Calculus For Students

Calculus
FOR Engineers
Tr.i.cJu
o^^jr
r.i^
LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
aass
CALCULUS FOE ENGINEEES,
QtambxiUQt:
PRINTED BY
J.
AND
C.
AT THE UNIVERSITY
F.
CLAY,
PRESS.
THE
CALCULUS FOE ENGINEEES
BY
JOHN PERRY,
M.E, RSc,
F.R.S.
WH. SCH., ASSOC. MEMB. INST. C.E.,

PROFESSOR OF MECHANICS AND MATHEMATICS IN THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE,
LONDON: PRESIDENT OF "IBan^Xtsiil^Ô^ OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS.
FIFTH
IMPRESSION.
Honlron
EDWARD ARNOLD,
37,
BEDFORD STREET.
lAll Rights reserved,]
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Library
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This book describes what has for many years been the
most important part of the regular course in the Calculus
for Mechanical and Electrical Engineering students at the
It was supplemented by easy
Finsbury Technical College.
work involving Fourier, Spherical Harmonic, and Bessel
Functions which I have been afraid to describe here because
the book is already much larger than I thought it would
become.
The students
mathematics,
knew only the most elementary

them did not know the Binomial
in October
many
of
Theorem, or the definition of the sine of an angle. In July

they had not only done the work of this book, but their
knowledge was of a practical kind, ready for use in any
such engineering problems as I give here.
One such
student,
Mr Norman Endacott, has corrected

He has worked out many of
the manuscript and proofs.
the exercises in the third chapter twice over.
thank him
here for the care he has taken, and I take leave also to
say that a system which has, year by year, produced
many
men
with his kind of knowledge of mathematics has a

good deal to recommend it. I say this through no vanity
but because I wish to encourage the earnest student. Besides
I cannot claim more than a portion of the credit, for I
do not think that there ever before was such a complete
2/ 12b
PREFACE.
VI
harmony
in
the working of
the departments of an
all
educational institution in lectures and in tutorial, laboratory,
drawing
office
and other
practical
the Finsbury Technical College,
end
to give
all
work as
exists in
tending to the same
an engineer such a perfect acquaintance with
his mental tools that he actually uses these tools in his
business.
Professor Willis has been kind
the proofs and I therefore
feel
enough
to read through
doubly sure that no important
mistake has been made anywhere.
An experienced friend thinks that I
might with advantage
have given many more illustrations of the use of squared

paper just at the beginning. This is quite possible, but if
a student follows
my
instructions he will furnish
all this
sort
much better for himself Again I might

many easy illustrations of integration by
of illustration very
have
inserted
numerical work such as the exercises on the Bull Engine
and on Beams and Arches which are to be found in my book

on Applied Mechanics. I can only say that I encourage
students to find illustrations of this kind for themselves;
and surely there must be some limit to spoon
feeding.
JOHN PERRY.
EoYAL College of Science,
London,
16th March, 1897.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Introductory Remarks
..,.,,..
Chap.
I.
The Study of
Chap.
II.
The Compound Interest Law and the Harmonic
^**
III.
General Differentiation and Integration
Function
Chap.
PAGE
161
267
CALCULUS FOE ENGINEERS.
INTRODUCTORY.
1.
The Engineer
matical training
has usually no time for a general mathe-
mores the pity and those young engineers
who have had such a training do not always
find their
mathe-
matics helpful in their profession. Such men will, I hope,

find this book useful, if they can only get over the notion
that because it is elementary, they know already all that it
can teach.
But I write more particularly for readers who have had
very little mathematical training and who are willing to work
very hard to find out how the calculus is applied in Engineering problems. I assume that a good engineer needs to know
only fundamental principles, but that he needs to know these
very well indeed.
My reader is supposed to have an elementary know2.

ledge of Mechanics, and if he means to take up the Electrical
problems he is supposed to have an elementary knowledge of
Electrical matters.
common-sense knowledge of the few
fundamental facts is what is required; this knowledge is
seldom acquired by mere reading or listening to lectures;
one needs to make simple experiments and to work easy
numerical exercises.
In Mechanics, I should like to think that the mechanical
engineers who read this book know what is given in the
elementary parts of my books on Applied Mechanics and the
Steam and Gas Engine. That is, I assume that they know
CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERS.
the elementary facts about Bending Moment in beams, Work

done by forces and the Efficiency of heat engines. Possibly
the book may cause them to seek for such knowledge. I take
almost all my examples from Engineering, and a man who
works these easy examples will find that he knows most of
what is called the theory of engineering.
I know men who have passed advanced examinations
3.
in Mathematics who are very shy, in practical work, of the
common formulae used in Engineers' pocket-books. How-
ever good a mathematician a student thinks himself to be,

he ought to practise working out numerical values, to find
for example the value of a^ by means of a table of logarithms,
when a and h are any numbers whatsoever. Thus to find
V'014, to find 2*36o~<''2, &c., to take any formula from a
pocket-book and use it. He must not only think he knows
he must really do the numerical work. He must know that
if a distance 2 4 5 4 has been measured and if one is not sure
about the last figure, it is rather stupid in multiplying or
dividing by this number to get out an answer with many
significant figures, or to say that the indicated power of an
engine is 324"65 Horse power, when the indicator may be in
error 5 per cent, or more.
He must know the quick way of
finding 3'216 x 4571 to four significant figures without using
logarithms.
He ought to test the approximate rule
(1
or
(1
a)" (1
+a)"=l + ?ia,
+ ^)' = 1 + 7ia + m^,
a and /S are small, and see for himself when a = '01 or

-01, or yS = -025 and = 2 or ^ or 1^, and m = 4 or 2
or 2 or J or any other numbers, what errors are involved in
if
ti
the assumption.
f As to Trigonometry, the definitions must be known. For
example, Draw BA C an angle of, say, 35. Take any point
and drop the perpendicular. Measure
and ^0 and AC
as accurately as possible.
Is AC^ -{- BC^ = AB^ 1
Work
AB
this
out
numerically.
BC =
tan 35.
-j-^
tables.
Try
if
Now
BC =
-r^
^^
AG =
^^ cos
sin 35, -rv^
35,
the answers are those given in the
Learn how we calculate the other sides of the
INTRODUCTORY.
triangle
ABC
angles.
when we know one
Learn
cosine of 130
side and one of the acute

also that the sine of 130 is positive, and the
is
negative.
sin {A-\-
B)
sin A
Also try with the book of tables

,
cos
B + cos A
if
sin B,
where A and B are any two angles you choose to take.

There are three other rules like this. In like manner the
four which we obtain by adding these formulae and subtracting them, of which this is one,
2 sin a
also
cos
cos
2^ =
/S
= sin (a + y8) + sin (a /8)

- 2 sin^ A =2 cos^ ^ - 1.
Before readers have gone far in this book I hope they will
be induced to take up the useful (that is, the elementary
and interesting) part of trigonometry, and prove all rules for
themselves, if they haven't done so already.
Calculate an angle of 1*6 degrees in radians (1 radian is
equal to 57'296 degrees) see how much the sine and tangent
of this angle differ from the angle itself
Remember that
when in mathematics we say sin x, x is supposed to be in
;
radians.
I do not expect a man to know much about advanced
algebra, but he is supposed to be able to give the factors of
a?^
7^ 4- 12 or of x"^ o? for example ; to be able to simplify
expressions.
It is not a knowledge of permutations or com-
binations or of the theory of equations, of Geometrical Conies

or tangent planes to quadrics, that the Engineer wants.
Happy is the Engineer who is also a mathematician, but
it is given to only a few men to have the two so very different
powers.
prolonged experience of workshops, engineers and
students has convinced me that although a Civil Engineer
for the purposes of surveying may need to understand the
solution of triangles, this and many other parts of the
Engineer's usual mathematical training are really useless to
the mechanical or electrical engineer.
This sounds unorthodox, but I venture to emphasise it.
The young engineer cannot be drilled too much in the mere simplification
of algebraic and trigonometrical expressions, including ex-
pressions
involving
J 1,
and the best service done by
12
elementary calculus work is in inducing students to again

undergo this drilling.
But the engineer needs no artificial mental gymnastics
such as is furnished by Geometrical Conies, or the usual
examination-paper puzzles, or by evasions of the Calculus
through infinite worry with elementary Mathematics. The
result of a false system of training is seen in this, that not
one good engineer in a hundred believes in what is usually
called theory.
I assume that every one of my readers is thoroughly
4.
well acquainted already with the fundamental notion of the
Calculus, only he doesn't know it in the algebraic form.
He
has a perfect knowledge of a rate, but he has never been
accustomed to write -^
he has a perfect knowledge of an
but he has not yet learnt the symbol used by us,
area,
lf(x).dos.
He
has the idea, but he does not express his
idea in this form.

1 assume that some of my readers have passed difficult
examinations in the Calculus, that they can differentiate any
function of x and integrate many that they know how 'to
work all sorts of difficult exercises about Pedal Curves and
Roulettes and Elliptic Integrals, and to them also I hope to
be of use. Their difficulty is this, their mathematical knowledge seems to be of no use to them in practical engineering
problems.
Give to their afs and y's a physical meaning,
or use p's and vs instead, and what was the easiest book
exercise becomes a difficult problem.
I know such men
who hurriedly skip in reading a book when they see a
;
or a sign of integration.
When
I started to write this book I thought to put

my readers as I have been able, I think
very successfully, to bring it before some
I have been told
classes of evening students; but much may be done in
lectures which one is unable to do in a cold-blooded fashion
One misses the intelligent eyes of an
sitting at a table.
5.
the subject before
audience, warning one that a
little
more explanation
is
needed
INTRODUCTORY.
or that an important idea has already been grasped.

An
idea could be given in the mere drawing of a curve and
illustrations chosen from objects around the lecture-room.
Let the reader skip judiciously; let him work up no
problem here in which he has no professional interest. The
problems are many, and the best training comes from the
careful study of only a few of them.
The reader is expected to turn back often to read again
the early parts.
The book would be unwieldy if I included any but the

more interesting and illustrative of engineering problems. I
put off for a future occasion what would perhaps to many
students be a more interesting part of my subject, namely,
illustrations
from Engineering (sometimes called Applied
Physics) of the solution of Partial Differential Equations.

Many people think the subject one which cannot be taught
in an elementary fashion, but Lord Kelvin showed me long
ago that there is no useful mathematical weapon which an
engineer may not learn to use.
man learns to use the
Calculus as he learns to use the chisel or the file on actual
concrete bits of work, and it is on this idea that I act in
teaching the use of the Calculus to Engineers.
This book is not meant to supersede the more orthodox
treatises, it is rather an introduction to them.
In the
first chapter of 160 pages, I do not attempt to differentiate
or integrate any function of x, except x^.
In the second
chapter I deal with e^^, and sin (aw + c). The third chapter
is
more
difficult.
For the sake of the training in elementary Algebraic

work, as much as for use in Engineering problems, I have
included a set of exercises on general dinerentiation and
integration.
Parts in smaller type, and the notes, may be found too

by some students in a first reading of the book. An
occasional exercise may need a little more knowledge than
His remedy is to skip.
the student already possesses.
difficult
CHAPTER
I.
x.
Everybody has already the notions of Co-ordinate

6.
Geometry and uses squared paper. Squared paper may
be bought at sevenpence a quire people who arc ignorant
of this fact and who pay sevenpence or fourteen pence a
sheet for it must have too great an idea of its value to use
:
it
properly.
When a merchant has in his office a sheet of squared

paper with points lying in a curve which he adds to day by
day, each point showing the price of iron, or copper, or cotton
yarn or silk, at any date, he is using Co-ordinate Geometry.
Now to what uses does he put such a curve ? 1. At any
date he sees what the price was. 2. He sees by the slope of
his curve the rate of increase or fall of the price.
3. If he
plots other things on the same sheet of paper at the same
dates he will note what effect their rise and fall have upon
the price of his material, and this
phesy and so make money.
may
enable him to pro-
Examination of his curve for

the past will enable him to prophesy with more certainty
than a man can do who has no records.
Observe that any point represents two things; its
horizontal distance from some standard line or axis is called
one co-ordinate, we generally call it the x co-ordinate and it
some
is measured horizontally to the right of the axis of y
people call it the abscissa this represents time in his case.
The other co-ordinate (we usually call it the 3/ co-ordinate or
tlie ordinate, simply), the vertical distance of the point above
some standard line or axis; this represents his price. In the
newspaper you will find curves showing how the thermometer
and barometer are rising and falling. I once read a clever
article upon the way in which the English population and
wealth and taxes were increasing; the reasoning was very
4.
SQUARED PAPER.
On taking the author s figures however

and plotting them on squared paper, every result which he
had laboured so much to bring out was plain upon the
Possibly this
curves, so that a boy could understand them.
is the reason why sDme writers do not publish curves: if they
did, there would be little need for writing.
difficult to follow.
7.
A man
making experiments
how one thing which
I shall call
is
usually finding out
y depends upon some other
thing which I shall call x. Thus the pressure p of saturated

steam (water and steam present in a vessel but no air or
other fluid) is always the same for the same temperature.
curve drawn on squared paper enables us for any given
temperature to find the pressure or vice versa, but it shows
the rate at which one increases relatively to the increase of
the other and much else. I do not say that the curve is always
better than the table of values for giving information some
information is better given by the curve, some by the table.
Observe that when we represent any quantity by the length
1 inch
of a line we represent it to some scale or other
represents 10 lbs. per square inch or 20 degrees centigrade
or something else it is always to scale and according to a
convention of some kind, for of course a distance 1 inch is a
very different thing from 20 degrees centigrade.
When one has two columns of observed numbers to plot

on squared paper one does it, 1. To see if the points lie in
any regular curve. If so, the simpler the curve the simpler
To correct errors of
2.
is the law that we are likely to find.
observation.
For if the points lie nearly in a simple regular
curve, if we draw the curve that lies most evenly among the
points, using thin battens of wôod, say, then it may be taken
as probable that if there were no errors of observation the
Note that when
points would lie exactly in such a curve.
a point
is
feet to the right of a line,
we mean
that
it
is
have learnt by long experience that it is worth while to spend a good deal of time
subtracting from and multiplying one's quantities to fit the
numbers of squares (so that the whole of a sheet of paper is
needed for the points) before beginning to plot.
Now let the reader buy some squared paper and without
asking help from anyone let him plot the results of some
5
feet to the left of the line.
him take for example a Whitaker's

it some sets of numbers
the average
every month last year; the National Debt
Let
observations.
Almanack and
plot from
temperature of
since 1688; the present value of a lease at 4 per cent, for
any number of years the capital invested in Railways since
1849 anything will do, but he had better take things in
which he is interested. If he has made laboratory observations he will have an absorbing interest in seeing what sort
of law the squared paper gives him.
;
As the observations may be on

t, or p and volume v, or v and
pressure jj and temor Indicated Horse

Power and Useful Horse Power of a steam or gas engine, or
amperes and volts in electiicity, and we want to talk generally
of any such pair of quantities, I shall use x and y instead
of the p'q and v^ and ^ s and all sorts of letters.
The short
way of saying that there is some law connecting two variable
quantities x and y is F (x, y) =0...(1), or in words "there
is some equation connecting x and y."
Any expression
which contains x and y (it may contain many other letters
and numbers also) is said to be a function of x and y and we
use such symbols as F(x, y),f{x, y), Q(x, y) etc. to represent
functions in general when we don't know what the expressions really are, and often when we do know, but want to
write things shortly. Again we use F{x) or f{x) or any
other convenient symbol to mean "any mathematical expression containing x" and we say " let f(x) be any function
Thus y =f(x) ... (2) stands for any equation which
of x!*
would enable us when given x to calculate y.
8.
perature
The law
X'
^+
above, whereas
y=
if
ifi
^t^
we
t,
comes under the form
calculate
(1) given
y in terms of x and get
1 \/25 x'^ we have the form (2).

But in either case
we have the same law connecting y and x. In pure mathematics X and y are actual distances in applied mathematics
X and y stand for the quantities which we are comparing and
which are represented to scale.
4-
9.
I.
'
Graph
Draw
Take ^ =
'
Exercises.
the curve y
and we
=2+
find
2/
-^j-^x-.
=2; take x =
l,
then
7/
= 20333
'graph' exercises.
take X = 2, then y = 2 + ISô = 2-133; and so on. Now plot

these values of x and y on your sheet of squared paper. The
curve is a parabola.
Draw
II.
the curve y = 1 ^cc-\- -J^x^ which is also a

same way, on the same sheet of paper.
parabola, in the
Draw
III.
if
X=
2,
= 60
= 120. Now if x = l, y=120;

= 4<0; if = 4, y = 30 and so on
the curve xy
if
= S,
a;
this curve is a rectangular hyperbola.
IV. Draw yx'-'^' = 100 or y = 100^-i-^ If the student

cannot calculate y for any value of x, he does not know how
to use logarithms and the sooner he does know how to use
logarithms the better.
V. Draw y = ax''^ where a is any convenient number. I
advise the student to spend a lot of time in drawing members
of this great family of useful curves.
Let him try ?i = 1
(he drew this in III. above), 7i= 2, ?i= 1-J, n=^, ?i= 0*1,
n = 0, n = "I, ri = f n = l, n=l\,n = '2 (this is No. I. above),
,
?i
= 3,
=4
&c.
Draw y = a sin (bx + c)
YI.
numbers
for a, h
and
taking
any convenient
c.
Advice. As hx-{-c is in radians (one radian is 57'2958

degrees) and the books of tables usually give augles in
degrees, choose numbers for h and c which will make the
arithmetical work easy. Thus take 6 = 1-7- 114"6, take c the
number of radians which correspond to say 30
this is
Let a
=5
say.
Now
Thus when ?=
angle
is
6,
3/
or '5236
let
x 0,
5 sin [yrxTp
converted into degrees

2/
5 sin (16
+ 30
if c
were changed to
were changed. More than a

very profitably.
&;c.,
and calculate
"5236)
but
if
y.
the
we have
degrees)
Having drawn the above

occur
10, 20,
= b sin 33 = 2723.
curve, notice
what change would
Again, if a
^ or ^ or ^
week may be spent on this curve,
or
10
VII. Draw y = ae***.

