Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 5, pp.

239 - 254, 2005

INTEROPERABILITY BETWEEN URBAN RAILWAYS

THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF INTERMODAL INTEGRATION
Balazs ACS
Graduate Student
Master's Program in Management and Public Policy
University of Tsukuba
Tennodai 1-1-1, Tsukuba
Ibaraki, 305-0005 Japan
Fax: +81-298-53-5591, +36-92-511-284
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Nowadays the most often used concept in urban planning is the integration. The
formerly strict borders within and between the heavy and light rail networks are disappearing.
Many interoperable systems emerge to provide passengers with door-to-door services,
knowing that seamless mobility is the key of attractive public transportation. This paper
briefly introduces the current and planned integrated, interoperable urban rail systems,
including the best practices: StadtBahn, S-Bahn, RER, Crossrail, Passante, Cercanias, the
Karlsruhe model, and the Japanese-style through operation. Many examples prove that there
are no unbridgeable barriers between railway types. The main focus of the paper is on
interoperability between metro and railway lines. This is a cost-effective method of extending
the urban rail network, and integrating the conventional suburban railways into the urban
railway system. As a case study, the ambivalent railway development plans for Budapest are
discussed.
Key words: Interoperability, Urban railway, Integration, Metro, Cross-city Tunnel
1. INTRODUCTION
During the second half of the 20th century, while being busy planning new metro lines, many
cities have discovered the urban network of the national railways as unexploited corridors for
urban transport. By today the suburban railway network is completely integrated to the urban
network in many cities, however, there are still cities in which tracks are completely
unutilised, or even seen as obstacles for urban development..
This practice may no longer be maintained. Most international organizations force integration
in public transportation, as this is the only way to provide efficient and attractive public
transportation. The alliance of European Metropolitan Transport Authorities (EMTA) states
Metropolitan areas usually have several public transport modes in operation (bus, tramway,
metro, regional rail services, sometimes water services). Integration of modes and of
operators (physical integration of services, integration of fares and of information, etc.) is
therefore a fundamental task of transport authorities so as to be able to offer travellers a
seamless trip. UITP also promotes the idea of integration: Unlike motorized individual
transport, which can be used from point of origin right through to destination without a single
transfer, the available public transport services will often comprise several different legs of
transport modes, between which a passenger is obliged to transfer in order to reach their
destination. This is a systemic and, at the same time, competitive disadvantage compared to
motorized individual transport if PT is unsuccessful in bringing about the greatest possible
integration between its individual subsystems.[Only] seamless - and, therefore, unimpeded service () is capable of competing with motorized individual transport (Meyer, 2003).
This paper examines how far the authorities and engineers have gone in railway integration,
especially in the field of the integration of the national railways into the urban transportation
system. The focus is on the physical integration of railways and metros, as the author believes
that the future of urban transport is based on the seamless integration of these classic and
well-known types of railways. Tariff systems and other kinds of integration between other
modes are out of the scope of this paper.

