Welding Procedure

Basics in Welding and Weldability
HGRS/MTC
Objective
Outline the most important concepts and rules of
welding in the cement industry

Create awareness around the main key success
factors of high quality welding

Provide examples from the cement industry
Maintenance training
"Basics in Welding and Weldability"
Agenda
Welding process
Weldability of steels
Welding techniques
Welding defects
Practical examples

Kiln shell crack repair

Hydrogen induced cracks
Conclusions
Welding process
The process of welding employs the heat of an
external source (usually electrical arc) to bring metals

to be welded to a molten state. The metals fusing
takes place almost instantaneously
From this point of view, welding has many similarities
with steel heat treatments, especially Quenching and

this has to be taken in consideration
Welding process
Carbon Iron Diagram
. Quenching is a heat
treatment which
objective is to form a
very hard and resistant
(but brittle) martensite
structure: The material
is heated until it
reaches its austenitic
structure and then
directly cooled down to
the ambient
temperature
Welding process
200C
600C
900C
1000C
1400C
In a welding process, there are 2

main operations :
1. Melting and fusing in the zone
under the arc
2. Heat treatment in the area around
The higher the cooling speed is,
Heat Affected
Zone : HAZ
the higher is the amount of

martensite structure formed
Martensite is a very hard, resistant
but brittle steel structure

Preheating is used to reduce the
cooling rate (speed) after welding
3mm
6
Welding process
Welding process
In general molten steels have a strong affinity for
oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen : if the welding

atmosphere is not controlled, the molten metal will
pick-up some oxygen or/and hydrogen, forming
oxides/nitrides or/and other structures as the weld
solidifies. These are impurities which will embrittle
the weld and weaken it
For this last reason shielded welding techniques (or
welding under controlled atmospheres) were

developed : SAW (Submerged Arc Welding), MIG
(Metal Inert Gas),
Weldability of steels
The term weldability is relative : practically all
metals are weldable. Some however require special

welding procedures in order to preserve the
properties and characteristics designed for
The quality of welding may be affected by any one
of the following factors :

Oxidation
Non metallic inclusions
Change of structure
Gas solubility of metal
Coefficient of thermal expansion
Operator, welding current/voltage,
9
Classification of steels
The classification used in this document is based
on the chemical composition (DIN & AFNOR),

Examples from the Cement industry :
10
Ordinary Steels
Iron/Carbon alloys (C<1.2% in general), with small
quantities of Mn (<0.8%) and Si (<0.5%) and other

impurities (S and P)
Tensile Strength Yield Strength Elongation
Brinell Hardness
2
kg/mm2
%
kg/mm
%C
Low Carbon
< 0.15
35 - 42
20
28 - 30
< 120
Mild
0.15 - 0.3
40 - 45
20 - 25
22 - 25
120 - 140
Medium Carbon
0.3 - 0.6
45- 65
22 - 35
22 - 15
140 - 180
High Carbon
0.6 - > 0.8
65 - > 85
40 - > 50
14 - 6
180 - > 220
< 0.25% Carbon, there are no precautions to be
taken for welding

Classification according to DIN and AFNOR (based on Chemical composition)
11
Ordinary Steels
0.25 0.4% Carbon, Preheating is needed
because the critical cooling speed which forms the

martensite might be exceeded
Above 0.4% Carbon, preheating is a must. The
temperature of preheating is around 75 350C

depending on the thickness (see low alloy steels)
For welding casehardened steels, the
casehardened layer must be removed even with

preheating
For quenched steels, preheating, maintaining at
stable temperature during welding and slow cooling

process are needed
12
Low Alloy Steels

At least one alloy element is added in a quantity
< 5% to improve the steel properties (Mechanical

Resistance, Corrosion and Abrasion)
Mn
Ni
Cr
V
Si
Mo
Co, Ti, Al, Cu, W
Minimal Content
in %
1.2
0.5
0.25
0.05
1
0.1
0.3
The Carbon content is not sufficient to predict the
weldability, some alloy elements participate also in

the process of martensite formation : the Carbon
Equivalent % has to be considered
13
Low Alloy Steels

