8

Recycling of Scrap Tires

Ahmet Turer
Middle East Technical University, Civil Engineering Dept.
Turkey
1. Introduction
As Rachel Louise Carson (1907-1964) successfully noted in her phrase The human race is
challenged more than ever before to demonstrate our mastery - not over nature but of
ourselves, we are challenged to find ways to produce more energy, reduce our waste
production while minimizing use of limited natural resources. Although recycling of
materials has a history going back to the times of Plato BC400 and collecting scrap bronze &
metals in Europe in pre-industrial times (Wikipedia, 2011), the demand roar for raw
materials in the 19th and 20th centuries with industrial development caused cheaper
alternative of reusing scrap material rather than mining them out. Interestingly, 21st
centurys major driving force has additional items on top of the existing reasons of using
recycled material, such as reducing consumption of limited natural resources and lowering
carbon dioxide emissions against the greenhouse effect. The increasing demand for energy
production and dealing with larger amounts of waste contaminating the nature, forces
mankind to find innovative ways to deal with the produced pollutant waste, emit lesser
amounts of CO2, and generate more energy. Recycling of scrap tires turns out to be a perfect
match for the recent requirements of the 21st century. This chapter discusses various ways of
recycling scrap tires and how they relate to the recent energy, material, and nature needs of
our times.
Recycling of scrap tires until the 1960s in the US can be taken as an example; about half of
the manufactured automobile tires used to be recycled since only synthetic or natural rubber
was used in the tire manufacturing process and tires could have been directly used without
major processing. Recycling of used tires was further encouraged by the fact that these
materials were also expensive. The increasing use of the synthetic rubber, however, lowered
the manufacturing costs and reduced need for recycling. Moreover, the development of steel
belted tires in the late 1960s was almost the end of tire recycling since additional processing
of tires was needed. Consequently, by 1995, the rate of rubber recycling fell to only 2%
[Reschner].
Highway construction industry is a big alternative market for recycling scrap tires. Many
studies have been carried out on crumb rubber modified asphalt. In 1995, it was required by
all federal states in the U.S. to fund paving projects with tire modified asphalt. After that,
the consumption rate of wasted tires in modified asphalt projects was increased, and in
some states a maximum recycling rate of 20% was reached [Sheehan]. Other methods to gain
the raw material and energy available inside scrap tires are further discussed under each

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heading below. The outcomes of scrap tire recycling are not only limited by easy access to
cost-efficient material such as rubber and steel, but also have positive effects on the
environment: Recycling of scrap tires on a global scale can drastically reduce waste yards,
soil and atmospheric contamination caused by dump yards and large scale tire fires.

Fig. 1. Scrap tire storage areas and fires.

2. Brief history and production technology of tires

Automotive tires are made of synthetic rubber which is obtained from petroleum. The
development of tires was based on improving the performance of natural rubber which is
obtained from the liquid latex secreted by certain plants. At the beginning, natural rubber
was used to produce waterproof fabrics and to make balls, containers and shoes by PreColombian people in South and Central America. Until the 18th century, Europeans did not
make use of rubber except that they utilized it for manufacturing elastic bands and pencil
erasers. Joseph Priestley, a founder of the modern study of chemistry, named the substance
"rubber" for its use as an eraser (Oven, 2004).
During the 19th century, Charles Goodyear studied on making rubber more resistant to
various chemicals. He started his working by mixing rubber with various dry powders, and
aimed to find a way to make natural rubber stickier. In 1839, he achieved to obtain the best