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2. TYPES OF RAILWAYS
There are 3 basic types of railways from the point of view of integration. The borders between
these types are not always clear, and basically there is at least one exception for each
characteristic. Hence, each sentence in the following descriptions should have a word
expressing uncertainty, such as basically, usually, or typically. For the sake of simplification
these words are omitted.
2.1 National Railways
In this paper the term national railways is used for the heavy railway network, which was
built for interurban, long distance purposes, no matter if it was/is operated by the national
railway company or by private companies. The first national railway was opened in 1825
between Stockton and Darlington, followed by the boom of railway construction in the late
19th century, and a decline in the network length in the 20th century. National railway lines
are originally not designed for intra-city travel, their alignment in the bigger cities serve the
industrial rather than the residential areas. Comparing to urban railways, the maximum
number of trains per hour is low; the smallest unit of time used in scheduling is 30 seconds or
more, and the lines ar often used for freight transport. Locomotive traction is more widespread
than multiple units, the radius of the curves are long, gradients are low, electrification if
exists has high voltage. Stations are far from each other; trains have ineffective accelerating
and braking characteristics. The operator is the national railway company or its successors;
however, some lines had been built by private railways, which were later nationalized.
National railways form a worldwide network, but interoperability is not always possible due
to the different track gauge, electrification method, safety systems, regulatory differences, etc.
There is a strong political will to promote interoperability, but the national railway companies
are not motivated enough for introducing it.
In the developed world, most national railways are in crisis. Especially in Europe, national
railway companies are seriously loss making, meaning a very heavy burden on the national
budget. The share of the national railways in the market of non-individual travel is very low
(less than 10%) and even decreasing. In Eastern Europe, this figure is higher (around 20%,
depending on the country), however, also decreasing. Freight transport in Europe is in the
black, just like in the U.S., however, unlike in America, where the importance of freight
transport is high, in Europe the lossmaking passenger transport is in the focus of national
railway companies. In Japan, the situation is reversed; there the freight services are
unprofitable, so railway companies earn their living from the passenger services in the high
population density areas.
More and more national railway companies discover that the breakthrough (or survival) point
for them is the integration into the urban public transport system of big cities. Not only
because urban areas are good venues to be in headlight enough to receive huge subsidies, but
also because the non-blind railway managers know that alongside with high-speed intercity
services, good urban services are probably the only passenger lines that will survive the
coming century (Suga, 2000). It should be kept in mind in those developing countries, which
are now busy planning and constructing classic rural railways.
2.2 Metro
Metro is the term used in this paper for underground railways, or subways in U.S., which
serve the urban travel needs of cities. These railways have neither freight traffic, nor long
distance services; run on separate right-of-way, underground, elevated or grade, and rarely
cross the city borders. Municipality-owned or -supported companies operate the systems;
projects are also financed partly by municipalities. Trains have very high frequency, 1 to 10
minutes, use high platforms and EMUs, with good acceleration and breaking characteristics.
There are new metro technologies, which use special tracks, different from classic railways,
(VAL, People Mover, monorail, etc.), these are out of the scope of this paper, as these cannot
be physically integrated/connected with other railways.
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The first metro line was opened in London in 1863, but the real boom of metro construction
started in the early 20th century in todays developed countries. By the 21st century, most
cities in the developed world have finished their trunk metro-systems, solving the capacity
problems of urban public transportation, and now the focus is on the quality of the service,
however, developing countries are busy constructing new metro lines to catch up with the
massive travel demand and to promote huge housing developments.
2.3 Tramway, Streetcar, Light Rail (LRT)
Light rail is the contemporary version of the tram, or streetcar in the U.S. The classic tram
runs on street level, operates with short vehicles, not more than 3 of them may be coupled.
(Unfortunately in Southern-East Asia the term light rail is often used also for some people
mover and automated rail systems, causing confusion.) The word light refers to the
lightness of the track and vehicles. The main technical characteristics distinguishing the
tramway lines (either conventional or upgraded) from the heavy rail lines (national railways or
metro) are in the shorter curve radius, steeper gradients, less or even no safety signalling built
next to the tracks, and the often non-separate right-of-way.
The origin of light rail systems is the horse drawn urban rail, which used to be operating in the
centre of the cities on street level. These lines were later electrified and operated as tramways
(streetcars in the U.S.). The tramway construction was booming in the early 20th century, and
the first lines were built to connect the isolated national railways termini establiched at the
edge of the city centre, and also to serve the weekend leisure travel heading out of the city.
Many lines were built also for commuting purposes to serve the newly built industrial and
residential areas.
The capacity of tramways proved to be insufficient as the cities and the individual motorized
transportation were growing, and many tramways were replaced by metro lines. Many cities
have completely closed their formerly huge tramway network as the metro services were
expanding.
Nowadays the renaissance of the tramway can be seen, in the form of, and under the name of
light rail, however, the economic performance of the newly built LRT projects are not always
a success story, especially in the U.S. One of the biggest disputes nowadays among urban
transportation planners is about the advantages and disadvantages of LRT projects versus bus
services. This is out of the scope of this paper, as the focus is on heavy railways.
2.4 The need for new railway solutions
The last 40 years of the 20th century brought the need for new kind of railways, as the travel
needs, and also the motorization level has changed. While until the first half of the 20th
century urbanization was the main trend, resulting in very densely inhabited cities, in the
second half of the century suburbanization is the key trend. Residents leave the congested city
centres and move to the suburbs into areas with much higher living standards and better
environment. However, the jobs are still located in the city centre, so people have to commute
back to the city on a daily basis. This resulted in a shift from concentrated urban passenger
flows which can be served by metro very well - into the more disperse and regional level
travel demand.
The above-mentioned 3 basic railway types cannot meet the needs arising from
suburbanization and regional commuting. The national railways cannot serve the sprawling
urban areas well enough, because the lines have only few stations, trains are not frequent and
reliable enough, and cannot carry the passengers directly into the city centre. Hence, the
passengers have to transfer, mainly to metro (or tram or bus), and this is a major
inconvenience. Extending the metro lines to the suburbs is very expensive, especially because
metro lines cannot easily be built on the surface. The other problem is the capacity: metro is
designed as an urban railway to carry huge amount of passengers, but huge amounts cannot be
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found in the suburbs far from the city centre. So most cities have unfinished metro lines,
which will never be finished the way they were planned, and their temporary terminus will
become a permanent one, forcing users to transfer every time. The construction of light rail is
also expensive, and has low cruising speed, so LRT is not the best solution for regional
commuting, either. To solve this problem, various intermediary, or middle-system railways
emerged by now.

Figure 1: Basic Types of Railways and Middle System Railways

2.4.1 Stadtbahn
The Stadtbahn (literally city rail) is a middle system between the tramway (light rail) and
the metro. A German-originated urban rail system, unifying the advantages and not the
disadvantages of tramways and metros. Traditional tramway lines have been being upgraded
to Stadtbahn level since the 1970s, by building cross-city tunnels for the bundled tram lines,
raising frequency and cruising speed, and providing better access to the city centre. Outside
the city center trains still run mainly on the surface on separate right-of-way or in the axis of
the roads, with many level crossings.

Figure 2: The Hanover Stadtbahn in the Cross-city Tunnel, and at its Entrance
Due to the underground stations in the city center, the system is often marked with the U letter
referring underground, though most of the tracks of the Stadtbahn system are on the surface.
The Stadtbahn is a good solution only in cities having extensive urban rail (tram) network. In
the process of upgrading tramways to Stadtbahn, the track gauge often has to be widened to
standard 1435 mm and platforms to be raised. Hence, during the transition some sections are
mixed gauged and some stations have both low and high platforms, or trains need to have
special steps to allow boarding at both high and low platform stations and stops. Stadtbahn
system is usually not interoperable with the national railway. When the underground section
of a Stadtbahn system is designed so that it can be used by full metro trains later, it is often
referred to as premetro.
2.4.2 The Karlsruhe model
The Karlsruhe RegioTram is a middle system between the tramway (light rail) and the
national railways (DB), introduced in 1992. Dual voltage tram vehicles have been operating
on national railways, stopping at additional stops along the suburban sections, offering more
frequent services, and what is probably the most important, connecting the suburbs directly
with the city center, eliminating the transfers between the different modes. The Karlsruhe
system is also called Stadtbahn, however it represents not an urban (Stadt), but a regional

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level interoperability. The first interoperable line between Karlsruhe and Bretten is one of the
most successful transportation projects in the 1990s, as the annual weekday ridership
increased from half a million to more than 2 million between 1992 and 1993, after the
introduction of the Stadtbahn services. (Voskuhl, 1995)