Actually, it is the cooling velocity around the
welding seam which must be controled :

Preheating which objective is to reduce the cooling

rate after welding
Covering the area welded for slow cooling
In some special cases (steels with high quenching
aptitude), the cooling is controled in a furnace (50C
per hour)
14
Low Alloy Steels

The preheating level depends on :
The material composition : Carbon equivalent (%CE)
The thickness
Sfrian Diagram (Thickness, %CE, preheating T)

400
carbon equivalent
0.2
300
temperature in C
%CE =
C+Mn/6+(Ni+Cu)/15
+(Cr+Mo+V)/5
350
0.25
250
0.3
0.4
200
0.5
150
0.6
100
0.7
50
0.8
0
0
50
100
150
thickness in mm
15
High Alloy Steels

The content of at least one alloy element exceeds
5%
Ni
Cr
Mn
Si
W
Mo
V
Cu
Al
Co
Ti
Maximal content
in %
30
30
14
4
20
8
5
2
12
18
1.6
The weldability of such steels has to be analyzed
case by case
16
High Alloy Steels

Example
13% Mn Steels : Abrasion/Impact resistant steels
very sensitive to precipitation of carbides around

250C, the welding sequences must be controlled
in order to limit the temperature increase
Application : Hardfacing of crusher hammers and
impact bars
17
High Alloy Steels

Example
Chromium, Molybdenum materials : Usually >1%C,
2-30% Cr, and 0-3% Mo.The carbides formed

(Mainly C + Cr, 10 40%) are very hard and
resistant but very fragile (notch effect due to
carbides)
The structure of the matrix (martensite, austenite,
), and the form and dimensions of carbides

depend on the heat treatment (especially the
solidification speed) and has a large influence on
the behavior under wear and impact
In most of the cases, welding is not recommended
or should be performed by specialized third parties

Application : liners and inlet wall for ball mills
18
Welding techniques
The common techniques used in cement are :

Manual Arc welding

Submerged arc welding : SAW
MIG/TIG
19
Manual Arc Welding

Most common technique
Deposition rate around 1.5 kg/h
Better control of post-welding deformation
Less sensitive to lack of fusion defects
The welding electrode coating role is :
. Stabilizing the arc
. shielding the arc: prevent from
atmospheric contamination (O2, N2)
. Scavenging and deoxidizing :
produce a slag blanket to protect the
molten crater (and reduce its cooling)
20
10
Manual Arc Welding

For special works (I.e. kiln shell replacement), the
welder must be qualified and certified according to

DIN/EN 287-1, ASME9 or equivalent
5 -10
21
Manual Arc Welding

The deposition rate can be increased by using
more welders (place restrictions may apply)

The oscillating welding technique is unfavorable for
residual stresses, the straight line technique gives

better results
To avoid thermal distortions, the welding sequence
must be determined carefully
22
11
Manual Arc Welding

For special works (i.e. kiln shell replacement), the
electrodes have to be heated (dried) 2 hours at

200-350C and must be kept at this temperature
while welding
It is very important
To define and stick to

The welding
Procedure rules
23
Semi automatic / Automatic Arc Welding

In the semi-automatic arc welding, the electrode is
mechanically fed through a welding gun into the arc

from a continuously wound coil. The operation still
needs an operator
In the fully automatic arc welding, the electrode is
fed through welding jaws into the arc from a

continuously wound coil. The welding doesnt need
an operator
These 2 techniques increase welding speed,
reduce welding time and thus allow lower welding

cost
24
12
Submerged Arc Welding

Very high deposition rates : 10kg/h, the welding
velocity is around 80cm/mn

Semi-automated process
Very high quality of weld with
specialized operator
Wire and flux must
correspond to the material

25
Submerged Arc Welding

Commonly used for welding kiln shells external and
internal
26
13
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