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product by applying steam heat under pressure, for four to six hours at 132 Celsius (270
Fahrenheit) degrees (Goodyear, 2011).
Following the discovery of vulcanization, manufacturers began producing tires from solid
rubber which yielded a strong material to resist cuts and abrasions. Although this was a
great progress, the tires were too heavy and rigid. In order to decrease vibration and
improve traction, Robert W. Thomson, first produced the pneumatic rubber tire which
consisted of rubber filled in with air. His idea could not a commercialized since it was
introduced too early for its time. John Boyd Dunlop from Ireland, who did not know about
Thomsons earlier invention, once more introduced the pneumatic tire to the market in 1888.
This time, pneumatic tire caught the publics attention because bicycles were becoming
extremely popular and the lighter tire provided a much better ride (Rubberis, 2011).
In early 19th century, manufacturers started producing vehicle tires comprising two parts,
i.e., an inner part and an outer part. The inner part, called the inner tube, contained
compressed air and the outer part was a casing protecting the inner tube and providing the
tire with a better grip. An important element of the outer part were the layers called plies
which were made of rubberized fabric cords embedded in the rubber and they were
strengthening the casing. They were known as bias-ply tires because the cords in a single
ply run diagonally from the beads on one inner rim to the beads on the other rim. The
orientation of the cords change from ply to ply so that the cords crisscross each other
(Rubbentire, 2011).
The steel-belted radial tires were first produced in 1948 by the Europeans. In those first tires,
the ply cords radiate at a 90 degree angle from the wheel rim. Together with this, a belt of
steel fabric that wrapped the circumference of the tire reinforced its casing. Radial tire ply
cords are composed of nylon, rayon or polyester. The advantages of radial tires include
longer tread life, better steering and less rolling resistance. On the other hand, radials have a
harder riding quality, and are about twice as expensive as the tires without radials. The
production sequence of steel-belted radial tires is briefly illustrated in Fig. 2.

3. Scrap tire disposal related problems

Massive disposal sites of scrap tires is common in many cities of modern times as about 1
scrap tire is produced per person every year. The stored used tires slowly degrade under
the effects of solar radiation as well as rusting of steel takes place. Degraded material
would slowly contaminate soil and underground water over years. The disposal sites
waiting under the sun for extended periods of time might catch on fire either by accident
or because of bottles or broken glass focusing sunlight. Tires burn with thick black smoke
and heat, quickly spreads over the whole disposal area, and leaves oily residue
contaminating the soil. Such fires are difficult to put off and generates significant amount
of air pollution.
One of the overseen problems of scrap tire disposal yards is that these areas become
breeding places for rodents and mosquitoes. Stagnant water that collects inside tires is a
suitable breeding place for mosquitoes. Elimination of scrap tire disposal sites by proper
recycling would also have secondary advantages of eliminating disposal related problems.

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Fig. 2. Tire production line (Courtesy of PHT, Pam Hsiang Trading Co., Ltd.).

4. Major methods and reasons of recycling tires

The recycling of scrap tires may be defined under two different categories: i) using the scrap
tires as whole or mechanically modified shapes (in crumps or shredded), and ii) chemical
decomposition or separation of scrap tire contents into different materials.
Recycling as-is or after mechanical process has the advantages of directly using scrap tires
without major investment. For example, scrap tires can be directly used as boat bumpers
at marinas to protect ships from scratching or hitting at the side of wharf (Fig. 3).
Similarly, old tires can be placed side by side in half tire shifted pattern for slope stability
or under roads for improved stability (Mechanical Concrete). Ripped tire pieces in large
chunks can be directly used as light weight infill material at embankments. Smaller scrap
tire pieces (Fig. 4) can be used as mixture in concrete as gravel substitute to improve
tensile capacity or in asphalt paved roads for better traction. Smaller crumbs can be
bonded together to generate walking or running mats or soft surfaces for playgrounds.
Drainage around building foundations, erosion control for rainwater runoff barriers,
wetland establishment, crash barriers at sides of race tracks are other uses of scrap tires
without much modification.

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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Fig. 3. Innovative uses of scrap tire (a,b,c) road sublayer stability, (d) tire pieces as fill
material, (e) slope stability, (f) ship bumper at warf.

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Fig. 4. Example scrap tire recycling system (courtesy of CIMP France).

Recycling of scrap tires at element level that includes some form of chemical decomposition
or transformation is different than the mechanical process. Chemical recycling has
additional advantages of obtaining well defined building blocks of a tire separately (such as
steel wires, natural gas, oil, carbon black, charcoal etc.). The process in a way reverses the
manufacturing process and obtains the elements forming a tire backwards. The materials
then can be directly sold or used for energy in factories or diesel cars. Alternatively, burning
scrap tires may also be included as a chemical process since long chained carbon based
molecules are divided into smaller molecules and carbon forms new bounds with oxygen
generating heat and carbon dioxide (CO2). Additionally, hydrogen in the molecules also
forms bounds with oxygen forming water (H2O). Further details of the chemical process can
be found in the literature [Murugan et., al., Wikipedia cement kiln].
4.1 Separation of scrap tire contents by thermo-chemical decomposition (Pyrolysis)
Pyrolysis is the common name used for decomposing organic material at elevated
temperatures in the absence of oxygen. The oxygen needs to be absent otherwise organic
material may burn. Typically the process takes place under pressure and operating
temperatures above 430 C (800 F). The word is originated from Greek based words pyr
and lysis meaning fire and separating, respectively.
Initial studies on pyrolysis of scrap tires have shown that tire-derived activated carbon,
carbon black, boudouard carbon, and fuel gas are obtained. Considering recycling of scrap

