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Methods of Detecting Cervical Cancer

ARTICLE JANUARY 2011

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Advances in Biological Research 5 (4): 226-232, 2011

ISSN 1992-0067
IDOSI Publications, 2011

Methods of Detecting Cervical Cancer

Krishnakumar Duraisamy, K.S. Jaganathan and Jagathesh Chandra Bose
Shantha Biotechnics, Hyderabad, India
Abstract: Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer in women worldwide, with more than half a million
new cases diagnosed in 2010. The disease disproportionately affects the poorest regionsmore than 80% of
cases are found in developing nations, mainly in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian
subcontinent. Cervical cancer is an important cause of early loss of life as it affects relatively young women.
Important advances have taken place in the diagnosis and treatment of this cancer in recent years. Surgery or
chemo radiotherapy can cure 80-95% of women with early stage disease (stages I and II) and 60% with stage
III disease. An ideal screening test is one that is minimally invasive, easy to perform, acceptable to the subject,
cost-effective and efficacious in diagnosing the disease process in its preinvasive or early invasive state when
the disease process is more easily treatable and curable. A variety of screening tests have therefore been
developed in an attempt to overcome the innate limitations of conventional cytology. Screening techniques for
cervical cancer include Conventional exfoliative cervicovaginal cytology i.e. the cervical (Pap) smear, Fluid
sampling techniques with automated thin layer preparation (liquid based cytology), Automated cervical
screening techniques, Neuromedical systems, HPV testing, Polar probe, Laser induced fluorescence, Visual
inspection of cervix after applying Lugols iodine (VILI) or acetic acid (VIA), Speculoscopy, Cervicography.
The screening strategies mentioned above though applicable to the developed world may not be cost effective
enough for widespread application in the third world countries. Currently, cervical cytology is widely regarded
as the gold standard for cervical cancer screening in all developed countries. It is however not feasible to
implement a systematic cytology based screening programme in a country like India. This is mainly due to
severe restrictions on the availability of infrastructure, resources and funding. There is therefore a need to
develop low cost screening strategies for cervical cancer. This will necessarily involve the use of a very simple
technique that can be easily taught to and practiced by paramedical personnel in the rural areas. Such
techniques will need to be cost effective while retaining adequate sensitivity and specificity to perform as
practical screening techniques.
Key words: Cervical Cancer

HPV

Pap Test

Cytology

INTRODUCTION

between the columnar epithelium of the endocervix and

squamous epithelium of the ectocervix where there is
continuous metaplastic change. Since maximum
metaplastic activity occurs at puberty and first pregnancy
between 18-30 yrs of age, hence detected during active
sexual life. All women are at risk of developing the
disease, but several factors can increase the risk. The
risk factors for cervical cancer are viral infections
(HPV, HIV, HSV), multiparity, early initiation of sexual
activity, multiple sex partners, smoking, low
socioeconomic status, diet low in antioxidants, long term
use of oral contraceptives and poor hygiene etc.Since
early detection predicts better prognosis, one of the most
effective ways of preventing and controlling cervical

Cervical cancer is one of the most common types of

cancer among women worldwide. The good news is that
92% of the cases can be detected (Table 1) and treated if
a woman undergoes regular pelvic exams and Pap tests
[1]. Many methods currently exist to detect cervical
cancer. Cancer of the uterine cervix is a leading cause of
mortality and morbidity among women worldwide. In India
cervical cancer is still the most common cancer and
occupies the top rank among cancers in women in
most developing countries, constituting 34% of all
womens cancers. Most cervical cancers arise at the
squamo-columnar junction and transformation zone

Corresponding Author: Krishnakumar Duraisamy, Shantha Biotechnics,

Hyderabad, India. E-mail: [email protected].