Try 6 = 1 and a = 1 try other
values of a and h take at least two cases of negative values
;
for
h.
In the above work, get as little help from teachers as

but help from fellow students will be very useful
especially if it leads to wrangling about the subject.
possible,
The reason why

is this:
I have dwelt
upon the above seven
cases
Students learn usually to differentiate and integrate
the most complicated expressions: but when the very simplest

of these expressions comes before them in a real engineering
problem they fight shy of it. Now it is very seldom that an
engineer ever has to face a problem, even in the most intricate part of his theoretical work, which involves a knowledge
of more functions than these three
y=
ax^y
= a sin {hx + c), y =
ad^,
but these three must be thoroughly well understood and the

engineering student must look upon the study of them as his
most important theoretical work.
Attending to the above three kinds of expression is a
student's real business.
I see no reason, however, for his not
having a little amusement also, so he may draw the curves
X' 4- y^
= 25
(Circle),
|g-^ = l
^ + f^ = 1
(Ellipse),
(Hyperbola),
and some others mentioned
in Chapter, III., but from the

engineer's point of view these curves are comparatively un-
interesting.
Having studied y = e~^^ and y = 6 sin (ex + ^) a

10.
student will find that he can now easily understand one of
the most important curves in engineering, viz
y = be~** sin
He
ought
first
studied by him, y
paper y
= e~^^
two curves at
(ex + g).
to take such a curve as has already been

(ex + g) plot on the same sheet of
= h sin
and multiply together the ordinates of the

many values of x to find the ordinate of the
;
EQUATIONS TO
11
LOCI.
new curve. The curve is evidently wavy, y reaching maximum

and minimum values; y represents the displacement of
a' pendulum bob or pointer of some measuring instrument
whose motion is damped by fluid or other such friction, x being
the time, and a student will understand the curve much better
if he makes observations of such a motion, for example with
a disc of lead immersed in oil vibrating so slowly under
the action of torsional forces in a wire that many observations of its angular position (using pointer and scale
of degrees) which is called y, x being the time, may be
made in one swing. The distance or angle from an extreme
position on one side of the zero to the next extreme position
on the other side is called the length of one swing. The
Napierian logarithm of the ratio of the length of one swing to
the next or one tenth of the logarithm of the ratio of the
first swing to the eleventh is evidently a multiplied by half
the periodic time, or it is a multiplied by the time occupied
in one swing.
This logarithmic decrement as it is called,
is rather important in some kinds of measurement.
When by means of a drawing or a model we are able to find the

11.
path of any point and where it is in its path when we know the
some other point,
information algebraically.
position of
we
are always able to get the
same
DD
Example (1).
point jPand a straight line
being given ; what
the path of a point
when it moves so that its distance from the
point
is always in the same ratio to its distance from the straight line?
is
in the figure let FF=exPI>

at right angles to DD.
If the distance
is called a; and
Thus
Draw
FFX
FD
the
perpendicular
problem
is
this
FG
What
is
is
... (I),
where
e is
a constant.
y ; our
the equa-
tion connecting x and y? Now all

we have to do is to express (1) in
terms of x and ^. Let
be called a.
FF
Thus
FF= \/FG^+FG^= Vy^ + (^'-a)2

so that, squaring (1)
we have
This is the answer. If e is 1 the

curve is called a parabola. If e is
greater than 1, the curve is called an
hyperbola. If e is less than I, the curve
Fig.
is
called
1.
an ellipse.
12
Example
What
is
The
(2).
APQ
circle
the Path of any point
touched the line

be X and PT be
PCQ be called <^.
it
on the straight line OX,

the circumference? If whenP
rolls
P on.
OF
OX
and
bo the axes, and let SP
0, let
Let the radius of the circle be a. Let the angle
Draw CB, peqêndicular to PT. Observe that
was at
y.
PB=a sin PCB=a sin - 90) = - a cos

BC= a cos PCB = a sin
= OQ. Hence x=OQ BC,
Now the arc QP= a
(</>
(/>,
(/>.
SiS
.cf)
and
y = BT^-PB,
/c
x=axf)- a sin 0|
y = a acoscfij
have
If
from
(3)
we
we
eliminate
(3).
get one equation connecting
x and
y.
Iût it is better to retain </> and to have two equations because of the
In fact the two equations (3) may
greater simplicity of calculation.
be called the equation to the curve. The curve is called the oycloid
readers know already.
as all
my
Example
(3).
in a straight path.
crank and connecting rod work
Where
is
a slider
the slider for any position of the crank ?
Let the path be in the direction of the centre of the crank
shaft.
P.^-
Fig. 3.
If A is the end of the path, evidently

length of crank.
^0
is
equal to
l-\-r,
r being
MECHANISMS.
13
It is well to remember in all such problems that if we project all

the sides of a closed figure upon any two straight lines, we get two independent equations. Projecting on the horizontal we see that
s+l cos (f)+r cos 6=1 + r\

Projecting on the vertical
^ = r sin ^
sin
.(1).
J
we eliminate from these equations we can calculate s for any

value of 6. The student ought to do this for himself, but I am weak
If
enough to do
it
here.
We
see that
COS0
so that the
first
from the second equation of (1)
-V^-i sin2^,
becomes
s=l\l-^l-^^^sm^0J+r{l-cosd)..*
(2).
Students ought to work a few exercises, such as; 1. The ends

B of a rod are guided by two straight slots OA and OB which
are at right angles to one another find the equation to the path of
any point
in the rod.
2.
In Watt's parallel motion there is
a point which moves nearly in a straight path. Find the equation to
its complete path.
and
In
for
fig.
is
4 the Mean Position is shown as OABC. The best place

such that BP/PA = OAICB. Draw the links in any other
Fig. 4.
Note that
when a
if
as is usual, -jîsa. small fraction, then slnca
,Jl-a=l-\a
small, we can get an approximation to the value of s, which can

be expressed in terms of d and 2d. This is of far more importance than it
here seems to be. When the straight path of Q makes an angle a with the
Hne joining its middle point and O, if a is not large, it is evident that s is
much the same as before, only divided by cos a. When a is large, the
algebraic expression for s is rather complicated, but good approximations
may always be found which will save trouble in calculation.
is
14
would be a figure of 8.
The complete path of
3.
Find
the equation to the path of a point in the middle of an ordinaiy connecting rod. 4. A^ the end of a link, moves in a straight path COC\
being the middle of the path, with a simple haraaonic motion
OA=asmpti where t is time the other end B moves in a straight
path OBD which is in a direction at right angles to COC what is ^'s
motion ? Show that it is approximately a simple harmonic motion of
twice the frequency of ^.
5.
In any slide valve gear, in which there
note
are several links, &c. driven from a uniformly rotating crank
this fact, that the motion of any point of any link in any particular
direction consists of a fundamental simple harmonic motion of the
same frequency as the crank, together with an octave. The proper
study of Link Motions and Radial valve gears from this
point of view is' worth months of one's life, for this contains the secret
of why one valve motion gives a better diagram than another.
Consider for example the Hackworth gear with a curved and with a
straight slot. What is the difference ? See Art. 122.
position.
Plotted points l3ring in a straight line. Proofs

come later; at first the student ought to get well acquainted with the thing to be proved. I have known boys
12.
will
able to 'prove mathematical propositions who did not really

know what they had proved till years afterwards.
Take any expression like y = a + hx, where a and h are

Thus let y = 2 + l^x. Now take ^7 = 0, a?=l,
a; = 2, a? = 3, <Src. and in each case calculate the corresponding
Plot the corresponding values of a; and y as the
value of y.
numbers.
co-ordinates of points on squared paper.

You will find that
they lie exactly in a straight line. Now take say y = 2-\-Sx
or 2 + â; or 2 â; or 2 Sx and you will find in every case
a straight line. Men who think they know a little about
this subject already will not care to take the trouble and if
you do not find yourselves interested, I advise you not to
take the trouble either; yet I know that it is worth your
while to take the trouble. Just notice that in every case I
have given you the same value of a and consequently all
your lines have some one thing in common. What is it?
Take this hint, a is the value of y when a? = 0.
Again, try
and
You
+ l^x,
y = ^l + lix,
y=:2
y
2/
= 1 +l^x, y = 0-i-lix,
= -2 + lâ?,
so see what it means when h is the same in every case.

will find that all the lines with the same b have the

SLOPE OF A LINE.
same
slope
and indeed
am
=
=
a?!
16
in the habit of calling h the
slope of the line.
y = a 4-
If
6^,
when
when
oc
x-^,
y and
find
call it y^y
+ 1, find y and call it y^.

So that what I mean
y.^y^ = h.
a;
is easy to show that

by
the slope of a straight line is its rise for a horizontal distance
or 1 in 20,
(Note that when we say that a road rises
1.
we mean 1 foot rise for 20 feet along the sloping road. Thus
jjj is the sine of the angle of inclination of the road to the
horizontal; whereas our slope is measured in a different way).
Our slope is evidently the tangent of the inclination of the
Looking upon y as a quantity whose
line to the horizontal.
value depends upon that of x, observe that the rate of increase of y relatively to the increase of x is constant, being
indeed h, the slope of the line. The symbol used for this
It
rate
/Y
-^
-p. Observe that
is
one symbol;
it is
it
does not
mean
7/
Try to
a ^ X
-~h, and
dx
where
Any
is
that
the statement that
recollect
if -,
dx
= h,
some constant
equation of the
then
y= a + hx,
follows that y:=A-\-hx,
or other.
first
degree connecting x and y
G where A, B and C are constants, can

G A
shape y = ^ ^x, so that it is the equation
such as Ax-\-By =
be put into the
it
if
to a straight line
whose slope
through the point whose x
0,
A
^ and which passes
C
whose y = -n, called point
is
Thus 4^ + 2^/ = 5 passes through the point x = 0,

0, p
y = 2^ and its slope is 2. That is, y diminishes as x increases.
You are expected to draw this line y = 2|^ 2^7 and
distinguish the difference between it and the line = 2 J + 2x.
)
3/
meant by positive and what by negative slope.

Draw a few curves and judge approximately by eye of the
slope at a number of places.
Note what
13.
1.
is
Problems on the straight line.

Given the slope of a straight line;
if
you are
also
16
told that it passes through the point
y=
2,
what
is
whose x =
the equation to the line
3,
and whose
Let the slope be
0-35.
The equation is y = a + 0'35.'^^^. where a is not known.

But (3, 2) is a point on the line, so that 2 = a + 035 x
or a
= 0"95
2.
and hence the
What
is
line is
y = 0'95
3,
35a?.
the slope of any line at right angles to

line, cutting
in C. Then
y=za-\-bxl Let -45 be the given
OX
DE is any line at right angles to the first,

its slope is tan DEX or tan DEC or - cot BGE or ^
h
= tan BOX.
If
So that y = Aj-a)is
to
y = a-{-h.v]
typical of all lines at right angles
being any constant.
the two straight lines Ax -\-By-\-C0

and Mx + Ny -{8 =
meet ? Answer, In the point whose x
and y satisfy both the equations. We have therefore to do
what is done in Elementary Algebra, solve simultaneous
3.
Where do
equations.
When tan a and tan ^ are known, it is easy to find

/S), and hence when the straight lines y=a + hx
y = m-\-nx are given, it is easy to find the angle between
4.
tan (a
and
them.
5.
y = 2,
The
and
a?
line y = a-\-bx passes through

= 3, y = 1, find a and h.
the points a?=l,
EMPIRICAL FORMULAE.
17
line y = a-{-bx is at right angles to y = 2 +

6.
Find a and h.
passes through the point x = l, y = l.
14.
Sa)
and
Obtaining Empirical Formulae.
When
in the laboratory we have made measurements of two

quantities which depend upon one another, we have a table showing
corresponding values of the two, and we wish to see if there is a simple
relation between them, we plot the values to convenient scales as the
If some regular curve (a
co-ordinates of points on squared paper.
cm*ve without singular points as I shall afterwards call it) seems as if
it might pass through all the points, save for possible errors of
measurement, we try to obtain a formula y = f(x), which we may call
the law or rule connecting the quantities called y and x.
If the points appear as if they might lie on a straight line, a
stretched thread may be used to help in finding its most probable
position.
There is a tedious algebraic method of finding the straight
line which represents the positions of the points with least error, but
for most engineering purposes the stretched string method is sufficiently accurate.
If the ciu-ve seems to follow such a law as y~a-\-hx^, plot y and

the square of the observed measurement, which we call x^ as the co-ordinates of points, and see if they lie on a straight line.
If the curve
seems to follow such a law as

^.\.hy
= a,
y= j
ax
(1),
which
divide each of the quantities which you call
is
the same as
y by the
corre-
and
sponding quantity x call the ratio X. Now plot the values of
of y on squared paper if a straight line passes through the plotted
;
points, then
l-Bx'
we have such a law
so that (1)
as
X=A-{-By,
or - A-\-By^ or
is true.
Usually we can apply the stretched thread method to find the

any law containing only two constants.
probability of truth of
Thus, suppose measurements to be taken from the expansion part

of a gas engine indicator diagram. It is im]3ortant for many purposes
to obtain an empirical formula connecting p and v, the pressure and
volume. I always find that the following rule holds with a fair amount
of accuracy pv"
where s and C are two constants. We do not
much care to know C, but if there is such a rule, the value of s is very
important*. To test if this rule holds, plot log jo and log v as the co-
=C
* There
is no known physical reason for expecting such a rule to hold.

thought that perhaps most curves drawn at random approximately
like hyperbolas would approximately submit to such a law as yx^= C, but I
found that this was by no means the case. The following fact is. worth
mentioning. When my students find, in carrying out the above rule that
log p and log v do not lie in a straight line, I find that they have
At
first I
P.
18
ordinates of points on squared pa^êr (common logarithms will do).

If they lie approximately in a straight line, we see that
\ogp+s\ogv=c
a constant, and therefore the rule holds.
When we wish to test with a formula containing three independent
constants we can often i*educe it to such a shape as
Av+Bw+Cz=l
where
y,
w, z contain
x and y in some shajje.
we have y + cxy a-\-hx^ ov- + -xy

x=\.
xy is the old w>, and x itself is the old z.
(2),
Thus to test
if
y=-
Here y itself is the old v,
If (2) holds, and if t?, \o and z were plotted as the three co-ordinatea
of a ix)int in space, all the points ought to lie in a plane.
By means
of three sides of a wooden box and a number of beads on the ends of
pointed wires this may be tried directly ; immersion in a tank of water
to try whether one can get the beads to lie in the plane of the siuface
of the water, being used to find the plane. I have also used a descriptive geometry method to find the plane, but there is no method yet
used bv me which compares for simplicity with the stretched thread
method in the other case.
But no hard and fast rules can be given for trying all sorts of emformulae upon one's observed numbers. The student is warned
that his formula is an empirical one, and that he must not deal with it
as if he had discovered a natural law of infinite exactness.
AVhen other formulae fail, we try
pirical
ya-\-hx-\-cx'*--\-^-\'^^")
because we know that with sufficient terms this will satisfy any curve.
When there are more than two constants, we often find them by a
patient application of what is called the method of least squares.
To
test if the pressure and temperature of saturated steam follow the
rule jo = a(^+/3)"... (3), where B is temperature, Centigrade, say, three
constants have to be found. The only successful plan tried by me is
one in which I guess at /3. I know that /3 is nearly 40. I ask one
student to try ^ = 40, another to try i3 = 41, another ^=39 and so on;
Too much clearance and too

in the amount of clearance.
clearance give results which depart in opposite ways from the straight
hne. It is convenient in many calculations, if there is such an empirical
formula, to use it. If not, one has to work with rules which instruct us to
draw tangents to the curve. Now it is an excellent exercise to let a number
of students trace the same curve with two points marked upon it and to let
them all independently draw tangents at those points to their curve, and
measure the angle between them. It is extraordinary what very different
Let them
lines they will draw and what different angles they may obtain.
all measure by trial the radius of curvature of the curve at a point ; in this
the discrepancies are greater than before.
made a mistake
little
SLOPE OF A CURVE.
19
they are asked to liiid the rule (3) which most accurately represents
6 between, say jo = 71b. per sq. inch, and p = 150. He who gets
a straight Hne lying most evenly (judging by the eye) among the points,
when \ogp and log(^-f /3) are used as co-ordinates, has used the best
value of 4. The method may be refined upon by ingenious students.
(See end of Chap. I.)
p and
We
15.
-^
ax
h,
and
have now to remember that
if
-^
ax
= h,
then
y
^
=A
-{ hx,
if
y = a-^hx, then
Avhere
some
is
constant.
Let us prove this algebraically.

y.
= a-\-hx. Take a particular value of x and

Now take a new value of x, call it ^ + hx, and
the
new
\iy
y, call it
y -ty
^^y a-\-h{x-\- hx).
hy
we
= hhx,
and, however small hx or Zy
~=
calculate
Sy,
Subtract ya-\-hx and
therefore say
calculate
get
or -^
ox
= 6,
may become
their ratio is 6,
we
h.
Fig.
6.
16.
In the curve of fig. 6 there is positive
and
{^ increases as x increases) in the parts AB,
DF
slope
HI and
22

20
negative slope {y diminishes as x increases) in the parts

BD and FH. The slope is at 5 and F which are called
points of maximum or points where i/ is a maximum; and it
which are points of minimum. The
is also
at D and
point E is one in which the slope ceases to increase and
begins to diminish
it is
a point of inflexion.
Notice that if we want to know the slope at the point

choose a point F which
(Imagine that
is near to P.
in fig. 6 the little portion of
is magnified a
the curve at
thousand times.) Call PS=x,
we
first
PQ=:y-NF=x+Bx,FL=ij+ht/,
sotha,tPM=Bx,F3I==Si/.
Now
FM/PM or By/Bx is the average

It is
slope between P and F.
tan
FPM.
Imagine the same

drawn but for a
sort of figure
point F' nearer to P. Again,

Fig. 7.
another, still nearer P.
Observe that the straight line
or F'P or F"P gets gi-adually
more and more nearly what we mean by the tangent to the
curve at P. In every case hyjhx is the tangent of the angle
or F'P or F'P makes with the horizontal,
which the line
and so we see that in the limit the slope of the line or dy/dx
is the tangent of the angle which the tangent at
at
makes with the axis of X. If then, instead of judging
roughly by the eye as we did just now in discussing fig. 6, we
wish to measure very accurately the slope at the point
Note that the slope is independent of where the axis of
is,
so long as it is a horizontal line, and I take care in using my
rule here given, to draw
below the part of the curve
where I am studying the slope. Draw a tangent
to
in P.
Then the slope is tan PRX.
the curve, cutting
If drawn and lettered according to my instructions, observe
is always an acute angle when the slope is
that
positive and is always an obtuse angle when the slope is
negative.
FP
FP
OX
PR
OX
PRX
Do
not forget that the slope of the curve at any point

rate of increase of y there with regard to a?, and
means the
WHAT
that
we may
the symbol
call it
-^-
or
SPEED?
21
the slope of the curve or tan
"the
regard to x," and
IS
all
PRQ or by
differential coefficient of
these
mean the same
y with
thing.
Every one knows what is meant when on going up a

hill one says that the slope is changing, the slope is diminishing, the slope is increasing and in this knowledge he already
possesses the fundamental idea of the calculus.
;
17. We all know what is meant when in a railway train we

say ^'we are going at 30 miles per hour.^' Do we mean
that we have gone 30 miles in the last hour or that we are
really going 30 miles in the next hour ? Certainly not. We
may have only left the terminus 10 minutes ago there may be
an accident in the next second. What we mean is merely this,
that the last distance of 3 miles was traversed in the tenth
of an hour, or rather, the last distance of 0*0003 miles was
traversed in 0*00001 hour.
This is not exactly right it is
not till we take still shorter and shorter distances and divide
by the times occupied that we approach the true value of
the speed.
Thus it is known that a body falls freely
vertically through the following distances in the following
intervals of time after two seconds from rest, at London.
That is between 2 seconds from rest and 2*1 or 2*01 or 2001,
the distances fallen through are given. Each of these
divided by the interval of time gives the average velocity
during the interval.
;
Intervals of time in seconds

Distances in feet fallen through
01
001
6*601
064416
Average
6601
6456
64*56
velocities
64416
We see that as the interval of time after 2 seconds is

taken less and less, the average velocity during the interval
approaches more and more the true value of the velocity at
2 seconds from rest which is exactly 64*4 feet per second.
We may find the true velocity at any time
the law connecting s and t as follows.
Let
when we know
16'lt2, the well known law for bodies falling

If t is given of any value we can calculate
freely at London.
22
If t has a slightly greater value called t-\- St (here St

a symbol for a small portion of time, it is not S "Xt, but a
very different thing), and if we call the calculated space
s + Ss, then s -^ hs = U'l (t + Btf or l&l {f + 2t. St + (Sty].
Hence, subtracting, Ss = 16*1 {2t St 4- (Sty], and this formula
will enable us to calculate accurately the space Ss passed
through between the time t and the time t+St. The average
velocity during this interval of time is Ss -^ St or
s.
is
^ = 32-2^+ 10Please notice that this
vagueness about
Now
and
come
smaller,
is
8/.
absolutely correct
there
is
no
it.
to the important idea; as St gets smaller
approaches more and more nearly
32*2^,
the
other term 16'1S^ becoming smaller and smaller, and hence

The limiting
say that in the limit, Ss/St is truly 32-2^.
we
value of
as St gets smaller and smaller
is
called
or the
rate of change of s as t increases, or the differential coefficient

of s with regard to t, or it is called the velocity at the time t
Now surely there is no such great difficulty in catching

the idea of a limiting value. Some people have the notion
that we are stating something that is only approximately
true it is often because their teacher will say such things as
"reject 16'1S^ because it is small," or "let dt be an infinitely
small amount of time" and they proceed to divide something
by it, showing that although they may reach the age of
Methuselah they will never have the common sense of an
;
engineer.
Another trouble
St
and
Ss
ds
kt or -yof
at
is
is
so
introduced by people saying " let
and
so."
The true statement

.
St gets
smaller and smaller without limit,
Ss
is,
" as
approaches more
finite value 322^," and as I have already

everybody uses the important idea of a limit every day
and more nearly the

said,
of his
life.
SLOPE AND SPEED.
From
the law connecting s and
velocity,
we
time
When we
t.
process
we
t,
23
if
we
find
-r-
or the
are said to differentiate s with regard to the

are given ds/dt and we reverse the above
are said to integrate.
If I were lecturing I might dwell longer upon the correctness of the notion of a rate that one already has, and by
my meaning. But one may

which seems dull enough in a
book.
I will, therefore, make a virtue of necessity and say
that my readers can illustrate my meaning perfectly well to
themselves if they do a little thinking about it. After all
my great aim is to make them less afraid than they used to be
of such symbols as dy/dx and fy dx.
making many
sketch'es illustrate
listen intently to a lecture
s and t in any kind of motion, as a set of numdo we study the motion ? For example, imagine
a Bradshaw's Railway Guide which not merely gave a few
stations, but some hundred places between Euston and Rugby.
The entries might be like this: s would be in miles, t in
hours and minutes. .9 = would mean Euston.
Given
18.
bers.
How
10 o'clock
3
10. .10
10. .15
7
7
10..
10..
20
10. .23
12
28
10. .33
&c.
One method is this plot t (take times after 10 o'clock)

horizontally and s vertically on a sheet of squared paper and
draw a curve through the points.
:
The slope of this curve at any place represents the velocity

of the train to some scale which depends upon the scales for
s
and
t.
24
Observe places where the velocity is great or small.

