Mushroom

This article is about fungi. For use in food, see Edible

mushroom. For other uses, see Mushroom (disambiguation).
Toadstool redirects here. For other uses, see Toadstool
(disambiguation).
A mushroom (or toadstool) is the eshy, spore-

some Basidiomycota, depending upon the context of the

word.
Forms deviating from the standard morphology usually
have more specic names, such as "bolete", "puball",
"stinkhorn", and "morel", and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called "agarics" in reference to their similarity to Agaricus or their place Agaricales. By extension,
the term mushroom can also designate the entire fungus when in culture; the thallus (called a mycelium) of
species forming the fruiting bodies called mushrooms; or
the species itself.

1 Identication

Amanita muscaria, commonly known as y agaric

bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced

above ground on soil or on its food source.
The standard for the name mushroom is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence
the word mushroom is most often applied to those
fungi (Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes) that have a stem
(stipe), a cap (pileus), and gills (lamellae, sing. lamella)
on the underside of the cap. These gills produce microscopic spores that help the fungus spread across the
ground or its occupant surface.

Morphological characteristics of the caps of mushrooms

Identifying mushrooms requires a basic understanding of

their macroscopic structure. Most are Basidiomycetes
and gilled. Their spores, called basidiospores, are produced on the gills and fall in a ne rain of powder from
under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level the basidiospores are shot o basidia and then fall between the
gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mush-

Mushroom describes a variety of gilled fungi, with or

without stems, and the term is used even more generally, to describe both the eshy fruiting bodies of some
Ascomycota and the woody or leathery fruiting bodies of
1

3 ETYMOLOGY

rooms, if the cap is cut o and placed gill-side-down

overnight, a powdery impression reecting the shape of
the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the
fruit body is sporulating). The color of the powdery
print, called a spore print, is used to help classify mushrooms and can help to identify them. Spore print colors include white (most common), brown, black, purplebrown, pink, yellow, and creamy, but almost never blue,
green, or red.[1]

However, in modern molecularly dened classications,

not all members of the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruit bodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders of the
class Agaricomycetes. For example, chanterelles are in
the Cantharellales, false chanterelles such as Gomphus
are in the Gomphales, milk-cap mushrooms (Lactarius,
Lactiuus) and russulas (Russula), as well as Lentinellus,
are in the Russulales, while the tough, leathery genWhile modern identication of mushrooms is quickly be- era Lentinus and Panus are among the Polyporales, but
Neolentinus is in the Gloeophyllales, and the little pincoming molecular, the standard methods for identication are still used by most and have developed into a ne mushroom genus, Rickenella, along with similar genera,
are in the Hymenochaetales.
art harking back to medieval times and the Victorian era,
combined with microscopic examination. The presence Within the main body of mushrooms, in the Agaricales,
of juices upon breaking, bruising reactions, odors, tastes, are common fungi like the common fairy-ring mushroom,
shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all consid- shiitake, enoki, oyster mushrooms, y agarics and other
ered by both amateur and professional mycologists. Tast- amanitas, magic mushrooms like species of Psilocybe,
ing and smelling mushrooms carries its own hazards be- paddy straw mushrooms, shaggy manes, etc.
cause of poisons and allergens. Chemical tests are also An atypical mushroom is the lobster mushroom, which is
used for some genera.[2]
a deformed, cooked-lobster-colored parasitized fruitbody
In general, identication to genus can often be accomplished in the eld using a local mushroom guide. Identication to species, however, requires more eort; one
must remember that a mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter can
provide certain characteristics needed for the identication of the species. However, over-mature specimens lose
features and cease producing spores. Many novices have
mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore
prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on lamella
edges for colored spored prints.

Classication

Main articles: Sporocarp (fungi), Basidiocarp and

Ascocarp
Typical mushrooms are the fruit bodies of members of

of a Russula or Lactarius, colored and deformed by the

mycoparasitic Ascomycete Hypomyces lactiuorum.[3]
Other mushrooms are not gilled, so the term mushroom
is loosely used, and giving a full account of their classications is dicult. Some have pores underneath (and
are usually called boletes), others have spines, such as
the hedgehog mushroom and other tooth fungi, and so
on. Mushroom has been used for polypores, puballs,
jelly fungi, coral fungi, bracket fungi, stinkhorns, and cup
fungi. Thus, the term is more one of common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning. Approximately 14,000
species of mushrooms are described.[4]