226

Advan. Biol. Res., 5 (4): 226-232, 2011

Table 1: Key Statistics on India
Population
Women at risk for cervical cancer (Female population aged >=15 yrs)
Burden of cervical cancer and other HPV-related cancers
Annual number of cervical cancer cases
Annual number of cervical cancer deaths
Projected number of new cervical cancer cases in 2025*
Projected number of cervical cancer deaths in 2025*

366.58 millions
134420
72825
203757
115171

WHO Cervical cancer summary report update. September 15, 2010

S.No

Screening methods

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Conventional exfoliative cervicovaginal cytology i.e. the cervical (Pap) smear

Pelvic Examination
Colposcopy
Liquid based cytology
Automated cervical screening techniques
Neuromedical systems
HPV testing
Polar probe
Laser induced fluorescence
Visual inspection of cervix after applying Lugols iodine (VILI) or acetic acid (VIA)
Speculoscopy
Cervicography

cancer is regular screening and early diagnosis.

Despite the fact that more than 80% of cervical cancer
cases are in developing countries, only 5% of women
there have ever been screened for cervical abnormalities
(WHO 2006). Cervical screening is a way of checking
women regularly for changes in the cells in the cervix.
Invasive cervical cancer is largely preventable if
precancerous lesions are detected by effective screening
and then adequately treated. Several screening modalities
are now available for early detection of cervical cancer
and its precursor lesions. It is normally recommended that
cervical cancer screening should begin three years after

vaginal intercourse is initiated and no later than the

age of 21 [2]. For most women, the test is recommended
every one to three years, depending upon the woman's
age and history of abnormal results. For women who
have a past history of an abnormal screening test or who
have risk factors for cervical cancer, testing is
recommended
once per year (Picture 1). The
Papanicolaou (Pap) smear is the most common screening
method used to detect precancerous changes for
squamous cervical cancer. However, other methods, i.e
liquid based cytology and HPV testing are now the most
advocated tests.

PAP TEST

NORMAL

ABNORMAL

BORDERLINE
ABNORMAL

CLEARLY
ABNORMAL

LIQUID BASED
CYTOLOGY
TEST
ROUTINE SCREENING
EVERY 3 YEARS

POSITIVE

Picture 1: Frequency of PAP test

227

FURTHER STEPS
&TREATMENT

Advan. Biol. Res., 5 (4): 226-232, 2011

Papanicolaou (Pap) Smear Test: The most common form

of diagnosis for detecting cervical cancer in its early
stages is a procedure called a Papanicolaou test or Pap
smear. This test is painless, normally takes less than 5
minutes to complete and can be performed in a doctors
office. Women who are 18 or older or who are sexually
active are recommended to undergo annual Pap smear
tests [3]. The procedure is performed while a woman is
lying on her back on a table. The doctor will insert an
instrument called a speculum inside her vagina before
removing some cells from the cervix using a cotton swab
or small brush. The cells are then sent to a laboratory
where they are studied under a microscope to determine
if any precancerous or cancerous cells exist. If the tests
show any abnormalities, the patient will be asked to return
to the doctor so an additional test can be performed. If the
test results are negative, women can schedule an annual
appointment (Picture 1) [4].
The value of the Pap test in cervical carcinoma
screening is undisputed. Routine cytological screening by
this method has resulted in a reduction in the cervical
carcinoma mortality rate of close to 60% in women aged 30
and older. However, several limitations of conventional
Pap smear were identified; sensitivity to detect cervical
cancer precursors is less than 50%, inadequate transfer of
cells to slide, in homogenous distribution of abnormal
cells, presence of obscuring blood, inflammation or thick
areas of overlapping epithelial cells. The occurrence of
false-negative and unsatisfactory Pap smears has
prompted the development of LBC and automated
screening devices [5].

