Chitosan 1
Chitosan 1
Chitosan 1
Abstract
Chitosans of different molecular weights were assessed as cement admixtures in order
to modify the rheological properties of a fresh cement paste. Their sequestering
capability with respect to several heavy and toxic metals was checked and the
complexation processes were investigated by different approaches based on
electrochemical measurements. The aim was to conduct research on a potentially useful
polymer to be added to cementitious materials acting as a viscosity modifier as well as a
heavy metal immobilising agent. Pb, Cu, Zn, Cd, Mo and Cr were used as target metals.
The highest complexation affinity was found towards Zn, with stoichiometries up to
1:40 having been calculated. Chitosan was proved to act as a thickener in cement
mixtures. The highest molecular weight chitosan showed the greatest effectiveness
taking into account its combined role as heavy metal retainer and thickener. In addition,
a clear interaction between this high molecular weight chitosan and cement particles
was also demonstrated by means of zeta potential measurements.
Keywords
metal-polymer complexes, viscosity, additives, composites, electrochemistry
INTRODUCTION
The use of viscosity-enhancing admixtures (VEAs) has been shown to be efficient in
improving the stability and cohesion of cement-based materials. VEAs usually increase
the viscosity of the fresh cement paste, thus reducing the risk of the separation of the
heterogeneous constituents of a cement-based mortar or concrete.1 Especially when
used for rendering, VEAs also prevent cement mortars from sagging. They have also
been reported as anti-washout admixtures for underwater concrete placement. At the
same time that they show a viscosity-enhancing behaviour, these additives might act as
set-retarders, water-reducers, and water-retainers.2 Regarding the chemical composition
of these admixtures, polysaccharides can be quoted as some of the most widely used
products.3-5 Sugars, starches, and cellulose ethers have been studied and their effect
when added to cement-based materials reported.6
Cement materials have also shown the ability to act as effective agents towards the
solidification/stabilisation of hazardous waste substances, especially heavy metals
(studies on Cr(VI) and divalent Pb, Cd, Ni and Hg have been published).7 Cement
functions as a non or less hazardous deposit for unwanted by-products and rejects.
Besides low cost, availability and versatility are additional advantages for cement-based
systems.8
Certain polymers, present in cement as typical additives (such as CMC and HEC), show
a good adsorption of heavy metals and may act as effective removing agents from
polluted waters and untreated sludges.9,10 Understanding of metal retention in polymercement composites requires a previous knowledge of the mechanisms involved in
adsorption and fixation of those metals by the components of the material. Apart from
some interaction with certain components of cement, complexation processes may be
expected to occur between metallic species and the added polymer.11 Voltammetric
studies have shown usefulness to elucidate complexation behaviour in aqueous
solutions, providing relatively simple approaches to the estimation of polymer-metal
stability constant, stoichiometry of formed complex and complexing capacity of the
ligand (i.e., the amount of metal that the polymer may uptake and stabilise in the
matrix).12 This set of data is very useful when determining what amount of metal can be
added to the cement matrix and, at the same time, will serve in the modelling of the
leaching patterns that may follow these metals when solidified/stabilised on the
polymer-cement.13
Chitosan, the deacetylated derivative of chitin, is the second most abundant natural
polysaccharide. This polymer and its derivatives have been used as biomaterials because
of their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and biological activities.14,15 Purified
qualities of chitosans have been used as additive for many biocements, dental
biocements, and cements for reparation of bones. 16 In these composites, chitosan has
been reported i) to enhance injectability of these composites; ii) to increase setting time
in a similar way to cellulose derivatives in cement-polymer systems,17 and iii) to act as a
thickener - i.e. a cohesion-improving agent - in calcium phosphate cement for the repair
of bones.18
Furthermore, chitosan has shown its successful role as heavy metal retainer. Some
recent studies have pointed to its excellent capacity to act as an effective complexing
and removing agent for heavy metals.19-21 The binding mechanism of metal ions onto
chitosan is not yet fully understood; mechanisms such as adsorption, ion exchange and
ion chelation have so far been proposed.22,23 The hydroxyl groups and amine sites in the
polymeric chain are the more active binding sites for metal ions, establishing dative
bonds with transition metals.24
Literature is rather lacking on the behaviour of chitosan and its derivatives as cement
admixtures for building purposes. The strong resemblance that chitosan bears to other
polysaccharides like cellulose endorses the interest of these studies. In addition, as
mentioned above, chitosan and its derivatives have shown a clear capacity for chelating
heavy metals. The rationale for this work is that chitosans -or derivatives- would be
potential admixtures (rheological modifiers) in order to obtain polymer-modified
cements with heavy metals retaining and/or immobilizing properties.
