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    Get Your Forces Right!: Covalent Bond

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    The document discusses different types of molecular forces, including covalent bonds, noncovalent molecular forces, and their relative strengths. It defines covalent bonds as the sharing of electron pairs, and notes that noncovalent forces include cation-anion interactions, dipole interactions, hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, cation-pi interactions, pi stacking, and London forces. The document provides examples of each type of interaction and discusses how their strengths can be determined based on characteristics like boiling point and molecular structure.

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    Get Your Forces Right!: Covalent Bond

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    Anonymous AtyZD9DS1m
    33 views13 pages
    The document discusses different types of molecular forces, including covalent bonds, noncovalent molecular forces, and their relative strengths. It defines covalent bonds as the sharing of electron pairs, and notes that noncovalent forces include cation-anion interactions, dipole interactions, hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, cation-pi interactions, pi stacking, and London forces. The document provides examples of each type of interaction and discusses how their strengths can be determined based on characteristics like boiling point and molecular structure.

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    Chemical Bonds

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    The document discusses different types of molecular forces, including covalent bonds, noncovalent molecular forces, and their relative strengths. It defines covalent bonds as the sharing of electron pairs, and notes that noncovalent forces include cation-anion interactions, dipole interactions, hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, cation-pi interactions, pi stacking, and London forces. The document provides examples of each type of interaction and discusses how their strengths can be determined based on characteristics like boiling point and molecular structure.

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    33 views13 pages

    Get Your Forces Right!: Covalent Bond

    Uploaded by

    Anonymous AtyZD9DS1m
    The document discusses different types of molecular forces, including covalent bonds, noncovalent molecular forces, and their relative strengths. It defines covalent bonds as the sharing of electron pairs, and notes that noncovalent forces include cation-anion interactions, dipole interactions, hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, cation-pi interactions, pi stacking, and London forces. The document provides examples of each type of interaction and discusses how their strengths can be determined based on characteristics like boiling point and molecular structure.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 13

    Get Your Forces Right!

    First, what is a covalent bond?

    Covalent Bond
    Definition: The sharing of a pair of electrons through orbital overlap.

    Some examples:
    Methane, CH4

    Cyclohexane, C6H12

    Covalent bonds are the STRONGEST chemical bonds!


    Now, lets look at what exactly noncovalent molecular forces are

    Noncovalent Molecular Forces


    Definition: The forces that exist between atoms or molecules. The forces may be attractive or
    repulsive. All noncovalent molecular forces are also known generally as van der Waals forces.
    What is the fundamental basis behind noncovalent molecular forces?
    Electrostatic attractions!

    Now lets take a closer look at how these noncovalent forces are distributed and classified:

    DECREASING STRENGTH: Cation-Anion, Dipole Interactions, London Forces


    Physical properties that characterize noncovalent molecular forces?
    As you go through the different forces, you will see how they are different (and similar) due to some of
    these different physical properties:
    1. Boiling point: when the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the pressure surrounding the
    liquid.
    What does that mean?
    - Temperature at which the liquid enters the gaseous state when surface liquid
    molecules are dislodged due to the breaking of bonds.
    - The energy to break these bonds is known as the heat of vaporization.
    - Higher heat of vaporization = higher boiling point!
    Key point to keep in mind: STRONGER bonds, attractions, and/or forces in a molecule =
    HIGHER boiling point for that molecule.
    2. Melting point: the temperature at which a solid substance becomes a liquid.
    - When molecules of a solid acquire enough energy to break some bonds and gain
    movement.
    - The energy to break these bonds is known as the heat of fusion.
    - Higher heat of fusion = higher melting point!
    Key point to keep in mind: Melting point is not a very good measure of attractive forces.
    But the general trend: stronger bonds and forces = higher melting point.

    How to use electronegativity to determine the time of bond:

    Cation-Anion Forces (Ionic bonds)


    Definition: a noncovalent molecular force that occurs between an anion and a cation due to
    electrostatic attractions (between the positive and negative charge.)
    Some examples:
    NaCl

    MgO

    EN = 3.5 (O) 1.2 (Mg) = 2.3.