white. The doctor can then view the cells using the
high-powered microscope to detect any abnormal
cancerous cells [7]. It is used not as a screening test, but
as a diagnostic test.Conization or Cone Biopsy,
Edocervical Curettage, LLETZ/LEEP and imaging
procedures are further techniques which may be applied
when diagnosing cervical cancer.
Liquid-Based Cytology (LBC): All currently available
cytology technologies rely on the visual analysis of
exfoliated cells from the uterine cervix. Improvement of
conventional cytological screening has been proposed by
the introduction of molecular-based markers applied to
liquid based cytology (LBC). It was developed to address
the limitation of Pap smear and represents the first major
change in preparation method for cervical screening
samples. Instead of cells being smeared onto a glass slide,
they are washed into a vial of liquid and filtered and a
random sample is presented in a thin layer on a glass
slide. DNA methylation changes occur very early in
carcinogenesis and identification of appropriate DNA
methylation markers in such samples should be able to
distinguish high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions
(HSIL) from nonspecific cytology changes and the normal
cervix [8] The liquid based cytology (LBC) corresponds to
a sampling where cells are put in suspension in a
conversation liquid. For the clinician, the sample is
made the same manner as that of the conventional
smear by using a plastic brush, which can take the
squamo-columnar junction and the endocervix, or by
combining the use of a spatula and an endocervical brush.
The taken material is then immediately rinsed in the bottle,
which contains a fixative allowing transport to the
laboratory. A part of the sizable brush can be left in the
bottle. The clinician does not have to deal with any
spreading, which is done at the laboratory. Currently, two
technical methods, which use automats, were validated by
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and are used
frequently [9].
One is proceeding by filtration and collecting cells
vacuum-packed on a membrane with transferring cells on
a glass (ThinPrep, Cytyc). The other is proceeding by
centrifugation and sedimentation through a gradient of
density (Surepath, Tripath Imaging). Cytoscreen
System (SEROA), Turbitec (Labonord), CellSlide
(Menarini) and Papspin (Shandon) technics are
centrifugation and sedimentation manual techniques,
which do not use automate and do not require a FDA
agreement [10].
Current methods that use LBC technology include:

Pelvic Examination: A pelvic examination is also an

important method of detecting cervical cancer. The exam
is very similar to the Pap smear. A woman lies on her back
while a doctor inserts a speculum into her vagina. A
doctor will then examine a womans vagina and
surrounding organs both visually and manually. He will
insert gloved fingers and gently feel the cervix and
surrounding organs with his fingers, while his other hand
presses gently on the patients stomach [6].
Colposcopy: Colposcopy is magnified visual examination
of the ectocervix, SCJ and endocervical canal using a
special instrument called a colposcope.It may be
accompanied by a biopsy of any abnormal-looking tissue
is very similar to a Pap smear. A woman will lie on her
back while a doctor inserts a speculum into her vagina. He
will also apply a local anesthetic to her cervix as well as a
special solution that will stain any abnormal cells
228

Advan. Biol. Res., 5 (4): 226-232, 2011

SurePath (formerly AutoCytePREP or CytoRich LBC):

The SurePath method requires that the collection device
be retained in the proprietary SurePath collection vial,
which contains transport fluid, so that all cervical cells
collected are sent to the laboratory. Vials are vortexed and
centrifuged by laboratory personnel; all subsequent
preparation of the sample and slide is automated using
the Prepstain machine, which processes 48 samples at a
time [11].

of LBC due to the reduction of recalls for a new sample.

The advantage of LBC includes improved sensitivity and
specificity since fixation is better and nuclear details are
well preserved. There is, therefore, lower rate of
unsatisfactory cervical samples. Another major advantage
of LBC is that the residual specimen can be used for
ancillary testing like Immunocytochemistry and detection
of HPV DNA [15].
Automated Screening Technology: The effectiveness of
any cervical cancer screening program that relies on
cervical cytology is the quality control of the cytological
review of Pap smears. This is essential for reducing the
false positives and false negatives that invariably result
from inter- and intra- observer variation [16] Automated
screening techniques have recently been developed that
can not only perform this quality control rescreening but
also can be used for primary screening of cervical smears.
The Autopap300 (TriPath Imaging, Burlington NC) and
PAPNET (Neuromedical systems) are the two automated
screening techniques that rely largely on neural network
technology and are based on the computerized imaging
and identification of abnormal cervical cells. Among this
only the Autopap300 is approved by the USFDA for
primary and secondary cervical screening while the
PAPNET is only approved for secondary screening [17].

Cytoscreen: Cytoscreen is a manual method of sample

preparation using a proprietary sample collection device
(CYTOPREP) and transport fluid (CYTeasy). Samples are
vortexed and a photometric reading taken to estimate the
cellularity of the sample. An aliquot of the sample is
centrifuged onto a glass slide that is then stained using
normal laboratory procedures [12].
Labonard Easy Prep: Labonard Easy Prep is a manual
method of sample preparation that uses a proprietary
sample collection device (CYTOPREP brush) and fixative
(CYTOscreen). An aliquot of sample fluid is placed in a
separation chamber attached to a glass slide containing
absorbent paper.
Cervical cells sediment onto the slide in a thin layer
and
slides are stained using normal laboratory
procedures [13].

