The Fiue Functions of the I'awYer

THE FIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE LAWYER

Arthur T. Vanderbilt
Many lawyers fail to attain full growth. Indeed, many of them never
glimpse the vision either of what is rightly expected of the legal
profession or of them individually. For them, alas, their responsibilities begin and end with serving their clients and for them the law is
only a set of mechanical rules which they attempt to manipulate for
the interests of their clients. A lawyer with such an outlook on his
profession is not likely either to attract clients or to serve them well,
nor will he ever enjoy the solid and durable satisfactions that come
from a well-rounded, complete life in the law.
What, then, are the functions of a great lawyer?
l. First of all, a truly great lawyer is a wise counselor to all manner
of rnen in the varied crises of their lives when they most need
disinterested advice. Effective counseling necessarily involves a
thorough-going knowledge of the principles of law as they appear in
the books and as they actually operate in action. In equal measure
counseling calls for a wide and deep knowledge of human nature and
of modern society. Most difficult of all, truly great counseling calls for
an ability to forecast the trends of the law.
Very often what the client really wants to know is not what the law
is today but what it will be at the time the problem under discussion
is likely to come up for adjudication in the courts. This is what
Mr Justice Holmes had in mind when he said, .prophecies of what the
courts will do in fact, and nothing more pretentious, are what I mean
by the law.'This may not have seemed pretentious to Holmes, but
what profession dernands greater skill in meeting its obvious
requirements?

2. Next, the great lawyer is a skilled advocate, trained in the art of

prosecuting and defending the legal rights of men both in the trial
courts and on appeal. Unless a lawyer has had experience as an
advocate, it is difficult to see how he can be a thoroughly competent
counselor, for he will not be able to evaluate his client's cause irrterms
of the realities of the courtroom. It is in the courtroom that the law is
98

99

upplied to concrete facts in specific cases, and it is the advocates who,

wilh the judges, in the last analysis set the course of the law'
Advocacy is the most intensive work a lawyer is called on to do. It
in
was not until I was fifty that I began to understand that the decision

to be written with the lifeblood of some

la*y"r. Advocacy is not a gift of the gods. In its trial as well as in its
.pp.ltut" aspects it involves several distinct arts, each of which must
bi studied and mastered. No law school in the country, so far as I
know, pays much attention to them. Indeed, it seems to be blithely
arru*"-d with disastrous results that every student corning to law

very great case is likely

school is a born webster or choate. clearly somewhere in the course

of his professional training our complete lawyer must learn the arts of
advocacy.
3. Th; third task of the great lawyer is to do his part individually
and as a member of the organized Bar to improve his profession, the
courts and the law. As President Theodore Roosevelt aptly put it,
.Every man owes some of his time to the upbuilding of the profession
to which he belongs.' Indeed, this obligation is one of the great things
which distinguishes a profession from a business. The soundness and
the necessityof President Roosevelt's admonition insofar as it relates
to the legaiprofession cannot be doubted. The advances in natural
science and iechnotogy are so startling and the velocity ofchange in
business and in social life is so great that the law along with the other
social sciences, and even human life itself, is in grave danger of being
extinguished by new gods of its own invention if it does not awake
fromlts lethargy. A I'ew law professors have pondered long and hard
on these problems, but the law schools by and large have done
nothing ubo,rt th. matter beyond an occasiohal unpopular and
generally ineffective course in legal ethics'
- a. In a free society every lawyer has a fourth responsibility, that of
acting as an intelligent, unselfish leader of public opinion-I accent

the q-ualities'intelligent' and'unselfish'-within his own particular

spheie of influence. In our complicated age sound public opinion is
more indispensable than it ever was; without it even courageous
leadership may fail. Did not President Franklin D. Roosevelt warn us
Harbor, in his
as early as Ociober 1937, over four years before Pearl
did not the
And
quarantine speech in Chicago, of the dangers ahead?
his
condemn
n.*rpup.., of both parties throughout the country
in
Lindbergh
.p".Ch as warmongering? And did not Charles
II
War
World
of
February 1939, over six months before the outbreak
30'000
seen
actually
in Europe, warn the English that he had
him
warplanes in Germany? And did not the English practically drive