Between ^=10.20 and i = 10.23 observe that the velocity
Indeed the train has probably stopped altogether.

absolutely certain, it would be necessary to give s
for every value of t, and not merely for a few values.
curve alone can show every value. I do not say that the
table may not be more valuable than the curve for a great
many purposes.
is
0.
To be
If the train stopped at any place and travelled towards

Euston again, we should have negative slope to our curve
and negative velocity.
Note that acceleration being rate of change of velocity

with time, is indicated by the rate of change of the slope of
the curve. Why not on the same sheet of paper draw a curve
which shows at every instant the velocity of the train ?
The slope of this new curve would evidently be the acceleration.
I am glad to think that nobody has yet given a name
to the rate of change of the acceleration.
The symbols
s
and
in use are
t
for space
velocity
i;
ds
or -^
and time
or Newton's symbol s
acceleration -j- or -yz

at
dv
or Newton's
s.
Rate of change of acceleration would be
Note that
is
one symbol,
it
-r-
has nothing whatever to do
X-s
d^
The symbol is
X I
supposed merely to indicate that we have differentiated s
twice mth regard to the time.
with such an algebraic expression as
Gt
I have stated that the slope of a curve

drawing a tangent to the curve, and hence
the acceleration from the velocity curve.
may be
it is
found by
easy to find
ACCELERATION.
19.
26
Another way, better than by drawing tangents,
is
illustrated in this Table
-.
V
seconds
feet
06
0880
07
2354
per
second
or 8sJ8t
feet
acceleration
in feet per
second
second
per
or
8vldt
14-74
-125
13-49
08
-127
3703
1222
09
-127
4925
10-95
10
-129
6020
9-66
11
-131
6986
8-35
12
-131
7821
704
13
8525
In a new mechanism it was necessary for a certain

purpose to know in every position of a point A what its
acceleration was, and to do this I usually find its velocity
first.
A skeleton drawing was made and the positions of
A marked at the intervals of time t from a time taken
as 0.
In the table I give at each instant the distance
of A from a fixed point of measurement, and I call it s.
If I gave the table for all the positions of A till it gets
back again to its first position, it would be more instructive,
but any student can make out such a table for himself
for some particular mechanism.
Thus for example, let s
be the distance of a piston from the end of its stroke.
Of course the all-accomplished mathematical engineer will
scorn to take the trouble.
He knows a graphical rule
for doing this in the case of the piston of a steam
engine.
Yes, but does he know such a rule for every
26
mechanism ? Would i^t be worth while to seek

such a graphical nile for every possible mechanism ?
Here is the straightforward Engineers' common-sense way
of finding the acceleration at any point of any mechanism,
and although it has not yet been tried except by myself
and my pupils, I venture to think that it will commend
itself to practical men.
For beginners it is invaluable.
Now the mass of the body whose centre moves like the
point A, being
(the weight of the body in pounds at
London^ divided by 32*2)*, multiply the acceleration in
feet per second per second which you find, by m, and you
have the force which is acting on the body increasing the
velocity.
The force will be in pounds.
possible
for
* I have given elsewhere my reasons for using in books intended for

engineers, the units of force employed by all practical engineers. I have
used this system (which is, after all, a so-called absolute system, just as
much as the c. a. s. system or the Foundal system of many text books) for
twenty years, with students, and this is why their knowledge of mechanics
is not a mere book knowledge, something apart from their practical work,
but fitting their practical work as a hand does a glove. One might as well
talk Choctaw in the shops as speak about what some people call the
English system, as if a system can be English which speaks of so many
poundals of force and so many foot-poundals of work. And yet these same
philosophers are astonished that practical engineers should have a contempt
for book theory.
I venture to say that there is not one practical engineer
in this country, who thinks in Poundals, although all the books have used
these units for 30 years.
In Practical Dynamics one second is the unit of time, one foot is the
unit of space, one ijoiind (what is called the weight of 1 lb. in London) is the
unit of force. To satisfy the College men who teach Engineers, I would say
that "The unit of Mass is that mass on which the force of 1 lb. produces
an acceleration of 1 ft. per sec. per see."
We
have no name for unit of mass, the Engineer never has to speak
of the inertia of a body by itself. His instructions are "In all Dynamical
calculations, divide the weight of a body in lbs. by 32'2 and you have its
mass in Engineer's units in those units which will give all your answers in
the units in which an Engineer talks." If you do not use this system evei-y
answer you get out will need to be divided or multiplied by something before
it is the language of the practical man.
Force in pounds
it is
is
the space-roXe at which work in foot-pounds is done,

which momentum is produced or destroyed.
also the f/we-rate at
Kaxnxner head of 2^ lbs. moving with a velocity of 40 ft.

1.
stopped in '001 sec. What is the average force of the blow?
Here the mass being 2^-^322, or -0776, the momentum (momentum is
mass X velocity) destroyed is 3-104. Now force is momentum per sec. and
hence the average force is 3104-^001 or 3104 lbs.
Example
per
sec.
is
Example
2.
Water
in a jet flows with the linear velocity of 20
ft.
per sec.
DIFFERENTIATION OF
27
ax^.
We considered tlic case of falling bodies in which

20.
space and time are connected by the law 6' = iu^^? where cf
the acceleration due to gravity is 32 "2 feet per second per
second at London. But many other pairs of things are connected by similar laws and I will indicate them generally by
y =
ax2.
Let a particular value of a be taken, say a = -^. Now take

a) = 0, x = l, x==2, 00 = 3, &c. and in every case calculate y.
Plot the corresponding points on squared paper.
They
At any point on the curve, say
lie on a parabolic curve.
where x
S, find
the same at
a;
= 4,
the slope of the curve
^=
2,
&c.
I call it ~j^]
Draw a new curve, now, with
same values of x but with ~ax
as the ordinate.
do
the
This curve
shows at a glance (by the height of its ordinate) what is

the slope of the first curve.
If you ink these curves, let
the y curve be black and the -~ curve be red.
the slope or -~ at any point,
is
Notice that
2a multiplied by the x of the
point.
We
can investigate this algebraically.
As
before, for
any value of x calculate y. Now take a greater value of x

which I shall call x + Bx and calculate the new y, calling it
y + 8y. We have then
y -\- By = a (x -{- Bxf
Subtracting
= a[x^^+2x.Bx + (8xy}.
By = a [2x Bx + (Bx)-].
Divide by Bx,
By
-
= 2ax + a
Bx.
from which it flows), the jet being 0*1 sq. ft. in cross
what force acts upon the vessel ?
Here we have 20 x -1 cu. ft. or 20 x -1 x 62-3 lbs. of water per sec. or
a mass per second in Engineers' units of 20 x -1 x 62*3-1- 32-2. This mass is
3-^7, its momentum is 77 '4, and as this momentum is lost by the vessel
(relatively to the vessel
section
every second,
it is
the force acting
on the
vessel.
student who thinks for himself will see

whether a vessel is or is not in motion itself.
tliat this force is
the
same
28
Imagine Bw to get smaller and smaller without limit and

use the symbol ^ for the limiting value of -A ^^^
>
-p
= 2aic,
a fact which
is
known
we have
us already from
to
our
CLX
squared paper*.
21.
we
Note that when we repeat the process of differentiation
become
X,
-^ and
state the result as
,- is
tho answer
familiar with these symbols.
You must
is 2a.
If y
is
a function of
the rate of change of y with regard to
t4 is
the
the differential coefficient of
a?;
rate of change of -^ with regard to x.
Or, shortly;
with regard to
regard to
;p
is
the differential coefficient of y with
integrate
~ and our answer
You
and
a?
x.
Or, again
grate
is
^^
and our answer
~-
is
inte-
is y.
hope, get quite familiar with these symbols

only afraid that when we use other letters
will, I
ideas.
~;
am
may
than x& and y^ you

* Symbolically.
lose
your familiarity.
where /(a;) stands for any expression

containing x. Take any value of x and calculate y. Now take a slightly
greater value of x say x + 8x and calculate the new y ; call it y + 8y
Let
2/=/(a;)..,(l),
(2)
and divide by
y + dy^f{x + 8x)
then
Subtract
(1)
from
(2).
dx.
Sy_ f{x + dx)-f{x)

5^5i
dw
,^
What we mean by ^~
,
ax
made
is
^^^
the limiting value of
smaller and smaller without limit.
f(x + 8x)-f(x)
ox
This
is
^-^-^ as dx is
the exact definition of -^
dx
easy to remember and to write, and the most ignorant person may
It is easy to see that the
get full marks for an answer at an examination.
differential coefficient of of {x) is a times the differential coefficient of / (x)
and also that the differential coefficient of/ {x) + F.{x) is the sum of the two
It is quite
differential coefficients.
MOTION.
The
where
29
a, b
and
c are constants, is
cix
The
+ b-\-kx with regard

any constant whatsoever.
integral of
where
is
Similarly, the integral of 6
+ A;^
to
is
A-\-bx + ^kaf,
with regard to z
is
A+bz-i- ^kz\
The
integral
oib-^kv with regard
It is quite easy to
~-=Mx^, and
work out as an
again that
examples of the fact that
if
if
y = ax^^
to v/i&
A + bv-\- ^kv"^.
exercise that
then
if
-p=4a^.
y=aa^^ then
All these are
y = ax\ then -^naod^'K
In working out any of these examples we take
it
that
becomes -
OX
OiX
dii
or that
^y=8xx-^ more and more
nearly as dx gets smaller and
smaller without limit.
This
is
sometimes written y-\-by=y-{-bx
-f ,ov
f{x+bx)^f{x) + bx'^..
22.
(I).
Uniformly accelerated motion.

d^s
^2~^
dt
If acceleration,
Integrate and
we have ~z=b-\-at
(!)
velocity
v.
Observe
that we have added a constant 6, because if we differentiate

a constant the answer is 0. There must be some information
given us which will enable us to find what the value of the
constant b is.
Let the information be v = Vo, when i = 0.
Then b is evidently v^.
So that
velocity
ds
^-
=Vo + at
(2).
30
Again integrate and 5 = c + ?;< + ât-. Again you will notice

that we add an unknown constant, when wc integrate. Some
information must be given us to find the value of the constant
Thus if s = So when ^ = 0, this 5o is the value of c, and so
c.
we have the most complete statement of the motion
= So + Vot + ât^
If (3)
tiated
differentiated,
is
we
obtain
we
(3).
obtain (2) and
if (2) is differen-
(1).
We see here, then, that as soon as the student is

23.
able to differentiate and integrate he can work the following kinds of problem.
I.
If s is given as any function of the time, differentiate
and the velocity at any instant is found differentiate again
and the acceleration is found.
;
If the acceleration is given as some function of the

II.
time, integrate and we find the velocity; integrate again
and we find the space passed through.
Observe that s instead of being mere distance may be

the angle described, the motion being angular or rotational.
Better then
call it 0.
and S or J
24.
is
Then 6
or -^-
is
the angular velocity
the angular acceleration.
Exercises on Motion with constant Accele-
ration.
The acceleration due to gravity is doiunwards and is

1.
usually called g, g being 32*2 feet per second per second at
London. If a body at time
is thrown vertically upwards
with a velocity of F feet per second; where is it at the end
of t seconds ? If s is measured upwards, the acceleration is
g and s^V^Jt \gt^. (We assume that there is no resistance of the atmosphere and that the true acceleration is g
downwards and
constant.)
v=Vogt and that v=0 when Vogt =

When this is the case find
This eives the
Observe that
or
= ~-
s.
highest point and the time taken to reach
When
is s
again
What
is
it.
the velocity then ?
KINETIC ENERGY.
31
The body of Exercise 1 has been given, in addition

2.
to its vertical velocity, a horizontal velocity Uo which keeps
If oo is the horizontal distance of it away from
constant.
=
(I?X
the origin at the time

call s
^,
by the new name
?/,
we have
y=
iXj
and
if
we
eliminate
V,t
at
-7-
= Uq, x ujt.
any time
If
we
t,
- \gt\
^^ UQVy
we
t,
(17'
and
find
of
y=^x ^g--
which
is
Parabola.
body had been given a velocity V in the

a above the horizontal, we may use V sin a for Vq
and
cos a for Uf^ in the above expressions, and from them
we can make all sorts of useful calculations concerning proIf the
3.
dii'ection
jectiles.
Plot the curve
when
V= 1000 feet per second and a = 45.

V when a = 60, and again when
Again plot with same

a
= 30.
25.
Kinetic Energy. A small body of mass vi is at

and its velocity is Vq, and a force F acts
^ =
causing an acceleration F/ni. As in the last case
when
upon it
at any future time
v^Vf,
(2)
maybe
+-
t...(l),
written
and
s^^tilvÂ
-^Vot
+I~
t\
and
(2),
t"
it
is
easy to see
from (1) that this is s \t{vQ-\-v), and that the average

velocity in any interval is half the sum of the velocities at
the beginning and end of the interval.
force
in the distance s is Fs.
by the
Now
the work done

Calculating
from
till
(1),
F={v Vq) and
multiplying upon
we
find that the
work is ^m (v^ Vq^) which expresses the work stored up in a

moving body in terms of its velocity. In fact the work
done causes ^mvo^ to increase to imv^ and this is the reason
why
^mv'^ is called the kinetic
energy of a body.
32
Otherwise. Let a small body of mass iii and velocity v

pass through the very small space hs in the time ht gaining
velocity hv and let a force
be acting upon it. Now
F= m X acceleration or ^=
ov
77i
-^ and Bs=^v
hv
F,hs=^
nivBt -^ =1^1' vBv
Bt so
that
= BE,
ot
if
BE stands
for
oE
-K- = m
Bs,
&c., are
Bt,
the increase in the kinetic energy of the body
But our equations
. -y.
made
are only entirely true
smaller and smaller without
when
limit
= mv, or in words, "the differential coefficient of

av
with regard to v is mv" if we integrate with regard to v,
= \mv^ + c where c is some constant. Let
when
v==0
that c =
and we have E |mt;l
Hence as
E
E
-Y-
Practise differentiation and integration using other letters
than X and
had had
y.
-^ stands
In this case
= mx
Exercise.
when a
force
F is
our old -^^
If
is
.the
If
dx
might have been seen more
it
y = Jmar* + c, but you must escape from

of X and y.
26.
for
dv
easily
we
thaf
swaddling bands
the elon/âtion of a spring
applied and
if
a;
F
=-
a representing the
.Bx'is the work done in elongating

the spring through the small distance Bx. If
is gradually
increased from
to i^ and the elongation from
to x, what
strain energy is stored in the spring ?
stiffness of the spring
The gain
iilF
rather ~= =
of energy from
F = ax,
x=^0, we see that
E=iax' =
It is
end of a
hence
c
= 0,
to x-\-Bx is
E = âx^ +
c.
Now
BE = F
if
so that the energy
Bx, or
^ = when
E stored is
iFx..,{l).
worth noting that when a mass

spiral spring
when
it is
is vibrating at the
at the distance x from its
ELEOTRTO CTT1CUI^,,^
"...
^<
potential
33
^".
'"''
position of equilibrium, the

energy is âx^ and the
kinetic energy is Jilfy- or the ^/tot^l, energy is ^Mv^ + âx"^....
is required to pi-oduce an
Note that when a forc0
elongation or compression ^ in a rod, or a deflexion ^r in a beam,
and ii F=^ ax where a is some constant, the energy stored up
as strain energy or potential energy is âx^ or ^Fx.
Also if a Torque T is required to produce a turning

through the angle ^ in a shaft or spring or other structure,
and if r = aO, the energy stored up as strain energy or
potential energy is |a^ or ^T6.
If T is in pound-feet and
is in radians, the answer is in foot-pounds.
Work done = Force x distance,
or
If the student knows anything

27.
translate into ordinary language the
him
Torque x angle.
about electricity let
improved Ohm's law
V = RC + L.dC/dt
Observe that
if
dC
stant, if
C and -^
(1).
(Ohms) and L (Henries) remain con-
are
known
to us,
we know
F,
and
if
the
law of F, a changing voltage, is known you may see that there

must surely be some means of finding C the changing current.
Think of L as the back electromotive force in volts when the
current increases at the rate of 1 ampere per second.
transformer, and therewould be

no electro-motive force in the secondary. In fact the E.M.F.
in the secondary is, at any instant, the number of turns of
the secondary multiplied by the rate at which the induction
changes per second. Rate of increase of / per second is what
If the current in the primary of a
fore the induction in the iron, did not alter, there
we now
the differential coefficient of / with regard to

L is constant only when there is no iron or
else because the induction is small, the correct formula being
time.
call
Although
V= BC-h /V
,-
of nearly universal application.
constant
28.
If
is
(2), it is
found that, practically, (1) with
y = ax" and you wish
to find
-,-
See Art. 183.

I
am
afraid that
34
must assume that you know the Binomial Theorem
which
(x
is
+ by = a? + nbo)''-^ + ^ ^^^ "
^ 62a;-2
-^
^ h'x''-^
+ &c.
show by multiplication that the Binomial

true when n = 2 or 3 or 4 or 5, but when n = ^ or
J or any other fraction, and again, when n is negative, you
had better perhaps have faith in my assertion that the
Binomial Theorem can be proved.
It is easy to
Theorem
is
It is however well that you should see what it means by

working out a few examples. Illustrate it with n = 2, then
?i = 3,
&c., and verify by multiplication.
71 = 4,
Again try
n = l, and if you want to see whether your series is correct,
just recollect that (x
the regular
+ h)~^
way by long
is
and divide
by
a?
+6
in
division.
Let us do with our new function of co as we did with aao^.

