Stereoscopy

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Stereographic" redirects here. For the map projection, see Stereographic projection.

Pocket stereoscope with original test image. Used by military to examine stereoscopic pairs of aerial
photographs.

View of Boston, c. 1860; an early stereoscopic card for viewing a scene from nature

Kaiserpanorama consisted of a multi-station viewing apparatus and sets of stereo slides. Patented by A.
Fuhrmann around 1890.[1]

Company of ladies watching stereoscopic photographs, painting byJacob Spoel, before 1868. A very
early depiction of people using a stereoscope.

Stereoscopy (also called stereoscopics) is a technique for creating or enhancing the illusion
of depth in an image by means ofstereopsis for binocular vision. The word stereoscopy derives
from Greek (stereos), meaning "firm, solid", and (skope), meaning "to look,
to see".[2][3] Any stereoscopic image is called a stereogram. Originally, stereogram referred to a
pair of stereo images which could be viewed using a stereoscope.
Most stereoscopic methods present two offset images separately to the left and right eye of the
viewer. These two-dimensional images are then combined in the brain to give the perception
of 3D depth. This technique is distinguished from 3D displays that display an image in three full
dimensions, allowing the observer to increase information about the 3-dimensional objects
being displayed by head and eye movements.
Contents
[hide]

1Background
o 1.1Visual requirements
2Side-by-side
o 2.1Freeviewing
o 2.2Autostereogram
o 2.3Stereoscope and stereographic cards
o 2.4Transparency viewers
o 2.5Head-mounted displays
o 2.6Virtual retinal displays
33D viewers
o 3.1Active
3.1.1Shutter systems
o 3.2Passive
3.2.1Polarization systems
3.2.2Interference filter systems
3.2.3Color anaglyph systems
3.2.4Chromadepth system
3.2.5Pulfrich method
3.2.6Over/under format
4Other display methods without viewers
o 4.1Autostereoscopy
4.1.1Holography
4.1.2Volumetric displays
4.1.3Integral imaging
o 4.2Wiggle stereoscopy
5Stereo photography techniques
6Stereo window
7Uses
o 7.1Art
o 7.2Education
o 7.3Space exploration
o 7.4Clinical uses
o 7.5Mathematical, scientific and engineering uses
8Bibliography
o 8.1Footnotes
o 8.2References

o 8.3Sources
o 8.4Further reading
9External links
o 9.1Archival Collections
o 9.2Other

Background[edit]
Stereoscopy creates the illusion of three-dimensional depth from given two-dimensional
images.[4] Human vision, including the perception of depth, is a complex process which only
begins with the acquisition of visual information taken in through the eyes; much processing
ensues within the brain, as it strives to make intelligent and meaningful sense of the raw
information provided. One of the very important visual functions that occur within the brain as it
interprets what the eyes see is that of assessing the relative distances of various objects from
the viewer, and the depth dimension of those same perceived objects. The brain makes use of
a number of cues to determine relative distances and depth in a perceived scene, including:[5]

Stereopsis
Accommodation of the eye
Overlapping of one object by another
Subtended visual angle of an object of known size
Linear perspective (convergence of parallel edges)
Vertical position (objects higher in the scene generally tend to be perceived as further
away)
Haze, desaturation, and a shift to bluishness
Change in size of textured pattern detail

(All the above cues, with the exception of the first two, are present in traditional twodimensional images such as paintings, photographs, and television.)[6]
Stereoscopy is the production of the illusion of depth in a photograph, movie, or other twodimensional image by presenting a slightly different image to each eye, and thereby adding the
first of these cues (stereopsis) as well. Both of the 2D offset images are then combined in the
brain to give the perception of 3D depth. It is important to note that since all points in the image
focus at the same plane regardless of their depth in the original scene, the second cue, focus,
is still not duplicated and therefore the illusion of depth is incomplete. There are also primarily
two effects of stereoscopy that are unnatural for the human vision: first, the mismatch between
convergence and accommodation, caused by the difference between an object's perceived
position in front of or behind the display or screen and the real origin of that light and second,
possible crosstalk between the eyes, caused by imperfect image separation by some methods.
Although the term "3D" is ubiquitously used, it is also important to note that the presentation of
dual 2D images is distinctly different from displaying an image in three full dimensions. The
most notable difference is that, in the case of "3D" displays, the observer's head and eye
movement will not increase information about the 3-dimensional objects being
displayed. Holographic displays or volumetric display are examples of displays that do not
have this limitation. Similar to the technology of sound reproduction, in which it is not possible
to recreate a full 3-dimensional sound field merely with two stereophonic speakers, it is
likewise an overstatement of capability to refer to dual 2D images as being "3D". The accurate
term "stereoscopic" is more cumbersome than the common misnomer "3D", which has been
entrenched after many decades of unquestioned misuse. Although most stereoscopic displays
do not qualify as real 3D display, all real 3D displays are also stereoscopic displays because
they meet the lower criteria as well.