Figure 3: The Karlsruhe Stadtbahn at the Hall of the Main Railway Station next to an Intercity
Train, and on the S5 Line, next to a Regional Service
2.4.3 Metro-like railways
These are middle systems between national railways and the metro. The best practices are
known as S-Bahn, RER, Passante, Cercanias, and the Japanese-style through operation.
Their common characteristics can be summarized as follows. These systems have evolved by
integrating the national railways into the urban system. There are two main approaches to do
so, the extending-out, and the cross-city tunnelling. When extending out, a formerly built
metro line is being extended using the national railway tracks. Cross-city tunnelling means
connecting two suburban radial lines under the city center. Both main approaches require
compromises in solving the problems arising from the many technical and organizational
differences, but it is worth making the efforts. Suburban railways can never be well integrated
into the urban network if the suburban trains terminate at a hidden sidetrack at dirty railway
termini located at the very edge of the downtown area. Suburban services have to operate right
into the beating heart of the cities.
3 METRO-LIKE RAILWAY SYSTEMS IN THE WORLD
Trains on metro-like railways are usually EMUs, running frequently and directly into the city
center, usually on lately built tunnels or quadrupled tracks, and serving more stations than the
national railways. These systems are briefly introduced in the following sub-chapters.
3.1 Europe
In most European cities all the three basic types of railways can be found, and it made Europe
the cradle of various integration solutions. There are no 2 cities with the same geographical,
operational, organizational and network circumstances, so each city has unique solutions,
however, some adaptable models can be found. The best-designed integrated tramway-based
urban rail systems were built in Germany (Stadtbahn), however, in terms of railway-metro
interoperability, the best practices can be found in Paris (RER), in Spanish and Italian cities
(Cercanias and Passante), and in the cradle of the metro, London. Other good practices are
also mentioned at the end of this chapter.
3.1.1 London a little bit of everything
London is not just the birthplace of the metro, but also the first city in which metro services
started to operate on national railway lines, when the services of Bakerloo line were extended
from Queens Park to Willesden Junction from 10th May, 1915. Today after few years of
disruption metro trains run even further, using their shoes on the third rail, while the
Silverlink services (North London Railways, using former national railways tracks) utilize the
catenary. The Richmond branch of the District line of the London Tube (metro) is also a joint
operation with Silverlink services, the tracks between Gunnersbury and Richmond used to
belong to the national railways.
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The East London line, which can be considered as the oldest metro in the world, as it uses a
tunnel built for pedestrians in 1843, will be extended on former national railway lines. The
extensions are referred to as a low-cost railway construction, as these will use mainly
existing, partly disused railways, which will be upgraded and converted into a metro-like
service. The main goal is to improve interchange and congestion, and integrate the East
London line with main line services. Based on the official homepage of the ELLP, the main
objectives of the East London Line Project as presented in the Statement of Case of 2000 are
improving PT accessibility, reducing the need to interchange and thus providing some
congestion relief to central London rail termini and on radial routes into central London,
integrating main line rail services and the Underground, and making full use of the valuable
but underused river crossing. (ELLP, 2000)
The biggest interoperable rail project in London, however, is the Crossrail. This will be a
cross-city tunnel, which will connect the southern and northern suburban rail lines between
Paddington and Liverpool Street. The trains capable of carrying more than 1000 passengers in
the tunnel will have a frequency of 2 and a half minutes in the rush hour, hence Crossrail will
be one of the busiest metro service in London, delivered in a heavy rail environment. It will be
Londons RER, expected to open in 2012. The trains will have toilets; will run at 160 km/h on
the surface and at 95 km/h in the tunnel. Platforms on the underground section would be 283
metres long and 5.5 metres wide, both values are the double of the typical London platform
size. The entire route will use overhead electrification: wires will be built above some to-beconnected existing railways, which have third rail power supply.
The project caused serious debates about the alignment, and other related issues. There were
fears that Crossrail would attract many passengers from partly parallel metro lines and it
would harm the privatisation prospect of those lines. Due to the official homepage of
Crossrail the project is expected by the Corporation of London to deliver an annual profit of
800 million pounds in 30 years. The benefit/cost ratio is calculated between 1.7 and 2.5,
annual number of passengers is 187 million, and 600,000 on a weekday. Crossrail brings 15%
increase in the seating capacity in Central London.
There is another big cross-city tunnel project in London, the Chelsea Hackney/Express Metro
from Wimbledon to Epping and Woolwich, also known as the Chelney line, which would ease
congestion on the Victoria line. The future of this metro project is uncertain, and might be
replaced by a rail-based Crossrail 2 line, however, a study considers the original Chelney line
project feasible only if Crossrail (1) is not built. (Rowland 2001) The London Underground
proposed a cheaper route for the Chelney line, using not metro, but mainline loading gauge,
fewer stops, and sharing tracks of North London metro line in a short section, but due to
physical constraints at Piccadilly Circus, the traditional Tube-gauge is supported. The name of
the line would be King's line.
Even the tramway has returned to the streets of South London as a light rail. The Croydon
Tramlink network - built partly on old national railway alignments - was opened in 2000.
3.1.2 Paris The RER
Paris is another city with very good solutions in the field of railway-metro integration. By the
end of the 60s Paris already had built a very extensive, but slow metro system in the core city,
and the attention was turned to the direction of the suburbs and the speeding up of travel. This
led to the construction of altogether 5 RER lines, with a huge, 7track underground transfer
station at Chatelet. This Regional Express Network connects various suburban lines with the
opposite side of the city through cross-city tunnels, similarly to the Japanese style through