3 Etymology
The terms mushroom and toadstool go back centuries and were never precisely dened, nor was there
consensus on application. The term toadstool was
often, but not exclusively, applied to poisonous mushrooms or to those that have the classic umbrella-like
cap-and-stem form. Between 1400 and 1600 AD, the
terms tadstoles, frogstooles, frogge stoles, tadstooles, tode
stoles, toodys hatte, paddockstool, puddockstool, paddocstol, toadstoole, and paddockstooles sometimes were
used synonymously with mushrom, mushrum, muscheron,
mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns.[6]

The word has apparent analogies in Dutch padde(n)stoel

(toad-stool/chair, mushroom) and German Krtenschwamm (toad-fungus, alt. word for panther cap). In
German folklore and old fairy tales, toads are often
Trametes versicolor, a polypore mushroom
depicted sitting on toadstool mushrooms and catching,
with their tongues, the ies that are said to be drawn
the order Agaricales, whose type genus is Agaricus and to the Fliegenpilz, a German name for the toadstool,
type species is the eld mushroom, Agaricus campestris. meaning ies mushroom. This is how the mushroom

3
gerated importance placed on the few deadly and poisonous mushrooms found in the region of that culture.[12]
In these regions, mushrooms were also sometimes regarded as magic or satanic, their fruiting bodies appearing
quickly overnight from underground. Some believed they
were the Devils fruit, and others that mushroom rings
were magical portals.

4 Morphology

Amanita jacksonii buttons emerging from their universal veils

Amanita muscaria, the most easily recognised toadstool, is frequently depicted in fairy stories and on greeting cards. It is often
associated with gnomes.[5]

got another of its names, Krtenstuhl (a less-used

German name for the mushroom), literally translating to
toad-stool.
The term mushroom and its variations may have been
derived from the French word mousseron in reference
to moss (mousse). The toadstools connection to toads
may be direct, in reference to some species of poisonous
toad,[7] or may just be a case of phonosemantic matching
from the German word.[8] However, delineation between
edible and poisonous fungi is not clear-cut, so a mushroom may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable. The
term toadstool is nowadays used in storytelling when
referring to poisonous or suspect mushrooms. The classic example of a toadstool is Amanita muscaria.
Cultural or social phobias of mushrooms and fungi may
be related. The term fungophobia was coined by
William Delisle Hay of England, who noted a national
superstition or fear of toadstools.[9][10] He described
the fungus-hunter as being contemptible and detailed
the larger demographics attitude toward mushrooms as
abnormal, worthless, or inexplicable.[10] Fungophobia
spread to the United States and Australia, where it was
inherited from England.[10][11] The underlying cause of
a cultural fungophobia may also be related to the exag-

The blue gills of Lactarius indigo, a milk-cap mushroom

A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less

than two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium,
which is typically found on or near the surface of the
substrate. It is formed within the mycelium, the mass
of threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus. The primordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a button.
The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the universal
veil, that surrounds the developing fruit body. As the egg
expands, the universal veil ruptures and may remain as
a cup, or volva, at the base of the stalk, or as warts or
volval patches on the cap. Many mushrooms lack a universal veil, therefore they do not have either a volva or

5 GROWTH

volval patches. Often, a second layer of tissue, the partial

veil, covers the bladelike gills that bear spores. As the
cap expands, the veil breaks, and remnants of the partial
veil may remain as a ring, or annulus, around the middle
of the stalk or as fragments hanging from the margin of
the cap. The ring may be skirt-like as in some species
of Amanita, collar-like as in many species of Lepiota, or
merely the faint remnants of a cortina (a partial veil composed of laments resembling a spiderweb), which is typical of the genus Cortinarius. Mushrooms lacking partial
veils do not form an annulus.[13]