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tires in the road industry couldnt pass much beyond 2% of available scrap tire production;
therefore, pyrolysis of scrap tires have enough resources to keep the system running. Gas
obtained from the decomposition of scrap tires can directly be used in the pyrolysis process
itself; therefore, the production can support the process for energy saving and sustainability.
Economical evaluation of the pyrolysis have shown that when tipping fee for collecting
scrap tires (F), revenue received from sale of products (R), processing cost for operating the
facility (C), cost for transportation of tires (T), cost of tire shredding (S), cost of disposal of
waste products (D) are considered with the assumption of 35% char, 20% gas, 45% oils, and
using 50% of char burn-off during activation, net profit (P) is found to be USD 1.5/tire (1996
prices) with about 6 million USD/year gross income with investment payback of about 3.3
years (Marek, 1996).
P=F+RCTSD

(1)

Recent evaluation of scrap tires pyrolysis by Rubber Manufacturers Association in 2009

contains some disheartening comments. Even after the increase in oil prices reaching USD
150 per barrel, the market did not support this technology. Carbon black, charcoal, and
waste oils demand would determine if the operation is viable. Although methane gas is
produced during the process and can be used to operate the pyrolysis facility, the
manufactured amount is not large volumes enough to sell economically. The excessive gas is
usually flared off. Pyrolysis produces pyrolytic carbon char, often confused as carbon black.
Although pyrolytic carbon char has a high carbon content, it is dissimilar to carbon black,
which is a highly engineered product. Pyrolytic carbon char is said to have limited market
as a filler in some materials and as a colouring agent for some plastics after extensive
refining and cannot be easily sold in carbon black markets where there is a lot of
competition. The liquid hydrocarbon material obtained from pyrolysis unfortunately
contains some contamination and may not be suitable to be directly used as diesel fuel or in
home heating; it should be either used as waste oil or further refined. As a result, pyrolysis
technology today could not reach its intended target yet. If it comes to the choice between
either dumping the scrap tires to large storage areas as housing to rodents and mosquitoes
every often catching fire and polluting air, soil, water or pyrolysis to melt down the scrap
tire stocks while obtaining less than perfect charcoal, gas, and oil to be further refined is a
relatively easy choice. It would be easier if the process can become environmentally friendly
and profitable without government subvention.
4.2 Burning scrap tires for energy
Another chemical process on scrap tires is burning in high temperature ovens for energy.
The burning is usually carried out at thermoelectric power plants and cement production in
kiln with clinkers. Although burning a tire usually produces a dark heavy smoke, burning at
high temperature furnaces with proper chimney filtering achieves a complete burning
without similar smoke. Using scrap tires as fuel is referred as TDF (tire derived fuel) by
Scrap Tire Management Council, which was established in 1990 by the North American tire
manufacturers.
Cement is produced in high temperature kilns as the raw materials are placed in cement
kiln and heated to a temperature range of 1455 to 1510 C (2650 to 2750 F). At this

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temperature the formation of tricalcium silicate (ALITE), the principal compound of