As a preliminary study devoted to assessing the aforementioned potential use of
chitosan, the present paper intends i) to test whether most toxic metals -Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb,
Cr and Mo- undergo complexation with chitosan, and ii) to evaluate the behaviour in
fresh state of cement mortars modified by chitosan addition.
EXPERIMENTAL
Voltammetric studies on chitosan complexing ability of heavy metals
Chitosans with different molecular weights [low molecular weight, 50-190 kDa
(LMW), Ref. 448869-50G; medium molecular weight, 190-310 kDa (MMW), Ref.
448877-50G; and high molecular weight, 310-375 kDa (HMW), Ref. 419419-50G] and
different deacetylation degrees (92%, 80% y 76%, respectively) used in this study are
volume proportions, weight proportions were selected in order to avoid any imprecise
measurement. The three different commercial chitosans previously reported were used
as admixtures. One only additive was incorporated in each one of the remaining
mortars, in order to check clearly its possible efficiency, avoiding other variables. For
each chitosan, a dosage of 0.1% of the total dried mortars weight was incorporated.
Mortars preparation
The mixer was a Proeti ETI 26.0072. 450 g of cement, 1350 g of aggregate and additive
(when necessary) were blended for 90 seconds at low speed. The water was added in
accordance with a 0.5 water/cement ratio, which makes it possible to achieve suitable
workability, avoiding any excess of water.
Water was then added and mixed for 90 more seconds at low speed. Mortars settled for
10 minutes before being tested, to let the additive take effect. Straight afterwards, fresh
state properties were determined as described below.
Viscosity measurements
In order to assess any rheological change, viscosities of cement pastes modified by
chitosan addition were determined. To this end, a HAAKE Viscotester VT 550, with a
programme of rotation speeds varying from 1.5 to 510 s-1 during 5.5 minutes was used.
Conductivity
Set retarding ability of different polysaccharides used in cement pastes has been
reported to be determined by means of conductivity measurement.2 A Thermo Orion 4Star benchtop pH/conductivity meter equipped with a Dura Probe 4-electrode
conductivity cell (Orion 013605MD) with a nominal cell constant of 0.55 cm-1 intended
for a conductivity measurement range from 10 S cm-1 to 200 mS cm-1, was used for
conductivity assays.
Different cement pastes were prepared by mixing 5 g of cement and 0.05 g of each one
of the tested chitosans with 100 mL of ultrapure water previously thermostated at 25 C.
The experiments were carried out in a reaction vessel magnetically stirred inside a water
bath thermostatically adjusted at 25 C. The conductivity measurements were recorded
each 10 minutes for 24 hours. These data were used in order to draw the conductivity
curve.
37
added metals as shown in Fig. 1. In all instances, the voltammograms showed a constant
potential peak at -379, -560 and -840 mV for Pb, Cd and Zn, respectively, the height of
which increased with increasing metal concentrations. A surprising feature observed
was the fact that the Zn stripping peak in presence of chitosan showed, in the first place,
a marked decrease in its intensity compared to that of the free metal and, in the second
place, a displacement of its peak potential towards less negative values (from -960 mV
to -840 mV in presence of chitosan).
Stoichiometries were calculated from titration data collected for the three assayed
molecular weights of chitosan and three different concentrations (0.1, 0.5 and 1 M) of
a fixed molecular weight chitosan (MMW), as presented in Table II.
As can be seen, the higher the molecular weight of chitosan, the larger the binding
capacity observed for Pb and Zn. On the other hand, the highest complexation capacities
were found for both Zn and Pb when more diluted chitosan solutions were assayed,
irrespective of the MW of the chitosan studied. It is also noteworthy that whatever the
MW of chitosan, the coordination of Zn is always larger than that of Pb.
These results can be explained bearing in mind the structure of chitosan. A higher
molecular weight implies a larger number of available amino groups to bind the metals,
which explains the first assertion. As for the second, dilution of chitosan implies a
corresponding diminishing of the aggregation of the polymer and the steric hindrances,
so that metals can be easily placed between sheets of the polymer. Furthermore, the
breaking of stabilizing hydrogen bonds within the structure of the diluted chitosan
contributes to this trend. Finally, ionic radii of both Zn and Pb differ significantly (0.74
and 1.20 , respectively) so that inclusion of Zn into the polymer is sterically more
favourable. Moreover, the complex of the polymer with this metal seems to have a
different geometry to the binding with the other two metals.39
Linearization algorithms of titration data are usually employed to estimate affinity
constants of complexes, such as those developed by Buffle
1:1 stoichiometries, both Scatchard
42
and Langmuir
43
40
and Ruzic.
41
For simple
ML K L K ML
T
M
M M 1
ML L T K L T
[1]
[2]
where [M] is the free metal concentration, [ML] is the complexed metal concentration
obtained by subtracting [M] from the total metal concentration [MT]; LT is the total
ligand concentration as calculated from these expressions and K is the conditional
stability constant derived from the slope and from the ordinate respective plots.