Here y = aoo'\ y-\-hy = a{x + hxY =a[x^-\- n.hx x^-^
H
^-^
W {hx)' x^~^
Now
subtract and divide
Tl ill/
~~
!={n
We
having in
all
terms involving higher powers of
^"-1
by hx and you
+ ^^\
hx].
will find
^^ {hx) X''-'
+ &c.
now that as 8x is made smaller and smaller, in

we have only the first term left, all the others
them Bx or (8xy or higher powers of Bx, and they
see
the limit
must
disappear in the limit, and hence,
^=
nax"-i.
(See Notes
p. 159.)
Thus the differential coefficient of a^ is 6x^, of x^^ it is

and of x~^ it is |^~i
When we find the value of the differential coefficient of
any given function we are said to differentiate it. When
2^x^^,
given -^ to find y we are said to integrate.
The
origin of
/"
35
dec.
the words differential and integral need not be considered.
They
now
are
technical terms.
Differentiate ax^
and we
find nax'^~^.
Integrate naaf^^ and we find ax^

constant when we integrate.
Sometimes we write
these, ^- (ax'^)
dx^
\nax'^~^
we write
Obsei've that
when we wish
= nax'^~^ and
before
always add a
= aaf\
dx
We
-\- c.
to say that it is to
and dx after a function
be integrated with regard
Both the symbols are needed. At present you ought

not to trouble your head as to why these particular sorts of
symbol are used*.
to X.
You will find presently that it is not difficult to learn

how to differentiate any known mathematical function. You
will learn the process easily
but integration is a process of
guessing, and however much practice we may have, experience only guides us in a process of guessing.
To some
;
extent one
may
say that differentiation is like multiplicanumber to the 5t]i power. Integration is

like division, or extracting the 5th root.
Happily for the
engineer he only needs a very few integi-als and these are
tion or raising a
* When a great number of things have to be added together in an

engineer's office as when a clerk calculates the weight of each little bit of a
casting and adds them all up, if the letter w indicates generally any of the
little weights, we often use the symbol I,io to mean the sum of them all.
When we indicate the sum of an infinite number of little quantities we
replace the Greek letter
presently that Integration
Thus
if
is
or
S by
may
the long English
or
be regarded as finding a
the ordinate of a curve
a strip of area
is
It will
sum
.
be seen
of this kind.
dx and jy
dx
Again, if 8m stands for

a small portion of the mass of a body and r is its distance from an axis, then
r^ 57/1 is called the moment of inertia of dm about the axis, and Sr^ dm or
means the sum
of all
such
strips, or the
whole area.
r^
Or
if
dm indicates
5
is
the
moment
of inertia of the whole body about the axis.
a small element of the volume of a body
unit volume, then ir^m
dV is
the body's
moment
and
is its
mass per
of inertia.
32
36
As
well known.
for
the
rest, lie
can keep a good long
them ready to refer to, but he had better

them out for himself.
Now
one
is
list
of
practise working
not often asked to integrate n(Mf~^. It is too

One is usually asked to
nicely arranged for one beforehand.

inteoi-ate 6a?"*...(l).
know
that the answer
is
-,...(2).
How do I prove this ? By differentiating (2) I obtain (1), therefore I
know
that (2)
is
the integral of
Only
(1).
ought to
add a constant
in (2), any constant whatever, an arbitrary

constant as it is called, because the differential coefficient of
a constant is 0.
Students ought to work out several
examples, integrating, say, a*^, hsc^, hx^, ax~^, ci^, auo^. When
one has a list of differential coefficients it is not wise to use
them in the reversed way as if it were a list of integrals, for
things are seldom given so nicely arranged.
For instance
integrate
We
last
ôc^,
J4>a^ .da;
more
= a^.
likely it will
now have a number
one includes the others.
y=
(f?
But one seldom
or y
x^
be Sx^ or
5./"^,
asked to
is
that
is
given.
of interesting results, but this
Thus
if
y=
y x*^,
or
a?^
or 3/=
and
we only have examples of
student to work them out as examples.
it
a;"*,
is
good
for
the
Thus
ax
it becomes ()x~'^
If ?i =
If 7i = 1 this becomes \x^ or 1.
But we hardly need a new way of seeing that if y is a
or 0.
know that if
constant, its differential coefficient is 0.
We
y = a-^hx + cx^ + ex^-\- &c. + (/x^\
Then
^f =
+ 6h +
2cx-^
2c^
+ Sex" + &c.
ng
+ ngx''-^
with this knowledge we have the means of working quite

* I suppose a student to know that anj^thing to the power
is unit}-.
It
actually calculate by logarithms a high i-oot of any number
to see how close to 1 the answer comes.
high root means a small power,
the higher the root the more nearly does the power approach 0.
is instructive to
INTEGRATION OF
37
*''.
half the problems supposed to be difficult, that

the engineer.
come before
The two important things

y = ax'K then -~
'
-^
dx
= nax'^~^
^y
where
and
;
'
if
remember now,
-:,*-
dx
i^''"+i
m+1
= bx^,
'
are
If
then
+ c,
some constant, or
c is
bx'^dx
must ask students
*'+!
m+
/
I
to
c.
to try to discover for
= x'\ then
themselves
= ??a'"-^ I do
dx
not give here such illustrations as happened to suit myself;
they suited me because they were my own discovery. I
would suggest this, however
Take y = af\ Let x = l'()2, calculate y by logarithms.
Now let X = 1*03 and calculate y. Now divide the increment
of y by *01, which is the increment of x.
Let the second x be 1"021, and repeat the process.
Let the second x be 1*0201, and repeat the process.
illustrations of the fact that
It will
^^ which
be found that ^^
is
if
is
-^
-i^
approaching the true value of
5 (l-02y.
Do this again when y = x^"^ for example. A student need

not think that he is likely to waste time if he works for
weeks in manufacturing numerical and graphical illustrations
for himself.
Get really familiar with the simple idea that
if
V
^
that
= j;"
then
-,-
dx
\ax^
= nx'^-^
.
dx
that
\av^
j
dv
:
'
ip*+i
+ constant
\f^^
+ constant.
+1
=
sH-1
Practise this with s= '7 or

other letters than x or v.
"8
or I'l or
or "8,
and use
38
Exercises.
29.
Find the following Integrals.
The
constants are not added.
Answer,
Ix". dx.
j\^V' .dv or jv^
r^.dt.
j-dx
we
of
get
one
for
is
some time
Later,
If j9
= av^,
If
= mrK
t;
If
30.
is really
then
,-
if
In our
this integral in only
^ dx = log
and l-dv
(x
+ a),
= log v.
~ = Sav\
then
in-
prove that
= _ ^^^rl
^
at
pv = Rt, where
help us for
indeterminate.
come we need
shall
=-
fails to
and as we can always subtract an
to
we
following exercises.
Find
îf.
^v^,
Here the rule
or lx~^.dx.
y = log a?,
if
Answer,
dv.
v^~^-
Answer,
dv.
I dx = log X, and
and
1-5
Answer, 2e^
which
case.
i.>
constant our answer
finite
work
-zr
\v^
The answer
/v~*. dv.
J
\x^.
is
i^
Find -
constant.
is
constant.
if v is constant.
Answer,
Work
Answer,
the
^
p
The student knows already that the three variables p, v
and t are the pressure volume and absolute temperature of a
at
''dp
gas.
It is too long to Avrite
-^ when v
ctt
is
constant."
We
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION.
shall use for this the synibol [-4i)
the brackets indicating that
the variable not there mentioned,
Find (;/
and
Find
^'
and
Answer, As
p=Rt
39
is
constant.
v~^
we have
[-T-)
= Rtv~\
p~^
we have
(;t-
= Rtp~^,
this simplifies to pv~^.

]
this simplifies to
Find
= Rt
Answer, As v
Answer, As
(I)
vp''\
=|
/,
we have
=^
Find the continued product of the second, fifth, and third of

the above answers and meditate upon the fact that
fdv\ fdt\ (dp\___
[dtj [dp) [dv)"
we may say that

y, or as we say
Generally
variables
if
1.
is
a function of two
x and
then we shall use the symbol
'dv>
(
t- ) to
mean the differential co-
\dxj
efficient of
u with regard
to
x when y
is
considered to
be constant.
These are said to be partial differential coefiKcients.
31.
Here
is
an excellent exercise
Write out any function of x and y
Find
(
^7-
assuming that x
Now
is
differentiate
constant.
for
;
students
call it u.
this
with regard to
The symbol
y,
for the result is
dhi
dy .dx'
It will always be found that one gets the same answer
one differentiates in the other order, that is
dû
dû
dy dx
dx dy
.(3).
if
40
Thus
iry
11
Again,
0,^
+ if+ a(i?ij + hx]f.
\-^\
= + 3?/= 4- ax- + ^hxy,
r/""V = ^ +
and
which
is
+ 2aa; + 2bij,
the same as before.
student ought not to get tired of doing this. Use other

than w and y, and work many examples. The fact
stated in (3) is of enormous importance in Thermodynamics
and other applications of Mathematics to engineering.
proof of it will be given later. The student ought here to
get familiar with the importance of what will then be
proved.
letters
32.
One
Suppose
other thing may be mentioned.
ii is a function of x and y, and that
we
have given us that
(du
Then the
=aa? +
hf-\-co(?y-\-gxy\
integral of this is
11
= lax* + by^x + Jc^y + ^gxy -\-f( y),
This is added
is some arbitrary function of y.
because we always add a constant in integration, and as ?/ is
where f{y)
regarded as a constant in finding
may
by
contain the constant
(-7-
we add f(y), which
in all sorts of forms multiplied
constants.
33.
then ^-
dv
To
=-
illustrate the fact, still

.
unproved, that
if
y = log x,
to take such values of x as

student ouo^ht
^
3,
3001, 3*002, 3"003 &c., find y in every case, divide increments

of y by the corresponding increments of x, and see if our rule
holds good.
+
STEAM AND POWER.
41
Note that when a mathematician writes

means the Napierian logarithm of x.
34.
Example
of
=log
logo) he always
+ constant.
It is proved in Thermodynamics that if in a heat engine the working stuff' receives heat // at temperature t, and if t^ is the temperature
of the refrigerator, then the work done by a perfect heat engine would
ir.'-Jo,orH(l-f).
be
If one pound of water at Iq is heated to ^j, and wc assume that

the heat received per degree is constant, being 1400 foot-lbs. what is
the work which a jêrfect heat engine would give out in equivalence
for the totiil heat ?
Heat energy is to be expressed in foot-pounds.
;
To raise the temperature from t to t-\-dt the heat is 14005^ in foot-lb.

This stands for JI in the above expression. Hence, for this heat we
have the equivalent work 8
W= l-iOOdt
"^^
at
- -^ j
or, rather,
=1400-1400^.
t
W= \AQOt - UOOIq log

Now W=0 when t=tQ,
Hence
constant.
= 1400^0 - 1400^0 log ^0 + constant,

therefore the constant
work
is
for the heat given
known.
from
t^
to
Using this value we
find equivalent
î= 1400 (t^ - to) 1400^0 ^^S j"
If now the
called Latent
pound of water at t^ receives the heat X^ foot-lb. (usually

Heat) and is all converted into steam at the constant
temperature t^ the work which is thermodynamically equivalent to this
,
is
L^ll--].
We
see then that the
work which a perfect
steam
engine would give out as equivalent to the heat received, in raising

the pound of water from t^ to t^ and then evaporating it, is
1400
{t,
- 1,) - urn, loge ^^ + X,
(^1
^f^
Exercise. What work would a perfect steam engine perform per

pound of steam at ^^ = 439 (or 102 lb. per sq. inch), or 165^0, if ^q = 374
or 100' C.
Here L^ = 681 ,456 foot-pounds.
The work is found to be 107,990 ft.-lb. per lb. of steam. Engineers
usually wish to know how many pounds of steam are used per hour
per Indicated Horse Power,
lb.
per hour, means
pr!
^^ ft.-lb.
per
of steam
lb.
minute. Putting this equal to 3.3(KM) we find 2V
per hour per Indicated Horse Power, as the requirement of a perfect
steam engine working between the temperatm'es of 165 C and 100 C.
to be 18-35
42
Exercises. It is proved iii Thermodynamics when

or water and steam are together at the same
temperature, if Si is the volume of unit mass of stuff in the
higher state and Sq is the volume of unit mass of stuff in the
35.
ice
and water
Then
lower state.
t
is the absolute temperature, being 274 + 6" C, L
being the latent heat in unit mass in foot-pounds. If we
take L as the latent heat of 1 lb. of stuff, and Si and Sq are
the volumes in cubic feet of 1 lb. of stuff, the formula is
still correct, p being in lb. per sq. foot.
where
In Ice-water, So = '01747, 8^ = '01602 at ^=274 (corresponding to 0 C), p being 2116 lb. per sq. foot, and
I.
X = 79
X 1400.
Hence
^ = - 278100.
at
And hence
the temperature of melting ice is less as the

pressure increases or pressure lowers the melting point of
ice ; that is, induces towards melting the ice.
Observe the
;
quantitative meaning of -^
the melting point lowers at the
rate of '001 of a degree for an increased pressure of 278

per sq. foot or nearly 2 lb. per sq. inch.
lb.
Water Steam.
It seems almost impossible to
II.
measure accurately by experiment, Si the volume in cubic
feet of one pound of steam at any temperature.
So for water
Calculate s^ Sq from the above formula, at a few
is known.
temperatures having from Regnault's experiments the followI think that the figures explain themselves.
ing table.
e^c
absolute
pressure in
lb. per sq.
inch
sq. foot
P
lb.
per
100
374
14-70
211G-4
105
379
17-r)3
2524
Sp
assumed
dp
in foot-
5t
dt
pounds
Sj-So
81-5
87-8
94
110
384
20-80
2994
740,710 22-20
LATENT HEAT.
43
assumed that the vakie of dpjdt for IDS'" C. is

of 81 "5 and 94.
The more correct way of
proceeding would be to plot a great number of values of
hplht on squared paper and get dpjdt for 105 C. more
accurately by means of a curve, f
It is here
sum
half the
- So for 105 C. =
"OIG for cold water
740710 -- (379 x 87*8) = 22-26. Now

and it is not worth while making any
correction for its warmth.
Hence we may take s^ = 22*28
which is sufficiently nearly the correct answer for the present
s,
So
pui-pose.
Find
Example.
tF.
248
257
4152
4854
Si
275 F. from the following,
for
266
5652
275'
284
6551
7563
L being
293
302
8698
9966
Example. If the formula for steam pressure, p=a6^ where a and b

are known numbers, and 6 is the temperature measured from a certain
zero which is known, is found to be a useful but incorrect formula
ibr re])reseiiting Reguault's experimental results deduce a fornuila for
the volume s^ of one p<nnid of steam.
have also the well known
formula for latent heat Lc-et^ where t is the absolute temperature
;
We
and
dv
and
are
known numbers.
Hence, as
is
'
i?
de
which
is
the same as
haB^-\ s^-SQ=(c-et)^tbae^-\
After subjecting an empirical formula to mathematical operations

wise to test the accuracy of the result on actual experimental
numbers, as the formula represents facts only approximately, and the
small and apparently insignificant terms in which it difl:ers from fact,
may become greatly magnified in the mathematical operations.
it is
Study of Curves.
36.
curve
power
When
the equation to a
given, the practical man ought to rely

of plotting it upon squared paper.
is
Very
often, if
we
find
or the slope,
first
new
upon
everywhere,
his
it
gives us a good deal of information.

If we are told that a.\, y^ is a point on a curve, and we are
asked to find the equation to the tangent there, we have
simply to find the straight line which lias the same slope
as the curve there and which passes through x^, y^.
The
normal is the straight line which passes through x^, y^ and
whose slope is minus the reciprocal of the slope of the curve
there.
See Art. 13.
(fig.
tangent
the axes.
is
8)
The
subtangent
RQ
distance
dii
equal to y -^
to be
FQ
OR x, RF y,
called the
APB at which the

OX and Y are
a point in a curve
the normal
are drawn.
is
FS and
is
called the
y\J\-\-{,\
W^^ î
FSR = ;,-
prove that
The length
tan
it is
the
equal to
subnormal;
of the tangent
length of
^^^ Intercept OS
is
it is
FS will
the
^-
SR
the distance
?/ -i-
-^
evidently
be found
normal
FQ
is
- y '^
Example 1. Find the length of the sub tangent and subnormal of the Parabola
y = mx'^,
-
dy
dx
Subtangent
Hence
Subnormal
Example
2.
2nix.
= mx- 2?/iif or ^x.

= y x 2nix or 2m^x^.
-=-
Find the length of the subtangent of y = Wio;",
dy_
dx
Subtangent
mnx'
nix'^
-i-
vinx'^~^
xju.
CURVES.
Example
45
Find of Avhat curve the subnormal
3.
is
constant
3/^
+a
in length,
dy
y-f^
dx
The
integral of -
?/
=a
d^
dy
= ~ n.
or -r
a-^
Avith regard to
is
a*
=~
con-
Act
Cl
h, and this is the equation to the curve, where h may

have any value. It is evidently one of a family of parabolas.
(See Art. 9 where xs and y's are merely interchanged.)
stant
Example
bola y
slope
4.
= 'â^.
is
dy
-^ =
The point ^ = 4, ?/ = 3 is a point in the paraFind the equation to the tangent there. The
X fA'"^
1-
or,
as
;r
=4
there, the slope
is
f x ^ or
-|
The tangent is then, y = m+ g^. To find m we have ^ = 3

when a? = 4 as this point is in the tangent, or 3 = 9/1 + | x 4,
so that
??i
is 1 J
Example
the curve y
and the tangent
The point ^ =
5.
= 2-{-^x-'.
is
32,
= + %x.
= 3 is evidently a point in
li|-
3/
1/
Find the equation to the normal

dij
The
slope of the curve there
is
^ = -^x'
= yj^
there.
and the
minus the reciprocal of this or 160.

y = m \ Q>Ox. But it passes through
the point x=S2, y = S and hence S =
KiO x 32.
=
=
Hence m 5123 and the normal is y 5123 160;r.
slope of the normal
Hence the normal
is
is
Example
At what point
6.
the slope 6?
dy
-f
ax
The
point
is
in the curve
= aa?""" is there
= - nax-'^-K
such that
its
satisfies
nax~^^~'^ = h
or,
j-j
Knowing
its
x we know
its
y from the
equation to the curve. It is easy to see and well to remember that if ^1, 3/1 is a point in a straight line, and if the slope
of the line is 6, then the equation to the line most quickly
written is
x x^
46
Hence the equation

point
a?i, 2/1
on the curve
And
y^
^^
Xx
the tangent to a curve at the
to
is
the -^ at the point.
dx
the equation to the normal
- =
x Xi
Exercise
the point
2.
^ at the
the
point.
aij
Find the tangent to the curve
1.
x^, y^
Exercise
is
x^y^^
Answer, X'\- - y=m-\-
on the curve.
a at
n.
Find the normal to the same curve.
Answer,
a?,)
(a?
(!/
- y.) =
0.
Xi
y"
Find the tangent and normal to the parabola

Exercise 3.
at the point where x = a.
= âx
Answer, y = x -\- a, y = Sa x.
Find the tangent to the curve
Exercise 4.
y =^ a -{-hx
\- ca^
ex^
at a point on the curve x^, y^.
Answer, ^ ~^-^
X Xi
=6+
2cXi -f êx^^
When y increases to a certain value and then