operation. The main concept is common, however, there are important differences in the
operation circumstances of the lines.
Line A is a masterpiece of RER. It provides very fast access to the suburbs, with only five
stops within Paris. Two of its branches out of Paris belongs to the national rail (SNCF) and
tracks are shared with conventional suburban trains, however, the rest of Line A is operated by
RATP, the company that is responsible for all other means of transport in Paris. Line B has
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more stops in the city centre, travel speed is low, which is further decreased by the frequent
delays. The southern part of the line belongs to the RATP; the northern one to SNCF, where
some express RER services may use the long distance tracks. Line C has some under-utilised
sections and its routing is not attractive. The line is SNCF-operated, and the tracks in most
sections are used by conventional trains, too. Line D is sharing its tracks with other rail traffic,
too (except for the underground section in central Paris) and even uses some section of RER
B. In the outer sections some parts of the former railways that were integrated into the RER
system were diverted to serve the residential areas better. Line E is designed to connect the
lEst and Saint Lazare railway termini under the ground. Currently only the eastern section is
in operation, in most of its route sharing tracks with long-distance trains.
In other French cities, similar solutions in smaller scale exist. Line C of the Toulouse metro is
a national railway line, integrated into the tariff system. Marseille has a tram (no. 68) in a
cross-city tunnel, similar to Stadtbahn
3.2.3 Cercanias the Spanish contribution to the future of railways
Madrid is famous for having built the most metro lines during the 1990s in Europe. However,
its achievement in the field of railway integration, the upgrade of the suburban lines to metro
level, and the building of cross-city railway tunnels, i.e. the creation of the Cercanias network
is even more important.
Use of the existing, mainline rail network in areas near large towns and cities has made the
construction of large infrastructures unnecessary, with the corresponding savings in time and
resources. It has only been necessary to complete specific stretches of railway with a view to
expanding capacity and improving the functionality of existing services. The drawback with
this approach, however, is in having to share the rail infrastructure. (Carrillo, 2003)
The five key axes of Cercanias is the use of standard railway network as the starting point for
metropolitan network, a radical approach, based on practical experience, to solving functional
problems in the commuter train system, implementation of specific technologies in
metropolitan transport that had been lacking in the traditional railway system, a strictly
business-oriented approach to the management of the organization responsible for the
transformation, and a design of and compliance with a stable economic framework for
funding both the investment and operational aspects of the activity (Carrillo, 2003). In
practice these mean the upgrade of railway network, extending platforms, widening the
loading gauge, building cross-city tunnels, and turning the system to a metro-like operation.
The Cercanias became a very important mode of transportation in other cities of Spain, too. In
Barcelona, the Cercanias lines complement a very extensive metro network, offering further 4
cross-city lines. Some metro lines utilize the national railway alignments, too, running parallel
to them (Line 1), and sometimes mixed with suburban trains (Line 6). In Valencia, the metro
network is based on a 100 years old narrow gauge suburban railway network, which was
upgraded to a network by the opening of a cross-city tunnel in 1988. The tunnel connects two
lines in the north with one in the south. The national railway also plans to build a cross-city
tunnel for the Cercanias services. Even Bilbao has its Cercanias system, which got a great
upgrade when the northern Muskiz and Santrutzi line were re-connected with the southern
Orduna line, by the rebuilding of the formerly existed connection. Hence, these lines are
interoperable again, and provide a new cross-city route. Bilbao has other type of railway
integration, too. Metro line 1 uses former national (Basque) railway alignment in its outer
section, while in the city it runs in tunnel. Line 2 runs mainly parallel to a national railway
line, however, it is sometimes diverted to serve the city centres.
3.2.4. Italy The Passante
Most of the big Italian cities plans to build a cross-city tunnel for the national railways, to
allow metro-like operation. Genova metro was built so that it can utilize some tunnels
previously used by either trams or national railway. There are 2 very important suburban lines
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operated by FS (Italian Rail), which will be upgraded to metro standard by the end of the
decade. In Milan there is a tram based, Stadtbahn-like metro system. The importance of
physical integration is proved by the fact that those tramlines, which are not integrated into the
metro, are close to closure. The first part of Milans Passante (Italian name for a cross-city
tunnel connecting formerly existing suburban railways and providing metro-like services) was
opened in 1997. In Turin the national railways is building the Passante, which will be a northsouth oriented cross-city tunnel, and trains will run through it in every 5 minutes from 2006.
There will be another cross-city tunnel for light rail, being upgraded from Tram No. 4 as a
Stadtbahn.
3.2.5. Germany the home of S-Bahn and Stadtbahn
Berlin has two metro systems, the U-Bahn and the S-Bahn. While the U-Bahn can be
considered as a classic metro, the S-Bahn system cannot deny its strong relation with the
national railways, however, it is physically independent. The S-Bahn network is very similar
to that of JR East in Tokyo: it offers a loop line and a diagonal line on the surface (mainly
elevated), plus another diagonal line in tunnel. Much percent of the S-Bahn network was built
parallel to the national railways, but the different power supply mode separates the two
systems (S-Bahn uses third rail, like classic metros.)
The Hamburg S-Bahn is similar to the Berlin S-Bahn in being completely separated from the
conventional national railway traffic; however, it often runs parallel to it. The system itself
can be considered as another metro network besides the U-Bahn system. In the future the strict
separation of S-Bahn and national railways will diminish, as there are plans to extend the
network from Neugraben to the southeast using the DB (German Rail) tracks. As the
Hamburg S-Bahn uses third rail supply, it would mean the employment of dual system trains,
which can operate both from third rail and catenary.