100

The

Law and Language

from the country for telling them, for merely telling them, a fact that
was of supreme importance to their individual welfare and to their
survival as a nation?
How different might history have been and our life today, if only
one American lawyer in each city had written a letter to his paper or
made a speech supporting the President or if an English barrister in
each community in his country had reminded his contemporaries that
Lindbergh was undoubtedly an expert on airplanes and that he could
certainly count to 30,000? No individual class in our society is better
able to render real service in the molding of public opinion.
5. Finally, every great lawyer must be prepared, not necessarily to
seek public olfice, but to answer the call for public service when it
comes. The attorney whose professional thoughts begin and end with
his own private clients is a pitiable mockery of what a great lawyer
really is. Training for public service is a lifelong career. There is no
sadder sight in the legal profession than that of a lawyer who has long
dreamed of unselfish public service but who has been so engrossed in
serving private clients ihat when the call does come to him for a public
career he has so lost contact with the spirit and problems of the day
that his efforts in the public interest prove abortive. What should
have been a crown oflaurel frequently turns out to be one ofthorns.
These five---counseling, advocacy, improving his profession, the
courts and the law, leadership in molding public opinion and
the unselfish holding of public office-are the essential functions
of the great lawyer. Education in these five functions of the lawyer is
partly the province of the college, partly the duty of the law school,
but in large measure it is the responsibility of the individual lawyer
not only while in law school but throughout his working years. This is

practicing law
practicing.

in the grand manner-the only way it is worth

I

These are days ofgreat debate concerning whether the law schools

are doing their part in preparing their students for the profession.
Chiefly, the debate rages around whether the law schools should
teach not merely the 'what' and the 'why,' but also the 'how' of the
law just as the medical schools teach the 'how' of medicine and
surgery. I must not engage in that debate, but I do venture to say that
the law schools generally are not doing what they should be doing to

prepare their students for the third function of the lawyerimproving his professioni the courts, and the law.
I shall limit my remarks to a single phase of this responsibilityimproving the work of the courts. Is it not the responsibility of the law
schools to teach procedure with due regard to the realities of the law?

When

Fioe Functions

of the

Lawyer

I was a law student, the teaching of the procedural

l0l
law was

limited to common law pleading and evidence. All I can remember

from our study of demurrers, traverses, pleas in confession and
avoidance, novel assignment and departure (the chief topics we
studied) is that it was demurrable to plead that one threw a stone
gently, but that it was not demurrable to plead that the events alleged
occuired on the Island of Minorca, to wit, at London, in the parish of
St. Mary le Bow in the ward of Cheap, provided one did it under a
uidelicett All of this seemed to me then and, after thirty-four years of
practice largely in the courts followed by some years on the Bench,
still seems to me an utterly inadequate preparation for understanding
what is going on in the courts today. The course in evidence was
devoted io t"itittg us how to keep evidence out of the case, but what I
needed when I first went to court was someone to tell me how to get it

in!
What the law student most needs in these days when the courts are

so much under attack is to be told quite frankly, first, of these

shortcomings and, second, of his responsibility for correcting these
shortcomings. The picture has never been painted so well as by Dean
Pound in his memorable address at the American Bar Association
meeting in St. Paul in 1906, concerning "The Causes of Popular
Dissatisfaction with the Administration of Justice'" You should first

read Dean Wigmore's moving introduction to this speech, written

thirty years afterwards, to get its full significance' If I had my way, I
would make it prescribed reading once a year for every judge,
practicing lawyer and law professor and law student on the day he

returns from his summer vacation and starts

a new year of

professional activity.
It should be added that since 1906 the American Bar Association
has made honorable amends for its reception of Dean Pound's speech
by furnishing the leadership that has brought about the drafting and
promulgation of the Canons of Professional and Judical Ethics. It has
led the fight against Theodore Roosevelt's campaign for th recall of

judges and

of judical dccisions, raised the standards of

legal

education throughout the country, agitated for years for the Federal
Rules of Civil Procedure, opposed President Franklin D. Roosevelt's
proposal for packing the United States Supreme Court, aided in the
establishment of the Administrative Office of the United States

Courts and in the movement for the promulgation of the Federal

Rules of Criminal Proceduie, and brought about the passage of the
Federal Administrative Procedure Act.
What can the lawyer, what can the law school student do about

I.AL

F{

102

Law and Language

The Fiue Ftnctions

improving the administration ofjustice? Well, the first and greatcst

complaint against the courts is what is known, euphemistically, as the
law's delays. I say "euphemistically," because the ..law's delays" is
the polite phrase for the delays of judges and lawyers. While I am
going to speak principally about the delays ofjudges, let me say that it
is the delays of lawyers that are largely responsible for delays of

judges.