37.
diminishes, this is said to be a maximum value of y;
when y diminishes to a certain value and then increases,
It is evident
this is said to be a minimum value of y.
that for either case -^
dx
= 0.
See Art. 16 and
fief.
6.
Example 1. Divide 12 into two parts such that the

product is a maximum. The practical man tries and easily
finds the answer. He tries in this sort of way. Let x be one
part and 12 x the other.
He tries x = 0, x = l, x = 2, &c.,
in every case finding the product.
Thus
a^|0|l|2i3
Product
11
20
27
32
35
36
35
32
27
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.
47
It seems as if ^' = 6, giving the product 36, were the correct

answer.
But if we want to be more exact, it is good to get
a sheet of squared paper; call the product y and plot the
corresponding values of x and y. The student ought to do
this himself
Now
it is
readily seen that
where y has a
minimum
maximum
value, in all cases the slope of a curve

then the point or points where dy\dx is 0.
is 0.
or a
Find
Thus if a number a is divided into two parts, one of them

X and the other a x, the product is y = ^ (a a;) or ax x^,
=a 2x.
and
2x
or
Find where this
is
0.
Evidently where
x= \a.
man has no great difficulty in any of his

problems in finding whether it is a maximum or a minimum
which he has found. In this case, let a = 12. Then x = Q
gives a product 36. Now if a? = 5 999, the other part is 6*001
and the product is 35-999999, so that a? = 6 gives a greater
product than x = 5*999 or x= 6*001, and hence it is a maximum and not a minimum value which we have found. This
is the only method that the student will be given of distinguishing a maximum from a minimum at so early a period
of his work.
The
practical
Example 2. Divide a number a into two parts such

sum of their squares is a minimum. If x is one
part, ax is the other.
The question is then, if
y = ar' + (a xf, when is y a minimum ?
that the
2/
= 2^-2 + a^ - 2ax,
-^= 4^
dx
Examjile
reciprocal a
When
is
The
dy
-IT"
-,
2/
3.
2a,
and
When
minimum ?
this is
minimum
is
the
sum
of a
number and
Let x be the number and y
its
=x + -.
1
-,
when x â.
2
- or
^
11..^.
and this
when =
is
a?
x~'^
1.
being
x~^, we have
CALCULUS FOR ENGINEEKS.
48
The student ought to take numbers and a sheet of squared

paper and try. Trying a;= 100, 10, 4 &c. we have
2/
100
10
100-01
101
4-25
2-5
2-5
4i
Now
let
him
minimum when
plot
x and
i/
and he
will see that
is
= 1.
The strength of a rectangular beam
a;
Example 4.
of
given length, loaded and supported in any 2:)articular way, is
proportional to the breadth of the section multiplied by the
square of the depth. If the diameter a is given of a cylindric
tree, what is the strongest beam which may be cut from it ?
Let X be its breadth. Then if you draw the rectangle inside
the circle, you will see that the depth is Ja'^ x-.
Hence
the strength is a maximum when y is a maximum if
y = x((r--x-),
or
3/
j^
dx
= a- 3a",
= a\x x-\
and
this is
when x~=^,
V3
beam which may be cut
In the same way find the siiffest

from the tree by making the breadth x the cube of the depth
a maximum.
however,
This,
mav
wait
till
the
student
has
read
Chap. III.
Example
5.
Experiments on the explosion of mixtures
(at atmospheric pressure) lead to a roughly correct rule
p = 83-3-2a?,t
where p is the highest pressure produced in the explosion,
and X is the volume of air together with products of previous
combustions, added to one cubic foot of coal gas before explosion. Taking px as roughly proportional to the work done
in a gas engine during explosion and expansion what value
;
of
will
make
this a
maximum
FUEL ON A VOYAGE.
That
is,
when
6'4fX= 0,
83
or
49
S'2x^ a maximum
about 13 cubic feet.
is 83^3
is
Answer,
When
afraid to make Mr Grover responsible for the above

which I have drawn from his experiments. His most
interesting result was, that of the above 13 cubic feet it is
very much better that only 9 or 10 should be air than that
it should all be air.
I
am
result
Example
Example
x^ is a maximum when
\a.
x x^ is a maximum when
Prove that ax
6.
Prove that
7.
^=:^V3.
,
Example
The volume
8.
being given (no cover) when
of a circular cylindric cistern

surface a minimum ?
is its
Let X be the radius and y the length
the volume
= a, say
ttx^ + 27rxi/
irafy
The
surface
When
is
From
is
this a
(1),
is
(1).
(2).
minimum ?
y
is
using this in (2)
we
see that
we
TTX"
must make
2a
TTX^ H
r=0
27rx
mmimum,
or x^
a?
x^=
=-
TT
iTX^y
or x=^y.
TT
The radius
of the base is equal to the height of the cistern.
Example
Let the cistern of Ex. 8 be closed top and

minimum surface and given volume.
The surface is 2irx- + îrxy, and proceeding as before we
find that the diameter of the cistern is equal to its height.
bottom, find
9.
it
of
Example
10.
If v is the velocity of water in a river and
the velocity against stream of a steamer relatively to the
luater, and if the fliel burnt per hour is a + bx^; find the
is
p.
60
a? so as to make the consumption of fuel a minimum

a given distance m. The velocity of the ship relatively
to the bank of the river is acv, the time of the passage is
velocity
for
and therefore the
OS
burnt during the passage
fuel
is
m(a-\- ha?)
xv
Observe that a -\-
hx^ with proper values given to a and h

represent the total cost per hour of the steamer, including interest and depreciation on the cost of the vessel,
besides wages and provisions.
may
You
a
0,
cannot yet differentiate a quotient, so I will assume
and the question reduces to this: when
minimum
X "^
V
r a
Now
maximum
same question as
this is the
or
when
is
ar^
vx~^
a?
is
:
when
maximum ?
a
is
The
a?
differential coefficient is
we
to
find
the water
is
2ar^ + ^vx~\
Putting this equal
x = '^v, or that the speed of the ship relatively to

half as great again as that of the current.
Notice here as in all other cases of maximum and minithat the engineer ought not to be satisfied merely with
such an answer. x='^v is undoubtedly the best velocity, it
makes a?j{x v) a minimum. But suppose one runs at less
or more speed than this, does it make much difference ? Let
V = 6, the best a? is 9,
mum
.-r
x-=243
= 250
= 256
if
= 9.
if
a;
= 10.
if
a;=8;
tell us the nature of the extra expense in

case the theoretically correct velocity is not adhered to*.
and these figures
Assuming that you know the
rule for the differentiation of a quotient

in the Calculus, and
usually learnt at the very beginning of one's work

without assuming a
to be
as above,
we have
(a;-i?)36a;*=a + 6x',
26x3_3tv2_rt
(1).

CUllRENT FROM CELLS.
Example
is
The sum
11.
of the squares of two factors of a
a minimum, find them.
and y'=x^-{-
to be a
is
If
Qj^
other,
51
is
one of them, -
when
this is
Example
x^
^r x
ct-
(it/
ZiO'
ax
x^
minimum, -^ = 2x
x^
the
is
and
\'a.
To arrange n voltaic cells so as to obtain

the maximum current through a resistance R. Let the E.M.F.
of each cell be e and its internal resistance r.
If the cells
are arranged as x in series, n-jx in parallel, the E.M.F. of the
battery
is
current
G ==
12.
xe,
and
xe-^
its internal resistance is
minimum,
so
(7
is
Hence the
R]
\-
As the student cannot yet

shall say that
differentiate a quotient,
maximum when
...
when
we ask
fx'r
is
reciprocal
its
R]
-^ê or
Given the values of
Thus
let
let
r = 6.
xr
a, 6 and v the proper value of x can be found by

the cost per day in pounds be 30 + ^V^^ so that a = 30, 6 =
Find x from
a;
= 11-3
is
a
a
trial.
^ and
(1)
which becomes
.r3_
I find that
we
is
9^2- 300 =
(2).
about the best answer.
Tliis is a cubic equation and so has three roots.

But the engineer needs
only one root, he knows about how much it ought to be and he only wants
in the following
approximately.
whatsoever
He solves any equation
sort of way.
it
Let x^-9x--S00 be called f{x). The question

this 0?
Try a;= 10, f{x) turns out to be - 200,
is,
what value of x
makes
10
12
11
11-3
-360
+ 176
-57
-6
/(^)
-200
it to be 0.
Now I try a; = 8, this gives -360 which is
Now I try 12 and I get 176 so that x evidently lies between
10 and 12. Now I try 11 and find - 57.
It is now worth while to use
squared paper and plot the curve y=f{x) between a; = 10 and a;=12. One
can find the true answer to any number of places of decimals by repeating
this process.
In the present case no great accm*acy is wanted and I take
a: = 11*3 as the best answer.
Note that the old answer obtained by assuming
a = is only 9. A practical man will find much food for thought in thinking
of these two answers. Note that the captain of a river steamer must always
be making this sort of calculation although he may not put it down on
paper.
whereas we want
further wrong.
42

52
minimum
when R =
jR
?'
and
Its differential coefficient is

,
which
is
this is
the internal resistance of the battery.
Hence we have the rule Arrange the battery so that its

internal resistance shall be as nearly as possible equal to the
external resistance.
:
Example
13.
Voltaic cell of
sistance r; external resistance
The power given out
P a maximum
To make
say,
7^
P = RC\
P=R
{r
what value of
What
is
value of
(7=
R will
re^z.
make
work as we have already done we may
+ 2Rr + jR^
~
and internal
+ Rf
this suit such
=e
The current
i?.
is
E.M.F.
<^r ')'^R~^
will
2r
make
+P
(?
^^
Ry
+j~^
minimum
minimum,
or
Putting its diiferential coefficient with regard to R equal

= r, or the external
we have - i-^R-^ -t- 1 = so that
resistance ought to be equal to the internal resistance.
to
Example 14. What is the volume of the greatest box

which may be sent by Parcels post ?
Let x be the length,
y and z the breadth and thickness. The P. 0. regulation is
that the length plus girth must not be greater than 6 feet.
That is, we want v = xyz to be a maximum, subject to the
condition that x-\-2{y + z) = Q.
It is evident that y and z
enter into our expressions in the same way, and hence y = z.
So that a; + 4i/ = 6 and v = xy^ is to be a maximum. Here as
= (6 - 4^) y^ or 6^* 4^' to be a maxia; = 6 4^ we have
-y
fj'i)
mum.
v=
Putting
for
-T-
we have 12^
an obvious reason, y =
1,
123/^
= 0.
Rejecting
and hence our box
is
2 feet
long, 1 foot broad, 1 foot thick, containing 2 cubic feet.
Find the volume of the greatest cylindric parcel which may

Length being I and diameter d,l + ird Q
be sent by Post.
IT
4
and -r Idr is to be a maximum. Answer, I = 2 feet, d = feet,
4
TT
Volume = 8 -^ TT or 2'55 cubic feet.
.
WATER
Example
IN
STEAM CYLINDER.
Ayrton-Perry Spring.
15.
Prof.
58
Ayrton and
the present writer noticed that in a spiral spring fastened at

one end, subjected to axial force F, the free end tended to
Now it was easy to get the general formula for the
rotate.
elongation and rotation of a spring of given dimensions, and
by nothing more than the above principle we found what these
dimensions ought to be for the rotation to be great.
Thus
for
example, the angle of the spiral being a the

a. cos a.
It at once followed
rotation was proportional to sin

that a ought to be 45.
Again, the wire being of elliptic section, x and y being

the principal radii of the ellipse, we found that the rotation
was proportional to
To make
this
a maximum, the section (which is proporLet xy = 5, a constant, then the
tional to xy) being given.
above expression becomes
"- ^
s^
r,
and
this is to
be a maximum.
o sy^
Here we see that there is no true maximum. The larger

we make y or the smaller we make y (for small values of y
the rotation is negative but we did not care about the direction of our rotation, that is, whether it was with or against
the usual direction of winding up of the coils) the greater is
the rotation. This is how we were led to make springs of

thin strips of metal wound in spirals of 45.
The amount
of rotation obtained for quite small forces and small axial
elongations is quite extraordinary. The discovery of these very
useful springs was complete as soon as we observed that any
spring rotated when an axial force was applied. Students
who are interested in the practical application of mathematics
ought to refer to the complete calculations in our paper
published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of 1884.
Example 16. From a Hypothetical Indicator

the indicated work done per cubic foot of steam is
w 144^1 (1
-f-
log r)
144?"j[)3
x.
Diagram
CALCULUS FOR engineehs.
54
where jh and
steam
jXi
arc the initial
and back pressures of the
the ratio of cut off (that
is
the stroke) and
a?
is
due
loss
w depends upon
cylinder,
to
is,
cut off
is
at -th of
condensation in the
r.
1st.
If X were 0, what value of r would give most
indicated work per cubic foot of steam ?
We
or
?'
must make
If
it is
= 0,
and we find
brake energy which
is
=^
144.i =
to be a
maximum
per cubic foot of steam, we must add to p^ a term representing engine friction.
2nd.
Mr
engines that
if
we put
Willans found by experiment in non-condensing

?
= ^
in the
So that ~~
that
.r
above
maximum
gave
-,
we have
= ^^^ (p, + 10) -
leads us to the notion that the

steam is a linear function of 7\
^ 144^^
144^3 or
= 1440r + constant. Hence Mr
Now
indicated w.
^^^
= 1440.
=0.
So
Willans' practical rule

foot of
work lacking per cubic
This is given here merely as a pretty exercise in maxima

and*minima. As to the practical engineering value of the
result, much might be said for and against.
It really is as if
there was an extra back pressure of 10 lb. per sq. inch which
represented the effect of condensation.
Mr Willans found experimentally in a non-condensing

engine that the missing water per Indicated Horee Power
hour is a linear function of ? using the same steam in the
boiler, but this is not the same as our .^.
We sometimes
assume the ratio of condensed steam to indicated steam to
be proportional to log r, but a linear function of r will agree
just as well with such experimental results as exist.
Example 17. The weight of gas which will flow
per second through an orifice from a vessel where it is at
ECONOMY IN CONDUCTORS.
pressure
is
/>o
into another vessel
proportional to >
constant, when
known
ay
is
repeated.
a.
maximum
is this
where
;
where a
is pjpf^
That
and 7
is,
when
is
when
is
and equating to
we
j^
air 7 = 1*41 and we find p = "527^0 that is,

a maximum quantity leaving a vessel per second
the outside pressure is a little greater than half the
In the case of
there
jfj
See Art. 74, where this example
Differentiating with regard to a

find
at the pressure
it is
maximum
55
>
is
inside pressure.
Example 18. Taking the waste going on in an electric

conductor as consisting of (1) the ohmic loss the value of
G^r watts, where r is the resistance in ohms of a mile of going
;
and coming conductor and C is the current in amperes;

due to interest and depreciation on the cost of
the conductor. I have taken the price lists of manufacturers
of cables, and contractors' prices for laying cables, and I find
that in every case of similar cables, similarly laid, or suspended
(2) the loss
if overhead, the cost of a mile of conductor is practically

proportional to the weight of copper in it, that is, inversely
proportional to the resistance, plus a constant. The cost of
it per year will depend upon the cost of copper per ton,
multiplied by the number taken as representing rate per
cent, per annum of interest and depreciation.
can state
this loss per year or per second, in money per year or per
second and the ohmic loss is in watts.
cannot add them
together until we know the money value per year or per
second of 1 watt. There are three things then that decide
the value of the quantity which we call t^. I prefer to
express the total waste going on in watts rather than in
We
We
pounds sterling per annum and I find
it
to
hey
C^r
-\
f-
6,
where h is some constant. The value of t may be taken as

anything from 17 to 40 for the working of exercises, but
66
students had better take figures of their

power, copper and interest*.
For a given current

that is, what
minimum ?
a given current
Thus
if
Now
if
inches, r
the cost ot
= 40,
*^^^ ^^
^ when r
-^.
= ^.
the cross section of the conductor in square
is
for
when is the y, the total waste, a

the most economical conductor for
^~^^~';^ ^^^
^
(7,
is
own
04
nearly, so that (7= 1000a, or
most econom-
it is
to provide one square inch of copper for every
ical
1000
amperes of current.
When w
is
a function of
more than one independent
* The weight of a mile of copper, a square inches in cross section, is to

be figured out. Call it ma tons. If p is the price in pounds sterling of a
ton of copper, the price of the cable may be taken as, nearly, pma + some
constant. If R is the rate per cent, per annum of interest and depreciation,
then the loss per annum due to cost of cable may be expressed in pounds as
-r^l'wa + some constant.

100
serve that this figure
If
1 per annum
w must
have a constaiat current
is
the value of
be evaluated with care.

hours a day, every day, w
for 24
then the cost of the cable leads to a perpetual loss

constant.
Now
taking
**
a=
we
see that our
%v
watts, (ob-
If the cable is to
easily evaluated),
is
of
t^ is -^7=7^77
zrj-r.
100
wpma + some
2000
Men
take the answer to this problem as if it gave them the most economany conductor under all circumstances. But although the
above items of cost are most important, perhaps, in long cables, there are
other Items of cost which are not here included. The cost of nerves and
eyesight and comfort if a light blinks ; the cost in the armature of a dynamo
of the valuable space in which the current has to be carried.
ical current for
If a man will only write down as a mathematical expression the total

cost of any engineering contrivance as a function of the size of one or more
variable parts, it is quite easy to find the best size or sizes; but it is not
And yet this is the sort of
always easy to write down such a function.
problem that every clever engineer'is always working in his head; increasing
something has bad and good effects; what one ought to do is a question in
'
maxima and minima.

Notice also this. Suppose we find a value of x which makes y a maxiit may be, that quite different values of x from this, give values of
y which are not very different from the maximum value. The good practical
engineer will attend to matters of this kind and in such cases he will not
insist too strongly upon the use of a particular value of x.
mum

ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS.
variable^ say x and
y.
Then
= 0,
-
57
being, considered
constant during the differentiation, and
= 0, x
being
considered constant during the differentiation, give two equawhich enable the values of x and y to be found which
Here, however,
will make u a maximum or a minimum.
there is more to be said about whether it is a minimum or
a maximum, or a maximum as to x and a minimum as to y,
which one has found, and we cannot here enter into it.
tions
in the above case although it is a function of

there may be a law connecting x and y, and a little
exercise of common sense will enable an engineer to deal
with the case. All through our work, that is what is wanted,
no mere following of custom; a man's own thought about his
own problems will enable him to solve very difficult ones
Sometimes
X and
y,
with very
little
mathematics.
Thus for example, if we do not want to find the best conductor

for a given current of Electricity: if it is the Power to be
If the distance is n miles,
delivered at the distant place that is fixed.
and the conductors have a resistance of r ohms per mile (go and return),
if \\ is the potential, given, at the Generating end, and C is the
current. Then the potential at the receiving end being T' F^ - T^= Cnr.
;
CV=PiH
fixed,
and the cost per mile
is
y = C^r + -...{l),
where
t^
is
known. When is y a minimum?