Semi automated process with Gas protecting the
weld pool
This Welding process is sensitive to lack of side-
wall fusion and cold lapping defects

Defect occurs in case of
lack of gas
Certified people
Deposition rate: 2.5 kg/h
27
Welding defects
The most common welding defects are :

Cold cracking, or hydrogen induced cracking

Solid inclusions
Porosities
Lack of fusion
Shape defects (design related defects)
Lamellar tearing
Hot cracking
28
14
Hydrogen induced cracking : Cold cracking

Hydrogen induced cold cracking : occurs at low
temperatures (< 150C), usually originates from the

weld toe, and it is caused by the diffusion of
hydrogen from the weld deposit to embrittle the
existing martensite structure
The hydrogen comes mostly from moisture
associated with fluxes :

Usage of low hydrogen consumables. TIG and MIG

prcessess, being fluxless, give lower levels of
hydrogen
Usage of austenitic electrodes (I.e. 2222) : the
hydrogen diffusion rate is lower in austenite structure
29
Hydrogen induced cracking : Cold cracking
30
15
Solid inclusions
The most important is slag Inclusion which arises
because it is difficult to ensure that all pockets of

slag are removed from the weld surface
(particularly when access is difficult). Slag deposits
are produced by the welding flux
Oxide inclusions usually result from inadequate
precleaning of the joint surface
31
Porosities
Porosity occurs when a weld is saturated with a
particular gas (hydrogen, nitrogen, CO) which

forms bubbles on discontinuities in the metal
Gases originate from air entrainment in the arc
atmosphere (hydrogen, nitrogen), grease and

moisture on joint faces or welding consumables
(hydrogen) or chemical reaction in the weld (CO)
Factors of influence : instability of the arc, inefficient
cleaning of the surface, and bad control of the arc

at stops and starts
32
16
Lack of fusion and lack of penetration

The welding arc is not sufficiently penetrating to
wet the edge, or does not completely fill the joint

Generally depend on the electrode manipulation,
joint design, arc current and surface preparation

Example : shell joining section
33
Shape defects
Example : undercut, poor profile, misalignment
Consequence of poor electrode manipulation, bad
fit-up, or/and incorrect procedure (current, voltage,

speed, )

Undercut is caused by too high current or too low

speed
Too low current can cause excessive spatter
34
17
Lamellar tearing
Development of cracks in the base metal in parallel
with the seam surface : The bonding between the

inclusions and the matrix in the base metal is weak
and some inclusions will brittle, therefore strains in
the thickness direction will cause de-cohesion and
fracture of inclusions
35
Lamellar tearing
Preventing measures :

Modification of welding procedure and joint design to

reduce strains in the thickness direction
Usage of low inclusion levels (I.e. low sulphur steels)
Special heat treatments that modify the shape of

porosities
36
18
Hot cracking
Occurs during or just after solidification below
1200C
Due to the presence of low melting point
components such as iron sulphides or phosphide

which mechanical resistance is lowered under
temperature
It is admitted to be due to shrinkage strains before
cohesion
Inter-granular
37
Weld seam design

The weld design
Fatigue Strength
has a direct impact

on its resistance :
Load
cycles
38
19
Weld seam design
39
Welding Material
The most special electrodes commonly used in the
cement industry are :

2222 of Castolin : kiln tires, rollers

E7018 : kiln shell
40
20
Welding with 2222

Electrode that provides an optimum combination of
strength and ductility

Factors to consider :

Linear Coefficient of thermal expansion

Effects of dilution
Sigma phase precipitation
Eutectic 2222
Tensile strength N/mm2

Yield strength N/mm2
650 - 690
390
Elongation %
40 - 45
Hardness HB
170 - 210
41
Welding with 2222

Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (TEC)
The Thermal Expansion Coefficient increases with
temperature
At 300C, the TEC of the following materials are :