Figure 4: S-Bahn in Berlin (Potsdam), and in Hamburg, beyond DB Tracks

In other big German cities, the S-Bahn shares track with regional services. Frankfurt has
converted one cross-city tunnel originally built for trams into a metro tunnel in 1980. Ten
years later a new cross-city tunnel was built, in which separate tracks are laid for S-Bahn
services and U6-U7 metro lines. In Munich the cross-city tunnel for S-Bahn operation was
opened in 1972. Trains run on the butterfly bow shaped network, and are operated by the
national railway (DB), with a frequency of 2-3 minutes in peak hours. Just like on the S-Bahn
in Copenhagen, the basic frequency of each branch is 20 minutes. Stuttgart has extensive, and
almost completely upgraded and gauge-widened tram-based Stadtbahn system, complemented
by a cross-city S-Bahn line, which cuts short the route from the western suburbs to the city
centre. In the Ruhr-area, the densely populated, but independent cities are connected by crisscrossed S-Bahn services, sometimes diverted into tunnels to serve the city centres and
residential areas better than the original national railway line does. There are S-Bahn services
around almost all the German cities, but many of those operate only on DB lines.
3.2.6 Other good practices in Europe
In Amsterdam the metro often follows the national railways (NJ) alignment, however, there is
no through operation. At some stations cross-platform transfers are provided.

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Athens has built a metro and suburban lines for the 2004 Olympics, and these share tracks
between Stavros and the airport.
Copenhagen built a very convenient, curved butterfly shaped
urban-suburban railway system called S-Bane, based on the
national railway lines, opening its first section in 1934. The
boundled common section of all lines serve the city centre
and the main railway station every 1-5 minutes, on partly
elevated and underground tracks, laid parallel to but
completely separated from the long distance tracks. The Sbane branches are served at least every 20 minutes. The
system is so extensive and serves the city so well that the
first
section of the citys automatic metro project was opened
Figure 5: New and Old Rolling
only
a few years ago, and is rather an urban development
Stock on Copenhagen S-Bane
than a transportation project. The metro took over a short
section from the S-bane alignment, which will be re-routed
on an unused freight line.
Istanbul has started to build its own cross-city tunnel for metro-like railway operation called
Marmaray, which is also a cross-Bosporus tunnel, linking Europe and Asia. As a connecting
project, many national railway lines at both side of the tunnel will be upgraded for metro
level. The upgrade means laying further tracks, building new stations, improving signalling,
and raising speed to allow frequent metro-like operation.
Lisboas special feature in the venue of railway interoperability is the urban-suburban line,
which is operated by a private operator called Fertagus. The company won the tender and was
granted a concession for suburban public passenger transport on the new North-South line,
which connects Lisboa with the southern side of the Tagus River. The company pays usage
fee to the REFER (Portuguese Rail) for the use of their infrastructure.
The Newcastle metro has many special features. From the point of railway integration, the
most important is that most of the network was converted from former national railway (BR)
lines. A 6 km long tunnel created a busy urban network out of the low demand or even
abandoned railways. In some sections metro trains share tracks with local heavy trains.
Oslo railways have a very unique history. The Tunnelbane (metro) is a network of formerly
existing suburban lines and a cross-city tunnel, which connects them. The tunnel was opened
gradually, as the to-be-connected suburban lines had different technical characteristics, and
these had to be more or less unified. Finally, since 1995 the system has been using trains
capable of operating with both third rail and catenary power supply. On other lines the power
supply was changed to third rail.
Warszawa was one of the first cities that built a cross-city railway tunnel. It was opened in
1925, runs in east-west direction, and used not only by the national railways, but also by an
urban light rail line. It served the city so well, that the first real metro was opened only in the
1990s.
3.2 Asia
In most Asian cities the role of mass public transport is different from that of the developed
countries. In big Asian cities mass crowds have to be transported, and huge land
developments and housing projects have to be supported by mass transport projects. While
cities like Tokyo and Singapore exercises restrictions on car ownership or use, and
concentrate on transit projects, other cities favour car use, making the generalization difficult.
3.2.1 The Japanese-style model of metro-railway through operation
Tokyo is the best example in the world for both the interoperability of metro and suburban
railways, and for the integration of the national railways into the urban transportation system.
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The latter network, operated by JR East, the successor of the former Japanese National
Railways in the Kanto area, provides the skeleton of Tokyos transportation system, and JR
trains carry more than 40% of the passengers in the Tokyo Area.
The 34.5 km long JR Yamanote loop service is a completely urban rail line, which
encompasses the traditional core Tokyo, linking the main sub-centres of the megalopolis on
the surface. In the first half of the 20th century, only tramways were allowed within the loop,
hence the private suburban railway companies built their termini at certain stations of this
loop. As the population and congestion of the city grew, metro lines gradually replaced the
tramways in the inner city. The construction of the first two, conventional metro lines brought
serious congestion at the interchanges between suburban rail and metro. To cure this problem,
since 1953 the subway policy has been promoting the through operation between suburban
railways and metro lines. Since then, except for a new linear motor technology based metro
loop line, all new metro projects have been built as cross-city tunnels allowing suburban trains
run directly into the CBD, and metro trains operate on suburban railway lines, too, on a
reciprocal basis. The metro lines are usually connected with the suburban railways few stops
outwards from the inner terminal. Direct services from the metro usually operate as local
services on the suburban line (most of them are private railways, but 3 JR lines are also
involved in the system), while the express services use the traditional terminals adjacent to the
JR Yamanote line.
Creating through-operation was difficult in many cases, as the technical characteristics of the
to-be-connected lines were very different in terms of signalling, track-gauge, loading gauge,
etc., and the metro tunnels had to be built wider because of the overhead catenary. However,
direct connection to the city center is a very attractive service for commuters and contributes
to the relatively good modal share of public transportation in Tokyo.
Other Japanese cities also took over the concept of through operation from Tokyo, but none of
them used it as widely as the capital city. In Osaka, only 2 of the 8 metro lines allow the
classic type of through operation. The eastern section of the Chuo line was built by Kintetsu
railway, and the Sakaisuji metro line is connected with Hankyu Railways Kyoto and Senri
lines. The transfer point between the Kyoto line and the metro is Awaji station, which allows
convenient cross platform transfer between trains running in the same direction.

