] =-J-(dHidea/J

dT

'P

RT2

dl=
':>

T,P

=-J"'v.hideal
RT2 ~ , )

(17.132)

From equation (17.132) it follows that for an endothermic reaction for which the heat of reaction
vih/deal > 0 , the equilibrium constant increases with temperature. On the other
is positive, i.e.,

hand, for an exothermic reaction for which the heat of reaction is negative, i.e.,

vih/deal < 0 ,

the equilibrium constant decreases as temperature increases.

17.3

Ideal Gas Mixtures

We now take up the first of the two special cases of the ideal chemical system models,
namely a mixture of gases, each of which satisfies the ideal gas model. Such a mixture is a
perfect mixture with the chemical potential of the constituent gases given by equation (17.117)
together with equation (17.119). We shall examine two general classes of the behavior ideal gas
mixtures~ (1) reactive ideal gas mixtures and (2) a mixture of an ideal gas and a condensable
vapor. The latter case is a subset of the science of thermodynamics known as psychrometries.

17.3.1 Dalton's Law

In 1803, the English chemist and physicist John Dalton (1766 - 1844) published several
papers in which he proposed a model for a mixture of ideal gases. This model is based upon the
model of an ideal gas in which the molecules of the gas are considered to be point masses that do
not interact with each other. Then in a mixture of such gases of different identities, none of the
components are "aware" that the other components are present. Then in a volume V containing
the mixture at a temperature T, each component in the mixture exists in the volume as though it
alone occupied the entire volume. Each component gas i is said to exert a partial pressure Pi such
that

RT
P=n.V
,

(17.133)

where n i is the number of moles of component i in the mixture.

According to Dalton's hypothesis, now known as Dalton's Law, the total pressure of the
mixture is simply the sum of the partial pressures of the constituent gases, viz.
P

= LJ~

(17.134)

where
(17.135)
Combining equations (17.133) - (17.135), we obtain

p=(~nj)P;nj

(17.136)

and
(17.137)

Ch. 17 Pg. 15
where Xi is the mole fraction of component i in the mixture.
Since a mixture of ideal gases in a volume Vat a temperature T is a perfect mixture, the
Helmholtz free energy F of the mixture is the sum of the of the free energies that the individual
component gases would have if they alone occupied the volume at the temperature T. Then for
the mixture
(17.138)
where

1 (T, V; ) is the molar free energy of the pure component and V;

is the molar volme, viz.

V;=~

(17.139)

1 (T, v;) = ~ (T) - rs; (T, v;)

(17.140)

ni

Now by definition
where we have made use of the fact that for the ideal gas model the internal energy is a function
of temperature only, viz.
(17.141)
d~ (T) = c;, (T)dT
The canonical relation can be written in molar form as
du.I = TdS. - PdfJI

(17.142)

The entropy constitutive relation also can be written in molar form as

.r::- dT
uS.=c
-+ R- -d-V;
v T
Vi

(17.143)

which can be integrated to give

_

Si = Si (TO'viO )+

(T)
Vi
--dT+Rln-=To T
ViO
TCv

(17.144)

or

s; = s;t (T) + Rin V;

( 17.145)

-t(T)--(T
Si
- Si O,V-)
-T- - R-I nv- iO
iO + JTc;,(T)dT
To

(17.146)

where

Then the molar Helmholtz free energy becomes

(T,V;) = (T)-rs; (T,V;)

It

(17.147)

where
(17.148)
Then

1 (T,V;) = 1/ (T)-RTlnV; = 1/ (T)-RTln~

n

(17.149)

We now show that for a mixture of ideal gases, with the exception of the volume, the
partial molar properties are identical to the corresponding molar properties. For the volume, we
have

RT
P

(17.150)

Ch. 17 Pg. 16
but

RT

(17.151)

V. =I

P
I

Thus, comparing equations (17.150) and (17.151), we see the partial molar volume of a
component of the ideal gas mixture is not equal to the molar volume of the component.
On the other hand, for the internal energy, since the component ideal gases of the mixture
do not interact with one another, we have
(17.152)
which gives for the partial molar internal energy

u'=(~~l =u,

(17.153)

For the chemical potential of component i, we have from equation (17.149)

aF]
(an;

- -

-~ (T) + RT + RT In-L
n

= !;'

p; = -

(17.154)

T,V

Then
(17.155)
where
Pit

(T) = 1/ (T)+ RT + RTln(RT)

(17.156)

Equation (17.155) is identical to the formulation of Pi for the pure component since it exerts the
pressure Pi when it exists alone in the volume V. Thus
(17.157)
For the enthalpy we have
(17.158)
and

h; = it; + P;V;

=it; + RT

(17.159)

Thus in light of equation (17.153), comparison of equations (17.158) and (17.159) yields
h; = h;

(17.160)

Similarly for the entropy, we have

(17.161)
and

Ji; = hi - IS;

(17.162)
Then in light of equations (17.157) and (17.160), it follows from equations (17.161) and (17.162)
that
(17.163)
Thus, for a mixture of ideal gases, the partial molar properties and the molar properties are
indeed identical except for the volume.
17.3.2 Chemical Equilibrium in a Mixture of Ideal Gases
Consider now a mixture of ideal gases undergoing a single reaction. Since the partial
pressure of component i in a mixture of ideal gases is Pi =xiP, we can rewrite equation (17.155)
in the form
(17.164)

Ch. 17 Pg. 17
where J.lio(T,P) is the chemical potential of the pure component i at the temperature T and
pressure P, viz.
(17.165)
fl;O (T, P) = fli t (T) + RT In P
Recall from equation (17.62) that the affinity of the reaction is
(17.166)

A=-Iv;fl;
Substituting equation (17.155) into equation (17.166), we get
A = - IV;fl/ (T)-RTIv; Inp; = - IV;fl/ (T)-RTIlnp;v,

(17.167)

If we now let
(17.168)
we can rewrite equation (17.167) in the form

A = RT In

K p (T)

P.I 2 pVc
c
At equilibrium, A = O. Then the argument of the logarithm becomes unity and
VIPV2

Kp (T) =

LV,

II p;v; = P' II Xi

(17.169)

(17.170)

Comparing equations (17.129) and (17.170), we have

-LV;

K(T,P)=P ; Kp(T)

(17.171)

Equation (17.171) shows that for the case of a mixture of ideal gases, we have separated the
effects of temperature and pressure on the state of chemical equilibrium.
We can take the temperature dependence a step further. Since a mixture of ideal gases is
an ideal chemical system, it satisfies the van't Hoff relation. Then from equation (17.132) we
have

(dHJ

d
1 --[InK
(T)J=-dT
p
RT2 d~

T P

1
=--"vh
RT2 ~ ; ;

(17.172)

If we integrate equation (17.172), we obtain

1 (dHJ
= -=---r
-

(17.173)
dT
RT d~ T ,P
For many ideal gas reactions, the temperature dependence of the heat of reaction is weak and the
heat of reaction can be taken as a constant. Then the integral of equation (17.173) becomes
In Kp (T)-In Kp (To)

To

(dHJ

1 In Kp (T) = --=RT d~

lIv;h;
- + constant
+ constant = --=TP

RT

(17.174)

Equation (17.174) can be used as an algebraic form to fit the experimental data for the
equilibrium constant for gas phase reactions, viz.
B
InKp(T)=A+ T(K)

(17.175)

where A and B are constants. Table 17.1 lists the values of A and B for some gas phase reactions
commonly found in engineering practice.