Austenitic steel (stainless) : 17.2 10-6/C

Eutectic 2222 : 14.4 10-6/C
0.2% Carbon steel : 13.4 10-6/C
Chromium Iron : 10 10-6/C
The stainless steel welding will expand and contract

significantly, this will increase the residual stresses
whilst distorting the joint
Eutectic 2222 has a TEC very close to the Carbon
steel, in operation, this results in maximum safety
margin against cracks
42
21
Welding with 2222

Effect of dilution

Dilution is expressed as the amount of parent metal

ingressed in the weld deposit
When conventional stainless steel electrodes are
used to weld carbon steels, the weld metal will
inevitably be diluted with the parent metal by at least
20 30%, this creates a weld deposit which may be
embrittled due to martensite formation
The 2222 weld is capable of dissolving a high
proportion of steel (~50%) whilst retaining its natural
austenitic structure
Reference : Schaeffler diagram Cr equivalent vs. Ni
equivalent
43
Welding with 2222

Sigma phase precipitation

Brittle Iron-Chromium intermetallic which is very

dependent on temperature and time kinetics. It can
form at 900C within minutes and after several days
at 500C
It often occurs when welding thick carbon steel
section with with 309 or 310 based electrodes
Eutectic 2222, even when diluted can not reach the
sigma zones and is therefore resistant to
embrittlement
Reference : ternary diagram Nickel/Chromium/Iron
Example of application : kiln tires and rollers
44
22
Welding with E7018

E7018 : American Welding Society numbering
system

E : Metal arc welding electrode

70 : Minimum allowable tensile strength of deposits
expressed in 000 pounds / inch2
1 : All welding positions
8 : arc characteristics and polarity (ac and dc)
Iron powder low hydrogen electrode : rimmed
steel core wire upon which a lime covering is

applied
Yield strength: 470 MPa, Tensile strength: 540
MPa, Elongation: 30%
45
Welding with E7018

Because this covering is slightly thicker than
normal, the arc is shorter and moderately

penetrating, the slag is heavy and friable and the
deposited metal lies in a flat bead providing a very
reduced tendency for underbead cracking (cold
cracking)
E7018 belongs to the Low Moisture Absorption
electrodes family
46
23
Welding with E7018

Preheat is generally not required to prevent
hydrogen induced cracking

Preheat should be used with hardenable steels to
prevent the formation of hard heat-affected zones

and eliminate tendencies toward quench cracking
on cooling
Preheat may be required in welding heavy sections
47
Basics in Welding and weldability

Practical example 1
kiln shell crack repair
24
Fatigue and Crack formation

Kilns are exposed to dynamic loads : fluctuating
stresses that can be bending, torsion, tensile,

compression or combinations of these
Stresses like these can lead to crack formation and
fracture without any kind of deformation and real

overload
49
Fatigue and Crack formation

The load and stress changes are higher because of
heat deformations and possible incorrect

adjustment (typical case : crank in the tube)
Examples of areas where cracks can start : shell
welding joints, toe of welds between shell and

supports, manholes, satellite cooler supports,
Circumferential welds
Loose tires pads
50
25
Crack repair
51
Crack repair
When a crack is detected, the first actions are :

1.
2.
Finding the length of the crack

Finding the depth of the crack
This is done with NDT
methods as UT, MP or DP
If the crack is throughgoing,
it is necessary to work from both

inside and outside
52
26
Crack repair procedure
The normal procedure is the following :

1.
Gouging from one side to about 2/3 of the thickness
2.
The gouging must start a little away from the crack

ends in sound material, gouging towards the crack,
to avoid crack propagation
Smooth transition
radius
Crack end
Gouging direction
53

3.
Careful cleaning by grinding
4.
Preheating : If the result of the Carbon equivalent is

higher than 0.41 it is necessary to preheat. It must
be pointed out that even if the result is lower than
this, it does not harm to preheat, especially with
heavy sections and if the weather is cold
54
27