Most 3D displays use this stereoscopic method to convey images. It was first invented by Sir
Charles Wheatstone in 1838,[7][8] and improved by Sir David Brewster who made the first
portable 3D viewing device.[9]

Wheatstone mirror stereoscope

Wheatstone originally used his stereoscope (a rather bulky device)[10] with drawings because
photography was not yet available, yet his original paper seems to foresee the development of
a realistic imaging method:[11]
For the purposes of illustration I have employed only outline figures, for had either shading or
colouring been introduced it might be supposed that the effect was wholly or in part due to
these circumstances, whereas by leaving them out of consideration no room is left to doubt
that the entire effect of relief is owing to the simultaneous perception of the two monocular
projections, one on each retina. But if it be required to obtain the most faithful resemblances of
real objects, shadowing and colouring may properly be employed to heighten the effects.
Careful attention would enable an artist to draw and paint the two component pictures, so as to
present to the mind of the observer, in the resultant perception, perfect identity with the object
represented. Flowers, crystals, busts, vases, instruments of various kinds, &c., might thus be
represented so as not to be distinguished by sight from the real objects themselves.[7]
Stereoscopy is used in photogrammetry and also for entertainment through the production of
stereograms. Stereoscopy is useful in viewing images rendered from large multidimensional data sets such as are produced by experimental data. An early patent for 3D
imaging in cinema and television was granted to physicist Theodor V. Ionescu in 1936. Modern
industrial three-dimensional photography may use 3D scanners to detect and record threedimensional information.[12] The three-dimensional depth information can be reconstructed from
two images using a computer by corresponding the pixels in the left and right
images.[13] Solving the Correspondence problem in the field of Computer Visionaims to create
meaningful depth information from two images.

Visual requirements[edit]
Anatomically, there are 3 levels of binocular vision required to view stereo images:
1. Simultaneous perception
2. Fusion (binocular 'single' vision)
3. Stereopsis
These functions develop in early childhood. Some people who have strabismus disrupt the
development of stereopsis, however orthoptics treatment can be used to improvebinocular
vision. A person's stereoacuity determines the minimum image disparity they can perceive as
depth. It is believed that approximately 12% of people are unable to properly see 3D images,
due to a variety of medical conditions.[14][15] According to another experiment up to 30% of
people have very weak stereoscopic vision preventing them from depth perception based on
stereo disparity. This nullifies or greatly decreases immersion effects of stereo to them.[16]

Side-by-side[edit]

"The early bird catches the worm"Stereograph published in 1900 by North-Western View Co. of Baraboo,
Wisconsin, digitally restored.

Traditional stereoscopic photography consists of creating a 3D illusion starting from a pair of

2D images, a stereogram. The easiest way to enhance depth perception in the brain is to
provide the eyes of the viewer with two different images, representing two perspectives of the
same object, with a minor deviation equal or nearly equal to the perspectives that both eyes
naturally receive in binocular vision.
To avoid eyestrain and distortion, each of the two 2D images should be presented to the
viewer so that any object at infinite distance is perceived by the eye as being straight ahead,
the viewer's eyes being neither crossed nor diverging. When the picture contains no object at
infinite distance, such as a horizon or a cloud, the pictures should be spaced correspondingly
closer together.
The principal advantages of side-by-side viewers is the lack of diminution of brightness,
allowing the presentation of images at very high resolution and in full spectrum color, simplicity
in creation, and little or no additional image processing is required. Under some circumstances,
such as when a pair of images are presented for freeviewing, no device or additional optical
equipment is needed.
The principal disadvantage of side-by-side viewers is that large image displays are not
practical and resolution is limited by the lesser of the display medium or human eye. This is
because as the dimensions of an image are increased, either the viewing apparatus or viewer
themselves must move proportionately further away from it in order to view it comfortably.
Moving closer to an image in order to see more detail would only be possible with viewing
equipment that adjusted to the difference.

Printable cross eye viewer.

Freeviewing[edit]
Freeviewing is viewing a side-by-side image pair without using a viewing device.[17]
Two methods are available to freeview:[18][19]

The parallel viewing method uses an image pair with the left-eye image on the left and the
right-eye image on the right. The fused three-dimensional image appears larger and more
distant than the two actual images, making it possible to convincingly simulate a life-size
scene. The viewer attempts to look through the images with the eyes substantially parallel,
as if looking at the actual scene. This can be difficult with normal vision because eye focus
and binocular convergence are habitually coordinated. One approach to decoupling the
two functions is to view the image pair extremely close up with completely relaxed eyes,
making no attempt to focus clearly but simply achieving comfortable stereoscopic fusion of
the two blurry images by the "look-through" approach, and only then exerting the effort to
focus them more clearly, increasing the viewing distance as necessary. Regardless of the
approach used or the image medium, for comfortable viewing and stereoscopic accuracy
the size and spacing of the images should be such that the corresponding points of very
distant objects in the scene are separated by the same distance as the viewer's eyes, but
not more; the average interocular distance is about 63 mm. Viewing much more widely
separated images is possible, but because the eyes never diverge in normal use it usually
requires some previous training and tends to cause eye strain.