portland cement clinker, occurs. A flame temperature of 1925C (3500F) is necessary to
arrive at this temperature. Scrap tires (TDF) can be completely destroyed in cement kilns
since the temperatures are extremely high along with a positive oxygen atmosphere and
relatively long periods of 4 to 12 seconds at the elevated temperatures ensures the
complete combustion of the scrap tire; therefore, incomplete combustion (PICs) or black
smoke or odors release is prevented.
When tires are burned in the cement production, the production rates may increase in
preheater kilns. This is made possible as the preheater calcination rate is increased in the
preheater when burning tires compared to the normal calcination rate when burning coal
only. Calcination rates were reported to be increased from 45% to 56% when burning tires
instead of burning coal. The carbon dioxide transported by the kiln is reduced when scrap
tires are burned in kilns; in this way, additional oxygen be used in the kiln, which allows for
the burning of additional clinker (Scrap Tire Management Council, 1992).
Burning scrap tires raises some concerns from environmental point of view since tires
include up to 17 heavy metals (e.g., lead, chromium, cadmium, and mercury) in addition
to natural rubber from rubber trees, synthetic rubber made from petrochemical
feedstocks, carbon black, extender oils, steel wire, other petrochemicals and chlorine.
Synthetic rubber often contains the organic chemicals styrene and butadiene. Styrene, a
benzene derivative, is a suspected human carcinogen. Butadiene is known to cause cancer
in laboratory animals and is a suspected human carcinogen. Studies show a strong
association between leukemia and butadiene. Extender oils contain benzene based
compounds which cause cancer in laboratory animals but totally burnt at high
temperatures. A coal and tire chlorine content comparison showed that tires may contain
as much as 2 to 5 times the chlorine level of coal. The coal averaged a chlorine weight of
0.04% and tires showed a weight range of 0.07% to 0.2%. (CIWMBA, 1992). Most of the
mentioned toxic material are in low percentages and remain in the burnt wastes or bound
inside the cement. Factories and power plants that burn tires must therefore have proper
filtering at chimneys in case the pollutants remain in the ashes or emitted gasses (Page,
1980). The non-condensable gases are filtered (using a demister filter) and are passed
through a wet scrubbing system to remove acid components by NaOH (4%) injection
(Sharma et. al.).
Typical composition of fuel derived from tyres have Sulphur <1.8%, Chlorine 0.07, Mercury
<2mg/kg, Cadmium and thallium <79mg/kg, Antimony, arsenic, chromium, cobalt,
copper, lead, manganese, nickel, tin and vanadium <640mg/kg while control limits are <2%,
<0.2%, <10mg/kg, <80mg/kg, <1200mg/kg, respectively (European Commission 2003,
Castle Cement 1996 reported by EA 2001a).
4.3 Use of scrap tires as a whole or after mechanical processing
Scrap tires can be utilized by making use of their sturdy nature and steel reinforcement
inside the rubber. The steel wires are usually protected inside the rubber if the rubber is not
severely cracked or eroded. Therefore, the tires can survive for long periods of time even
under harsh environments such as as a boat bumper in salty sea water, under a paved road

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with heavy traffic, or constant pressure of unstable slopes (Fig. 3). The tires can be used at
the edge of sloped soil to maintain the soil at the edge from washing away with rainwaters.
The reduced erosion at the edges help the soil to maintain its slope and integrity for
extended periods of time. When tires are placed side by side and connected each other by
clamps or wires, they help to keep the soil together as shear locks. The soil or gravel fill are
trapped inside the tires, cannot expand due to high strength steel wires inside the tires and
stabilizes the medium.
When tires are shredded or crumb size divided, they can be used as mixture to concrete for
additional tension material and making lightweight concrete. Also, can be mixed with
asphalt for extra traction and tensile capabilities. Smaller size crumbs are used to make
children play grounds and running track surface finishing.
4.4 Strengthening structures using scrap tires, structural engineering applications
In a recent study of using scrap tires as confinement material for concrete columns
(Abdulmoula and Saatcioglu, 2009), the tires were used as peripheral material to confine
concrete. When concrete is axially loaded, it tends to expand defined by Poissons ratio. If
the lateral expansion is prevented, axial compressive strength of concrete is significantly
increased. In the mentioned study, a series of concrete columns were cast inside scrap tires
which were placed on top of each other. The cylindrical shape formed by carefully and
centrally alined pile of scrap tires have also formed a natural form to be easily filled by
concrete. Following the strength gain of concrete in 28 days, the steel wires and rims inside
the scrap tires served as horizontal confinement for the columns. It was shown both
experimentally and analytically that steel-belted tires can be used effectively to confine
concrete in reinforced concrete columns. The exterior scrap tire also protects the column and
steel reinforcement inside the column from corrosion.
4.4.1 STP scrap tire pads for seismic base isolation
Seismic base isolation is the placement of a laterally flexible system between the footing
(ground) and upper structure to isolate earthquake induced seismic forces. The natural
vibration periods of the suspended building or structure shifts towards larger values in the
response spectrum causing reduction in the forces and accelerations in the suspended
building. The accelerations that correspond to the natural period of the structure decrease,
therefore the demand of the earthquake on the structure reduces. Inter-storey drifts decrease
considerably and the superstructure on isolation system behaves similarly to a rigid body
during earthquake motions.
Seismic base isolation systems can be studied in two main groups: elastomer-based and
sliding-based systems. Elastomeric bearings are the most common isolators used in the
design of seismically isolated structures. Among the most common types of elastomeric
isolators are the low-damping rubber with damping ratio () about 2% to 3%, high-damping
rubber (=10%-20%), lead-plug, and the fibre-reinforced elastomeric bearings. The high
vertical stiffness of elastomeric bearings is provided by horizontal steel or fiber
reinforcement whereas the low horizontal stiffness is provided by flexible laminated rubber
layers. Elastomeric-based isolators may be mimicked using pads made out of scrap tires
which are called Scrap Tire Pads (STPs).