Hpv-Dna Testing: The etiopathological role of HPV in the

development of cervical cancer has been proved beyond
doubt. HPV 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39 45, 51, 52, 56, 59 and 68
are known to be frequently associated with HSIL and
invasive cancers of the cervix [18]. Testing for the
presence of HPV-DNA in the cervical cells is thus a
potentially useful screening method, which could be
incorporated in cervical cancer screening programs. There
are various techniques available for HPV-DNA testing of
which Southern Blot hybridization is regarded as a
laboratory gold standard. This is however unsuitable for
clinical use as it is laborious, tedious and requires fresh
tissue. The specimen for HPV-DNA testing can be
obtained in two ways, either by using a cell suspension
from liquid based cytology or by using the endocervical
cytobrush [19].

Thin Prep: ThinPrep provides a semi-automated (T2000)

or fully automated (T3000) method of sample preparation.
Cervical samples are rinsed with proprietary PreservCyt
transport medium into a vial, which is then processed by
the ThinPrep method using the T2000 or T3000 machine.
The T2000 machine processes slides individually, while
the T3000 machine is a fully automated device that can
batch process up to 80 specimens per cycle. Subsequent
staining and microscopic evaluation of the slides is
conducted in a similar manner to a conventional smear
test [14].
The quality of the evaluation of the performance of
these technologies often was poor and rarely on the basis
of histologically defined outcomes using randomised
study designs. In general, the proportion of
unsatisfactory samples is lower in LBC compared with
conventional cytology and the interpretation of LBC
requires less time. The cost of an individual LBC test is
considerably higher, but ancillary molecular testing, such
as high-risk HPV testing in the case of atypical squamous
cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US), can be
carried out on the same sample. The economic advantage

Visual Inspection of the Cervix with Acetic Acid (VIA):

The technique is very simple and consists of an
examination of the cervix after acetic acid application.
After obtaining the clinical history and performing a
general examination, the cervix is exposed using a bivalve
speculum. A 4% dilute solution of acetic acid is then
229

Advan. Biol. Res., 5 (4): 226-232, 2011

Laser Induced Fluorescence: Various investigators have

shown that low powered laser illumination can induce
endogenous tissue fluorescence. This depends upon the
chemical and morphological composition of individual
tissues. The spectroscopic difference if detectable can be
used to differentiate normal and diseased tissues [22].

applied to the cervix and any excess liquid is aspirated

from the posterior vaginal fornix. The cervix is inspected
after two minutes. Lesions which stain acetowhite are
regarded as positive for VIA. Those with dull white
plaques and faint borders are considered low grade VIA
while those with sharp borders are considered high grade
VIA. The test is regarded as being negative if no
acetowhite lesions are detected [20]. Studies have shown
that VIA is a reliable, sensitive and cost effective
alternative to conventional Pap smear testing, particularly
in low resource settings. VIA is better than Pap smear for
identifying CINespecially if a woman is tested only
once in her life.VIA is simple to perform and provides an
immediate result without expensive equipment.

Computer Imaging: The diagnosis of precancerous

changes is primarily a task of visual discrimination and
sorting of graphical information. Recently there has been
a lot of focus on the use of computers to assist this
process. This is very similar to cervicographic technics
except that a computer replaces the colposcopy expert.
However a lot of research needs to be done to critically
evaluate this technology before it can be incorporated
into a screening program.

Visual Inspection with Lugols Iodine (VILI): VILI is also

promising as a visual method to screen for cervical
cancer.After the womans cervix is examined using VIA,
the cervix is painted with Lugols iodine solution and
examined again with the naked eye. The small high-grade
lesion is easier to see within the larger low-grade area.
Normal squamous epithelial cells have substantial stores
of glycogen.
Glycogen stains mahogany-brown with iodine
solution. Abnormal areas of squamous epithelium
(CIN or inflammation) do not contain glycogen to the
same extent and do not stain brown [21]. VILI is more
accurate and more reproducible than VIA and better than
a Pap smear for identifying CIN. VILI is simple to perform
and provides an immediate result without expensive
equipment.