Figure 6: Hankyu Awaji Station and the Keihan Metro on Surface in Otsu
Both the under-Osaka and under-Kyoto sections of the Keihan main line operates like a metro.
From the point of view of interoperability, the smaller (and separated) part of the Keihan
network has an even more unique feature. Kyotos second metro line partly replaced the
Keihan tramway line between Yamashina and Kyoto, however, the outer part of this tramway
was converted to a metro-on-surface, and runs on the streets of Otsu city. By this solution,
both Kyoto municipal Metro lines allow through operation (the Karasuma line is connected
with Kintetsu Railwayss Nara line at Takeda), and the city has even two private railwaysoperated metro-like lines, too.
In Kobe none of the two metro lines offer the typical Japanese through operation, however,
there is a cross-city tunnel through the city center owned by Kobe Kosoku Railway, which
connects the Hanshin Railways Osaka-Kobe line with the Sanyo Railways Kobe-Himeji

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line, allowing direct services on these private railways between Himeji and Osaka. Besides,
Hankyu Railways express services also use the eastern part of this tunnel and offer
convenient cross-platform transfer between Hankyu and Sanyo trains.
In the Kansai area (the metropolitan area of Osaka, Kyoto, Kobe and Nara), and especially in
the city of Osaka JR trains have less market share than in Tokyo. The JR Loop line does not
serve the very center of Osaka, and on the inter-urban venue private railways are often more
convenient for the passengers. JR was trying to bring closer its trains to the office area in
southern Umeda by building a cross-city tunnel called the Tozai line, which helped to ease the
congestion of the near Osaka (Umeda) station, too.
In Fukuoka, the Meinohama line of the metro is connected to the JR Chikuhi line, in Nagoya
the Tsurumai line of the metro offers through operation at both ends with the private Meitetsu
Railway.

Figure 7: A picture of the JR West Tozai Line, and a Meitetsu Train in the Nagoya Metro
Considering the very high-level physical integration between Japanese railway and metro
operators, it is very surprising to see that the fare systems are not integrated. Connection
tickets are available, but there are hardly any discounts. Hence, a short, 2 stations trip made
on a through train, if it uses two different railway companys lines, may cost double the price
of a 10 km trip made on a single companys line.
Seoul, the Korean capital copied the Japanese model for some of its lines, but pure metro lines
also exist. Some lines are operated by the national railway company, Line 1 connects Seoul
with the neighbouring city, Inchon, parallel to the long distance tracks. A new cross-city
tunnel is also planned for national railway use. In other Korean cities, metro lines are not
interoperable with national railways.
3.2.2. The Indian model
In Indian cities the railway-metro interoperability is very simplified, the metro system is
completely based on the national railway lines, integrating them into the urban system mainly
by quadrupling the tracks and separating long-distance and local traffic. In Calcutta there is an
extensive tramway network, however, the metro system under construction is the upgrade of
the existing suburban lines of the national railways, including laying further tracks parallel
with long distance lines. In Chennai the metro tracks are laid parallel, but usually separated
from the national railway tracks, however, some lines offer rush hour metro service on the
long distance tracks. There is a project for widening the gauge of the Beach-Tambaram metro
line to allow through operations with other lines. It is not surprising that the national railway
lines are physically integrated into the system, because both the Calcutta and Chennai metro
lines are owned and operated by the Indian (national) Railways. The Delhi metro concept also
includes the quadrupling projects parallel to the existing railways, but the metro has different
routes from railways. Mumbai (Bombay) is served by extremely overcrowded urban-suburban
railways, which sometimes use long distance tracks to ease congestion.
3.2.3 Other practices in Asia:
In Izmir (Turkey) some suburban national railway lines are being upgraded to metro standard.

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Kuala Lumpur, the capital of Malaysia is unfortunately developing many incompatible railway
systems, and do not utilize national railways for metro use, however, the express rail
connection to the airport allows commuter transport, too. In Metro Manila the Philippine
national railway is planning to build tracks through the centre of the city to make direct
services possible. In Shanghai the Pearl line has been upgraded from a former ring railway,
but the citys ambitious metro development plans do not contain other interoperable lines. In
Hong Kong, the old national railway offers metro-like service and operates the newly built
line to a remote but huge residential area, which has an own light rail network. In Taipei the
northern section of the Danshui Line was built on former railway route. There is a cross-city
tunnel for national railways; both long distance and local (EMU) trains use it.

Figure 8: Interior of a KCR train in Hong Kong, and an EMU in Taipei

3.3. North America
In North America the interoperability between metro and national railways is not a common
experience. The biggest U.S. cities have already developed their definitely necessary metro
lines; the others rely mainly on road transport. There can be seen a shift towards rail-based
transportation, however, there are serious disputes about the expected economic performance
of such systems, especially when the projected and the real results can be compared. The U.S.
is more interested in the light rail projects than metros, however, U.S. cities with very few
exceptions no longer have streetcars (trams), so the creation of a real network is difficult and
expensive. Moreover, if the new rail-based systems do not form a network, they can be used
only by the expense of many transfers, and at the age of integration and convenience-based
transportation planning this is unfavourable. On the other hand, where there are already
existing and unused or under-utilised rail infrastructure, the (re)opening of these lines for
passenger transport is definitely positive. One good example for this is the Tri-Rail in Miami,
Florida, however it is a heavy rail line.
Bostons metro network was created partly from former railway lines and tram tunnels, and
even the expansion plans contain projects for converting, upgrading, or reopening former
railway lines for metro operation. Most of these projects are related with the Blue Line.
Another good American example for using the advantages of the three basic railway types can
be found in Saint Louis, Missouri. The metro-like light rail utilizes a former railway
infrastructure, including a tunnel, which had not been in use since the 70s. The planned
extensions also follow the disused rail alignments. San Francisco is also worth mentioning,
because of its Stadtbahn-like system called Muni, besides the famous streetcars and the full
metro BART.
3.5 South-America
The concept of physical integration between national railway and metro is more popular is
South America, probably because of the lack of financial resources comparing to North
America. Buenos Aires metro is expanded based on the Japanese model. At Ferrocarril
Urquiza a new link between Line B and the suburban railways will allow through operation
between the two systems. Fortaleza (Brazil) is building its metro network completely based on
the existing suburban rail lines. The lines will be diverted to serve the city center via a crosscity tunnel as frequent metro, and the outer sections of the lines will also be upgraded to metro