Now, what can we do about the delays of the law?.Well, those

delays are of three kinds. The most irritating delay of all to the lawyer
and the layman alike is the delay of the judge in getting on the bench
on time in the morning. The jurors have to be there, the lawyers have
to be there, and so do the litigants, the witnesses, and the newspaper

reporters---verybody except the judge. I am speaking only of my

own state in the old days, and there are some New Jersey lawyers here
who know I am not exaggerating. You could hear peals ofiaughter
emanating from the judge's chambers, and when His Honor emerged
about halfan hour later, he would very seriously tell us he had been
detained by important work in chambers. But you knew, despite his
solemn assurance, that he had been listening to some story-teller
recounting the jokes he would tell in his next speech.
How did we in New Jersey get away from that sort of delay? Our
Supreme Court used to start at ten-thirty, so we concluded that if we
set an example by starting at ten o'clock at the state capitol, there
would be no reason why every trial judge should not get on the bench
by ten o'clock in his county. In short, a good example overcame that

kind of delay.

The second kind of unnecessary delay is in getting cases on to trial

after the pleadings and the necessary preliminaries in preparation for
the trial are complete. Almost everywhere you will hear the cry, ..But
we need more judges." Well, that may be true now and then, but I
think in most states you will find that there are enough judges if the
chiefjustice is authorized to shift the trialjudges from court to court
as needed. There are always counties where there is not as much
business as in other counties; there are always courts in the larger
counties that are not as busy as some other courts in these counties.
Accordingly, the first thing you need to do to overcome delay in
getting cases on to trial is to give the chiefjustice or a presiding judge
the power to assign the judges where they are needed, and to the kind
of work, moreover, that they are best fitted to do. Of course, there is
nothing more detrimental togood judicial work than assigning a
judge who is good with a jury-whether in civil orcriminal work-to
equity work that he doesn't enjoy, and vice versa.

of the Lawyer

103

The second result from the power to assign judges is that-and this
is something you will have to take on faith because it doesn't sound

possible until you see it tried-if you have Judge A sitting in

Courthouse A and Judge B sitting in Courthouse B, each operating
from a separate list of cases, they will try a certain number of cases.
Yet if you put Judge A and Judge B in the same courthouse and let
them operate from a common list, they will try half again as many
cases as they did sitting alone in different courthouses. You can
continue the process up to the limit of trial judges available, the
number of courtrooms available and the number of trial lawyers
available. There is something about having a,lot of judges working
together on an active integrated list that makes for the rapid
disposition of cases. Don't ask me why it is so for I don't know, but I
do know that it is so. It works that way.

But the right to assign judges alone will not clear up court
congestion. To that you must add pre-trial conferences.

The pre-trial conference is an institution that is probably more

misunderstood that anything else in our procedural law. In its fully
developed sense it means that after the lawyers on each side of a case
have consulted with each other about the issues of law and fact in the
case, they come before the judge in open court. The judge, having

looked over the pleadings and listened to each side's outline of its
case, proceeds to state the issues, shaking out of the case any
nonessentials in the pleadings. He then proceeds to discuss with the
attorneys what proofs may be stipulated. He asks, "What documents
are you going to introduce in evidence?" Ordinarily there is no
dispute about such documents; accordingly they are produced and
given a number in evidence, so that they will be ready for presentation
at the trial without calling the attesting witnesses. In automobile
negligence cases, the ownership ofthe car and the agency ofthe driver
are generally stipulated and likewise the damages to the car, when the

main issue is liability for damages to the person of the plaintiff.

, This process of consultation results in a pre-trial order which
defines the issue, provides for any necessary amendments to the
pleadings and states the admissions of each side. It is dictated in open
court and signed by the judge and the lawyers. The remarkable thing
about it all is that at the end of a pre-trial conference very often the
plaintiff's lawyer for the first time really understands the plaintiff
case. This statement is not meant to be humorous because the cas,
may not have been prepared by the plaintiff's lawyer at all but by
some bright young man in his office. It is highly desirable, you see,
that the plaintiff's lawyer should know his case before he attempts to

104

Law and Language

The Fioe Functions

try it, and that is one ofthe good results ofpre-trial conference. For
the first time, too, he gets a proper perspective on the defendant's
case.