Equation [1] is commonly known as the Scatchard equation. The Langmuir linearization
(equation [2]), also called Ruzic/van den Berg linearization method, usually gives rise
to a linear relationship when the ratio [M]/ [ML] is plotted against [M]. The slope is
equal to 1/LT and the intercept yields 1/KLT.
Surprisingly, both metals adjust well to these theoretical patterns. Although calculations
of total available chitosan cannot properly resemble the real amount of ligand present in
the electrochemical cell, the data obtained corroborate the above described trends. The
calculated effective concentration of chitosan in every instance increases with its ability
to link the metal (stoichiometry) and a linear tendency (R2 = 0.9905 and 0.9175 for Pb
and Zn respectively) is observed. Even when using the Scatchard algorithm, a single
straight line was always achieved, indicating the existence of a unique type of complex
with these two metals.
As for Cd (Fig. 1b) its behaviour differs from that of Pb and Zn; chitosan ability to
complex Cd is lower (see Table II) and either chitosan concentration or MW influences
the stoichiometry variations to a much lesser extent.
Electrochemical study of Cu
Copper is, amongst the heavy metals, the most troublesome to determine
voltammetrically due to its low solubility in mercury, the coincidence of its stripping
peak potential with the potential interval in which many organic species are adsorbed on
the mercury electrode and the presence of a pre-wave.44
The assayed concentrations of both ligand and metal were lower than those used for the
previous metals in order to avoid the saturation of the electrode. Experiments were
carried out in the presence of the fixed 0.05 M chitosan and stripping voltammograms
were recorded for increasing Cu concentrations.
10
The peaks obtained in this case were difficult to evaluate due to their broadening,
showing a pre-wave that is not observed in free metal solutions. For this reason, the
correction of the base line is critical to obtain reliable results. It is also worth
mentioning that the peak potential of the metal in presence of chitosan suffers a
displacement towards more positive potentials (ca. 38 mV) in comparison with the peak
potential of free Cu, confirming that the complexation occurs.
An interesting aspect inferred from the titration curve (Fig. 1d) is that this binding
seems to be independent of the molecular weight of chitosan, as the concentration of
metal that saturates the ligand is almost the same no matter what the chitosan
characteristics are. It has been previously reported that Cu (as well as Zn) interacts
differently with chitosan from other metals39 and a square-planar or tetrahedral
geometry has been previously proposed for the complex.45 According to our results, an
inter-layer binding mechanism is proposed as the main retention factor of Cu by
chitosan, so that cavity between the sheets of the polymer would be more relevant than
length of the chains.
11
12
13
14
works by Peschard et al.2 and Pourchez et al.3 The conductometric curve of a cement
suspension presents different steps, the portlandite precipitation time, shown by an
electrical conductivity drop, being the most useful marker in order to assess the
hydration delay. In Fig. 6 the conductometric curves of cement suspensions can be seen
(conductivity of the cement suspensions as a function of the time): one as control
sample, without chitosan addition, and the others with the addition of the three different
chitosans tested. There is no change either in the dissolution rate of the cement particles
or in the nucleation rate of CSH (belonging to the first part of the curves). However, the
conductivity drop (portlandite precipitation) shows outstanding differences, involving
hydration delays as different chitosans were added to the cement suspensions. Results
indicate that chitosans exert a set-retarding action in cement suspensions. As far as the
interaction mechanisms are concerned, the reported insolubility of chitosans in alkaline
pH suggests some kind of adsorption between precipitants and anhydrous cement
particles, hydrates or crystal lattices rather than water unavailability, because the water
retention differences do not fully justify such a long delay in the hydration time.2 The
particle size distribution further reinforces this assumption on the interaction
mechanism (Fig. 5).
With the aim of assessing the interaction between chitosan molecules and cement
particles, zeta potential measurements were obtained for increasing quantities of
admixture (Fig. 7). The net-surface charge for cement suspensions without chitosan was
negative. This matches previous results, which stated that the zeta potential of early
hydration of ordinary Portland cement suspensions is dominated by the negative zeta
potential of the ettringite.56
LMW chitosan does not modify the zeta potential of the cement particles at most
dosages. This fact suggests that there is no adsorption of the polymer (owing to the
alkaline pH, a negatively charged polyelectrolyte) on the cement particles. Only the
highest dosage of polymer shifts the zeta potential towards more negative values,
showing a certain degree of interaction. These experimental results agree with the
poorer set-retarding capability of LMW chitosan (Fig. 6). They also point to the
adsorption on cement particles as the mechanism for the set-retarding effect.