V= V^ - Cnr
Here both C and r may vary, but not independently.
and P=(7F, (7%r ... (2). One simple plan is to state ?/ in terms of r
alone or of
alone.
Thus
Substituting for this jn
r from (2)
(1),
we
is
r=
CV
^P
(3).
get
CV,-P
f-a^n
y=-ir-^cv;^p
to
^^^-
Here everything is constant except (7, so we can find the value of C

make y a minimum, and when we know C we also know r from (3).
At present the student
is supposed to be able to difibrentiate only

he need not proceed with the problem until he has worked a few
exercises in Chap. III.*
^", so
*
j>,
d(J
To
differentiate (4) is a very easy exercise in
= i +
n
{CVi~Py
-/xr^
the required value of C.
5svo
It
>
Chap.
III.
and leads
and on putting
o this equal to
JT
to
we obtain
would not be of much use to proceed further
58
In ray Cantor lectures on Hydraulic Machinery, I wrote out an

expression for the total loss in pounds per annum in Hydraulic
transmission of povirer by a piiwj. I gave it in terms of the
maximum pressure, the power sent in, and the diameter d of the pipe.
It was easy to choose d to make the total cost a minimum.
If however I had chosen jo, the pressure at the receiving end as fixed, and the
power delivei-ed as fixed, and therefore Q, the cubic feet of water per
second, and if I had added the cost of laying as proportional to the
square of the diameter, I should have had an expression for the total
cost like
pqi
i(^
when the
values of a, h and c
interest on the cost of iron, &c.
depend upon the cost of power, the
This is a minimum when its differenwith regard too? is zero or ^cldhal(^d'^-\-Zh^^M~^^

and d can be obtained by trial. The letters 6 and c also involv^ the
strength of the material, so that it wjxs possible to say whether wrought
iron or cat iron was on the whole the cheaper.
But even here a term
is neglected, the cost of the Engine and Pumps.
tial coefficient
The following example comes in conveniently here, although it is

Maximum or Minimum.
An Electric Conductor gives out continuously a amperes
of current in every mile of its length.
Let x be the distance of any
not an example of
from the end of the line remote from the generator, let
the current there and V the voltage.
Let r ohms per mile be the
resistance of the conductor (that is, of one mile of going and one mile
of coming conductor).
The current given out in a distance hx is dC,
jKiint in miles
C be
or rather hx -j-
and the power
is
bx
V '-f-
o that if
is
the
power per mile (observe the meaning of per),
Also
if
is
voltage at
x and
As
:(')
''='-f
V+bVat x+8x]
the i-esistance is i' 8x the current is dV-rr dx^ or rather, since

these expressions are not correct until 8x is supposed smaller and
smaller witliout limit,
.
^-l^
(^)-
unless we had numerical values given us,

= 10 miles,
20000 watts, f^=H)00, find G and then
P=
91
r.
Consult a Paper in the Joimial of the Institution of tJie Society of Telegraph Engineers, p. 120, Vol. xv. 1886, if there is any further difficulty.
It
there
has not yet been sufficiently noted that

is
if
V^
and
and
r are given,
a limiting length of line
n=JV/4rP,
and when
ductor.
this is the case
is
exactly equal to the
ohmic
loss in the con-
ELECTRIC TRACTION.
As
-T-
Hence
= ^h
C=t<.<,- if
C is
when
r is constant (2)
if
rax
.r
= 0.
becomes
= dV so that
,
T^
Fq + i
^^-^-^
line.
ô being the voltage at the extremity of the
(1)
59
.(3),
PâV^+^ra'^x'^
becomes
(4).
Taking ro = 200 volts, a = 25 amperes per mile, r=l ohm per mile,
it is easy to see by a numerical example, how the power dispensed per
mile, and the voltage, diminish as we go away from the generator.
''
5000
5312
6250
7812
200
1
212-5
2
3
250
400
312-5
10,000
If Fi is the voltage at the Dynamo and the line is n miles long

T\=F^-|-iam2from(4).
The power per mile at the extremity being l\ = aVQ, if we are given
V^ and 1\ to find T'q, we shall find that n cannot be greater than
l\-V2ô,
and
this gives the limiting length of the line.
we wish, as in Electric
to uniform P, let us try
If
traction
to get a nearer approach
C=ax-hx^
where
a. h, c
(5),
are constants.
1
-
^y = ax - oyf\
7^
-
ax
\=V,+\rax-^-^^x<^^
As
P=V dC
,-
constants
or
a, b, c
{a
- cbx^-'^), we can
easily
detennine the three
same at any three points of

r=l ohm, Fo=100 volts, and let P= 10000 watts,
so that
shall be the
thehne. Thus let

where .^;=0, x=l mile, .r=l| miles.
We
find
by
trial
that
(7=100.r-14-75.r2-iu
and from
this it is
(6).
eas}'^
to calculate
Cat any
point of the line
60
machine costs ax-\-hy/\t'& value to mc is

Example 19.
proportional to xy, find the best values of x and y if the cost
Here xy is to be a maximum. Let c = cw; + 63/, so
is fixed.
that V
when
=
j
b
-~
=2
j.^>
^^d ^y
r X or ax
is
-^
T ^^.
This
Hence ax
is
maximum
= hy = 0/2
makes xy a
maximum.
Examj)le 20. The electric time constant of a cylindric
wire is approximately
coil of
= mxyzl{ax +hy + cz),
II
the mean radius, y is the difference between the

internal and external radii, z is the axial length and m, a, b, c
are known constants.
The volume of the coil is 27rxyz.
Find the values of x, y, z to make u a maximum if the
volume of the coil is fixed. Let then 27r xyz = g when is
where x
is
yz
is
xz
ax
xy
+ bi/ 4-
fectly
minimum
^90 =
v,
That
say, a
independent we put
is,
substituting for
minimum
As x and y
and
or
;t~
ft
so that
are
A'^y
x^
or
^^^
ax
T,
-^
or
a'^27r
and
2'ir'
.1 -
-7-
a27r
a=27r
or
2^
'lirxy
-?
= 0,
s^^^,
2'7rxy^
a^r
p(ir-
= 0,
Fig. 9.
and
when
+ o-.^^=o.
ITT^/.^+
and
z,
C27i^
627r
HANGING CHAIN.
61
38. The chain of a suspension bridge supports a load

by means of detached rods the loads are about equal and
Suppose a chain to be really continuously
equally spaced.
;
w per unit length horizontally. Any

uniform chain or telegraph wire is nearly in this
be the lowest point.
condition.
What is its shape ? Let
OX is tangential to the chain
Y
and horizontal at 0. OF is
loaded, the load being
veiy
flat
P be
Let
vertical.
any point
in the chain, its co-ordinates
being x and
equilibrium
y.
of
Consider the
the portion
OP is in equilibrium,
OP.
under the action of Tq the
horizontal tensile force at 0,
Tthe inclined tangential force
at
and wx the resultant
load upon
acting ver-
^M
\
I
OP
We employ the
tically.
of forces acting
which
upon
rigid bodies.
acted on by forces and
is
^^
-p.
laws
is
rigid body is a body

no longer altering its
shape.
If
we draw a
triangle
whose sides are
parallel to these
forces they are proportional to the forces,
and
if
is
horizontal
the inclination of
T
wx
and
but tan ^
is
j^
dx
to the
cos 0.
(1).
tan^.
.(2),
so that
hence, integrating,
= 7^
^
dx
Tq
1
-to
c.
5^
â
wr
Pig. 11.
;;... (3);
y = ^7rr^ + constant.
Now we
is 0.
when x is 0, so that the constant

see that y is
Hence the equation to the curve is
1
(*).
62
and
it
is
tan ^
is
o^,
so that sec- 6 is
Andasr = rosec^, r=ToA/l+Û-^...(5).
1-f^,^^
From
Now
a parabola.
this, all sorts of calculations
may be made.
Thus
D the dip
the span and
of a telegraph wire, if the whole

curve be drawn it will be seen that we have only to put in
(4) the information that when x\l,y = D,
if
I is
and the greater tension elsewhere
is
easy to
find.
In the problem of the shape of any uniform chain, loaded

only with its own weight, the integi'ation is not so easy. I
give it in a note*. When it is so flat that we may take the
*
The
integration in this note requires a knowledge of Chapter in.
If the weight of the portion of chain
where s is the length of the curve from

Catenary, Equation (3) above becomes
OP, instead of being wx is %cs,

to P, the curve y is called the
| = ^^.or,eingr,=.c.^V.i
an elementary
If bs is the length of
(X).
bit of chain, we. see that in the limit
{bsY={8xf^{byf
60 that
"i-
and hence -^
"
'slc'
+ s^
= A/
3-
+ If
This being integrated gives y + c=v^c2 + -...( 2),
the constant added in integration being such that = when y = 0.

we find 6-2=^2^ 2j/c... (3), and using this in (1), we have
dx _
the integral of which
as
when y=0,
a?=0,
From
(2)
is
if
this in the exponential
is
the origin, no constant
form
c^lc _ y
transposing and squaring we find
^.
^.
JyT. ^ 2yc,
is to
be added.
Putting
HEATING SURFACE OF BOILER
a3
load on any piece of it as proportional to the horizontal projection of it, we have the parabolic shape.
|
Efficiency of Heating Surface of Boiler.

39.
If 1 lb. of gases in a boiler flue would give out the heat
in cooling to the temperature of the water (0 maybe taken
as proportional to the difference of temperature between
gases and water, but this is not quite correct), we find from
Peclet's experiments that the heat per hour that flows through
a square foot of flue surface is, roughly, md\ Let ^ = î at
the furnace end of a flue and 6 = 0^ at the chimney end.
Let us study what occurs at a place in the flue.
The gases having passed the area S in coming from the

furnace to a certain place where the temperature is 6, proOr changing the origin
SP is y' and RP
>Yhere
to
a point at the distance c below O, as at
is x,
O in fig. 12
we have
.(4).
This
is
Using
sometimes called
(1)
we
y'
,
find
sometimes called
= c cosh xjc.
I
-x!c\
xlc
= c sinh xjc.
Nv
ly
Fig. 12.
Note that tables of the values of sinh u and cosh u have been publighed.
Returning to the original figure, the tension at P being T,
so that
AB
W8
BG
W8
-p
and from
(3),
dy
y+c,
Hence T=zio{y + c) or T=wy'

S
64
ceed further on to a place where S has become aS' 4- ^S and

has become 6 + B0 (really SO is negative as will be seen).
steady state is maintained and during one hour the gase
If during the
lose the heat 7n0^ BS through the area hS.
hour
lb. of gases lost at the place the amount of heat
-W.Bd, then
^ = -^-g.
orrather
That
where
is,
c is
integrating with regard to
0,
some constant.
Putting in 6 =
when S=0, we
î
the temperature at the furnace end
hav'
'
Wl
0= -pf-^c
orc =
711
Ui
Wl
m ^,
Oi
80 that (2) becomes
^=^Û^J
(3).
This shows how 6 diminishes as S increases from the

it is worth a student's while to plot the
S and 6. If now S is the whole area of
heating surface and ^ = ^2 at the smoke-box end,
furnace end, and

curve connecting
-â-i)
<>
The heat which one pound of gases has at the furnace

is 6^, it gives up to the water the amount 6162.
end
Therefore the efficiency of the heating surface
may be
taken as
.
j^t_
î-
62
^'^~dr
and
it
follows from (4) that

1
^ 6,mS
^^^'
HEATING SURFACE.
Now
65
weight of coals burnt jêr hour

admitted just sufficient for complete
= about 20
combustion
in the case of ordinary
= about 26
forced draught
in the case of chimney
draught.
In these cases 0^ does not seem to alter inversely
as W, as might at first siglit appear but we do not know
exactly how 0^ depends upon the amount of excess of air admitted. We can only say that if W'-^S is the weight of coal per
hour per square foot of heating surface and we call it tu, there
if
W=13W'
the
is
air is
if
W
W
seems to be some such law as
B=1
z,
-h
aw
where a clepends
^
upon the amount of air admitted. In practice it is found

that a = 0*5 for chimney draught and 0'3 for forced draught,
give fairly correct results. Also the numerator may be taken
as greater than 1 when there are special means of heating
the feed water.
Instead of the law given above (the loss of heat by

gases in a flue oc 6^^), if we take what is probably more likely,
that the loss is proportional to 0,
Then
(1) above
becomes
de
S=
or
Let
.
stant
IS
0= 6j
loe:
at furnace
m log
Oi
and
(2)
mO
(2).
constant
end or when
S=0
^'
so that our con-
becomes
'i'-âi)
If S is the area of the whole flue

at the smoke-box end, then
^ = Zlogî
Sm
and
6^ is
the temperature
(4),
66
The
E J-^^
efficiency
(5)
E=^\-~^ = l-e
becomes
^^
(6).
Or if w is the weight of fuel per square foot of heating

surface as above (6) becomes
j5'=l-e"a'
(7).
Work
40.
done by Expanding Fluid*. If p is the
Eressure and v the volume at any instant, of a fluid which
in expanding, one good definition of
as already done work
pressure
work
is
p'-r-
..(!))
the rate at which
is
done per unit change of volume. Another way of putting this

the fluid expands through the volume hv there is an increment
is
is: if
8 IF of
work done so that
strictly tiiie
when
hv
W with regai*d to v
'p
made
is
.hv=hW^
or
jo=-
but this
smaller and smaller without
liiit,
we have
^^^'
T^=Z7î^-'-*-^+<^'
is
some
begin to count
To
constant.
W from v=Vi.
find C\ let
That
0= -^
v.^-'
+ C,
Insert this value of
G in
(3)
is,
so that
us say that we shall only
W=0 when v^Vi,

C= -
is
Now
and we have
the work done in expanding from

if
we want
to
know
W when ^ =
* Observe that if for
p and
we
(4),
v^ to r.
^2)
we have
^^'i2=rr-/^2'"'-^^'"'^
easy.
Then
v.^-'.
F=^^(î--V-)
which
and so
We therefore integrate it according to our rule and
where
only
is
Now if the fluid expands according to the law

p = cv~'j and this is the differential coefficient
dW
or, as we had better write it down, -j = cv'.
(1) is absolutely true.

p%}'=c. a constant ... (2)
of
or in words, pressure
write y and x this
^^^-
work becomes very
WORK BY EXPANDING
This answer
may be put
in other shapes.
FLUID.
Thus from
67
we know
(2)
that
c^p^v^' or pav/,
iir
so that
P_^.u,
1-8.
a formula much used in gas engine and steam engine calculations.

There is one case in which this answer turns out to be useless try
it when s \.
That is, find what work is done from Vy to Vg by ^ fluid
expanding according to the law (it would be the isothermal law if the
fluid were a gas)
;
pvc.
If
you have noticed how
it fails,
go back to the statement
dW
(7).
dv
You will find that when you integrate x"^ with regard to m, the
- 1. But
general answer has no meaning, cannot be evaluated, if
I have already said, and I mean to prove presently that the integral of
x"^ is log^. So the integral of (7) is
m=
W=c\ogv-{-C.
Proceeding as before we find that, in this particular case.
(8).
^1
41.
Hypothetical Steam Engine Diagram.
Let steam be admitted to a cylinder at the constant pressure

the volume increasing from
to
Vi in the cylinder. The work done
is VjjOj.
Let the steam expand
to the volume Vg according to the
law
'pijP^c.
The work done
is
given by (6) or (8). Let the back

pressure bejOg, then the work done
in driving out the steam in the
back stroke is p^^. We neglect
cushioning in this hypothetical
diagram. Let v^-~v^ be called r
the ratio of cut-off.
Then the
nett work done altogether is
Fig. 13.
5-^2
jt?,.
68
If pe is the effective i)re.s.sure so that ê^^ ^^ equal to the above iiett

Ipe is measured from actual indicator diagrarus, as the average
work
pressure)
putting
it
equal and dividing by
M-)
In the special case of
= l we
find
we have on
v^
simplifying
Vzp^ in the same
pe=Pi
way.
The symbol
42. Definite Integral. Definition.

tells
us:
"
value a for
latter
Find the general integral of/ (a?);

ic,
insert in it the value 6 for
from the former value*."
This
is
/(a?)
dx
insert in it the
subtract the
said to be the
a?
us to integrate u (which is a
function of x and ?/), with regard
to y, as if x were constant then
insert F{x) for y and also f(x) for
y and subtract. This result is to
be integrated with regard to x,
and in the answer a and b are inserted for X and the results sub-
(1), tells
tracted.
I.
If w = 1, dx dy evidently
means an element of area, a little
rectangle.
The result of the first
.
process leaves
{F{x)-f{x)}dx
(2)
/:
Fig. 14.
still
to
be done.
Evidently we
have found the area included between the curves y = F{x) and y~f{x) and
two ordinates at a: = a and x = b. Beginners had better always use form (2)
in finding areas, see
fig.
14.
the weight of gold per unit area upon the above mentioned area, then u dx dy is the weight upon the little elementary area
dx .dy, and our integral means the weight of all the gold upon the area I
II.
If
is, saA',
have mentioned.
When
writers of books wish to indicate generally that they desire to

at any place is a function of x, y, z),
write it with a triple integral,
some jwoperty u (which

throughout some volume, they will
integrate
u .dx.dy.
dz,
///
and summation over a surface by
dx
dy.
AREAS OF CURVES.
69
between the limits a and h. Observe now

that any constant which may be found in the general
integral simply disappears in the subtraction.
integral of f{x)
to
Iq integrating between limits we

work in the following fashion.
Example, to find
x^
shall find it convenient
The general
dx.
integral
is
^xf^
J h
and we write
.dx\
x"^
Symbolically.
.
is
Note as evidently true from our
f(x),dx = -
J b
and
integral of /{x)
the general
F(x)] =F(a) - F(b),

P
U
J
then rf(x) dx
J
F{x)
If
^d^ ^bK
â^
definition, that
f(x).dx,
J a
also that
T/w
43.
Area
of
^^'
Vw
a curve.
^^'
+f
"/(^) ^^
Let y of the curve be known as
some function of x and
PS be the curve. It
required to find the
area MPQT.
let
is
NowiftheareaiPQr
be called
and
OT=x,
QT=y, OW = X Sx,
WR = y-\-8y, and the area
MPRWheA + 8A then
BA = siTesiTQIiW.
-ir
Indeed some writers use

V over an area, and jto
what
is
exerted
normal
second.
in their
already
els
TW
Fig 15.
,
Ih dS
to
mean
to
mean
generally the
the summation of
2a
summation of
along a line or
often called "the line integral of ic.