Likewise the defendant's lawyer for the first time gets a true
concept of his own and his adversary's case. Suddenly it dawns on
each of them that instead of this being a case that the plaintiff can't

lose or the defendant can't lose, it begins to be one that has a

montary value in terms of a settlement. But that is not the most
important result of a pre-trial conference, for month in and month

out, in every'county in our state-metropolitan, suburban and

rural-three quarters of the cases are settled between the date of the
pre-trial conference and the date when the case goes to trial two weeks
later without the judge saying a word about settlement.
But, settlements are not the most important thing about pre-trial
conferences, nor the fact that they shorten the trial of cases from a
third to a half. The great, important thing about pre-trial conferences
is that the judge knows what the case is about from the beginning. If it
involves some proposition of law that he is not familiar with, he can
order briefs in advance, so that before the trial starts he will know as
much about the law of the case as the lawyers do. That, as you sbe,
also helps the lawyers because otherwise they would not prepare their
briefs until some later date, hoping to avoid their preparation. Thus
the assignment of judges where needed and the holding of pre-trial
conferences are simple ways of avoiding delay in getting cases on to

trial.
The third great cause of the law's delay comes after the case is tried
and the judge says the fatal words, "I will take the matter under
advisement." I have waited in the old days two years, four years, six
years, eight years, ten years for decisions in our Court of Chancery.
We have had a lot of Lord Eldons in New Jersey. They were aided and
abetted by many a prospective Lord Eldon at the Bar, who would
wait until the end of the case, and then would say, "Your Honor
realizes now that this is a complicated case, and I would like to submit

a brief to help Your Honor. I would like a month's time." The

defendant would want a month for an answering brief, and the
plaintiffat least two weeks for a reply brief-two and a half months in
all. The judge would push the case aside, and all of it would disappear
from his mind as he went on to the trial of other cases.
I submit that a trial judge will never know as much about the case
he is trying as he does after he has read the trial briefs, after he has
heard the evidence and after he has listened to the argument of
counsel. Then, if ever, the moment of decision has arrived. If he lets it

of the Lawyer

105

go until the next day, he is going to start off on a new case, and then
another case and then still another case, and each case he tries will
render the facts of the indicated case still dimmer in his mind.
Thus, in my state we have a rule that the lawyer must file their briefs
in advance. If the judge doesn't decide the case within twenty days
after oral argument, he must indicate the reason on his weekly report.

And here is a strange bit of judicial psychology----ven the hardestpressed judge would rather write out an opinion than to write down in
his report some reason why he hasn't decided the case. Thus, almost
all cases are decided promptly and the law's unnecessary delays, as we

have seen, are easily avoided.

Next to the law's delays, nothing irritates the public as much as
decisions based on technicalities of procedure and pleading. How can
we prevent such decisions which fail to dispose of the controversy on
its merits? Well, the easiest way to eliminate them is to allow your
court oflast resort to make the rules ofprocedure rather than to have
a legislative code. Ifthere is a code, thejudges feel that they are bound
to follow the code literally and exactly.
If there are judicial rules of procedure instead of a code, they are
not only likely to be better designed for litigation, but they are made
by judges and they will be interpreted by judges. They always contain,
or at least should always contain, a provision that the purpose of the
rules is the advancement of justice and the prevention of delays and
that they are to be construed to that end with the privilege of waiving

them when they would work injustice. Rules of court make for
avoiding decisions on technicalities. The rule-making process must be
a continuous process, and there should be some body in the state,
either a judicial conference or a judicial council, which reviews the
rules annually to see if they can be improved in the light of experience.
Most of all in this country we necd to give the trial judge real
power. Believe it or not, there are over twenty-five states in the
Union where the trial judge is not allowed to comment on the
evidence, where he is not allowed to ask questions even though
neither plaintiff's nor defendant's counsel has brought out what the
judge sees is the pertinent fact concerning which a particular witness
should testify. [n these states the judges are not allowed to sum up in
their own language to the jury, but, on the contrary, they take their
instructions from either one or the other ofthe trial counsel, and that
is called a charge.
Also, in these states, just to make sure that reading these written
instructions doesn't amount to anything, the code of procedure
provides that the judge must give his charge before counsel for the