The cross-eyed viewing method swaps the left and right eye images so that they will be
correctly seen cross-eyed, the left eye viewing the image on the right and vice versa. The
fused three-dimensional image appears to be smaller and closer than the actual images,
so that large objects and scenes appear miniaturized. This method is usually easier for
freeviewing novices. As an aid to fusion, a fingertip can be placed just below the division
between the two images, then slowly brought straight toward the viewer's eyes, keeping
the eyes directed at the fingertip; at a certain distance, a fused three-dimensional image
should seem to be hovering just above the finger. Alternatively, a piece of paper with a
small opening cut into it can be used in a similar manner; when correctly positioned
between the image pair and the viewer's eyes, it will seem to frame a small threedimensional image.

Prismatic, self-masking glasses are now being used by some cross-eyed-view advocates.
These reduce the degree of convergence required and allow large images to be displayed.
However, any viewing aid that uses prisms, mirrors or lenses to assist fusion or focus is simply
a type of stereoscope, excluded by the customary definition of freeviewing.
Stereoscopically fusing two separate images without the aid of mirrors or prisms while
simultaneously keeping them in sharp focus without the aid of suitable viewing lenses
inevitably requires an unnatural combination of eye vergence and accommodation. Simple
freeviewing therefore cannot accurately reproduce the physiological depth cues of the realworld viewing experience. Different individuals may experience differing degrees of ease and
comfort in achieving fusion and good focus, as well as differing tendencies to eye fatigue or
strain.
Wikimedia Commons has

Wikimedia Commons has

media related to Parallel-

media related to Crosseye-

view stereo images.

view stereo images.

Autostereogram[edit]
Main articles: Autostereogram and Random dot stereogram
An autostereogram is a single-image stereogram (SIS), designed to create the visual illusion of
a three-dimensional (3D) scene within the human brain from an external twodimensional image. In order to perceive 3D shapes in these autostereograms, one must
overcome the normally automatic coordination between focusing and vergence.

Stereoscope and stereographic cards[edit]

Main article: Stereoscope
The stereoscope is essentially an instrument in which two photographs of the same object,
taken from slightly different angles, are simultaneously presented, one to each eye. A simple
stereoscope is limited in the size of the image that may be used. A more complex stereoscope
uses a pair of horizontal periscope-like devices, allowing the use of larger images that can
present more detailed information in a wider field of view.

Transparency viewers[edit]
Main article: Slide viewer Stereo slide viewer

A View-Master Model E of the 1950s

Some stereoscopes are designed for viewing transparent photographs on film or glass, known
as transparencies or diapositives and commonly called slides. Some of the earliest
stereoscope views, issued in the 1850s, were on glass. In the early 20th century, 45x107 mm
and 6x13 cm glass slides were common formats for amateur stereo photography, especially in
Europe. In later years, several film-based formats were in use. The best-known formats for
commercially issued stereo views on film are Tru-Vue, introduced in 1931, and View-Master,
introduced in 1939 and still in production. For amateur stereo slides, the Stereo Realist format,
introduced in 1947, is by far the most common.

Head-mounted displays[edit]
Main article: Head-mounted display

An HMD with a separate video source displayed in front of each eye to achieve a stereoscopic effect

The user typically wears a helmet or glasses with two small LCD or OLED displays with
magnifying lenses, one for each eye. The technology can be used to show stereo films, images
or games, but it can also be used to create a virtual display. Head-mounted displays may also
be coupled with head-tracking devices, allowing the user to "look around" the virtual world by
moving their head, eliminating the need for a separate controller. Performing this update
quickly enough to avoid inducing nausea in the user requires a great amount of computer
image processing. If six axis position sensing (direction and position) is used then wearer may
move about within the limitations of the equipment used. Owing to rapid advancements in
computer graphics and the continuing miniaturization of video and other equipment these
devices are beginning to become available at more reasonable cost.
Head-mounted or wearable glasses may be used to view a see-through image imposed upon
the real world view, creating what is calledaugmented reality. This is done by reflecting the
video images through partially reflective mirrors. The real world view is seen through the
mirrors' reflective surface. Experimental systems have been used for gaming, where virtual
opponents may peek from real windows as a player moves about. This type of system is
expected to have wide application in the maintenance of complex systems, as it can give a
technician what is effectively "x-ray vision" by combining computer graphics rendering of
hidden elements with the technician's natural vision. Additionally, technical data and schematic
diagrams may be delivered to this same equipment, eliminating the need to obtain and carry
bulky paper documents.
Augmented stereoscopic vision is also expected to have applications in surgery, as it allows
the combination of radiographic data (CAT scans and MRI imaging) with the surgeon's vision.