that covers the surface of gills. In the nongilled mushrooms, the hymenium lines the inner surfaces of the tubes
of boletes and polypores, or covers the teeth of spine
fungi and the branches of corals. In the Ascomycota,
spores develop within microscopic elongated, sac-like
cells called asci, which typically contain eight spores in
each ascus. The Discomycetes, which contain the cup,
sponge, brain, and some club-like fungi, develop an exposed layer of asci, as on the inner surfaces of cup fungi
or within the pits of morels. The Pyrenomycetes, tiny
dark-colored fungi that live on a wide range of substrates
The stalk (also called the stipe, or stem) may be central including soil, dung, leaf litter, and decaying wood, as
well as other fungi, produce minute, ask-shaped strucand support the cap in the middle, or it may be o-center
[15]
and/or lateral, as in species of Pleurotus and Panus. In tures called perithecia, within which the asci develop.
other mushrooms, a stalk may be absent, as in the polypores that form shelf-like brackets. Puballs lack a stalk,
but may have a supporting base. Other mushrooms, such
as trues, jellies, earthstars, and birds nests, usually do
not have stalks, and a specialized mycological vocabulary
exists to describe their parts.
The way the gills attach to the top of the stalk is an important feature of mushroom morphology. Mushrooms
in the genera Agaricus, Amanita, Lepiota and Pluteus,
among others, have free gills that do not extend to the top
of the stalk. Others have decurrent gills that extend down
the stalk, as in the genera Omphalotus and Pleurotus.
There are a great number of variations between the extremes of free and decurrent, collectively called attached
gills. Finer distinctions are often made to distinguish the
types of attached gills: adnate gills, which adjoin squarely
to the stalk; notched gills, which are notched where they
join the top of the stalk; adnexed gills, which curve upward to meet the stalk, and so on. These distinctions between attached gills are sometimes dicult to interpret,
since gill attachment may change as the mushroom ma- Austroboletus mutabilis spores viewed using electron microscopy
tures, or with dierent environmental conditions.[14]

4.1

Microscopic features

In the Basidiomycetes, usually four spores develop on the

tips of thin projections called sterigmata, which extend
from club-shaped cells called a basidia. The fertile portion of the Gasteromycetes, called a gleba, may become
powdery as in the puballs or slimy as in the stinkhorns.
Interspersed among the asci are threadlike sterile cells
called paraphyses. Similar structures called cystidia often occur within the hymenium of the Basidiomycota.
Many types of cystidia exist, and assessing their presence,
shape, and size is often used to verify the identication of
a mushroom.[15]

The most important microscopic feature for identication

of mushrooms is the spores. Their color, shape, size, attachment, ornamentation, and reaction to chemical tests
often can be the crux of an identication. A spore often
has a protrusion at one end, called an apiculus, which is
Morchella elata asci viewed with phase contrast microscopy
the point of attachment to the basidium, termed the apical germ pore, from which the hypha emerges when the
A hymenium is a layer of microscopic spore-bearing cells spore germinates.[15]

Agaricus bitorquis mushroom emerging through asphalt concrete

in summer

Yellow ower pot mushrooms (Leucocoprinus birnbaumii) at

various states of development

the fungus is underground and in decaying wood or dying tree roots in the form of white mycelia combined
with black shoelace-like rhizomorphs that bridge coloMany species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, nized separated woody substrates.[18]
growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is the It has been suggested the electrical stimulus of a lightning
source of several common expressions in the English lan- bolt striking mycelia in logs accelerates the production of
guage including to mushroom or mushrooming (ex- mushrooms.[19]
panding rapidly in size or scope) and to pop up like a
mushroom (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In reality all species of mushrooms take several days to form
primordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expand
6 Nutrition
rapidly by the absorption of uids.

Growth

The cultivated mushroom as well as the common eld

mushroom initially form a minute fruiting body, referred
to as the pin stage because of their small size. Slightly expanded they are called buttons, once again because of the
relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the
mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its mycelium
and expand, mainly by inating preformed cells that took
several days to form in the primordia.

Mushrooms are a low-calorie food eaten cooked, raw or

as a garnish to a meal. In a 100 g (3.5 ounce) serving,
mushrooms are an excellent source (higher than 20% of
the daily value, DV) of B vitamins, such as riboavin,
niacin and pantothenic acid, an excellent source of the
essential minerals, selenium (37% DV) and copper (25%
DV), and a good source (10-19% DV) of phosphorus and
potassium. Fat, carbohydrate and calorie content are low,
Similarly, there are even more ephemeral mushrooms, with absence of vitamin C and sodium. There are 27 calolike Parasola plicatilis (formerly Coprinus plicatlis), that ries in a typical serving of fresh mushrooms (table).
literally appear overnight and may disappear by late afterto ultraviolet (UV) light even after
noon on a hot day after rainfall.[16] The primordia form When exposed
[20]
harvesting,
natural
ergosterols in mushrooms produce
at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the thatch
[21]
vitamin
D
,
a
process
now used to supply fresh vitamin
2
and after heavy rainfall or in dewy conditions balloon to
D
mushrooms
for
the
functional
food grocery market.
full size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse.
They mushroom to full size.
In a comprehensive safety assessment of producing vitaNot all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very min D in fresh mushrooms, researchers showed that arslowly and add tissue to their fruitbodies by growing from ticial UV light technologies were equally eective for
the edges of the colony or by inserting hyphae. For exam- vitamin D production as in mushrooms exposed to naturecord of safe
ple, Pleurotus nebrodensis grows slowly, and because of ral sunlight, and that UV light has a long
[22]
use
for
production
of
vitamin
D
in
food.
this combined with human collection, it is now critically
endangered.[17]
Though mushroom fruiting bodies are short-lived, the underlying mycelium can itself be long-lived and massive. A
7 Human use
colony of Armillaria solidipes (formerly known as Armillaria ostoyae) in Malheur National Forest in the United
States is estimated to be 2,400 years old, possibly older, Further information: Ethnomycology
and spans an estimated 2,200 acres (8.9 km2 ). Most of

