The document discusses several methods for measuring porosity in reservoir rocks:
- Core analysis, which involves measuring dimensions and fluid displacement of rock samples.
- Well logging techniques, which use tools like density, sonic, and neutron logs to measure porosity downhole.
- Well testing, which analyzes pressure responses during fluid flow to characterize porosity.
The document discusses several methods for measuring porosity in reservoir rocks:
- Core analysis, which involves measuring dimensions and fluid displacement of rock samples.
- Well logging techniques, which use tools like density, sonic, and neutron logs to measure porosity downhole.
- Well testing, which analyzes pressure responses during fluid flow to characterize porosity.
The document discusses several methods for measuring porosity in reservoir rocks:
- Core analysis, which involves measuring dimensions and fluid displacement of rock samples.
- Well logging techniques, which use tools like density, sonic, and neutron logs to measure porosity downhole.
- Well testing, which analyzes pressure responses during fluid flow to characterize porosity.
The document discusses several methods for measuring porosity in reservoir rocks:
- Core analysis, which involves measuring dimensions and fluid displacement of rock samples.
- Well logging techniques, which use tools like density, sonic, and neutron logs to measure porosity downhole.
- Well testing, which analyzes pressure responses during fluid flow to characterize porosity.
The porosity of a reservoir rock may be determined by:
Core Analysis Well Logging Technique Well Testing
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Core Analysis 1.
Calculation from the measurements of the dimensions of a
uniformly shaped sample
2.
Observation of the volume of fluid displaced by the sample
Volumetrically Gravimetrically
Fluid penetration into the sample should be prevented
by coating the sample with paraffin or a similar substance by saturating the core with the fluid into which it is to be immersed by using mercury
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Bulk Volume Measurement
Fluid penetration into the sample should be prevented by coating the sample with paraffin or a similar substance by saturating the core with the fluid into which it is to be immersed by using mercury ( Hazardous Not being used anymore)
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Pore Volume Measurement
Gas Expansion (Helium Porosimeter) Mercury Injection Saturation All these methods yield effective porosity by extraction of a fluid from the rock introduction of a fluid into the pore spaces of the rock
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Porosity Measurement Tools
Helium Porosimeter Boyles law: Under isothermal conditions;
At Time 1 -At Time 2 --
P1V 1
PV P V P V 2
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
(1)
(2)
Helium Porosimeter In case of a porous plug:
V 1 V b V p
P P P V V 1
(3)
PT1 PT 2
b V p
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
(4)
PV 2
(5) 2
Helium Porosimeter Then the pore volume;
V P 2 2
V p V b V 1 P1 P2
V P 2 2
V 1
P 1 P2
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
(6)
(7)
Saturation (Imbibition) 1. Weigh dry core sample
Wd
2. Measure bulk volume
Vb
Water in
3. Saturate the sample
4. Weigh saturated core sample
5. Calculate pore volume
Ww
W Vp w
Vacuum
W d water
6. Calculate porosity ( Assuming density of water = 1)
W W
water
W W w
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
3.2 Subsurface Measurement
Surface measurements made on recovered core. Down hole measurements very sophisticated. Downhole porosity related to acoustic and radioactive properties of the rock.
Density Log There exists differences in the density of oil, gas and water. This differences or changes in density vs depth, allows determination of the type of fluids that is/are present in a well. Needs good description of the mineralogy.
L M 1 F
L M
F M L - Quartz = 2.65 g/cm3 M Limestone = 2.71 g/cm3
Sonic Log
Measures response to acoustic energy through sonic
transducers Time of travel related to acoustic properties of the formation. If mineralogy is not changing then travel time is related to density and hence porosity. Formation fluids will effect response.
TL TM 1 TF
TL TM
TF TM
TM - Quartz = 55ms ft-1
TL Limestone = 47 ms ft-1 TF Water =190 ms ft-1
Neutron Log Another radioactive logging technique Measures response of the hydrogen atoms in the formation Neutrons of specific energy fired into formation. The radiated energy is detected by the tool. This is related to the hydrogen in the hydrocarbon and water phase. The porosity determined by calibration
Logging Tools Density Log
3.3 Average Porosity
Porosity normally distributed
An arithmetic mean can be used for averaging.