Virtual retinal displays[edit]

Main article: Virtual retinal display
A virtual retinal display (VRD), also known as a retinal scan display (RSD) or retinal projector
(RP), not to be confused with a "Retina Display", is a display technology that draws
araster image (like a television picture) directly onto the retina of the eye. The user sees what
appears to be a conventional display floating in space in front of them. For true stereoscopy,
each eye must be provided with its own discrete display. To produce a virtual display that
occupies a usefully large visual angle but does not involve the use of relatively large lenses or
mirrors, the light source must be very close to the eye. A contact lens incorporating one or
more semiconductor light sources is the form most commonly proposed. As of 2013, the
inclusion of suitable light-beam-scanning means in a contact lens is still very problematic, as is
the alternative of embedding a reasonably transparent array of hundreds of thousands (or
millions, for HD resolution) of accurately aligned sources of collimated light.

A pair of LC shutter glasses used to view XpanD 3D films. The thick frames conceal the electronics and
batteries.

RealD circular polarized glasses

3D viewers[edit]
There are two categories of 3D viewer technology, active and passive. Active viewers have
electronics which interact with a display. Passive viewers filter constant streams of binocular
input to the appropriate eye.

Active[edit]
Shutter systems[edit]
Main article: Active shutter 3D system
A shutter system works by openly presenting the image intended for the left eye while blocking
the right eye's view, then presenting the right-eye image while blocking the left eye, and
repeating this so rapidly that the interruptions do not interfere with the perceived fusion of the
two images into a single 3D image. It generally uses liquid crystal shutter glasses. Each eye's
glass contains a liquid crystal layer which has the property of becoming dark when voltage is
applied, being otherwise transparent. The glasses are controlled by a timing signal that allows
the glasses to alternately darken over one eye, and then the other, in synchronization with the
refresh rate of the screen. The main drawback of active shutters is that most 3D videos and
movies were shot with simultaneous left and right views, so that it introduces a "time parallax"
for anything side moving: for instance, someone walking at 3.4 mph will be seen 20% too close
or 25% too remote in the most current case of a 2x60 Hz projection.

Passive[edit]
Polarization systems[edit]
Main articles: Polarized 3D system and Vectograph
To present stereoscopic pictures, two images are projected superimposed onto the same
screen through polarizing filters or presented on a display with polarized filters. For projection,
a silver screen is used so that polarization is preserved. On most passive displays every other
row of pixels are polarized for one eye or the other.[20] This method is also known as being
interlaced. The viewer wears low-cost eyeglasses which also contain a pair of opposite
polarizing filters. As each filter only passes light which is similarly polarized and blocks the
opposite polarized light, each eye only sees one of the images, and the effect is achieved.
Interference filter systems[edit]
Main article: Interference filter systems
This technique uses specific wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the right eye, and different
wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the left eye. Eyeglasses which filter out the very
specific wavelengths allow the wearer to see a full color 3D image. It is also known as spectral
comb filtering or wavelength multiplex visualization or super-anaglyph. Dolby 3D uses
this principle. The Omega 3D/Panavision 3D system has also used an improved version of this

technology[21] In June 2012 the Omega 3D/Panavision 3D system was discontinued by DPVO
Theatrical, who marketed it on behalf of Panavision, citing challenging global economic and
3D market conditions.[22] Although DPVO dissolved its business operations, Omega Optical
continues promoting and selling 3D systems to non-theatrical markets. Omega Opticals 3D
system contains projection filters and 3D glasses. In addition to the passive stereoscopic 3D
system, Omega Optical has produced enhanced anaglyph 3D glasses. The Omegas red/cyan
anaglyph glasses use complex metal oxide thin film coatings and high quality annealed glass
optics.

Anaglyph 3D glasses

Color anaglyph systems[edit]

Main article: Anaglyph 3D
Anaglyph 3D is the name given to the stereoscopic 3D effect achieved by means of encoding
each eye's image using filters of different (usually chromatically opposite) colors,
typically red and cyan. Red-cyan filters can be used because our vision processing systems
use red and cyan comparisons, as well as blue and yellow, to determine the color and contours
of objects. Anaglyph 3D images contain two differently filtered colored images, one for each
eye. When viewed through the "color-coded" "anaglyph glasses", each of the two images
reaches one eye, revealing an integrated stereoscopic image. The visual cortex of the brain
fuses this into perception of a three dimensional scene or composition.[23]
Chromadepth system[edit]
Main article: ChromaDepth

ChromaDepth glasses with prism-like film

The ChromaDepth procedure of American Paper Optics is based on the fact that with a prism,
colors are separated by varying degrees. The ChromaDepth eyeglasses contain special view
foils, which consist of microscopically small prisms. This causes the image to be translated a
certain amount that depends on its color. If one uses a prism foil now with one eye but not on
the other eye, then the two seen pictures depending upon color are more or less widely
separated. The brain produces the spatial impression from this difference. The advantage of
this technology consists above all of the fact that one can regard ChromaDepth pictures also
without eyeglasses (thus two-dimensional) problem-free (unlike with two-color anaglyph).
However the colors are only limitedly selectable, since they contain the depth information of the
picture. If one changes the color of an object, then its observed distance will also be
changed.[citation needed]