HUMAN USE

ily confused with poisonous varieties. A. bisporus contains carcinogens called hydrazines, the most abundant
of which is agaritine. However, the carcinogens are destroyed by moderate heat when cooking.[25]
More generally, and particularly with gilled mushrooms,
separating edible from poisonous species requires meticulous attention to detail; there is no single trait by which
all toxic mushrooms can be identied, nor one by which
all edible mushrooms can be identied. Additionally,
even edible mushrooms may produce allergic reactions in
susceptible individuals, from a mild asthmatic response to
severe anaphylactic shock.[26][27]
The Agaricus bisporus, one of the most widely cultivated and
popular mushrooms in the world

7.1

People who collect mushrooms for consumption are

known as mycophagists,[28] and the act of collecting them
for such is known as mushroom hunting, or simply mushrooming.

Edible mushrooms

China is the worlds largest edible mushroom

producer.[29] The country produces about half of
Main articles: Edible mushroom, Mushroom hunting all cultivated mushrooms, and around 2.7 kilograms (6.0
and Fungiculture
lb) of mushrooms are consumed per person per year by
over a billion people.[30]
Mushrooms are used extensively in cooking, in many
cuisines (notably Chinese, Korean, European, and
Japanese). Though neither meat nor vegetable, mush- 7.2 Toxic mushrooms
rooms are known as the meat of the vegetable world.[23]
Main article: Mushroom poisoning
Most mushrooms sold in supermarkets have been comMany mushroom species produce secondary metabolites
mercially grown on mushroom farms. The most popular
of these, Agaricus bisporus, is considered safe for most
people to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilized
environments. Several varieties of A. bisporus are grown
commercially, including whites, crimini, and portobello.
Other cultivated species now available at many grocers include shiitake, maitake or hen-of-the-woods, oyster, and
enoki. In recent years, increasing auence in developing
countries has led to a considerable growth in interest in
mushroom cultivation, which is now seen as a potentially
important economic activity for small farmers.[24]

Young Amanita phalloides, death cap mushrooms

Mushroom and true output in 2005

A number of species of mushrooms are poisonous; although some resemble certain edible species, consuming them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gathered
in the wild is risky and should only be undertaken by
individuals knowledgeable in mushroom identication.
Common best practice is for wild mushroom pickers
to focus on collecting a small number of visually distinctive, edible mushroom species that cannot be eas-

that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, or

bioluminescent. Although there are only a small number
of deadly species, several others can cause particularly
severe and unpleasant symptoms. Toxicity likely plays
a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the
mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to eciently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and
premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that
render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit the meal (see emetics), or to learn to
avoid consumption altogether. In addition, due to the
propensity of mushrooms to absorb heavy metals, includ-

7.4

Medicinal properties

ing those that are radioactive, European mushrooms may, addiction, specically with alcohol and cigarettes.[41]
to date, include toxicity from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster A few species in the Amanita genus, most recognizand continue to be studied.[31][32][33][34][35]
ably A. muscaria, but also A. pantherina, among others, contain the psychoactive compound muscimol. The
muscimol-containing chemotaxonomic group of Amani7.3 Psychoactive mushrooms
tas contains no amatoxins or phallotoxins, and as such are
not hepatoxic, though if not properly cured will be nonlethally neurotoxic due to the presence of ibotenic acid.
The Amanita intoxication is similar to Z-drugs in that it
includes CNS depressant and sedative-hypnotic eects,
but also dissociation and delirium in high doses.