The line integral of the pull
on a tram car means the work done. The surface integral of the
velocity of a fluid over an area is the total volume flowing per
Engineers are continually finding line, surface and volume integrals
practical work and there is nothing in these symbols which is not
perfectly well known to them.
70
QR
If the short distance
^=y+
Therefore
and
were straight,
i^y as
gets smaller
ha)
and smaller
in the limit -y =?/
Hence
In
fig.
16
such a function of x that y
is
coefficient, or
.(1).
is
CQD
the integral of
is
is its
differential
y.
EMGF is the
the curve y=a-\- hx^ and

curve showing
A is the integral of
In what sense does A
represent the area of the
curve CD ? The ordinate
of the A curve, GT^ represo that
y.
sents to some scale or other,

the area of the y curve
MPQT from some standard

ordinate
Fig. 16.
MP.
ordinate TQ represents to scale^ the slope of

EF at G. Observe, however, that if we diminish or increase
all the ordinates of the A curve by the same amount, we do not
change its slope anywhere, and y, which is given us, only tells
us the slope of A. Given the y curve we can therefore find
any number of A curves we settle the one wanted when we
state that we shall reckon area from a particular ordinate
The
such as
MP.
Thus, in
fig.
16
if
the general integral of y
is
we use the value x = OM we have, area up to

MP from some unknown standard ordinate =F(OM)-i-c.
Taking x = ON, we have area up to NR from some
unknown standard ordinate =F{ON)-\-c. And the area
F(x)-{-
c.
between
If
MP
and
F(ON) F{OM),
Now
tions
NR
is simply the difference

the constant disappearing.
the symbol
integrate y
OM for ^ in it
J
;
OM
y .dx
insert
tells
ON
us to follow these instruc-
for
then subtract the
of these
in the integral
latter.
We
insert
see therefore
AREA OF PARABOLA.
71
that the result of such an operation is the area of the curve

and the ordinate at ON.
between the ordinate at
OM
represent any quantities whatsoever, and a

curve be drawn with y as ordinate and x as abscissa, then the
If y and
integral
j
a;
y .dx
represented by the area of the curve, and
is
we now know how
to proceed when we desire to find the sum

such terms rs y 800 between the limits x=b and a)=a
when Bw is supposed to get smaller and smaller without
of
all
limit.
Example. Find the area enclosed between the parabolic

curve OA, the ordinate AB
Y
and the axis OB. Let the
equation to the curve be
= ax^
(1),
where PQ = y and OQ = x.
Let QR = Bx.
y
is
The area of the strip PQRS

more and more nearly
ax^ Sx,
.
as Bx is made smaller and

smaller; or rather the whole
o|
GI k
'
Fig. 17.
rOB
area
is
aa^ dx, whic'h

.
is
^0
OB
-\
OSn
Now what is a in terms

x==OB. Hence by (1)
o{
AB = a.OB^,
Therefore the area
that
is,
=5
=^,
AB
(2).
and
so that
a=
When yÂB,
OB^
AB
OB^'
OJ^ ÂB OB
.
frds of the area of the rectangle
OMAB.
Observe that the area of a very flat segment of a circle is

like that of a parabola when OB is very small compared
with BA,
72
Exercise 1. Find the area between the curve y

and the two ordinates at a? = a and x h.
The answer
is
'h
irix"''^
I
is,
dx
nt
1-n
1-71
(^,i-_ai-n).
Observe (as in Art. 40) that this fails

in the rectangular hyperbola.
In this case the answer
The equation
to
when n 1;
that
is
JaX
\ogx
m log -
any curve being
y= a
the area
= mx "
-\-
hx
-{-
ca^ -{ ex^
4-/^,
A = ax f ^bx^ + ^cx^ 4- \ex* + i/ar*.
is
Here the area up to an ordinate at x is really measured from

the ordinate where x = 0, because A =0 Avhen x=0.
can at once find the area between any two given ordinates.
We
Exercise 2. Find the area of the curve y

the ordinates at * = a and x ^.
aTx^ .dx = a\
ix^']
a^x
= ^ (y8^ - a^).
Exercise 3. Find the area of the curve yx"

the ordinates at a; = a and x fi.
Answer a
:
44.
.dx
x~'-
between
= a x~
=a
between
= a(a-'-^-').
Work done by Expanding
Fluid.
When we
use
definite integrals the work is somewhat shorter than it was in Art. 40.
For i{p cv~', the work done from volume v^ to volume V2 is
/V2
Fv-i
cy~*. dv or
The method
fails
c\
when
c\
=l
"1
y^"*
_-
c -(^'2^"'- V')
and then the
integral is
=cl0ge
"logeV
Li
or
^1
CENTKE OF GRAVITY.
45.
73
Only a few bodies have
Centre of Gravity,
We
usually
centres of gravity.
mean the centre of mass of a
body or the centre of an area.
little portion of a
multiplied by its distance from any plane, and the
results added together, they are
equal to the whole mass multiFig. 18.
plied by the distance of its centre,
X, from the same plane. Expressed algebraically this
If each
mass be
is
If each little portion of a plane area, as in fig. 18, be

multiplied by its distance from any line in its plane and the
results added together, they are equal to the whole area
multiplied by the distance of its centre x from the same line.
Expressed algebraically this is Saaf = xlâ.
Example. Find the centre of mass of a right cone.

evidently in the axis OB of the
cone.
Let the line OA rotate
about OX, it will generate a
cone. Consider the circular slice
of thickness hx.
Let
It
is
PQR
OQ = x,
then
PQ
or
AB
yÔB'^The mass of PR multiplied
to its
by the distance from
is equal to the sum of the
masses of all its parts each mulFig. 19.
tiplied by its distance from the
plane YOY^. The volume of the slice
being its area iry'^
multiplied by its thickness hx multiply this by rn the mass
per unit volume and we have its mass miry- hx. As the
slice gets thinner and thinner, the distance of its centre from
gets more and more nearly x.
Hence we have to find the
sum of all such terms as mirxy- hx, and put it equal to the
whole mass {îrm ABr OB) multiplied by x, the distance of
centre
PR
74
its
centre of gravity from 0.
Putting in the value of y^ in
terms of x we have
roB
rmr
fAB\^ ^'^
(
-^f^
dx equated
FOB
rOB
Now
'"^'^
OB
x.
-]
i^ = iOB\
af,dx==
and hence
^TrmAB^
to
(Tfn] iOB^^îrîi
AB^.OB.x.
That is, the centre of mass is f

Hence x = J OB.
way along the axis from the vertex towards the base.
46.
It
was assumed that students knew how
We
volume of a cone.
The volume
volume
shall
of the slice
now prove the
PR
is it .y"^
of the
to find
the
rule.
hx and the whole
is
d^ =
\y (oi)'
*=
'^-
=-
i^) [p]
or J of the volume of a cylinder on the
same base AG and of

ax all the work
the same height OB, If we had taken y

would have looked simpler.
Example.
^'^
O^
Find the volume and centre of mass
of
uniform material (of mass

per
unit volume) bounded by a paraboloid of revolution.
PQ = y,
OQ=^x, QS=Bx.
Let the equation to the curve
Let
S
OFA hey=aa^
The volume
is
[4
Try^
volume
Fig. 20.
(1).
of the slice
PSR
so that the whole

rOB
is 1
tt a^x dx or
^0
Bx;
l-iraKOB^
(2).
SURFACE OF REVOLUTION.
Now
what
is
When
= AB,
AB = a
so that from (1),
volume
is
OB,
a)=:
7/
"75
OB^ and a
^-^
is
Hence the
îr -7y^ OB'^ or
^TT.A&.OB
(3).
AC
multiplied by the
half the area of the circle
height OB. Hence the volume of the paraboloid is half the
volume of a cylinder on the same base and of the same height.
(The volumes of Cylinder, Paraboloid of revolution, and Cone
That
is,
of same bases and heights are as 1
Now
J.)
mass of the Paraboloid.
as to the centre of
It is
rOB
We
evidently on the axis.
jmira) a^js
.
must
da;,
or
find
jriir
7/t7ra- Ix^
y^x
da),
or
dx,
-OB
or mTTcv^
the
^^^^ *his is ^mira^
i^M
value
of
or
-jTW
0B\
Inserting as before
^^ have the
equal to
integral
IniTT.OB^.AB^. This is equal to the whole mass multiplied

by the x of the centre of mass, x, or m^Tr AB^ OB x, so that
x = ÔB. The centre of mass of a paraboloid of revolution
is |rds of the way along the axis towards the base from the
.
vertex.
Example.
The curve y = ax^
of X, find the volume enclosed
between x
iry"^
of any surface of revolution

.
TT {'a'x-^
the axis
and x = h.
The volume
integrating
revolves about
by the surface of revolution
dx.
dx
Hence our answer
J^
2n 4-
Vx'^-Â
J
1 Lo
is
obtained by
is
6^+\
^-^
+
2/1
Find its centre of mass if in is its mass per unit volume.

For any solid of revolution we integrate m xiry^ dx and
.
76
divide by the whole mass which

is constant we have
If
the integral of mir'fdx.
is
rb
rb
niTT
a;a"iv-"'
= niirtv^
clx
a;2"+i
dx
Jo
Jo
J~2n + 2^
~2n + 2Lo
and the whole mass
Suppose
is _
2/1
find the
first
caf+') ttU-'^
|_o
2n
ass is a^TT
//i
dw, or
+2
(?yio
aV \^,
-I-
^
2
b.
4- caf.
^'
(/
V [(vi^''+' +
2/1
co."*)
af''^'
x^
+-
L2m+1
Substituting h for
we
2?i
Our
solid.
is
or
or
=_
mass and centre of mass of the above
integral
TT |(?/toA'
Jj
m is not constant but follows the law

'ill
To
6-"+\ so that
+1
'
+5+
cx''''+'+^) clx,
c?a;
2n +
5+l^
iu both of these
ar^+'-^]
(2).
^'^
and dividing (1) by
(2),
find x.
An ingenious
student can manufacture for himself
many
exercises of this kind which only involve the integration

ofd?".
An
arc of the ellipse
~ + ^^ = l
revolves about the axis of
X, find the volume of the portion of the ellipsoid of revolution between the two planes where x =
and where x = c.
Here
y^
(a^
x-).
The
integral of
tti/^ is
|[k-K]=-^;(a=c-|c').
LENGTHS OF CURVES
The volume
'^
of the whole ellipsoid
is -t- iira;
aud
of
ihere
^^
-^ a^
it IS
77
Lengths of Curves. In
x and y and of Q they
-\- Sx and
If we
3/ + S^.
47.
are
are
a;
fig.
21 the co-ordinates of
the length of the curve

from some fixed place to P by
the name s and the length PQ,
8s, then (8sy=(Bxy-\-(8i/y more
and more nearly as 8x gets
call
smaller, so that
8s
Boo
-Â-(I)
CD
or rather, in the limit
dx
To
find 5 then,
Fig. 21.
V'-"-
we have
It is unfortunate that
yet
cises
only to integi'ate
we
^/'-(i)'
are only supposed to
x^ dx, because this does not lend itself

.
much
know
as
to exer-
on the lengths of curves.
Find the length of the curve y

x = Q and x = c.
Example.
a-\-hx
straight line) between the limits
t^
ds
[^
5=1 j^.dx=\
^cVl+6^
^/l+6^(â; =
x\/l+b'
(a
78
Exercise.
find
There
an expression
is
a curve whose slope
for its length.
Answer:
Other exercises on lengths of curves

48.
is
Ja^x^l,
s=
will
-;'**+->/-.
be given
later.
When
Areas of Surfaces of Revolution.
APB
the curve
revolving
about the axis
describes a surface of revolution, we have seen that
the volume between the
OX
ends ACA' and BDB' is

the integral of iry^ with
regard to x between the
limits
OG
and OD.
Again the elementary

area of the surface is what
is traced out by the elementary length PQ or hs
and is in the limit 2iry ds.
Hence we have to integrate
Fig. 22.
roD
ds
I
liTV .-T-.dx, and as the law of the curve is known, y
dx
dx
Joe
00
.
can be expressed in terms of x.
or
The line y = a-\-bx revolves about the axis of

surface of the cone between the limits
and
Example.
X find the
x=c.
;
-^
dx
= 6,
x=0
so that the area
is 27r
/.^-'
JO
= 2'7r*Jl+b^r{a-\-bx)dx = 2'ir's/l
-^ I ax
+ ^boA
= 27rVITF(ac + Jtc^.
The problem of finding the area of a spherical surface is
here given in small printing because the beginner is supposed
to know only how to differentiate x'^ and this problem
requires him to know that the differential coefficient of y^
AREAS OF SURFACES.
with regard to x
is
y multiplied hy -~
79
the differential coefficient with regard to

,
or 2y .-^
As a matter
of fact this
is
not a real difficulty to a thinking student. The student can

however find the area in the following way. Let
be the
volume of the sphere of radius
47r
r,
F= -^
r^,
Art. 46.
V-{-
SVhe
the volume of a sphere of radius r*+
8r,
Let
then
is only true when Sr is supposed to be smaller and

Now if S is the surface of the
spherical shell of thickness Br, its volume is Bi^ S.
Hence
Br .S = Br îrr^ and hence the area of a sphere is îri^.
which
is,
Example. Find the area of the surface of a sphere. That

imagine the quadrant of a circle AB oi radius a, fig. 23, to
A
Fig. 23.
revolve about
OX and
have as the area, 47r

In the
circle
x'^
take double the area generated.
ya /
-\-
{-^\ dx.
+y^ = <^% or y = \/^ - x-,
..^..,.|=0.or|,=
X
-^V'
We
80

Hence as
m^^l+^r
+ \dx')
If each elementary portion hs of the length of a

49.
curve be multiplied by x its distance from a plane (if the
curve is all in one plane, x may be the distance to a line in
the plane) and the sum be divided by the whole length of
the curve, we get the x of the centre of the curve, or as it is
sometimes called, the centre of gravity of the curve. Observe
that the centre of gravity of an area is not necessarily the
same as the centre of gravity of the curved boundary.
Guldinus's Theorems.
Volume of a
BC,
fig.
area
if it
an axis
PCD
24, is
Ring^.
any plane
revolves about
lying in its
00
own plane it will generate

ring.
The volume of
this ring is equal to the
area of BG multiplied by
the circumference of the
circle passed through by
the centre of area of BC.
Imagine an exceedFig' 24.
ingly small portion of the

area a at a place
at the distance r from the axis, the
volume of the elementary ring generated by this is a 27rr
and the volume of the whole ring is the sum of all such
terms or
27r2ar.
But âr = rA, if
is the whole area
of BG.
The student must put this in words for himself; r
means the r of the centre of the area. Hence
2irf x
and this proves the proposition.
F=
V=
II.
Area of a Ring. The area of the ring surface is
the length of the Perimeter or boundary of BG multiplied
by the circumference of the circle passed through by the
centre of gravity of the boundary.
Imagine a very short length of the boundary, say
hs^
at
MOMENT OF
INERTIA.
81
the distance r from the axis this generates a strip of area

of the amount hs x 27rr.
Hence the whole area is îrZZs r.
But 2^5 r = r X 6- if r is the distance of the centre of gi-avity
of the boundary from the axis and s is the whole length
Hence the whole area of the ring is
of the boundary.
;
27rr
8.
Example. Find the area of an anchor ring whose secis a circle of radius a, the centre of this circle being
the perimeter
at the distance JR, from the axis.
Answer
of the section is 27ra and the circumference of the circledescribed by its centre is 27rR, hence the area is 47r-ajR.
tion
Exercise.
Find the volume and area of the rim of a flywheel, its mean radius being 10 feet, its section being a
square whose side is 1'3 feet. Answer:
Volume =
(1-3)2
27r
x 10
Area
If every little portion of a
50.
square of
its
=4
mass
1-3
27r
10.
be. multiplied
distance from an axis, the
sum
is
by the
called the
moment
of inertia of the whole mass about the axis.

It is easy to prove that the moment of inertia about any
axis is equal to the moment of inertia about a parallel axis
through the centre of gravity together with the whole mass
multiplied by the square of the distance between the two
axes.
Thus, let the plane of the paper be at right angles
to the axes.
Let there be a little mass
at
'^P
the
in
plane
the
of
paper.
Let
be the axis through the centre of

gravity and 0' be the other axi-s.
We want
the sum of all such terms as
(O'Py.
Now (O'py = (ovy + OP' +2. 00'. oq,
where Q is the foot of a perpendicular from
upon 00\ the plane containing the two

Then calling Xm. (O'Py by the name
calling Xm OP^ by the name /q, the
axes.
/,
moment
of inertia about the axis

through
the centre of gravity of the whole mass,
then, / = (0'0)^Sm + /o + 2.00'.2:m.OQ.
But
means that each portion of mass
is multiplied by its
distance from a plane at right angles to the paper through
tm.OQ
P.
S2
by Art. 45. So
the centre of gravity, and this must be
Or letting 2m be called
that the proposition is proved.
the whole mass
= Io + M.(0'0)2.
Find the
moment
of inertia of a circular cylinder of

about its axis.
26 be a section,
the axis being 00. Consider an elementary ring
length
Let
T
I
fig.
TQPR
shown
in section at
of inside radius r, its outside radius being r + hr.
Fig. 26.
Its sectional area is I .hr
SO that the volume of the ring is 2irr 1 8r and its mass is
Its moment of inertia about 00 is îrml .t-^.dr
mîrrl h\
and this must be integrated between the limits r
to give the moment of inertia
the outside radius and ? =
.
The answer
of the whole cylinder.
whole mass M=ml7rR\
So that
radius of gyration as
Jc,
have here
k^
= ii2^
or
A;
is /q
lirmlRK
MR^
7o
which
= -
If
we
The
define the
such that Mk^ = Io,
is
we
-p^ R.
The moment
the axis
of inertia about
NS is
I=Io + M.R' = ^3IR%

so that the radius of gyration about
R Vf
Moment
jsrs is
of inertia of a circle
Fig. 27.
Consider the ring of area between the
circles of radii r and r + Br, its area
Fig. 27.
is 27rr Br, more and more nearly
as Br is smaller and smaller. Its moment of inertia is 27rr^ dr
and the integral of this between
and
is ^ttR* where
is the radius of the circle.
The square of the radius of
about
its
centre.
gyration
is JttjR'^-t-
the area
R^
=-^
MOMENTS OF
83
INERTIA.
OX
At any
point
in an area, fig. 28, draw two lines
right angles to one
another.
Let an elementary area
a be at a distance x from one of
the lines and at a distance i/ from
the other and at a distance r from
0.
Observe that ax^ 4- ay- = /'^
so that if the moments of inertia
of the whole area about the two
lines be added together the sum
is the moment of inertia about the
point 0. Hence the moment of
inertia of a circle about a diameter is half the above, or
The square of its radius of gyration is ^R-.
JttjR*.
and
OF
at
The moment of inertia of an

diameter
AOA.
Let
ellipse about a principal
OA = a, OB = b.
B
.y^^
>
aI
B
Fig. 29.
The moment
of inertia of each strip of length
times the monaent of inertia of each strip
because
it is
at the
same distance from
PQ
A OA
BT
is
of the circle,
and
MT = a
y
ytfi
MQ
h
This is a property of ellipse and circle well known to all

engineers.
But the moment of inertia of the circle of radius
is \it, so that the moment of inertia of the
h about
ellipse about
is \'Tra.
Similarly its moment of inertia
AOA
AOA
about
BOB is
\'iTa%.
The above
is a mathematical device requiring thought,

not practical enough perhaps for the engineer's every-day
work; it is given because we have not yet reached the inte-
62
84
which is needed in the straightforward working. The

integral is evidently this.
The area of the strip of length
is 2x Sy, the equation to the ellipse
ST and breadth
gral
beins: -
Then
= 1,
'7.
so that ic=^T "Jh^
The student ought

Chap.
4^[
if.2x.dy or
2J
y^
^fs/b^
-if .dy=^ I.
to return to this as
an example in
III.
Moment
51.
of Inertia of
Rim
of Fly-wheel.
If
the rim of a fly-wheel is like a hollow cylinder of breadth

I, the inside and outside radii being R^ and R.,, the moment
of inertia
îrml
is
The mass is
The radius
1-^
.dr or îrml
\_Ri
jR,
^J
=i7rml(R/Ri*).
I=\{R.^-\-R^^M.
7r(jR2'-i^f)^//i'=îrsay,_so that
of gyration is V^ (^R^ + Ri^).

It is usual to
calculate the moment of inertia of the rim of a fly-wheel as
if all its mass resided at the mean radius of the rim or
Oil?
--^
The moment
moment
the true
to
= R + a,
R.2
is 1 -^
(1
Ri =
-f
of inertia calculated in this
0:2)
^^^
i^
is
Thus if
^y^- ^pretended I divided by the true
of inertia as
R a, the
way
is
small, this is 1
-^^
nearly.
If
the whole mass of a fly-wheel, including arms and central

boss, be M, there is usually no very great error in assuming
that its moment of inertia is / = R'^M.
52.
rod
so thin that its thickness
may
be neglected
mass being m per unit length, what is

its moment of inertia about an axis at right angles to it,
Let w be the distance of a point
?
through one end
from one end. An elementary portion of length Sw of mass
in Boo has a moment of inertia x^ ,m .dx and the integral of
this from ^ =
to x = l \^ i^nP, which is the answer.
As 7nl
of length
is
I,
its
Û
.X
'
--1
Fig. 30.
the whole mass, the

square of the radius of
gyration is ^l^
/ the
is
83s>Q
^^^^
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
85
moment of inertia about a parallel axis through the middle

of the rod, at right angles to its length, is
^ml^
tnl.liz)
or ml^ (^
{)
or -^mlK
So that the square of this radius of gyration is -^P.