KMQ stereo prismatic viewer with openKMQ plastics extensions

Pulfrich method[edit]
Main article: Pulfrich effect
The Pulfrich effect is based on the phenomenon of the human eye processing images more
slowly when there is less light, as when looking through a dark lens. Because the Pulfrich
effect depends on motion in a particular direction to instigate the illusion of depth, it is not
useful as a general stereoscopic technique. For example, it cannot be used to show a
stationary object apparently extending into or out of the screen; similarly, objects moving
vertically will not be seen as moving in depth. Incidental movement of objects will create
spurious artifacts, and these incidental effects will be seen as artificial depth not related to
actual depth in the scene.
Over/under format[edit]
Stereoscopic viewing is achieved by placing an image pair one above one another. Special
viewers are made for over/under format that tilt the right eyesight slightly up and the left
eyesight slightly down. The most common one with mirrors is the View Magic. Another
withprismatic glasses is the KMQ viewer.[24] A recent usage of this technique is the openKMQ
project.[25]

Other display methods without viewers[edit]

Autostereoscopy[edit]
Main article: Autostereoscopy

The Nintendo 3DS uses parallax barrier autostereoscopy to display a 3D image.

Autostereoscopic display technologies use optical components in the display, rather than worn
by the user, to enable each eye to see a different image. Because headgear is not required, it
is also called "glasses-free 3D". The optics split the images directionally into the viewer's eyes,

so the display viewing geometry requires limited head positions that will achieve the
stereoscopic effect. Automultiscopic displays provide multiple views of the same scene, rather
than just two. Each view is visible from a different range of positions in front of the display. This
allows the viewer to move left-right in front of the display and see the correct view from any
position. The technology includes two broad classes of displays: those that use head-tracking
to ensure that each of the viewer's two eyes sees a different image on the screen, and those
that display multiple views so that the display does not need to know where the viewers' eyes
are directed. Examples of autostereoscopic displays technology include lenticular lens, parallax
barrier, volumetric display, holography and light fielddisplays.
Holography[edit]
Main articles: Holography and Computer Generated Holography
Laser holography, in its original "pure" form of the photographic transmission hologram, is the
only technology yet created which can reproduce an object or scene with such complete
realism that the reproduction is visually indistinguishable from the original, given the original
lighting conditions.[citation needed] It creates a light field identical to that which emanated from the
original scene, with parallax about all axes and a very wide viewing angle. The eye
differentially focuses objects at different distances and subject detail is preserved down to the
microscopic level. The effect is exactly like looking through a window. Unfortunately, this "pure"
form requires the subject to be laser-lit and completely motionlessto within a minor fraction of
the wavelength of lightduring the photographic exposure, and laser light must be used to
properly view the results. Most people have never seen a laser-lit transmission hologram. The
types of holograms commonly encountered have seriously compromised image quality so that
ordinary white light can be used for viewing, and non-holographic intermediate imaging
processes are almost always resorted to, as an alternative to using powerful and hazardous
pulsed lasers, when living subjects are photographed.
Although the original photographic processes have proven impractical for general use, the
combination of computer-generated holograms (CGH) and optoelectronic holographic displays,
both under development for many years, has the potential to transform the half-century-old
pipe dream of holographic 3D television into a reality; so far, however, the large amount of
calculation required to generate just one detailed hologram, and the huge bandwidth required
to transmit a stream of them, have confined this technology to the research laboratory.
In 2013, a Silicon valley Company LEIA Inc started manufacturing holographic displays well
suited for mobile devices (watches, smartphones or tablets) using a multi-directional backlight
and allowing a wide full-parallax angle view to see 3D content without the need of glasses.[26]
Volumetric displays[edit]
Main articles: Volumetric display and Bubblegram
Volumetric displays use some physical mechanism to display points of light within a volume.
Such displays use voxels instead of pixels. Volumetric displays include multiplanar displays,
which have multiple display planes stacked up, and rotating panel displays, where a rotating
panel sweeps out a volume.
Other technologies have been developed to project light dots in the air above a device. An
infrared laser is focused on the destination in space, generating a small bubble of plasma
which emits visible light.
Integral imaging[edit]
Main article: Integral imaging
Integral imaging is an autostereoscopic or multiscopic 3D display, meaning that it displays a 3D
image without the use of special glasses on the part of the viewer. It achieves this by placing
an array of microlenses (similar to a lenticular lens) in front of the image, where each lens

looks different depending on viewing angle. Thus rather than displaying a 2D image that looks
the same from every direction, it reproduces a 4D light field, creating stereo images that
exhibit parallax when the viewer moves.