7.4 Medicinal properties

Main article: Medicinal mushrooms
Some mushrooms or extracts are used or studied as

Psilocybe zapotecorum, a hallucinogenic mushroom

Mushrooms with psychoactive properties have long

played a role in various native medicine traditions in cultures all around the world. They have been used as sacrament in rituals aimed at mental and physical healing, and
to facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the velada
ceremony. A practitioner of traditional mushroom use is
the shaman or curandera (priest-healer).[36]
Psilocybin mushrooms possess psychedelic properties.
Commonly known as magic mushrooms or "'shrooms,
they are openly available in smart shops in many parts
of the world, or on the black market in those countries that have outlawed their sale. Psilocybin mushrooms have been reported as facilitating profound and
life-changing insights often described as mystical experiences. Recent scientic work has supported these claims,
as well as the long-lasting eects of such induced spiritual
experiences.[37]
Psilocybin, a naturally occurring chemical in certain
psychedelic mushrooms such as Psilocybe cubensis, is being studied for its ability to help people suering from
psychological disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive
disorder. Minute amounts have been reported to stop
cluster and migraine headaches.[38] A double-blind study,
done by the Johns Hopkins Hospital, showed psychedelic
mushrooms could provide people an experience with substantial personal meaning and spiritual signicance. In
the study, one third of the subjects reported ingestion
of psychedelic mushrooms was the single most spiritually signicant event of their lives. Over two-thirds reported it among their ve most meaningful and spiritually
signicant events. On the other hand, one-third of the
subjects reported extreme anxiety. However, the anxiety
went away after a short period of time.[39][40] Psilocybin
mushrooms have also shown to be successful in treating

Ganoderma lucidum

possible treatments for diseases, such as cardiovascular

disorders.[42] Some mushroom materials, including
polysaccharides, glycoproteins and proteoglycans are under basic research for their potential to modulate immune
system responses and inhibit tumor growth,[43] whereas
other isolates show potential antiviral, antibacterial,
antiparasitic, anti-inammatory, and antidiabetic properties in preliminary studies.[44] Currently, several extracts
have widespread use in Japan, Korea and China, as adjuncts to radiation treatments and chemotherapy,[45][46]
even though clinical evidence of ecacy in humans has
not been conrmed.
Historically, mushrooms have long been thought to
hold medicinal value, especially in traditional Chinese
medicine.[47] They have been studied in modern medical
research since the 1960s, where most studies use extracts,
rather than whole mushrooms. Only a few specic extracts have been tested for ecacy in laboratory research.
Polysaccharide-K and lentinan are among extracts best
understood from in vitro research, animal models such as
mice, or early-stage human pilot studies.[46]
Preliminary experiments show glucan-containing
mushroom extracts may aect function of the

innate and adaptive immune systems, functioning as

bioresponse modulators.[46] In some countries, extracts
of polysaccharide-K, schizophyllan, polysaccharide
peptide, or lentinan are government-registered adjuvant
cancer therapies.[45][48]
As of June 2014, whole mushrooms or mushroom ingredients are being studied in 32 human clinical trials
registered with the US National Institutes of Health for
their potential eects on a variety of diseases and normal
physiological conditions, including vitamin D deciency,
cancer, bone metabolism, glaucoma, immune functions
and inammatory bowel disease.[49]

7.5

Other uses

REFERENCES

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[5] Harding, Patrick (2008).
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A tinder fungus, Fomes fomentarius

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[15] Ammirati et al., 1985, pp. 2534.

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Eects of postharvest pulsed UV light treatment of

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[21] Koyyalamudi SR, Jeong SC, Song CH, Cho KY, Pang
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from Agaricus bisporus button mushrooms treated with ultraviolet irradiation (PDF). Journal of Agricultural and
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PMID 19281276.

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8.1 Literature cited

Ammirati JF, Traquair JA, Horgen PA. (1985). Poisonous Mushrooms of Canada: Including other Inedible Fungi. Markham, Ontario: Fitzhenry & Whiteside in cooperation with Agriculture Canada and the
Canadian Government Publishing Centre, Supply
and Services Canada. ISBN 0-88902-977-6.

10

Hall IR, Stephenson SL, Buchanan PK, Yun W,

Cole ALJ. (2003). Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the World. Portland, Oregon: Timber
Press. ISBN 0-88192-586-1.
Stuntz DE, Largent DL, Thiers HD, Johnson DJ,
Watling R. (1978). How to Identify Mushrooms
to Genus I. Eureka, California: Mad River Press.
ISBN 0-916422-00-3.