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standards. Medellin, Colombias second biggest city also utilizes the national railway tracks,
metro line A will be extended to Cisneros on the existing railway tracks. Recifes first metro
line was built by laying new tracks along the national railway line, so the metro is mainly at
ground level. The southern section of the metro is being built by upgrading the national
railway service, and connecting it to the airport. Rio de Janeiros metro was built as a light rail
parallel to a suburban railway alignment, and is among the few premetros which had already
been converted to full metro operation. Sao Paulo is also a very good example of smart urban
railway planning. Several different companies have built the suburban commuter railways
around the city, but the metro system turned them into a real urban network. The metro
utilizes the suburban railway lines, which were upgraded to metro level, and linked together.
On the busiest suburban lines additional tracks were built for the purposes of express metro
operation.
3.6 Africa
There is a good example for railway-metro integration from Africa, too. Cairos Metro Line 1
is a cross-city tunnel, connecting two suburban commuter lines, similarly to the Japanese
model, however, the average distance between the stations in the underground section is
relatively big, 1.5 kilometres is average.
4. BUDAPEST CASE STUDY OF METRO LINE 4
The Hungarian capital was the first city on the European continent to open its metro, in 1896.
After that 74 years had been spent until the next metro opening came to reality. During the
following 20 years continuous metro construction was going on, but the collapse of the
communist regime in 1990 brought severe financial and political conditions, so since then not
even a meter of metro line was opened. In 2004 three metro lines are in operation, all meet in
the city centre at Deak ter. Besides the hundred years old first line, there is 10 km long Line 2,
which is an East-west oriented heavy metro with 11 stations, serving 2 main national railway
termini, 2 suburban railway (HEV) termini, and the 18 km long Line 3, which is a North to
Southeast heavy metro line with 20 stations, serving one national railway terminus and 2
railway stations. Budapest has 4 HEV lines, 2 of them feeding metro line 2, while the others
can be reached only by trams and buses. HEV lines are different in characteristics, the Csepel
and Szentendre lines are busy, operate with 5 minutes intervals within the city borders during
rush hours, the Godollo line is less busy, and the Rackeve line has only few trains an hour,
especially at their outer sections. Trains are 3 or 6 car EMUs, operating on separate right-ofway, but with many level crossings. There still is an extensive tramway network, a large and
still frequently served bus network, and 12 trolleybus lines. The tramway line on the Great
Boulevard carries ten thousand passengers during rush hour in each direction, with 54 meter
long coupled sets, operating every 2-3 minutes. Tramways are conventional, cannot be
considered as modern light rail. All of these modes are integrated into the tariff system, except
the national railway and the suburban buses. The national railways (MAV) operate 11
suburban lines, but only 2 of them have periodic schedule (introduced in August 2004), the
other lines are served with not more than 1 services in off-peak times, and 2 to 5 services in
peak hours.
There are two more metro lines planned. Line 4 would be a southwest-northeast line,
connecting the Kelenfold with the Keleti national railway station, or even further to the
northeast. This lines has been planned for more than 30 years, and construction works have
been expected to start within 2 years for three decades. The line is planned to be a
conventional metro, without physical connection to the national railways. Line 5 had been
planned as a half circular conventional metro, but the Development Plan of Budapests
Transportation System (DPBTS) approved in 2001 contains a reconsidered line. Instead of the
conventional metro, the Plan proposes an interoperable line with the HEV lines, and also with
the national railways Esztergom line. Technical characteristics are unclear, however, this is a
major step toward a physically integrated railway system in Budapest. The shift from the
conventional metro to the interoperable regional express railway, or RER, is the biggest
improvement of the DPBTS.
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Figure 9: The stylized urban railway network in Budapest