106

Law and Language

The Fiue Functions

defendant and counsel for the plaintiff sum up to the jury. Now, if I
were to stand here and mumble seven or eight typawritten pages of
legalistic requests to charge and that was to be followed by two
impassioned addresses by other lawyers, I submit that no jury would
remember a single word that I had said. They would merely
remember that the other lawyers had said it all better than I had
because they had been talking to them and I was only reading.
This putting of the trial judge in a strait jacket o@urs in over one
halfofour states. lfyou come from one ofthese backward states, one
of your first jobs is to make your professor of procedure conscious ol'
that fact, because he is probably taking it for granted that that is a
necessary and natural way to try a case. You can'begin to improve the
work of your courts right away by asking, "Why cannot we give our
trial judges real power as they do at common law and in the federal
courts and in many of the states?"
Another major cause of complaint about our courts is thc
occasional bad manners ofjudges. Some judges are just constitutionally cross-grained. They never should have been permitted to get on
the Bench, and there should be some method devised for getting rid ol
them. One of the things that makes judges irritable, I am told, is thc
pressure of work. When a judge is conscious that he has twenty-five or
thirty cases undecided, how can he be cheerful when he says, "Good
morning"? He just can't be, because he has missed the moment ol
decision in those twenty-five or thirty undecided cases, and he realizes
that he will never do as well as he might have done in these cases.
Another thing that makes some .iudges irritable is the consciousness that they are subject to political pressure. We all like to be frec
and independent, but ifyou happen to be an unfortunatejudge who is
subject to politics-and I have had judges tell me that they know
what that means-that makes for bad manners. So the thing to do is
to get rid of political pressure.
That brings us right to the heart of the matter. To have gootl
judicial administration, to have good judges, you need judges whrr
know the law, you need judges who can think, you need judges whtr
can express themselves, you need judges who are diligent, you nectl
judges who are honest, and you need judges who the public believcs

are honest. Those are all reasonable qualifications, and yet in :r

national poll taken not too long ago, 28 per cent of those questionctr
said in so many words that they did not think that their local antl
county judges were honest. I know that these 28 percent are wrong

their impressions of their judges-I would stake my life on

rrl

that

statement-but the fact that the public thinks they are dishonest

rs

just

as

fact

so.

of the Iawyer

107

bad from the standpoint ofrespect for the law as ifthey were in

Why does the public have that notion? Obviously, it gets the notion
because your local policejudges, your localjustices ofihe peace, and

your county judges in many states are forced to run for election on a
partisan ticket. They travel around with the candidate for governor,
for senator, for Congress, ar.d for the state legislat,rr", urrd all the
other fellows running for election, and they attend political meetings,
dinners and clambakes. How can the people think the judge is aiy
different from all the rest of the politicians who are running for
election? Those who are informed know that the county judge is the
smartest of these politicians and probably is planning the whole
campaign. Indeed, in certain states it is admitted by everybody in the
county that the county judge is the unofficial head of the dominant
political party. In fact, if he isn't, he isn't going to be re-elected when
his term expires. That is how the public gets its notions about its local
judges who run in political primaries and elections.
Does it not suggest to us that in every state we should carefully
examine the method of the selection ofjudges-and that goes for th!
appointed judges as well as elected judges? If the governor is not
supported and buttressed by the strong opinion ofthe Bar to appoint

the right kind of judges, you won,t ordinarily get them UV tt

appointive process any more than you will through partisan elec-"
tions. But we need more than good judges. We alsoneid jurors who
are representative ofthe honest and intelligent citizenry ofthe county
if the fact finding of our courts is to be done properly.
These are some of the pressing problems in the administration of
justice that you should keep in mind in law school as well
as in
practice.

our system of popular government cannot survive without a clear

recognition of the supremacy of law. Sound procedure in the courts is
quite as important as sound substantive law. These problems all
relate to improving the administration ofjustice, but thire are many
other equally important points relating to the betterment of th!
profession and the adaptation of our substantive law to the needs of
the times that should engage your attention from your earliest days in
law school. Above and beyond all that, you need to cultivate from the
beginning an aitive and intelligent inteiest in public affairs if you are
to be great lawyers, so as to qualify as leaders of public opinion and
cventually as our leaders in public office.
Interest and action with respect to all of these matters are essential
to the great lawyer, and the desired results are all attainable if you

108

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pursue the law in the spirit of

quotir;g him:

Mr

Justice Hotrmes. I-et me end by

Law is a business to which my life is devoted, and I should show less

than devotion if I did not do what in rne lies to improve it, and when I
perceive what seerns to rne to be the ideal of its future, if I hesitated to
point it out and press toward it with all my heart.