    EN = 3.0 (Cl) 0.9 (Na) = 2.1.


    - Cl is much more EN than Na.
    - Na easily loses its one electron to Cl so
    Cl can complete its octet.
    - Leads to formation of positive cation,
    Na+, and negative anion Cl- to form ionic
    bond in NaCl.

    Physical characteristics and/or Significance:

    Similar concept!
    Oxygen is far more EN than Mg
    Mg loses its electrons to oxygen
    forming an ionic bond.

    NOTE!
    The greater the charge, the
    greater the attraction between the
    anion and cation.

    High boiling point and melting point!

    NaCl

    NaCl

    Both evaporation and melting require the separating of these two ionic charges.
    Due to the extremely strong ionic bond between Na+ and Cl-, a very high amount of
    energy is required to break this bond.

    BOILING ..
    - High amount of energy needed to dislodge the surface NaCl molecules into separate Na+
    and Cl- ions.
    - Heat of vaporization = 188 kcal/mol.
    - Requires extremely high boiling point. Around 1,413 C!
    MELTING .
    - Requires a lot of energy to break the strong bonds.
    - The melting point of NaCl is around 801 C!

    Dipole Interactions
    1. Ion-Dipole & Ion-Induced Dipole
    Definition:
    Ion Dipole: When one pole of a dipole is attracted to an oppositely charged ion. The
    negative pole of a dipole will be attracted to a cation (positive charge) and the positive pole
    of a dipole will be attracted to an anion (negative charge.)

    Ion-Induced Dipole: When an ion approaches a molecule without a dipole and causes a
    change in the distribution of charges to induce a dipole.
    o For ex: an anion approaches a nonpolar molecule to create a dipole and gain attraction
    to the positive pole of the induced dipole.

    A positively-charged cation inducing a dipole on molecule without a dipole


    Example:
    Ion Dipole: NaCl dissolved in water:
    Na+ is attracted to the - oxygen of water
    Cl- is attracted to the + hydrogens of water

    Physical characteristics and/or Significance:


    Boiling and melting point relative to other noncovalent forces:
    Dipole-Dipole Interactions < Ion-Dipole < Ionic Bonds
    2. Hydrogen Bonding
    Definition: An electrostatic interaction between the hydrogen and a lone pair of an atom.
    - Hydrogen bond donor must have + charge that is large enough. This charge is comes from
    bonding to a highly electronegative element.
    - The hydrogen bond acceptor must have a lone pair and high enough electron density.
    o H-bond acceptor must have a negative charge, unless it is oxygen or nitrogen.
    - NOTE: Hydrogen bonding is not always a dipole-dipole interaction!

    Some examples:

    Physical characteristics and/or Significance:


    - Compounds containing hydrogen bonds tend to have a high melting point, boiling point,
    and solubility.
    o Ex: proteins, alcohols, amines, DNA!
    3. Dipole-Dipole
    Definition: When bond dipoles are attracted to opposite charges: the positive end of one dipole
    is attracted to the negative end of a second dipole (due to electrostatic attractions).
    Some examples:

    Physical characteristics and/or Significance:


    Boiling and melting point relative to other noncovalent forces:
    London Forces < Dipole-Dipole Interactions < Ion-Dipole < Cation-anion
    4. Cation-Pi
    Definition: When a cation is electrostatically attracted to a pi electron cloud (who would have
    guessed!)

    Cation+

    Cation attracted
    Pi electron cloud of benzene

    Pi electron clouds sandwiching the


    positively-charged hydrogen charges
    around the benzene ring.
    Example:

    Physical characteristics and/or Significance:


    -

    Protein structure: i.e. interaction of amine side chain with aromatic molecules
    Enzyme-substrate interactions
    Molecular binding and signaling
    o Ex: A ligand-gated channel, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) interacts
    with its neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, through cation-pi interactions.

    The tryptophan is part of the nAChR with which acetylcholine interacts.