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Since automobile tires are produced by vulcanizing steel mesh and cords with the rubber,
when the part that touches the ground is removed from the sidewalls of the tire and piled
on top of each other as rectangular rubber sheets, they form an STP. Steel cords inside tire
layers have similar effect as the steel layers inside an elastomeric isolator. The
terminology used for STP includes; disposed scrap tires (Fig. 6a); a tire ring is the tread
part of a tire that touches the ground and is obtained after cutting off the sidewalls of the
tire (Fig. 6b). Tire band is the same part after cutting the ring in transverse direction (Fig.
6c). Tire layers are about 0.20m long pieces of scrap tire bands (Fig. 6d). The scrap tire
pad, i.e., the STP, is formed when a set of scrap tire layers are placed on top of each other
(Fig. 6e).
Although layers forming an STP can be glued together using epoxy, the friction between tire
layers is large enough to keep STP layers intact and working together. The mechanical and
dynamic properties of various brand STP samples used in this study were obtained using
axial compression, static shear, dynamic (impact), and shaking table experiments.

Fig. 5. Seismic isolator, laminated rubber bearing (LRB).

Lateral dynamic tests were conducted on different height of STP specimens and horizontal
stiffness values of STPs were found to be linearly decreasing as the number of STP tire
layers increased (Fig. 7). The reduction in stiffness with the increase in number of layers was
similar to the behaviour of common elastomeric isolators as indicated by Equation 2.
K =G

A
tr

(2)

where, K is the stiffness of isolator, G is the shear modulus of isolator material, A is the
isolator contact surface area, and tr is the thickness (height) of the isolator. Nonlinearities in
Fig. 7 are observed as more than 8 layers of tire were used, and therefore accepted as an
indication of a stability problem. The linear relationship between horizontal stiffness and
number of layers (up to 10 layers) implies that the stiffness of STPs can easily be adjusted by
changing the number of tire layers. The transverse and the longitudinal direction stiffness
graphs are parallel to each other (up to the 10-layer mark) and decline linearly as the

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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Fig. 6. Scrap a) tire, b) ring, c) band, d) layer, and e) scrap tire pad (STP).

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Number of Layers vs. Stiffness

1600

Longitudinal Direction
Transverse Direction

1400

Stiffness (kN/m)

1200
Irregularity:
Stability Problem

1000
800
600
400

Stiffness Envelopes

200
0

7
8
9
Number of Tire Layers

10

11

12

Fig. 7. Stability graph of scrap tire pads (STP).

vs.
15.0

10.0

, MPa

8.8
8.7
G-STP 6 layer
G-STP 4 layer

5.0

0.0
0.000

0.050

0.100

0.150

0.200

Fig. 8. Stress-strain graph of scrap tire pads (STP) under axial loading.