i 1
a is the mean porosity
i is the porosity of the i th core measurement n the number of measurements
Thickness weighted Average Porosity
n
h i 1
i i
a is the mean porosity
i is the porosity of the i th core measurement n the number of measurements
Areal Weighted Average Porosity
A i 1
a is the mean porosity
i is the porosity of the i th core measurement n the number of measurements
Volumetric Weighted Average Porosity
n
h A
h A i 1
i i
a is the mean porosity
i is the porosity of the i th core measurement n the number of measurements
Exercise 3 A piece of sandstone with a bulk volume of 1.3 cm3 is contained in a 5 cm3 cell filled with helium at 760 mm Hg. Temperature is maintained constant and the cell is opened to another evacuated cell of the same volume. The final pressure of the two vessels is 334.7 mm Hg. What is the porosity of the sandstone?
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Fluid Saturations Defined as the fraction of pore volume occupied by a given fluid
S w, o , g
Vw,o, g V pore space
S w water saturation S o oil saturation S g gas saturation S h So S g
Sum of the saturations is 100%.
Originally rock is saturated with water before invasion of HC. A pressure differential is required for the non-wetting phase to displace the wetting phase. This differential is termed the minimum threshold capillary pressure, Pct Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Fluid Saturations
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Fluid Saturations
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Fluid Saturations
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Average Fluid Saturations
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Fluid Saturations
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Fluid Saturations
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Fluid Saturations Fluid Saturation is the ratio of the volume of a particular fluid occupying some portion of a core sample to the pore volume of that sample
Oil Saturation
Vo
So V V
S V V
S V
Water Saturation Gas Saturation Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Saturations 1.
2.
3.
Mass of water collected from the sample is calculated as
Mass of oil removed from the core is computed as the mass of
liquid less weight of water
MLMw
Oil volume is computed as
V 4.
Mo
Oil Saturation can then be determined with the formula
S V V o
S S S o
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Exercise 4 Estimate the fluid saturations in the core plug whose properties are given below: Diameter of the core plug = 2.54 cm Length of the core plug = 6 cm Porosity of the formation = 26 % Original weight of the core plug before extraction = 20.0 gm Water volume collected in the graduated tube = 3 cc Density of water = 1 gm/cc Dry weight of cleaned and dried core plug = 14.0 gm Density of oil produced from the same formation = 0.75 gm/cc
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Solution 2 1. Weight of water 2. Weight of liquid
W W L
or
1 x 3 3.0 gm
W d 20.0 14.0 6.0 gm
3. Weight of oil 4. Volume of oil
W W W o
6.0 3.0 3.0 gm
3.0 4.0cc V o W o o 0.75 Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Solution 2, continued 5.
Bulk volume of the
core plug
5.
Pore volume of the
core plug
6.
7. 8.
Water Saturation
Vb r L 2
30 . 40 0 . 26
7 . 9 cm V p Vb
Vw
Sw
Oil Saturation Gas Saturation
Vo
So V
2.54 2 6 30.40cm 2
3.0 0.38 7.9 4.0 0.51 7.9
S S 1 0.38 0.51 0.11
o
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Wettability
Measure of the attraction between rock surface and the fluids
in the reservoir The wetting fluid the one most attracted to the rock surface
Water Wet (most fields)
Oil Wet (clay&carbonates)
Different types exhibit different production performance
Oil wet systems tend to exhibit early water breakthrough and lower initial water saturation.
Wettability The definition is based on contact angle of water surrounded by oil Oil Water
Water
Water-wet
Oil-wet
< 90o = water-wet
> 90o = oil-wet 90o = intermediate wettability A variation of up to 20o is usually considered in defining intermediate wettability.
WATER-WET
OIL-WET Air
OIL
WATER
< 90
SOLID (ROCK)
FREE WATER
OIL
Oil
WATER
WATER
WATER
> 90
SOLID (ROCK)
OIL GRAIN
GRAIN
OIL RIM BOUND WATER
FREE WATER Ayers, 2001
Effective & Relative Permeability
Curves
Effective & Relative Permeability
Curves
Rock Compressibility
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Rock Compressibility
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Rock Compressibility
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Rock Compressibility
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Rock Compressibility
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Rock Compressibility
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Rock Compressibility
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Rock Compressibility
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
LESSON OUTCOME Permeability Concepts Types of Permeability
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2008
Permeability
Is a measure of flow capacity (conductivity)
Depends on continuity of pore space No unique relationship with porosity Correlation for similar lithology is possible Units : Darcy or miliDarcy
Permeability The permeability of a rock is the description of the ease with which fluid can pass through the pore structure Can be so low to be considered impermeable. Such rocks may constitute a cap rock above permeable reservoir. Also include some clays,shales, chalk, anhydrite and some highly cemented sandstones.