5.
Welding with a normal basic electrode as AWS E

7016 or E 7018 (The electrodes have to be dry)
Each run should be overpeened

to reduce stresses, and carefully
cleaned from slags
6.
55

7.
Grinding down the surface of the weld : Root weld
8.
The process has to be repeated from the other side

controlling that the root is completely clean
9.
Control with UT, MP and/or DP
56
28

After the repair, in the case of long cracks, the shell
can be reinforced by adding some joining plates :
57
Basics in Welding and Weldability

Practical example 2
Hydrogen-induced cracking - kiln shell welding
December 2003
29
Situation
Welding joint NA between a 75mm thick new shell
and a 60mm thick old section

Root weld and outside welding completed, internal
gouging and DP done

While welding internally, a loud bang was heard : A
crack was found inside the partially welded area
59
Situation
A 3.5m long crack was found in the HAZ in the old
shell during the UT of the outside completed

welding
The crack was not fully removed after gouging and
grinding 20mm
A 1.6m long crack was also found in the partially
welded groove on the inside of the kiln

MP was carried out and cracks were found also in
the root weld
60
30
Investigation : External consultant

Preliminary finding was that the dye penetrant
residue was probably not fully removed

A hydrogen-induced crack (HIC) could have been

developed due to welding over the DP residue
A Hydrogen removal heat treatment (HRHT) should be
carried out before continuing
Excess hydrogen in parent base metal

Many repairs were done successfully in the past
The joint at the other end of the 60mm thick old shell
was welded to a new section without problem
Hypothesis not probable
61
HIC (or Cold cracking)
Occurs after welding has been completed
4 main Conditions :
1. Hydrogen is introduced by diffusion during the
welding to the weld or HAZ :

. Moisture in the coating of the electrodes
. Oil, grease, dirt, paint, water in the surface
. Degreasing fluids used to clean surfaces, DP or wet
MP powder residues
. Hydrogen in the parent metal : original casting
process, heat treatment, or corrosion (example H2S)
62
31

2. Low preheating temperatures (<150C)
3. Hard HAZ microstructure : Soft microstructures
tolerate more hydrogen before cracking occurs.

The E9018 weld metal is susceptible to HIC
4. Existence of tensile stresses on the weld seam
originating from thermal contraction of the cooling

or from external efforts
63

Some indications :
1. Position and morphology :
very fine and some times

interrupted cracks, usually
develop internally, at the toe
of the adjacent weld passes
and on the root weld metal
2. HIC propagate
3. More HIC develop and
propagate during attempts to

repair without HRHT
4. No cracking occur after the
HRHT and other precautions
64
32
Investigation : Contractor
Crack only in the 60mm thick old shell
Steel : 0.24%C, 1.01%Mn,
The crack was propagating
Cracks had not been found in any of the other kiln
joints (other sections thinner !)

All cracks are hydrogen-induced and a HRHT must
be carried out before any repair

It is not a standard practice to remove the DP
lacquer before gouging and welding (Not

acceptable statement)
65
Information from the DP supplier

The product is a paint that contains an organic
resin that incorporates hydrogen in its formulation

Welding over this product must be avoided to
prevent hydrogen-induced cracking

The product datasheet does not permit gouging
and welding over the lacquer
66
33
Repair
Before the HRHT, for safety reasons, the contractor
recommended :
Complete welding of the 3.5m long and 20mm deep
groove on the external
Installation of strong backs to prevent further cracking
HRHT : 450C 20 hours (december 23)

67
Repair
After the HRHT :

In some areas the lacquer was not

completely removed
The 1.6m and 3.5m cracks propagated
and others were created
It was reported afterwards that the
contractor didnt perform UT on the

entire section : difficulty to know the
history of the defects !
UT on the entire section :

2 lack of fusions : 380mm and 190mm

3 cracks : 35mm, 1200mm and 1500mm
Laminations : 1200mm long
68
34
Repair
No additional cracks were developed after :

HRHT
Strict storage and handling of the E9018 welding
electrodes
Proper cleaning of the joints before welding
Repair welding
DP was replaced by MP
69
Welding procedure
Welding Procedure Specification WPS :