External links

9.1

Identication

Mushroom Observer, a collaborative mushroom

recording and identication project
An Aid to Mushroom Identication, Simons Rock
College
Online Edible Wild Mushroom Field Guide

9.2

Research associations

North American Mycological Association

Pacic Northwest Fungi Online Journal

EXTERNAL LINKS

11

10
10.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Mushroom Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom?oldid=690199181 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Magnus Manske, Vicki

Rosenzweig, Tarquin, Mark, Enchanter, Kip~enwiki, Merphant, Ellmist, Heron, Patrick, DopeshJustin, Dante Alighieri, Shyamal, Menchi,
Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Tango, Cyde, Gbleem, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Andrewa, Julesd, Ugen64, Tristanb, Jeandr du Toit, Evercat, Smack,
Nikola Smolenski, GeShane, Marknen, Timwi, Janko, Dino, David Latapie, ARog, Tpbradbury, Marshman, Taxman, Rei, Phoebe,
Xevi~enwiki, Sandman~enwiki, Wetman, David.Monniaux, Pollinator, Garo, PuzzletChung, Chuunen Baka, Donarreiskoer, Bearcat,
Astronautics~enwiki, YahoKa, Goethean, Altenmann, Naddy, Lowellian, Rfc1394, Academic Challenger, Texture, Ojigiri~enwiki, Andrew Levine, Sunray, UtherSRG, JesseW, Wikibot, Avij, Mushroom, Cordell, Carnildo, Dusik, Enochlau, Fabiform, Giftlite, Wolfkeeper, Abigail-II, Tom harrison, Fastssion, Ausir, Everyking, Moyogo, Wouterhagens, Curps, Sik0fewl, Pparadox, FriedMilk, Summerbellrc, Horatio, Solipsist, Foobar, SoWhy, Traumerei, Antandrus, MistToys, Annom, Rdsmith4, Mzajac, Kesac, Vbs, Bumm13,
TonyW, Aramgutang, Urhixidur, Joyous!, Ukexpat, Ratiocinate, Adashiel, ELApro, Mike Rosoft, Dr.frog, Haiduc, Discospinster, Pak21,
Cacycle, Vsmith, Smyth, Bender235, Swid, MBisanz, Pjrich, Simonfairfax, Shanes, Zegoma beach, EmilJ, Mairi, Adambro, Bobo192,
Circeus, Meggar, Smalljim, Viriditas, Elipongo, Chirag, Forteanajones, Bdamokos, [email protected], Pschemp, Krellis, Nsaa, Bjornkri,
Stephen G. Brown, Alansohn, Karlthegreat, Keenan Pepper, Mykej, Sjschen, Jonegn, M7, AzaToth, Yamla, SlimVirgin, Bart133, Caesura,
Wtmitchell, Velella, Rafti Institute, Pappa, RainbowOfLight, Mikeo, Cheyinka, Bsadowski1, GabrielF, Ringbang, HenryLi, Yurivict, Luigizanasi, Kenyon, Alex.g, Billfromhk, Stemonitis, Kelly Martin, Pekinensis, Woohookitty, TheIguana, TigerShark, Scriberius, Camw,
LOL, MONGO, Bkwillwm, Ejrs, DonIncognito, SCEhardt, Plowboylifestyle, Toussaint, Prashanthns, MarcoTolo, Radiant!, Stevey7788,
Dysepsion, Mandarax, Ashmoo, Blisco, BD2412, Search4Lancer, Canderson7, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Astropithicus, Dontbeakakke, Chirags, Crazynas, Tdowling, Titoxd, SchuminWeb, Crazycomputers, RexNL, Gurch, Wowbobwow12, Alphachimp, Diza, Lemuel Gulliver,
Snailwalker, CJLL Wright, DVdm, Gwernol, Flcelloguy, The Rambling Man, Sceptre, Hairy Dude, Jimp, Peter G Werner, AVM, Mycos,
Chuck Carroll, Lucinos~enwiki, Kirill Lokshin, IanManka, RadioFan, Stephenb, Wimt, Wikimachine, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Veledan,
Test-tools~enwiki, Grafen, Dforest, Badagnani, NickBush24, Selena17, Howcheng, Tokachu, Snowfalcon, Dogcow, Lexicon, Pyrotec, Retired username, Anetode, Raven4x4x, Semperf, Natkeeran, Aaron Schulz, Amphis, Blowdart, Cinik, Wknight94, Tetracube, Sandstein,
NorsemanII, Theda, Closedmouth, E Wing, Pb30, JuJube, Petri Krohn, Tevildo, JoanneB, Curpsbot-unicodify, Kungfuadam, Junglecat, PietrzakL, Erri wan, Mejor Los Indios, DVD R W, CIreland, Luk, Sardanaphalus, Iorek85, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Moeron,
Am, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Martinp, David.Mestel, Blue520, Stephensuleeman, Delldot, Jab843, Virgilrm, Abbeyvet, Canthusus, Wakuran, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Xaosux, Gilliam, DividedByNegativeZero, Anwar saadat, Jgavigan, SlimJim, Persian Poet
Gal, Jon513, Ghemesh, Fluri, Jamidwyer, SchftyThree, Victorgrigas, Deli nk, TheFeds, Ravens326, Baa, Ryan O'Rourke, Kostmo, Hongooi, Para, Darth Panda, Reaper X, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Eliezg, Onorem, Nixeagle, Yidisheryid, Ww2censor, Sweetiepetie, Rrburke, Addshore, Edivorce, Squamate, Alton.arts, Adamantios, Smooth O, Kingdon, Nakon, Akulkis, T-borg, Akral, A.J.A.,
Weregerbil, James084, DMacks, Wizardman, Scharks, Ck lostsword, ComSpex, Kukini, Vidioman, Turpin, Andrew Dalby, JLogan, Thejerm, Kuru, John, Carnby, Scientizzle, Kipala, Gobonobo, Hanachan01, Thegathering, Evenios, Johndavidson, Cbaer, IronGargoyle, Simon France, Cvoz, Tominator~enwiki, Werdan7, Beetstra, SQGibbon, Bendzh, Optakeover, Waggers, Plattler01, Me2NiK, Hogyn Lleol,