Permeability Darcys Law The rate of flow of fluid through a given rock varies directly with the pressure applied, the area open to flow and varies inversely with the viscosity of the fluid flowing and the length of the porous rock. The constant of proportionality is termed Permeability
Mathematical Expression of Permeability First introduced by Darcy in 1856 while investigating the flow of water through sand filters for water purification.
h h Q KA 1
Constant of proportionality and for
viscous fluids;
permeability
m viscosity
Permeability Darcys Law
kAP Q mL Q flowrate in cm3 /sec A cross sectional area of flow in cm 2 P pressure difference across ther sample, atmos. m viscosity in centipoise L length of sample in cm. k permeability in Darcy
Permeability
1 Darcy = Permeability which will permit flow of one
centipoise fluid to flow at linear velocity of one cm per second under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere per centimetre.
Permeability Taking viscosity as a variable
Qk
A h1 h 2 mL
Poiseuille equation for laminar pipe flow
r P Q 8mL 4
r = radius of pipe of length L
Carmen Kozeny equation
for flow in packed beds
d 23 1 dP
u ' 2 k 1 m dL
k = shape factor d = particle size There is a very strong relationship between porosity and permeability
Permeability Comparing equations.
Q P k A mL
Darcy
Carmen Kozeny
d 23 1 dP Q
u ' 2 k 1 m dL A
It is not surprising therefore that there is a strong
relationship between permeability and porosity
d 2 3 k 1 '
Porosity vs Permeability
Porosity is independent of grain size. Porosity is generally unaffected by grain size but permeability increases with increasing grain size.
Porosity vs Permeability The better sorted the sand, the higher are both the porosity and permeability.
Permeability Practical unit-millidarcy, mD, 10-3 Darcy Formations vary from a fraction of a millidarcy to more than 10,000 millidarcy. Clays and shales have permeabilities of 10-2 to 106 mD. These very low permeabilities make them act as seals between layers.
Factors Affecting Permeability
Permeability is anisotropic Horizontal permeabilities in a reservoir are generally higher than vertical permeabilities. Due to reservoir stresses Particle shape as influenced by depositional process.
Darcys Law For one-dimensional, linear, horizontal flow through a porous medium, Darcys Law states L that:
dx
kA dp q m dx
Flow rate (1 cm3/s)
Cross sectional area (1 cm2) Viscosity of flowing fluid (1 cp) Permeability ( 1 Darcy) Pressure gradient (1 atm/cm)
Types of Permeability Absolute Permeability Effective Permeability
Relative Permeability
Absolute Permeability P
Flowing fluid is 100% saturating the medium
q A
kA P q m L Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2007
L Absolute permeability
Effective Permeability P More than one fluid is saturating the medium. Only one of them is mobile (flowing)
k i A P qi mi L
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2007
qg qo qw L Effective permeability
Relative Permeability P More than one fluid is saturating the medium. At least two of them are mobile (flowing)
k ri A P qi mi L
Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, 2007
qg qo qw L Relative permeability
k ri
k k
Relative Permeability Two phase relative permeability behavior
kro
krw
Sw
Permeability From the Darcys Law equation, permeability is defined
qm k A(dP / dx)
Basic linear and radial flow can be derived
General classification of permeability Classification
Permeability Range
Very Low
1 mD
Low
1 10 mD
Medium
10 50 mD
Average
50 200 mD
Good
200 500 mD
Excellent
500 mD
Averaging Permeability Parallel Flow
Series Flow
Arithmetic Average
Random Flow
Harmonic Average h1
h3
k2
k1
k2
k3
L2
L3
k3
kA
kh
i i i
kG k1 k2 k3 .......
h2
k1
Geometric Average
L1
kH
L /k i
h1
h2
h3
1 hi
Data Sources of Porosity & Permeability
Core analysis Discrete measurement on small scale Routine Core Analysis (RCA) and Special Core Analysis (SCAL) Electrical and radioactive logs Provide average response Neutron, sonic, density log Well Tests (for permeability)
It is important that all measurements from all sources
are always reconciled and not to be used in isolation.