Wiggle stereoscopy[edit]
Main articles: Wiggle stereoscopy and Kinetic depth effect
Wiggle stereoscopy is an image display technique achieved by quickly alternating display of
left and right sides of a stereogram. Found in animated GIF format on the web. Online
examples are visible in the New-York Public Library stereogram collection. The technique is
also known as "Piku-Piku".[27]

Stereo photography techniques[edit]

Modern stereo TV camera

Main article: Stereo photography techniques

For general purpose stereo photography, where the goal is to duplicate natural human vision
and give a visual impression as close as possible to actually being there, the correct baseline
(distance between where the right and left images are taken) would be the same as the
distance between the eyes.[28] When images taken with such a baseline are viewed using a
viewing method that duplicates the conditions under which the picture is taken then the result
would be an image pretty much the same as what would be seen at the site the photo was
taken. This could be described as "ortho stereo."
There are, however, situations where it might be desirable to use a longer or shorter baseline.
The factors to consider include the viewing method to be used and the goal in taking the
picture. Note that the concept of baseline also applies to other branches of stereography, such
as stereo drawings and computer generated stereo images, but it involves the point of view
chosen rather than actual physical separation of cameras or lenses.

Stereo window[edit]
For any branch of stereoscopy the concept of the stereo window is important. If a scene is
viewed through a window the entire scene would normally be behind the window, if the scene
is distant, it would be some distance behind the window, if it is nearby, it would appear to be
just beyond the window. An object smaller than the window itself could even go through the
window and appear partially or completely in front of it. The same applies to a part of a larger
object that is smaller than the window.
The goal of setting the stereo window is to duplicate this effect.
To truly understand the concept of window adjustment it is necessary to understand where the
stereo window itself is. In the case of projected stereo, including "3D" movies, the window
would be at the surface of screen. With printed material the window is at the surface of the

paper. When stereo images are seen by looking into a viewer the window is at the position of
the frame. In the case of Virtual Reality the window seems to disappear as the scene becomes
truly immersive.
The entire scene can be moved backwards or forwards in depth, relative to the stereo window,
by horizontally sliding the left and right eye views relative to each other. Moving either or both
images away from the center will bring the whole scene away from the viewer, whereas moving
either or both images toward the center will move the whole scene toward the viewer. Any
objects in the scene that have no horizontal offset, will appear at the same depth as the stereo
window.
There are several considerations in deciding where to place the scene relative to the window.
First, in the case of an actual physical window, the left eye will see less of the left side of the
scene and the right eye will see less of the right side of the scene, because the view is partly
blocked by the window frame. This principle is known as "less to the left on the left" or 3L, and
is often used as a guide when adjusting the stereo window where all objects are to appear
behind the window. When the images are moved further apart, the outer edges are cropped by
the same amount, thus duplicating the effect of a window frame.
Another consideration involves deciding where individual objects are placed relative to the
window. It would be normal for the frame of an actual window to partly overlap or "cut off" an
object that is behind the window. Thus an object behind the stereo window might be partly cut
off by the frame or side of the stereo window. So the stereo window is often adjusted to place
objects cut off by window behind the window. If an object, or part of an object, is not cut off by
the window then it could be placed in front of it and the stereo window may be adjusted with
this in mind. This effect is how swords, bugs, flashlights, etc. often seem to "come off the
screen" in 3D movies.
If an object which is cut off by the window is placed in front of it, an effect results that is
somewhat unnatural and is usually considered undesirable, this is often called a "window
violation". This can best be understood by returning to the analogy of an actual physical
window. An object in front of the window would not be cut off by the window frame but would,
rather, continue to the right and/or left of it. This can't be duplicated in stereography techniques
other than Virtual Reality so the stereo window will normally be adjusted to avoid window
violations. There are, however, circumstances where they could be considered permissible.
A third consideration is viewing comfort. If the window is adjusted too far back the right and left
images of distant parts of the scene may be more than 2.5" apart, requiring that the viewers
eyes diverge in order to fuse them. This results in image doubling and/or viewer discomfort. In
such cases a compromise is necessary between viewing comfort and the avoidance of window
violations.
In stereo photography window adjustments is accomplished by shifting/cropping the images, in
other forms of stereoscopy such as drawings and computer generated images the window is
built into the design of the images as they are generated. It is by design that in CGI movies
certain images are behind the screen whereas others are in front of it.
The images can be cropped creatively to create a stereo window that is not necessarily
rectangular or lying on a flat plane perpendicular to the viewers line of sight. The edges of the
stereo frame can be straight or curved and, when viewed in 3D, can flow toward or away from
the viewer and through the scene. These designed stereo frames can help emphasize certain
elements in the stereo image or can be an artistic component of the stereo image.

Uses[edit]

While stereoscopy have typically been used for amusement, including stereographic cards, 3D
films, stereoscopic video games, printings using anaglyph and pictures, posters and books
of autostereograms, there are also other uses of this technology.