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number of tire layers is increased. The constant 200 kN/m difference between the lateral
stiffness terms in the two principle directions is an interesting result and deemed to be a
shape factor since the width and length were 0.18m and 0.20m, respectively (Turer, 2008).
The axial load capacity of STPs were obtained to be around 8 MPa (Fig. 8), which is
relatively low compared to commercially available laminated rubber bearings.
Axial compression tests revealed that the non-linear compressive behavior of STP specimens
is close to the compressive behavior of common steel reinforced elastomeric isolators (SREI).
The axial compression tests showed that an allowable vertical stress level of 4 MPa for STP
specimens can be obtained if a safety factor of 2 is accepted. The free vibration test results
showed that the damping values of various STP specimens change between 7% and 14%.
For design purposes, taking into account the displacement safety margins, the minimum
value of 7% should be accepted as the damping value for the STP specimens. The free
vibration tests also showed that, the lateral stiffness of STP specimens can be adjusted by
changing the number of tire layers composing the STPs. However, the stability should also
be satisfied for higher numbers of tire layers; i.e., larger than 8 layers for 0.18m0.20m sized
STP. The horizontal behavior of STP specimens were determined by conducting static shear
tests. Shear modulus values of STP specimens were calculated to be between 0.9 MPa and
1.85 MPa. Relatively high levels of shear modulus values and their dependence on the brand
of the tire present difficulty for the design of STPs.
The experimental and analytical program including shaking table tests have shown that STP
based base isolation is possible within certain constraints. Softer type of scrap tires, such as
winter tires, may be used with additional recycled steel plates placed between each layer
would increase the vertical load capacity while maintaining a relatively low horizontal
stiffness.
STP based seismic base isolation can be used for rural bridge supports as a low cost and
practical material while recycling and reducing pollutants. The STPs would also serve as
temperature compensation devices in bridges.
4.4.2 Post-tensioned elastic walls using scrap tires
Post-tensioning is a well-known technique used in modern civil engineering such as light
poles and bridge girders spanning relatively larger gaps. The theory is based on applying a
compressive stress field on usually a brittle material (such as concrete), which has weak
properties under tensile forces. The compressive strength being about 10 times the tensile
stress, the structure highly benefits from the even compression field generated by posttensioning.
In the case of scrap tire based post-tensioning, poor housing in the seismically active zones
were targeted. Those houses are usually made of masonry and occupants generally have
low income and undereducated. The poor economic and social background of the residents
also means that masonry constructions do not receive any engineering services and,
therefore, are susceptible to heavy damage or total collapse during earthquakes.
Earthquake-induced forces cause masonry houses to collapse in a sudden (brittle) manner.
In other words, the disintegration of masonry constructions built from adobe, brick, or stone

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is very quick and it leads to a total collapse of the roof which is traditionally composed of
very heavy earth (usually up to 1 meter (3 feet) thick). The sudden disintegration of walls
and collapse of the heavy roof of masonry houses kill the residents instantly not leaving any
life pockets which might be formed during collapse of reinforced concrete houses. The
economically constrained residents living in such houses do not have sufficient resources to
build their houses from reinforced concrete. Masonry construction in rural areas is
traditional and same inferior construction is repeated since losses during earthquakes are
perceived as an act of God. In developing countries, the problem of finding an efficient
solution to strengthening masonry houses is further exacerbated by the fact majority of the
building stock is generally masonry type.

Fig. 9. Typical cross section of a scrap tire.

Implementation of the method is economically affordable and environment-friendly due to
the following reasons. First, scrap tires have steel mesh inside with high tensile strength that
makes them suitable reinforcement material. Second, except for the low cost of
transportation, scrap tires can be obtained free of charge rendering them as low-cost
(strengthening) materials. Third, tires can be prepared using simple tools (e.g., a utility
knife). Recycling tires has additional advantages preventing waste yards. Finally, the
application of scrap tires on walls is simple and easy, and does not require complicated tools
and practices. It is believed that the owners of masonry houses in poor countries would be
able to implement the strengthening work by themselves since many of them have already

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built their own houses. Consequently, this will eliminate any workmanship costs thus
contributing to the overall affordability and applicability of the strengthening project.
The scrap tire ring test results are obtained in terms of load-displacement curves (Fig. 10).
The results indicate that the mean and standard deviation of the ultimate tensile load
capacities of scrap tire rings (STRs) were calculated as 133 kN and 32.1 kN. Assuming
average weight of a passenger car to be around 12 kN, each single STR can carry more than
the weight of 10 cars, which is an amazing performance.
The STRs are placed in the form of chains and tied around the brick walls to generate
compression stresses on the masonry wall for post-tensioning. Bolted connections to tie
STRs together was used to shorten the distance between tires, in turn, applying force on the
system (Fig. 11). The tensile forces generated on the STRs would be in balance with the
forces acting on the masonry walls. The walls were tested before and after the posttensioning application using STRs and performance of the walls were compared for before
and after conditions.