The question is: if the current urban railway planning trends reached Budapest so that the
metro line 5 is re-planned as a RER (and not as a metro), then line 4 is why not re-planned?
The theoretical part of DPBTS explains it in the following way. The 2 main approaches for
integrated network planning are intermodality and interoperability. The intermodality
approach keeps the various means of transport physically separated, and provides good
interchanges between them; the interoperability-approach physically connects the systems.
The most convenient and attractive solution is the interoperability, however, considering the
lack of financial resources in Budapest, network-planners have to plan intermodal
interchanges instead. Hence, instead of the better and more expensive solution, the
cheaper and worse one has to be chosen in Budapest. This strategy will have seriously
damaging effects on the transportation of Budapest (Acs and Istvan, 2003). On the other hand,
by reading carefully the DPBTS, it can be seen, that the above quoted approach is designed
only to support the idea of conventional Metro 4. The other proposed projects (reconsidered
Metro 5, East-West Stadtbahn, North-South tramway links, etc.) represent the approach of
interoperability.
Only metro line 4 is the exception. This fully underground line will be built between two
major railway stations, and as such, its alignment would be perfect for through operation for
national railways. Unfortunately, the plans do not allow through operation, and propose a
conventional metro line. For this reason, some individual, new generation urban planners
formed the M4+ Team to promote the idea of the interoperable metro, but the efforts seem to
have no results by now.
The basic idea was converting the planned metro line into a Japanese style, or RER-type
metro allowing through operation with national railway trains. This idea was refused by many
experts. The main reasons were the necessary wider cross-section of the tunnel (which means
extra costs), and the need of re-routing because of the different curves and platform length
required for an railway-based metro. The third reason of refusing the concept of interoperable
line 4 was that the national railway services are so unreliable, that integrating them into the
metro system would cause serious disruption. The final, and most convincing reason was,
that construction of the metro 4 is the main priority of the city, which is just about to start,
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so it is too late to reconsider the line (Csordas, 2002). These reasons seem to be weightless if
one considers the data published in the same article. It ranks the extensions of the metro
operation on railways in terms of cost-efficiency. Metro extensions along railways proposed in
(Acs, 2000) have 86, 51, and 44 units of efficiency depending on the involved lines, while the
basic metro project has only 11, in terms of spared-time per investment (Csordas, 2002).
This is not the only point where unexplainable events happened in connection with metro 4.
There are 3 potential extensions for the basic project as conventional metro, and due to the
manual published by the planners of the line; all experts agree that the western extension of
the line has the highest priority (Gulyas et. al, 2000). In spite of that, politicians in 2003
decided to extend the line first to the northeast, which shows great amount of optimism, as the
construction works have not started even on the first phase.
M4+Team still promotes the southwest bound extension of the metro operation on the
national railway tracks. The plans were reconsidered to be more acceptable and to reduce
criticized points, hoping that the decision makers understand that even if the metro line is
extended on the railways, it will still provide everything that the original plan, plus many
more. The plans for the original phase of metro 4 (in terms of alignment, cross-section, third
rail power supply, etc) can be kept basically unchanged, only a slight modification is
necessary to allow the construction of the physical connection towards the railway tracks. This
change is necessary, because the original plan places the western terminus of the metro under
the Kelenfold railway station, perpendicular to the tracks, making through operation
completely impossible. This is the only thing that has to be changed to make M4+ feasible.
The final, or as it is often called, the minimum-version of M4+, i.e. the extension of metro
operation on national railway tracks contains the followings. One of the 3 more-or-less
parallel tracks between Budapest-Kelenfold and the city of Erd, currently catering both longdistance, suburban, and also freight traffic, should be taken from MAV and transferred to
metro operation. MAV is able to operate on the remaining 2 tracks, especially because the
metro takes over the local (suburban and intra-city) traffic, so MAV local services can be
fastened, therefore the capacity of the line is raised, and suburbs beyond Erd can be reached
faster. Metro, as a reliable service, can operate on the single track, with some stations
allowing trains to cross, as the headway need not to be shorter than 10 minutes even in the
rush hour. The third rail power supply can be built along the metro tracks; the alignment can
completely be isolated from crossing traffic.
The plan of M4+ provides many advantages, without disadvantages. Without the construction
of expensive underground alignment, the metro operation can be extended easily towards the
suburbs, providing fast and convenient direct access to the city centre. The length of the
original metro line can be more than doubled with only 10% cost increase. Further savings can
be reached because the M4+ makes some other projects unnecessary, including the planned
Fehervari ut branch of Metro 4, and the replacement of 50 buses. The extended metro would
allow the construction of more P+R facilities, closer to the residential areas. The train depot
could also be built outside of the city on less expensive land, and in better location from the
operational point of view.
Even this minimal version plan had to face strict refusal from the planners of metro 4 and also
from MAV planners, however, encouraging comments were received from individuals. The
another popular interoperable alternative to Metro 4 called AliGut is also rejected by the
officials. The AliGut would be a cross-city tunnel for the national railway, connecting the
Kelenfold station with the Nyugati station under the CBD, and would allow not only suburban
but also long-distancetrains (Perlaki, 2002). Complementing it, the Stadtbahn-like Karolina
project would serve the residential areas in southern Budapest (Bodrog and Perlaki, 2005).
The metro 4 project is a pure political issue and hardly any expert dares to propose any
changes which does not fit the actual political wind. So, it seems that even though all experts
understand the need of physical integration of metro 4, it will be built as a completely
incompatible line in Budapest.
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5. CONCLUSION
Metro and suburban rail are perfect complementary systems to each other. Metro offers what
railways are lacking (direct access to the city center), and railways offer what metros are
lacking (high capacity tracks in the suburbs). Hence, integrated interoperable lines mean the
most economical and most user-friendly answer for the challenge of suburbanization.
Developed countries have already experienced that the problem is no longer the provision of
adequate capacity, rather the attractive quality of public transport. The need for convenient,
seamless transport will be stronger and stronger in a few decades even in the developing
countries, so it is high time to reconsider mass transit projects to allow interoperability with
the good old, and under-utilised railways.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to express thanks to Professors Haruo Ishida, Naohisa Okamoto and Morito
Tsutsumi in the Urban Transportation Laboratory at the University of Tsukuba, for providing
the background for the research. Special thanks are expressed to Robert Schwandl, the
Webmaster of UrbanRail.net, whose site was a perfect gateway for the research presented in
this paper. The author wishes to express thanks to Zoltn Adm Nmeth for the very useful
comments on Paris RER, Gyrgy Istvn for the co-operation on M4+, and Monbukagakusho
for the support. All photoes in this paper were taken by the author, and available upon e-mail
request in bigger resolution. Comments, and information about good practices in metrorailway integration missing from this paper are also welcome.
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Official Homepages:
Crossrail UK: http://www.crossrail.co.uk/
The East London Line Project: http://www.ellp.co.uk/index.htm
European Metropolitan Transport Authorities: http://www.emta.com/
M4+ Team: www.metro4plusz.ini.hu
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Transport for London The Tube http://tube.tfl.gov.uk/
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