    5. Pi stacking
    Definition: a noncovalent interaction that occurs between aromatic rings (also known as
    aromatic stacking.)

    Example and Significance:


    Remember back in the aromaticity unit, when we learned how the planarity of aromatic
    structures provide for stability and space conservation due to pi stacking yeah. Here it is
    again! WOOOO!

    AND LASTLY WE HAVE


    London Forces:
    Definition: a noncovalent molecular force that results from the attraction between induced polarized
    electron clouds. It is found in all molecules in some way or another. The WEAKEST chemical
    interactions!

    Electroncloudisnotpolarizedwhen
    distancebetweenatoms/moleculesis
    toofar.

    Asthemolecules/atomscomecloser,
    theelectroncloudsrepeleachother,
    becomedistorted,resultinginan
    inducedpolarizedelectroncloud.

    Examples:

    Characteristics to determine strength of LFs:


    There are many factors that influence the strength of these weak London Forces.
    1. Polarizability: How easily you can distort an electron cloud
    - Atomic radius affects the polarizability. How? As the atomic radius increases, electrons
    move further away form the nucleus and are less affected by the pull of the nucleus.
    These electrons are less bound and can be easily moved and shifted around, and
    therefore more easily polarized.
    - Boiling Point: As the boiling point decreases, the attraction between the atoms and/or
    molecules also decreases. With weaker forces acting, the electron cloud will be more
    easily polarized.

    2. Surface Area: some molecules may have the same polarizability, but different surface areas
    what happens then?
    - The greater the surface area, the more space there is for the electrons of one molecule
    to come in proximity with its neighboring molecule.
    - Although the polarizability is the same, there is more area to be polarized. This allows
    for a greater attraction.
    - LARGER surface area = HIGHER boiling point = GREATER London force!

    So, London forces also increase with molecular weight? No


    The molecular weight may be the same, but as surface area increases, the force and the
    boiling point increase!
    Its NOT the molecular weight!
    Lets look at the example Dr.H went over in class one more time
    o

    C5H12

    DECREASING SURFACE AREA


    DECREASING BOILING POINT
    DECREASING LONDON FORCES
    Lets END by recapping the
    WEAKEST Force:

    London Forces

    Noncovalent Forces:

    relative strengths of all the


    IonDipole
    HydrogenBonding
    Dipoledipole
    CationPi
    Pistacking
    (Doesnotmeanallareofequal
    strength)

    STRONGESTForces:

    Covalentbonds(thestrongest)
    Cationanion(Ionicbonds)

    INCREASING STRENGTH
    I hope this tutorial was helpful in understanding the different noncovalent molecular forces and their
    unique characteristics and functions!
    Good luck with everything!

    SOURCES
    Dr.Hardingers Thinkbook
    Dr.Hardingers Lecture Supplement
    Wikipedia for information and images:
    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bond
    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point
    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium
    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA
    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclohexane_conformation
    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stacking_(chemistry)
    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cation%E2%80%93pi_interaction
    http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Benzenesodium.png/150pxBenzene
    sodium.png
    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NaCl.png

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covalent_bond

    Miscellaneoussourcesforinformationandimages:
    http://www.chemprofessor.com/imf_files/image015.jpg
    i.ucdavis.edu/@api/deki/files/13855/=POLA.jpg
    http://people.seas.harvard.edu/~jones/es154/lectures/lecture_2/covalent_bond/covalent_bond.html
    http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c123/intermol.html
    http://classes.kvcc.edu/chm220/Images/c5h12.jpg
    http://proteopedia.org/wiki/images/d/d2/Cationpidougherty.jpg
    http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/@api/deki/files/8856/=image138.png
    http://www.chem.unsw.edu.au/highschool/HSNotes/intermolecular.html
    http://www.chem.ufl.edu/~itl/2041_f97/matter/FG11_005.GIF
    http://i01.i.aliimg.com/photo/v0/105064697/REFINED_SALT_SODIUM_CHLORIDE_NALC_99_25.jpg
    http://www.school-for-champions.com/chemistry/images/bonding_types-nacl.gif

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