Fig. 10. Load - deflection graph of scrap tire rings (STRs) under axial tension.
The experimental studies showed that the nominal lateral load capacities of the brick walls
in out-of-plane direction can be improved up to about 10 times by applying 100 kN (per
0.885m of length) axial post-tensioning force using STR chain and about 16 times using
hybrid system. The better improvement ratio of the wall post-tensioned with the hybrid

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system in the third test could have resulted from higher stiffness associated with the STR
chain and/or possibility of having a relatively high unintended initial (nominal) strength of
the hybrid tests masonry wall.

Wood
UNP100-sections
UNP100-sections

85 cm

UNP-260

UNP-260

Load cell

LVDT

UNP-260

INP-260

Jack
Jack

UNP100-sections

LVDT

stroke

UNP260

Side View

LVDT

UNP100-sections

85 cm

Moveable-cap

80 cm

LVDT

Load cell

Half Circular
Wooden block

Front View

Fig. 11. Application of post tensioning by (a) STR chains, (b) hybrid system, (c) test setup.

5. Conclusions
This chapter illustrated various uses of scrap tires through recycling as a whole, in parts, or
after chemically decomposition of materials inside scrap tires. Industrial development
brought luxury of cars to our modern lives that produces scrap tires in an increasing rate. As
in the cases of other natural resources in the world, we need to learn using less of natural

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resources while recycling readily available tires by finding ways not to pollute the
environment. All cars in the world constantly generating about one scrap tire per person
every year causes scrap tires generation in the order of billions on a global scale. The ideal
solution would have been recycling each scrap tire to a brand new tire, since when someone
throws away a used tire has to buy a new tire.
Using tires on slope stability and land fill, inside asphalt and concrete is not adequately
spread enough and in right quantities to use all manufactured tires. Structural uses of scrap
tires remain to be at limited instances either enforced by government such as in the case of
roads and pavements or experimentally sparse and rare mostly applied by good intentioned
environmentalists or low-budgeted projects. Chemical decomposition using pyrolysis is a
highly promising approach; however, could not quite reach its full potential yet. On the
other hand, burning scrap tires at high temperature furnaces at cement producing kilns and
thermo electric power plants as fuel is quite efficient and widely used. Provided that
chimney filtering is defined by regulations and rules are properly enforced from toxic
material emissions, scrap tire burning seems to be a good source of recycling and
transforming otherwise useless and harmful discarded material into energy.

6. Acknowledgment
This study was made possible by World Bank DM2003 SPIM-1451 as well as MAG(TAG)I599/01 (104I011) projects. Author acknowledges contribution from research assistants Mr.
Mustafa Golalmis and Mr. Bayezid Ozden.

7. References
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Material Recycling Trends and Perspectives

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www.intechopen.com

Material Recycling - Trends and Perspectives

Edited by Dr. Dimitris Achilias

ISBN 978-953-51-0327-1
Hard cover, 406 pages
Publisher InTech

Published online 16, March, 2012

Published in print edition March, 2012

The presently common practice of wastes' land-filling is undesirable due to legislation pressures, rising costs
and the poor biodegradability of commonly used materials. Therefore, recycling seems to be the best solution.
The purpose of this book is to present the state-of-the-art for the recycling methods of several materials, as
well as to propose potential uses of the recycled products. It targets professionals, recycling companies,
researchers, academics and graduate students in the fields of waste management and polymer recycling in
addition to chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, chemistry and physics. This book comprises 16
chapters covering areas such as, polymer recycling using chemical, thermo-chemical (pyrolysis) or mechanical
methods, recycling of waste tires, pharmaceutical packaging and hardwood kraft pulp and potential uses of
recycled wastes.

How to reference

In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:
Ahmet Turer (2012). Recycling of Scrap Tires, Material Recycling - Trends and Perspectives, Dr. Dimitris
Achilias (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0327-1, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/materialrecycling-trends-and-perspectives/use-of-scrap-tires-in-industry

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