The ASME WPS applied by the contractor was qualified for

a thickness range of 4.8mm to 56mm :
- E9018-D1 electrodes (min tensile strength of 90kpsi),
preheating at 150C, 3.2mm for the root and 5mm for the filler
The FOX EV 51 (E9018-D1) standard low hydrogen

electrodes (lime covered) were used for the root and filler
passes, This electrode when well prepared (backing at
300C for 2 hours) has a diffusible hydrogen of <10ml/100g
The electrodes to be used in such applications are the

special extra-low hydrogen content ESAB OK 74.78 or
E7018 with a diffusible hydrogen of < 5ml/100g
70
35
Welding procedure
Welding Procedure Specification WPS :

According to the hydrogen Control Method, the

minimum preheating temperature should have been
180C for diffusible hydrogen less than 9.5ml/100g to
prevent HIC
The risk of HIC increased substantially when FLS

replaced the low strength E7018 electrodes with the
higher strength E9018-D1
71
Welding procedure
Drying and holding ovens :

A temperature of 130C was measured in the large

oven that contained many electrodes
The drying and main holding oven was stored outside
and directly exposed to rain
It is possible that some electrodes which were used
were not baked (dried) : information from welding
registers
72
36
Learning from the practical case 2

The WPS has to be prepared including all details
prior to the welding

Selection of an extra low diffusible hydrogen
electrode <5ml/100g : Equivalent to E7018

Preheating the shell sections at the right
temperature depending on the C equivalent and

thickness in all the areas between 100 and
+100mm of the joint
Proper drying and storage of the electrodes has to
be checked : 300 to 350C during 2 hours
73
Conclusions
Welding is an important Maintenance activity
performed in cement plants

Welding is not as simple as we imagine, special
care must be given when welding alloyed materials

The welding efficiency (quality and time) impacts
directly the equipment availability

The main welding parameters have to be known
and prepared in advance :

Material to weld
Welding technique and electrode to be used
Welding procedure : preheating temperature, cooling
speed, preparation of the electrodes
74
37
Conclusions
Once developed, the Welding procedure has to be
strictly followed
The contractors involved in special welding jobs
must have the right experience

The NDT method to be applied has to be checked
in advance
Other HGRS complementary documents :

Kiln shell replacement

Girth gear repair procedure
Mill end repair procedure
75
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Basics in Welding and Weldability

welding in the cement industry

factors of high quality welding

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

Kiln shell crack repair

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

external source (usually electrical arc) to bring metals

with steel heat treatments, especially Quenching and

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

In a welding process, there are 2

the higher is the amount of

but brittle steel structure

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen : if the welding

welding under controlled atmospheres) were

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

metals are weldable. Some however require special

of the following factors :

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

on the chemical composition (DIN & AFNOR),

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

quantities of Mn (<0.8%) and Si (<0.5%) and other

0.6 - > 0.8

180 - > 220

< 0.25% Carbon, there are no precautions to be

taken for welding

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

because the critical cooling speed which forms the

temperature of preheating is around 75 350C

casehardened layer must be removed even with

stable temperature during welding and slow cooling

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

Low Alloy Steels

< 5% to improve the steel properties (Mechanical

The Carbon content is not sufficient to predict the

weldability, some alloy elements participate also in

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

Low Alloy Steels

welding seam which must be controled :

Preheating which objective is to reduce the cooling

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

Low Alloy Steels

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

High Alloy Steels

The weldability of such steels has to be analyzed

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

High Alloy Steels

13% Mn Steels : Abrasion/Impact resistant steels

very sensitive to precipitation of carbides around

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

High Alloy Steels

Chromium, Molybdenum materials : Usually >1%C,

2-30% Cr, and 0-3% Mo.The carbides formed

), and the form and dimensions of carbides

or should be performed by specialized third parties

"Basics in Welding and Weldability"

Manual Arc welding