Jose77, Dodo bird, Sasata, BranStark, Nehrams2020, HisSpaceResearch, Dead3y3, Iridescent, Kaarel, Wjejskenewr, Nfutvol, Courcelles,
Gilabrand, Anger22, MoleculeUpload, Billy Hathorn, Tauolunga, Tawkerbot2, Yashgaroth, Daniel5127, Rouseaubade, J Milburn, JForget, Porterjoh, Triage, Van helsing, RebornSentinal, Scohoust, CWY2190, Basawala, GHe, ThePirate, AshLin, Casper2k3, Neelix, Keyah
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Damifb, Dancter, Delta Spartan, Luccas, DumbBOT, 15chris1234, Optimist on the run, Daven200520, Argymeg, Pellucid, JodyB,
Casliber, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, O, Kablammo, Pcu123456789, N5iln, Lanky, Sanchezzzzzzzzzz, Nedia1234567, Mojo Hand,
Marek69, West Brom 4ever, John254, James086, Ackatsis, Picus viridis, Karamell, Dfrg.msc, CharlotteWebb, Dawnseeker2000, Natalie
Erin, Northumbrian, Escarbot, Mentisto, KrakatoaKatie, WikiSlasher, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Mvjs, Opelio, Tchoutoye, Jj137,
Zweifel, Reishidave, Gdo01, Ozgod, Hellsop, Senergy, Steambadger, Larrybot3000, ShadowKinght, Pieman1, JAnDbot, Chaitanya.lala,
Leuko, MER-C, Andonic, Dkurt, Xeno, Kirrages, Papa Lima Whiskey, Acroterion, I80and, Richardson mcphillips, Fuzzybyte, Connormah,
Jaysweet, Theunicyclegirl, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Videogamer!!!, Videogames FTW!, Gamerpedia, Videogames are t3h best, Gamesarefun, BenRain, JNW, The videogamer!, Mbc362, Ling.Nut, CTF83!, Judd Smith, Rugops, Aka042, Suez Canal, Chunkylefunga, Romantic
Cookie, Gameguy1, Adrian J. Hunter, Remagoediv, Bigbobc293, Tailsfan2, DerHexer, Lenticel, Khalid Mahmood, Nevit, WLU, Ashishbhatnagar72, Mindcooler, Kskowron, Kgeis, Hdt83, MartinBot, STBot, Arjun01, Nehwyn, Rogutaan, Mark ruckman, TheEgyptian, Birdie,
R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Jhaugen, AlexiusHoratius, Rivet0head, Fjord3, Siliconov, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, Eviljawa, Euku, EscapingLife, CMGA, Bogey97, Angela C, Qatter, 12dstring, Extransit, CyminX, Raistlin212, Nimafade, Prince of
Dharma, Katalaveno, Thomas Larsen, MissWikiGirl, Cropcircles~enwiki, Colchicum, Richard D. LeCour, SJP, Cobi, Christopher Kraus,
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Jmon99, Alan Rockefeller, Canadaworker, JustinKoser, Malljaja, Planetary Chaos, Ann Stouter, ElinorD, Payam09, Crohnie, BlueLint,
Aymatth2, Cvstevani, Anna Lincoln, Melsaran, Martin451, LeaveSleaves, Melle mel, Eevans12392, Noformation, BotKung, ACEOREVIVED, , Manofthesea, Billinghurst, Milkbreath, Sarc37, GeckoKid, Redacteur, Marijuanarchy, Falcon8765, VanishedUserABC,
Gilesdudgeon, V2ra, Spinningspark, WatermelonPotion, Why Not A Duck, Heliocybe, Logan, Kumorigachi, KKSL, Tvinh, IndulgentReader, Dingwall07, Cosprings, Botev, Bfpage, SieBot, Jacob97321, YAYsocialism, Dan10450, Patrickstumpchik, Krawi, YourEyesOnly,
Dawn Bard, Sunriseshell, Twinkler4, RJaguar3, Astrovega, Dragonist2, Wayne317, Android Mouse, Happysailor, Flyer22 Reborn, Tiptoety, Radon210, Danman2007, Joe Bloggsina, Bobstans, Paddles123, Grimey109, Wilson44691, Prestonmag, Marty mcg, Oxymoron83,
Antonio Lopez, Smilesfozwood, Avnjay, Lightmouse, Arthana, Ahernra, Desireful, StaticGull, Annlanding, Nielg, Mccplaya, Mygerardromance, Runcina, Dust Filter, Ascidian, Jack100222, Nn123645, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Into The Fray, ZapBoy, Darth Ellis, Webridge,
Invertzoo, -trevaman-, Jisipa, Martarius, Elassint, ClueBot, LAX, Deathdoc, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, IceUnshattered, Mycologyataoldotcom, Mycologyauthor, EoGuy, Jan1nad, Lawrence Cohen, Ndenison, Supertouch, WoweeeZoweee, Arakunem, Wikicat,
Remag Kee, Cp111, CounterVandalismBot, Nomadjenkinator, Richerman, Brandoni263, Orthoepy, Neverquick, Johnalp, Jenny Chun,
Manishearth, Grundig, Excirial, Quercus basaseachicensis, Jusdafax, CrazyChemGuy, Monobi, Eeekster, Abrech, Belindd, Lartoven, Theforager, Bobjenkins1234, Carsrac, ParisianBlade, Lavenda24, Normovampire, Noosentaal, Dekisugi, Physiologyshook, Tinaaxx24, Mushrooms are cool, Thehelpfulone, Kst447, Bald Zebra, ZhiRandom, Thingg, Sickday101, Aitias, Horselover Frost, Lilkid6598, Spino,
Versus22, Mushroomking123, PCHS-NJROTC, Smarkea, Berean Hunter, Otlw112, SoxBot III, Bennirubber1029384756, NERICSecurity, Innitegames, Alloranleon, Vanished User 1004, Sacharin, DumZiBoT, Bearsona, Skunkboy74, XLinkBot, Gnowor, Warriorsoul,