The surface charge of cement particles with MMW chitosan showed more negative
values, proving that adsorption of this chitosan on cement particles took place. This
interaction could be useful to explain the delay in the setting process when MMW
chitosan was added. Further studies will be necessary to elucidate where the adsorption
15
takes place: stern or diffuse double layer, and to decide the kind of phases that interact:
silicates (C3S, CSH), CH (calcium hydroxide), or aluminate phases (C3A, ettringite,
monosulfate).56
Finally, HMW chitosan led to a charge inversion of the zeta potential (high positive
values), suggesting a very diverse interaction between cement particles and this
chitosan. The strong flocculation ability of this chitosan could give rise to the formation
of agglomerates of cement particles and polymer molecules (as proved by particle size
distribution measurements). As a hypothesis, these agglomerates should be negatively
charged, taking into account both the net-surface charge of the cement particles and the
ionized negatively charged groups of the chitosan chains, the agglomerates being
sheltered by a layer of positive counterions (calcium ions). As a result, the zeta potential
turned out to be positive and the hydration of cement particles inside such agglomerates
was hindered. This approach confirms the most effective thickening behaviour observed
for HMW chitosan, together with both its set-retarding ability and its lower water
retention.
CONCLUSIONS
In the present study, a natural biodegradable polymer, chitosan, was tested as a heavy
metal retainer and a viscosity-enhancing admixture with the aim of investigating its
usefulness as an addition to cement-based materials.
With regard to chitosans ability to retain heavy metals, voltammetric techniques have
been shown to be suitable for this study. This polymer proves to be an effective ligand
with all the six assayed metals. For all of them - Pb, Cd, Mo, Cu, Zn and Cr-, it can be
said that not only adsorption but also complexation actually takes place in acetate buffer
(pH=4) with chitosans of different MW.
The length of the chains of the polymer, together with the assayed concentration, have
been seen to play a key role in the chitosan binding activity with Zn and Pb as well as
Cr and Mo.
A predominant intra-chain linkage is proposed in all instances except for Cd and Cu,
which response seem more independent of the chitosan characteristics (molecular
weight and concentration) for which an inter-layer binding mechanism fits better.
Regarding the viscosity modifying role of the chitosan, it has been proved to increase
viscosity in fresh mortars while retaining more water than plain cement. Owing to the
greater probability of entanglement between chains of the polymer as well as a cross
16
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was fully funded by the Ministry of Education and Science of Spain
(MAT2007-65478) and FUNA (Fundacin Universitaria de Navarra). M. Lasheras
would like to thank the Friends of the University of Navarra, Inc. for funding support.
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Table I. Electrochemical conditions used for the different metals.
Parameters
Pb
Cd
Mo
DPASV DPASV
Type
9
9
Drop size
300
300
Pruge time (s)
120
120
Conditioning time (s)
2000
2000
Rotation speed (rpm)
-600
-900
Accumulation potential (E, mV)
60
60
Accumulation time (s)
20
20
Equilibration time (s)
-600
-900
Initial potential (mV)
0
-200
Final potential (mV)
100
100
Pulse amplitude (mV)
20
12
Scan speed (mV s-1)
Cu
DPV
9
300
120
2000
150
-1200
25
40
Zn
DPASV DPASV
9
9
300
300
120
120
2000
2000
-300
-1200
60
60
20
20
-300
-1200
150
-700
100
100
12
12
Cr
DPV
9
300
120
2000
-200
-1200
25
40
Table II. Influence of chitosan molecular weight and chitosan dilution on the number of
metal nuclei complexed by each chitosan molecule.
Element
LMW
0.5 M
0.1 M
MMW
0.5 M
1.0 M
HMW
0.5 M
Zn
10
40
20
10
40
Pb
24
12
16
Cd
10
Table III. Slump and water retention of cement pastes with chitosan additions.
Cement pastes
Slump (mm)
Control group
190.0
81.1
CEM + LMW
171.5
85.2
CEM + MMW
157.0
84.6
CEM + HMW
151.5
83.5
20
Figure 1. Titration curves for increasing concentrations of Pb (a), Cd (b), Zn (c) in 0.5 M
chitosan,andCu(d)in0.05Mchitosansolution.
Figure2.EffectofincreasingconcentrationsofchitosanonthepeakintensityofMo104M(a)
andonpeakpotentialdisplacementforCr3.4104M(b).
Figure3.Pendant(a)andbridge(b)modelsaccordingtoGuibal48andRhazietal.45
Figure4.Apparentviscosityofcementpasteswithchitosanadditionsvs.increasingshearrate.
Figure 5.Particlesizedistributionofcementpasteswithdifferent medium molecularweight
chitosandosages(w/wpercentageschitosan/cement).
Figure6.Effectofthedifferentchitosansoncementhydration.
Figure 7. Zeta potential of the cement particles for different molecular weight chitosans vs.
polymerconcentration.
21
Fig.1
22
Fig.2
23
Fig.3
24
Fig.4
Fig.5
25
Fig.6
Fig.7
26