Solution 1: P Darcys equation for horizontal flow:
kA P1 P2 q mL
Solving for permeability,
qmL k A P1 P2
q A
L UNITS: k= Darcy
A= cm2
q= cm3/sec
m= cp
P= psi
L= cm
Solution 1: P= 3 atm
qmL k A P1 P2
q= 100 cm3/hr A=22
L= 20 cm
cc 1hr 100 hr 3600 sec 2cp 20cm
k 0.0295darcy 2 2 2 cm 3atm
k 29.5md
Relative Permeability Darcys law is considered to apply when the porous medium is fully saturated with a homogenous, single phase fluid. In petroleum reservoirs, however, the rocks are usually saturated with two or more fluids, such as interstitial water, oil and gas. It is necessary to modify Darcys law by introducing the concept of to Effective Permeability to describe the simultaneous flow of more than one fluid. In the definition of Effective Permeability each fluid phase is considered immiscible and completely independent, so that Darcys law can be applied to each phase individually.
Relative Permeability ko A P qo mo L
k w A P qw mw L
qg
k g A P
mg L
Effective Permeability is a function of the
revealing fluid saturation, the rock wetting characteristics, and the geometry of the pores of the rock The effective permeabilities are generally normalized by the absolute permeability of the rock sample and called as Relative Permeability.
Relative Permeability P More than one fluid is saturating the medium. At least two of them are mobile (flowing)
k ri kA P qi mi L
qg qo qw L Relative permeability
k ri
k k
Relative Permeability Two phase relative permeability behavior with respect to wetting phase saturation 1.0
1.0
krnw
Swmin
krw
Sw
Swmax
Relative Permeability Oil-Water relative permeability behavior with respect to Water saturation 1.0
1.0
kro
krw
Swc
Sw
1-Sor
Example 3: A cylindrical core sample with a length of 20 cm, a diameter of 4 cm and with porosity of 30 % is subjected to a linear flow test with water of 1 cp viscosity and its absolute permeability is estimated as 80 md. Later the experiment is continued 1.With the injection of oil with 3 cp viscosity until no more water production is observed at production end. At that point the water saturation left in the core is calculated as 25 % and the permeability is estimated as 55 md. And then, 2.With the injection of water again at 0.09 cc/sec, below data is collected until no more oil production is observed at production end. Estimate the oil-water relative permeability characteristics of this core sample.
Solution 3:
k i A P qi mi L qo ( 3 )( 20 ) ko 1.59qo 2 ( 3 )( 2 ) P, atm
t, sec
Vo, cc
VW, cc
10
0.30
0.60
10
0.20
0.70
10
0.05
0.85
10
0.01
0.89
10
0.9
qo, cc/s
qw ( 1 )( 20 ) kw 0.53qw 2 ( 3 )( 2 ) qw, cc/s
ko, md
kw, md
kro
krw
Solution 3:
k i A P qi mi L qo ( 3 )( 20 ) ko 1.59qo 2 ( 3 )( 2 )
2.0 Introduction Info on relative permeability is very important because it: Affects fractional flow of fluids during displacement Affects performance of a reservoir Determine relative flow rates of each fluid Predict production from a reservoir
2.1 Absolute & Effective
Permeability Absolute Permeability
Rock permeability irrespective of
the 100% saturated fluid type, k.
100% water saturated
100% oil saturated
If 2 fluids are present and flowing simultaneously.
Effective Permeability Defined for each fluid. Depend on each fluid saturation.
Effective Permeability to Water =
Effective Permeability to Oil =
ko
kw
Effective Permeability Curve
absolute permeability k
ko
Water Curve: kw = 0 at Swc kw = 1 at 100% water saturation
kw
Oil Curve: ko = 0 at Sw=1-Sor ko = k at 100% oil saturation
Swc 0 1
1- Sor 1
Sw So
2.2 Relative Permeability
It is a normalised measure of conductance of one phase in a
multiphase system Measure of the mutual interference between phases competing for the same pore space (values 0 1)
Water Relative Permeability
kw k rw k
Oil Relative Permeability
ko k ro k
Depends on each fluid saturation in the pore space.
Part of SCAL conducted on a carefully preserved core samples If lab data is not available, may use correlations (e.g. Corey coefficients)