Art[edit]
Salvador Dal created some impressive stereograms in his exploration in a variety of optical
illusions.[29] Red-and-cyan anaglyph stereoscopic images have also been painted by hand.[30]

Education[edit]
In the 19th Century, it was realized that stereoscopic images provided an opportunity for
people to experience places and things far away, and many tour sets were produced, and
books were published allowing people to learn about geography, science, history, and other
subjects.[31] Such uses continued till the mid 20th Century, with the Keystone View
Company producing cards into the 1960s.

This image, captured on June 8, 2004, is an example of a composite anaglyph image generated from the
stereo Pancam on Spirit, one of the Mars Exploration Rovers. It can be viewed stereoscopically with
proper red/cyan filter glasses. A single 2D version is also available. Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech.
3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.

Space exploration[edit]
The Mars Exploration Rovers, launched by NASA in 2003 to explore the surface of Mars, are
equipped with unique cameras that allow researchers to view stereoscopic images of the
surface of Mars.
The two cameras that make up each rover's Pancam are situated 1.5m above the ground
surface, and are separated by 30 cm, with 1 degree of toe-in. This allows the image pairs to be
made into scientifically useful stereoscopic images, which can be viewed as stereograms,
anaglyphs, or processed into 3D computer images.[32]
The ability to create realistic 3D images from a pair of cameras at roughly human-height gives
researchers increased insight as to the nature of the landscapes being viewed. In
environments without hazy atmospheres or familiar landmarks, humans rely on stereoscopic
clues to judge distance. Single camera viewpoints are therefore more difficult to interpret.
Multiple camera stereoscopic systems like the Pancam address this problem with unmanned
space exploration.

Clinical uses[edit]
Stereograms cards are frequently used by orthoptists and vision therapists in the treatment of
many binocular vision and accommodative disorders.[33]

Mathematical, scientific and engineering uses[edit]

Stereopair photographs provided a way for 3-dimensional (3D) visualisations of aerial
photographs; since about 2000, 3D aerial views are mainly based on digital stereo imaging
technologies. Cartographers generate today stereopairs using computer programs in order to

visualise topography in three dimensions.[34] Computerised stereo visualisation applies stereo

matching programs.[35] In biology and chemistry, complex molecular structures are often
rendered in stereopairs. The same technique can also be applied to any mathematical (or
scientific, or engineering) parameter that is a function of two variables, although in these cases
it is more common for a three-dimensional effect to be created using a 'distorted' mesh or
shading (as if from a distant light source).

Bibliography[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
References[edit]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.

Jump up^ "The Kaiser (Emperor) Panorama". June 9, 2012.

Jump up^ Tufts.edu, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on
Perseus Digital Library
Jump up^ , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
Digital Library
Jump up^ Exercises in Three Dimensions: About 3D, Tom Lincoln, 2011
Jump up^ Flight Simulation, J. M. Rolfe and K. J. Staples, Cambridge University Press, 1986,
page 134
Jump up^ Exercises in Three Dimensions, Tom Lincoln, 2011
^ Jump up to:a b Contributions to the Physiology of Vision.Part the First. On some remarkable,
and hitherto unobserved, Phenomena of Binocular Vision. By CHARLES WHEATSTONE,
F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Philosophy in King's College, London. Stereoscopy.com
Jump up^ Welling, William. Photography in America, page 23
Jump up^ International Stereoscopic Union, 2006, "Stereoscopy", Numbers 65-72, p.18
Jump up^ Stereo Realist Manual, p. 375.
Jump up^ Stereo Realist Manual, pp. 377379.
Jump up^ Fay Huang, Reinhard Klette, and Karsten Scheibe: Panoramic Imaging (Sensor-Line
Cameras and Laser Range-Finders). Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2008
Jump up^ Dornaika, F.; Hammoudi, K (2009). "Extracting 3D Polyhedral Building Models from
Aerial Images using a Featureless and Direct Approach" (PDF). Proc. IAPR/MVA.
Retrieved2010-09-26.
Jump up^ "Eyecare Trust". Eyecare Trust. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
Jump up^ "Daily Telegraph Newspaper". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
Jump up^ "Understanding Requirements for High-Quality 3D Video: A Test in Stereo
Perception". 3droundabout.com. 19 December 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
Jump up^ The Logical Approach to Seeing 3D Pictures. www.vision3d.com by Optometrists
Network. Retrieved 2009-08-21
Jump up^ How To Freeview Stereo (3D) Images. Greg Erker. Retrieved 2009-08-21
Jump up^ How to View Photos on This Site. Stereo Photography The World in 3D. Retrieved
2009-08-21
Jump up^ Tseng, Belle; Anastassiou, Dimitris. "Compatible Video Coding of Stereoscopic
Sequences using MPEG-2's Scalability and Interlaced Structure" (PDF). Columbia University.
Retrieved 8 July 2014.
Jump up^ "Seeing is believing""; Cinema Technology, Vol 24, No.1 March 2011
Jump up^ http://www.dpvotheatrical.com/
Jump up^ Exercises in Three Dimensions: About 3D
Jump up^ "Glossary". June 8, 2012.
Jump up^ "openKMQ". June 8, 2012.
Jump up^ "A Multi-Directional Backlight For A Wide-Angle, Glasses-Free 3D Display", Nature,
2013
Jump up^ http://www.shortcourses.com/stereo/stereo1-17.html
Jump up^ DrT (2008-02-25). "Dr. T". Drt3d.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2012-03-04.