Comparison of Visual Inspection with Acetic Acid and

Cervical Cytology to Detect High-Grade Cervical
Neoplasia: As a point-of-care clinical test, VIA is easy
and inexpensive to perform, can be taught to non
physician health workers and can link screening and
diagnostic or treatment interventions in the same clinic
visit. On the other hand, there are significant real-world
challenges in implementing cytology- based screening in
resource-limited settings. Adequacy of samples is
hampered by challenges in sample collection and slide
preparation. Even in the hands of highly qualified
pathologists, cytological interpretation is precariously
modest in its detection rate and sensitivity. Besides, the
costs and inconvenience of multiple clinic visits and the
resulting poor compliance in cytology-based screening
programs are significant barriers to successful cervical
cancer control for most resource-limited settings.

Speculoscopy: Speculoscopy involves inspection of the

cervix following the application of 5% acetic acid with
chemiluminiscent light and a low power magnification.

Conventional Pap Smear and Liquid Based Cytology for

Cervical Cancer Screening: Cervical cytology was
introduced by George Papanicolaou into clinical practice
in 1940. In 1945, the Papanicolaou smear received the
endorsement of the American cancer society as an
effective method for the prevention of cervical cancer.
Center of cytology in Vancouver, British Columbia
published data which confirmed that cytologic screening
leads to a reduction in the rate of invasive cancer of the
uterine cervix. Park et al. established that the sensitivity
of the conventional Pap smears for the detection of
cervical cancer precursors was less than 50%. Several
limitations of conventional smear were identified including
inadequate transfer of cells to slide, in homogenous
distribution of abnormal cells, presence of obscuring

Cervicography:
Cervicography
involves
taking
photographs of the cervix using a special camera
following the application of 5% acetic acid during a
routine pelvic examination and Pap smear collection. The
photographs are then developed and the slide is
projected on a 2x2 meter screen and read by an expert in
colposcopy.
Polar Probe: This technology is based upon the fact that
the tissue impedance to electrical stimulation differs
between normal and abnormal tissues. Investigators
have tried to utilize spectral and electrical stimulation of
the cervical tissues as an adjunct to conventional Pap
smear testing.
230

Advan. Biol. Res., 5 (4): 226-232, 2011

blood, inflammation or thick areas of overlapping

epithelial cells. Liquid based, thin layer technology was
developed to address the limitation of Pap smear. More
than 5,00,000 subjects have been studied with a
preponderance of data indicating a significant benefit of
liquid-based, thin layer technology in the detection of
cervical cancer precursor lesions and in the improvement
of specimen adequacy.
The Pap smear has been utilized for cervical cancer
screening for more than 50 years. Despite being credited
with a 70% reduction in mortality for cervical cancer, the
false negative rate is still a cause for concern. It is widely
acknowledged that two third of the overall false negative
rate can be attributed to sampling errors. Liquid based
cytology has been developed to address the sampling
problems of conventional Pap smear. The present work
was done to evaluate the liquid based cytology and to
compare the sensitivity of the same with conventional Pap
smear.Liquid based cytology is strongly advocated in the
best interest of public health, by improving the quality of
the sample and reducing the likelihood of false negative
cytology results. Thus it will significantly improve early
detection and treatment of cervical lesions.

vaccines will reduce the efficiency of screening by

any method, while introduction of HPV testing is likely
to lead to increased screening sensitivity that should
permit lengthened screening intervals. It is not yet clear
how to optimally combine prevention and screening
options. The further evolution of screening practices
should follow high-quality data on comparative
effectiveness.
CONCLUSIONS
Over the past few years, in most industrialised
countries women with cervical cancer have benefited
from improved imaging techniques, better treatments
(including chemoradiotherapy) and more conservative
surgical approaches. In low resource settings-where
facilities for radiology, chemoradiotherapy and supportive
care are limited or unavailable-it is important to identify
which resources fill healthcare needs most effectively and
to consider alternative approaches.
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