12

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Williditor and Anonymous: 1435

10.2

Images

File:2005mushroom_and_truffle.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/2005mushroom_and_truffle.

PNG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Stefan4 using CommonsHelper. Original
artist: Anwar saadat at English Wikipedia
File:Amanita_jacksonii_45069.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Amanita_jacksonii_45069.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: mushroomobserver.org Original artist: hrb
File:Amanita_muscaria_(fly_agaric).JPG Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Amanita_muscaria_
%28fly_agaric%29.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MichaelMaggs
File:Amanita_phalloides_young.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Amanita_phalloides_young.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Stanisaw Skowron
File:Artocarpus_heterophyllus_fruits_at_tree.jpg Source:
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heterophyllus_fruits_at_tree.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photo taken by User:Ahoerstemeier on
June 28, 2003 in Chaiya, Surat Thani Province, Thailand.
File:Austroboletus_mutabilis_sporesEM.jpg Source:
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mutabilis_sporesEM.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Mushroom Observer Original artist: Roy Halling
File:ChampignonMushroom.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/ChampignonMushroom.jpg License:
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artist: ?
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File:Fomes_fomentarius.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Fomes_fomentarius.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Jreishi2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Jreishi2.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: reishi
mushrooms Original artist: frankenstoen from Portland, Oregon
File:Lactarius_indigo_48568.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Lactarius_indigo_48568.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Mushroom Observer Original artist: Dan Molter
File:Morelasci.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Morelasci.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Peter G. Werner

10.3

Content license

13

File:Mushroom_cap_morphology2.png
Source:
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