29. Jump up^ Horibuchi, S. (1994). Salvador Dal: the stereo pair artist. In Horibuchi, S.
(Ed.),Stereogram (pp.9, pp.42). San Francisco: Cadence Books. ISBN 0-929279-85-9
30. Jump up^ Exercises in Three Dimensions, Tom Lincoln, 2011
31. Jump up^ University of Virginia The Stereoscope In America, accessed 21 March 2009.
32. Jump up^ "Pancam technical brief" (PDF). Cornell University. Retrieved 2006-06-30.
33. Jump up^ Bartiss, OD MD, Michael (2005-01-25). "Convergence Insufficiency". WebMD.
Retrieved 2006-06-30.
34. Jump up^ David F. Watson (1992). Contouring. A Guide to the Analysis and Display of Spatial
Data (with programs on diskette). In: Daniel F. Merriam (Ed.); Computer Methods in the
Geosciences; Pergamon / Elsevier Science, Amsterdam; 321 pp. ISBN 0-08-040286-0
35. Jump up^ Reinhard Klette (2014). "Concise Computer Vision" (see Chapter 8 for stereo
matching). Springer, London; 429 pp. ISBN 978-1-4471-6319-0

Sources[edit]

Simmons, Gordon (MarchApril 1996). "Clarence G. Henning: The Man Behind the
Macro". Stereo World 23 (1): 3743.
Willke, Mark A.; Zakowski, Ron (MarchApril 1996). "A Close Look into the Realist Macro
Stereo System". Stereo World 23 (1): 1435.
Morgan, Willard D.; Lester, Henry M. (October 1954). Stereo Realist Manual. and 14
contributors. New York: Morgan & Lester. OCLC 789470.

Further reading[edit]

Scott B. Steinman, Barbara A. Steinman and Ralph Philip Garzia. (2000). Foundations of
Binocular Vision: A Clinical perspective. McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 0-8385-2670-5

External links[edit]
Archival Collections[edit]

Guide to the Edward R. Frank Stereograph Collection. Special Collections and Archives,
The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.

Other[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related
toStereoscopy.

Stereoscopy at DMOZ
The Quantitative Analysis of Stereoscopic Effect
Durham Visualization Laboratory stereoscopic imaging methods and software tools
University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections Stereocard Collection
Stereographic Views of Louisville and Beyond, 1850s1930 from the University of
Louisville Libraries
Stereoscopy on Flickr
Extremely rare and detailed Stereoscopic 3D scenes
International Stereoscopic Union
American University in Cairo Rare Books and Special Collections Digital Library
Underwood & Underwood Egypt Stereoviews Collection
Views of California and the West, ca. 18671903, The Bancroft Library

3D Stereoscopy Community
Museum exhibition on the history of stereographs and stereoscopes (1850-1930)
[hide]

Stereoscopy

Binocular rivalry

Binocular vision

Chromostereopsis

Convergence insufficiency

Correspondence problem

Peripheral vision

Perception

Depth perception

Epipolar geometry

Kinetic depth effect

Stereoblindness

Stereopsis

Stereopsis recovery

Stereoscopic acuity

Active shutter 3D system

Anaglyph 3D

Autostereogram

Autostereoscopy

Bubblegram

ChromaDepth

Display technologies

Head-mounted display

Holography

Integral imaging

Lenticular lens

Multiscopy

Parallax barrier

Parallax scrolling

Polarized 3D system

Specular holography

Stereo display

Stereoscope

Vectograph

Virtual retinal display

Volumetric display

Wiggle stereoscopy

2D to 3D conversion

2D plus Delta

2D-plus-depth

Computer stereo vision

Multiview Video Coding

Parallax scanning

Other technologies

Pseudoscope

Stereo photography techniques

Stereoautograph

Stereoscopic depth rendition

Stereoscopic rangefinder

Stereoscopic spectroscopy

Stereoscopic Video Coding

3D camcorder

3D film

3D television

3D-enabled mobile phones

4D film

Types of products

Blu-ray 3D

Digital 3D

Stereo camera

Stereo microscope

Stereoscopic video game

AMD HD3D

Dolby 3D

Fujifilm FinePix Real 3D

MasterImage 3D

Nintendo 3DS

XL

Notable products

New

Nvidia 3D Vision

RealD 3D

Sharp Actius RD3D

View-Master

XpanD 3D

International Stereoscopic Union

Miscellaneous

Stereographer
Stereoscopic Displays and Applications

[show]

Display technology
Categories:

Stereoscopy