F{olmes / heumz / Oliver Wendall (1E41-1935) Associate Justiee

ol the t-lS Supreme Court (1902-32)
pretentious / prr'tenfas / clairning great rnerit or irnportance
aclvoeacy 1 'eelvaleasr / pleading in suppont of, a cause
appellate / a'pelu / conceming appeais
Lrtithely i 'blar6ln i happily, joyously
Webs{.er / 'wrbsta(r) / Danietr (1?82-1S52} American statesnna,l;
and orator
Theodore F.ooseveit / 'Srada: 'rauzovelt / (1E58-1919) 26
Fresic{ent of the {.J.S.,A,., a repuhlican (190i*9)
acirnonition / adnra'nrJn i warning

startling I 'sta:tlq I greatty strocking

veloclry 7 va lnsatr 7 speed
lethargy / 'ie0od3r f lazy state of rnired

pondereei

'pnnctecl

cr:nsidered; tkrought over

Franklin D. F.oosevelt / 'fraeqktrn 'reDzevelt / (1SS2-1945) 32t,

grresidemt of ttae {-1.S.,4.., a dentocrat (1933-45)
Fearl F"{arbor I pr:l ha:be(r} / a LrS naval b,ase'ri F{awa".'ii ::L
-Iapanese at.taeked it on ?th Dece{nber i94l without warning ar 'r
destroyed a large part ol the {.lS Facific fieet. As a result the {Ji ''i'
entered thc Second Worid War. j
quaranfine speech / 'kwnronti:n spi:t$ / a speech in wh,i' ir
Fresident Roosevelt asserted that war was a contagion, which iiir'
disease ru.ust he quarantined by the Xnternational comnnu;i l,
iquaranfine : isolatc as a precaution against eontagiou$ disei, ,,
warlraongcrimg / 'wo: InArJgsrIB I advoeating or stirring up v'

engrossed

'mokarl

'mgraust

bad or conternptible example

fuliy occupied

dr'rna:raz

reward of success

legalobjectionstoretrevanceofopponent's

point even if granted, which stays action till relevance is settled

traverses / 'trevs:stz / denials especially of allegation of matter of

manage skilfutly or craftily, esp. h'1,

using one's influence or unfair methods
eounselor /'kaonsla(r) / adviser
adjudicatiein / adgu:di'ker$n / giving a judgment or decision upcn
naa'nry.lule$

109

as another

mockery

demurrers

'[.. Vocabulary

af the l-awyer

'lmba:g I 0902-1974) US aviator' He

Charles Lindbergh | 't[a:lz
made the first solo ffight of the Atlantic (1927)
conternporaries I kan'temprari:z / persons living at the same time

abortive / a'bc:trv / unsuccessfui

crown of laurel / kraun ev 'lo:rel
rages / 'rerdgrz / is at its height

ExBncrsns

nnanipulate-

Fioe Functions

fact
pleas / pb:z I staternents nnade by or for a per$on charged in a law
co{rrt
avoidance / e'vsldans i rneeting one's opponent's pleadings by new
matter
assignrnent / o'salnmsnt / the transfer to another of one's legal
interest or right, esp. the transfer ofproperty to be held in trust on
to be used for the benefit of creclitors
departure / dr'pa:tia(r) / the elesertion by a party to any pleading of
the groun<l taken by hirn in his last antecedent pleading and the
adoption of another
demurrabie I dl'm,rrebel / open to objection
Minorca / rm'nc:ke / part of the Ealearic Isiands, a $ipanishe province in the W. fu{editerranean
to wit / tp wrt / namelY; that is to saY
parish / 'perrJ / division of county with its erwn church and priest
videlicet I vl'rtri:hset / abbreviated as ure : nerneiy
amends / a'rnendz / something done to repair sorne harm' darnage,
etc.

promulgation

grncmal'gerJn

announci.ng

offrcially, making

public
rc'call / rr'kc:l / eall to return
cuphemistically I ju:fe'rnlstildl i as a substitutiom of rniid or indirect words for harsh or direct ones
litigants / 'lrtryents f perscns engaged in a iawsuit
pcals / pi:\z I loud volleys of sound
cmanating / 'ennonertrq / eorning, fiowing {from)
county I 'kauntr / sutrdivision of a state; the largest tenit of local
governnaent

dctrirnental

detrl'mentat

hannful