We shall now see what error is involved in neglecting the
thickness of a cylindric rod.
If 00 is an axis in the plane of the paper at right angles to the
axis of a circular cylinder,
through one end, and OP is
<-
a; and
is the radius of the
cylinder, its length being I ;
--<>-A
if p is the mass of the cylin-
the
der per unit volume
moment of inertia about 00
of the disc of radius It and
;
Fig. 31.
thickness 8.v is irR^pbx x*- +

the moment of inertia of the disc about its own diameter. Now we
saw that the radius of gyration of a circle about its diameter was
.
and the radius of gyration of the disc is evidently the same.
moment of inertia about its diameter is \ WirR^ hx

Hence the moment of inertia of the disc about
is
its
p,
or |
Hence
irpTt^
8x.
7rR^p{xK8x+im.dx).
OAj the length
and so we find
If
of the rod,
is
I,
we must
and
integrate between
I,
'-nR^p(^+k mi\
The mass
m per unit length
is irR'^pj
so that
3 IP
Im
?)
This is the moment of inertia about an axis through the centre of

gravity parallel to 00.
53.
Example.
parabolic segment
Where
shown
in
the Centre of
is
fig.
20
lAGy<OB.
The
centre of area
is
Area
The whole area
evidently in the axis.
of the
is
86
The area of
integrate 2xy Bx.
rOB
Hence 2
2
g^^
Now
^^
ax^
x vym^* dx
Ux^l
PSR
a strip
is
2i/
= ÂO OB
.
or f
-^j 0J5t, so that
Bx and
we musb
AB ^ OBK
where a
.
iAB
The
x.
integral is
OB' = ÂB.OB.x
x = ÔB,
or
Find the centre of area of the segment of the symmetrical area bounded by + ?/ = ax'^ between x = b and x = c.
We
2
must divide the
ax''
integral 2
ax"^
dx by the area
dx.
i:
Or
2a
r"-^""
X
=
C+i
_ hn+i
'
2'
Many interesting cases may be taken. Observe that if

the dimensions of the figure be given, as in fig. 20 thus if
and BQ are given, we may find the position of the
and
centre of the area in terms of these magnitudes.
:
AB
PQ
54.
Moment
The moment
of Inertia of
a Rectangle.
of inertia of a rectangle about the line
00
ATTRACTION.
through
Consider the
OP = y
and
parallel
centre,
its
one
to
side.
between
area
of
strip
OQ = y + hj.
87
Its area is b
By
of inertia about 00 is
b .y^ By, so that the moment of inertia of
the whole rectangle is
and
moment
its
rid-]
rhd
f.dyorb\if\
b
J
bd'
"'
li
L-idA
the moment of inertia which
-id
This
is
is
so important in calculations on beams.
Fig. 33.
uniform spherical shell of

Force of Gravity.
55.
attracting matter exercises no force upon a body inside it.
On unit mass outside, it acts as if all its mass were gathered
at its centre.
The earth then exercises a force upon unit mass at any
point
outside it which is inversely proportional to the
from the centre. But if
square of r the distance of
is
inside the earth, the attraction there upon unit mass is the
divided by the square of r.
mass of the sphere inside
is the mass per

1.
If the earth were homogeneous.
If
is the radius of the earth, the attraction
unit volume and
on any outside point
The
The
-f-
-r-
r\
is
-^
mi^
-h t^
attraction then at the surface being called
any outside point

r
mR^
on any inside point
attraction
o mr.
is
it is
R^ -r- r- and at any inside point
1,
or
at
it is
Students ought to illustrate this by a diagram,
R.
If m is greater towards the centre, say m a br,

2.
then as the area of a shell of radius r is 4<TTf\ its mass is
4mr^ Ill 5r, so that the whole mass of a sphere of radius r
.
rr
is
47r
r^
(a
br) dr,
point
^^
-^
ar^
irbr^.
the
attraction
is
4i7r
-;r- a?'
o
outside point
Hence on
any
Jo
inside
or
it is
^ aR^ irbR^j
r^.
irbr^
and on any
88
Dividing the whole mass of the earth by
its
volume -^ jK^
o
we find its mean density to be a ^hR, and the

mean density to the density at the surface is
ratio of its
(4a-36i^)/(4a-46E).
56.
Strength of thick Cylinders.
The first part of the following is one way of putting the

well known theory of what goes on in a thin cylindric shell
of a boiler.
It prevents trouble with + and signs afterwards, to imagine the fluid pressure to be greater outside
than inside and the material to be in compression.
Consider the elementary thin cylinder of radius r and of
thickness 8?\
Let the pressure
inside be p and outside p + Bp
and let the crushing stress at
right angles to the radii in the
material be q.
Consider the
portion of a ring PQSR which
is of imit length at right angles
to the paper.
Radially we have p + 8p
from outside acting on the area
RS or (r + Br) BO if QOP = BO,
because the arc RS is equal to
Fig. 34.
radius multiplied by angle; and

.r. BO from inside or
2:>
{p + Bp){r-\-B7^)Bd-pr.Be
on the whole the radial force from the outside more
and more nearly as B6 is smaller and smaller. This is
balanced by two forces each q Br inclined at the angle B6,
and just as in page 165 if we
draw a triangle, each of whose
sides GA and ^J5 is pamllel
to q Br, the angle BAG being
Fig. 35.
Bd, and BG representing the
radial force, we see that this radial force is
q Br Bd, and
this expression is more and more nearly true as BO is
smaller and smaller.
Hence
is
(p
+ Bp) (r + Br) B0-pr.Be = q.Br, B0,
HYDRAULIC PRESS OR GUN.
p .^7^
or
r.Bp+ 8p.Sr =
-\-
or rather
since the
When
p-\-
term Bp
is
--
89
q.Sr,
(1),
<!
in the limit.
subjected to crushing stresses p and q

in two directions at right angles to one another in the plane
of the paper, the dimensions at right angles to the paper
elongate by an amount which is proportional to p + q.
material
is
We must imagine the elongation to be independent of r

a plane cross section is to remain a plane cross section, and
Hence (1) has to be
this reasonable assumption we make.
combined with
p-\-q = 2A
(2)
if
where
2A
a constant.
is
Substituting the value of q from (2) in (1)
dp
or
Now
-fa?'
it will
be found on
= 2A
r
trial
P=
and hence from
(2),
2p
^
r
that this
is satisfied
^+J
=A
we have
-;
by
(3).
(4).
and B. In the case of a gun

To find these constants
or hydraulic press, subjected to pressure po inside where
outside where r = 7\.
Inserting these
r = ro and pressure
values of p in (3) we have
sothat
^=iô.(i-l) = Po,;g^,
90
The compressive
stress
q may
be called a tensile stress
/-^V,'-V
/ is greatest at r = 7\ and
fo
f,
^^^.
r^
then
is
= Po-^',
(6).
This is the law of strength for a cylinder which is initially

unstrained.
Note that po can never be equal to the tensile
strength of the material.
see from (5) that as r increases,
diminishes in proportion to the invei-se square of the
radius, so that it is easy to show its value in a curve.
Thus
We
a student ought to take 7\ = 1% r^ = 0'8, p^ 1500 lb. per sq.

inch, and graph / from inside to outside. / will be in the same
units as p.
(5) may be taken as giving the tensile stress
in a thick cylinder to resist bui^ting pressure if it is initially
unstrained.
If when p^
there are already strains in the
material, the strains produced by (5) are algebraically added
to those already existing at any place.
Hence in casting
a hydraulic press we chill it internally, and in making a gun,
we build it of tubes, each of which squeezes those inside it,
and we try to produce such initial compressive strain at
r = ro and such initial tensile strain at r = ri, that when the
tensile strains due to Pq come on the material and the cylinder
is about to burst there shall be much the same strain in the
material from r^ to i\*
* In the case of a eylindric body rotating with angular velocity a, if
p is
the mass per unit volume taking into account the centrifugal force on the
element whose equilibrium is considered, above the equation (1) becomes
;
p+r
^-
r^pa?
=q
and the solution
and by inserting the values of p

and B q is therefore known.
;
This
is
greatest
when
of this is
for
If
we
is
take
7-
we
find the constants A

and also when
p~0 when r=rQ
r = r^.
If the cylinder extends to its centre
the displacement
found iohep = A+ Br~^ + ^pa^r^
two values of
where r=0, and
we must
it is
write out the condition that

necessary to write out the valuer
GAS ENGINE.
TJim cylinder. Take
ro
= R and
91
7\=Il-\-
1,
where
t is
very
small compared with R,

2Rr'
+ 2Rt + t'
PoR
/^
t-\l(^
t\
Fig. 86.
Now
and
and ^r^ become

ZHZK
thought to be smaller
-jz
^r-^^
all
smaller and smaller
li
as
t is
We may take
f=V3 " .. (7)
t
formula to be used
when the shell is exceedingly
^j^
^
thin and (8) as a closer ap^^^'
proximation, which is the
same as if we used the average radius in (7). In actual
boiler and pipe work, there is so much uncertainty as to the
proper value of/ for ultimate strength, that we may neglect
the con-ection of the usual formula (7).
and
smaller.
(7) as a
'
'
^~^"^2
57.
Gas Engine Indicator Diagram. It can be
proved that when a perfect gas (whose law is pv = Rt for a
pound of gas, R being a constant and equal to
the
difference of the important specific heats; 7 is used to
denote Kjk) changes in its volume and pressure in any
Kk
of the strains, Eadial strain =pa - g/3 if a is the reciprocal of Young's

Modulus and ^/a is Poisson's ratio, generally of the value 0-25.
In this way we find the strains and stresses in a rotating solid cylinder,
but on applying our results to the case of a thin disc we see that equation
That is, the solution is less and less correct as the
(2) above is not correct.
disc is thinner. Dr Chree's more correct solution is not difficult.
&2
way, the rate of reception of heat by

of volume, which
we
call
it
per unit change
h (in work units) or -^
rfldv
{jpv)
is
+ 'p
(1),
'-~i[tÂ
Students ouorht to note that this -~
thing from [-i]
because we
may
is
give to
^'^-
a very different
it
any value we
please.
We
always assume Heat to be expressed in work units so as

to avoid the unnecessary introduction of J^ for Joule's equivalent.
Exercise
ptf
= c...{^)
1.
When gas expands according to the law
a constant, find li.
Answer
//
= ^^ p
y- 1
(4).
:.
Evidently when 5 = 7, k = 0, and hence we have pyy = conthe adiabatic law of expansion of a perfect gas.
7 is 1*41 for air and 1'37 for the stuff inside a gas or oil
engine cylinder. When s= 1, so that the law of expansion is
pv constant, we have the isothermal expansion of a gas, and
we notice that here h=p, or the rate of reception of heat
energy is equal to the rate of the doing of mechanical energy.
Notice that in any case where the law of change is given by
If is greater than 7 the
(3), h is exactly proportional to p.
stuff is having heat withdrawn from it.
stant as
.9
If the equation (1) be integrated with regard to v
have
Jôi
= 3T
(piVi
- p^Vo) +
Tôi-
-(5).
Here H^^
is
we
the heat
given to a pound of perfect gas between the states po, Vq, t^

and jOi, -yi, ti, and TFoi is the work done by it in expanding
from the first to the second state.
This expression may be put in other forms because we
have the connection pv = Rt...(6). It is very useful in calculations upon gas engines.
Thus, if the volume keeps
93
ELASTICITY.
and the change of pressure due to ignition

constant Wqi is
and the gift of a known amount of heat may be found. If
the pressure keeps constant, TFoi is p(vi Vo) and the change
of volume due to the reception of heat is easily found.
/J
Another useful expression
JT
rit
-p =1^~r +'P"'0) where k
is
a constant, being the specific heat at constant volume.

Integrating this with regard to v we find
is
Ho, = k(t,-to)+W,,
(8).
This gives us exactly the same answer as the last method,

and may at once be derived from (5) by (6). In this form
one sees that if no work is done, the heat given is k (ti to)
and also that if there is no change of temperature the heat
given is equal to the work done.
Elasticity is defined as increase of stress -r increase

Thus, Young's modulus of elasticity is tensile or
compressive stress (or load per unit of cross section of a tie
bar or strut) divided by the strain or fractional change of
58.
of strain.
Modulus of rigidity or shearing elasticity is shear

by shear strain. Volumetric elasticity e is
fluid stress or increase of pressure divided by the fractional
diminution of volume produced. Thus if fluid at p and v,
length.
stress divided
changes to p-\-Bp, v-\-Sv: then the volumetric stress is

Bp and the volumetric compressive strain is Sv/v, so
that
by
^
definition
definition
really
= Bp-.
^
or
=v
assumes that the
stress
and
smaller and smaller without limit and hence e
J-
The
ov
strain are
v -/-.
.(1).
dv
Now
observe that this may have any value whatsoever.

elasticity at constant pressure is 0.
The elasticity
at constant volume is oo
To find the elasticity at con-
Thus the
stant temperature,
pv
= Rt, p^ Rtv-\
we must
Here Rt
^^-
find
is
Rtv-^ and
i^ )
see Art. 30.
to be constant, so that
e=Rtv^^^p.
As
94
and we see that Kt^ the

This was the value
of the elasticity taken by Newton by using it in his calculation of the velocity of sound he obtained an answer which
was very different from the experimentally determined velocity of sound, because the temperature does not remain
It is convenient to write this
et
elasticity at constant temperature, is p.

;
constant during quick changes of pressure.
Find the elasticity of a perfect gas when the

Exercise.
gas follows the law pvy = c, some constant. This is the
adiabatic law which we found Art. 57, the law connecting j9 and
V when there is no time for the stuff to lose or gain heat by
conduction,
p = cv~y,
6?
so that -t-
= + vycv~y~^
= 7C^;~>'~^
and
or ycv~y, or yp.
It is convenient to write this e^, and we see that in a

perfect gas en = yet.
When this value of the elasticity of
air is taken in Newton's calculation, the answer agrees with
the experimentally found velocity of sound.
Friction at a Plat Pivot. If we have a pivot of

59.
carrying a load
and the load is uniformly
radius
distributed over the surface, the load per unit area is
w=^ W-T-irR^ Let the angular velocity be a radians per
second.
On a ring of area between the radii r and r-\-8r
the load is w27rr 8r, and the friction is fjLiv27rr Sr, where
The velocity is v = otr, so that
fjb is the coefficient of friction.
the work wasted per second in overcoming friction at this
elementary area is ^îrwoLr^ Br, so that the total energy
wasted per second
is
îrwoLfi
?'^
\
dr = îrwafxR^
= | ^ WR,
Jo
On
a collar of internal radius Ri and external R^
r'.dr^ îrwdfi (R^^
27rwafi
J Ri
hence, the energy wasted per
we have
- R^% Wîrw {R^^ - R^) and

Jl3 _ J^
second is '{afiW
j^\ _ pV
3
Exercises in the Bending of Beams. When

60.
the Bending moment ilf at a section of a beam is known,
we can calculate the curvature there, if the beam was
CURVATURE.
95
when unloaded, or the change of curvature if the

unloaded beam was originally curved. This is usually written
straight
- or
where /
the
is
moment
if
= -^^
of the
of inertia
cross
section
about a line through its centre of gravity, perpendicular

to the plane of bending, and
is Young's modulus for the
material.
Thus, if the beam has a rectangular section of
breadth h and depth d, then I=^hd^ (see Art. 54); if the
beam
is
I=-:R\
circular in section,
tbe section (see Art. 50).
I T ^^^>
4
if
If the
if J2 is
beam
the radius of
is elliptic
in section,
aiid h are the radii of the section in
and at
right angles to the plane of bending (see Art. 50). t
Curvature. The curvature of a circle is the reciprocal

of its radius, and of any curve it is the curvature of the circle
which best agrees with the curve. The curvature of a curve
is also " the angular change (in radians) of the direction of
the curve per unit length." Now draw a very flat curve, with
dii
very
Observe that the change in -^ in going
little slope.
from a point
to a point
change in -^
angle
is
is
almost exactly a change of
really a
an angle, but when an angle
is
change in the tangent of
very small, the angle,
its sine
dii
and
its
tangent are
all
equal
Hence, the increase in -^
from
to Q divided by the length of the curve PQ is the
average curvature from
to Q, and as PQ is less and less
we get more and more nearly the curvature at P. But the
curve being very flat, the length of the arc PQ is really hx^
hx, as hx gets less and less,

dv
is the rate of change of -f- with regard to x, and the symbol
ax
^2y
^2y
for this is -^
Hence we may take -y^ as the curvature of
and the change
in
-/ divided by
''
dx^
a curve
at
any
place,
when
dx^
its slope is
everywhere small.
96
beam was not
If the
straight originally
and
,^ was
from straightness at any point, then
deflection
We may generalize the following work
curvature.
--j
instead of
was
if y'
small
its
its original
by using
^^ (y -y')
everywhere.
It is easy to show, that a beam of uniform strength, that is a beam

in which the maximum stress / (if compressive ; positive, if tensile,
negative), in every section is the same, has the same curvature everywhere if its depth is constant.
If
-J
is
the depth, the condition for constant strength
'\d=f
a constant.
But
-y=^x curvature,
hence
that
is
curvature
-E.d'
Exercise.
In a beam of constant strength
d^V
Then ^-^ =
ET
2?'
where
the
if
and
beam
'2f
-^ {a-\-hx).
Integrating
we
if
c^=
find
TTI
^=<' + ^+i^'^^ ^^.y = e^rCX-\-\ax''--V\.hx^,

c
must be determined by some given
is fixed
at the end, where
^=0, and
Thus
condition.
-^-
there,
and
CLX
also
y=
there, then c
and
0.
In a beam originally straight we know now that, if

distance measured from any place along the beam to
a section, and if y is the deflection of the beam at the
section, and / is the moment of inertia of the section, then
is
^ = EI^
a)
^ ^'
dx2
where
is the bending moment at the
Young's modulus for the material.
We
give to
-^
the sign which will
section,
make
it
and
is
positive if
is positive.
If
would make a beam convex upwards
and y is measured downwards then (1) is correct. Again,
would make a beam concave up(1) would be right if
wards and y is measured upwards.
^
BENDING.
97
Example /. Uniform beam of length 1 fixed at one

at the other.
end, loaded with weight
Let x be the
distance of a section from the fixed end of the beam.
Then
W{l x), so that (1) becomes
M=
.(2).
w
<3L
X l-x
Fig. 37.
Integrating,
we
have, as
EI
From
this
To
we can
find
c,
E and / are constants,

dy
calculate the slope everywhere.
we must know the
slope at some one place.

at the fixed end, and
Now we know that there is no slope

hence -y^ = where x 0, hence c = 0.
dx
Integrating again,
EI
To find G, we know that ^ = when x = 0, and hence
(7=0, so that we have for the shape of the beam, that is, the
equation giving us y for any point of the beam,
W
We
is
usually want to
called
la-)
know y when x = l, and
.(3).
this value of
D, the deflection of the beam, so that
Wl'
SEI
.(4).
at
Example II. A beam of length I loaded with
the middle and supported at the ends. Observe that if
half of this
P.
beam
in its loaded condition has a casting of
98
cement made round

half
it
so that it is rigidly held
simply a beam of length
is
^l, fixed
the other
at one
end and
W
W\
Fig. 38.
loaded at the other with

example, its deflection is
^W,
ZEI
The student ought
to
and, according to the last
4:8.
make a sketch
(5).
EI
to illustrate this
method
of solving the problem.
Example III. Beam fixed at one end with load

unit length spread over it uniformly.
The
load on the part
FQ
is
wx PQ or w{l x).
Q
w per
>*
^'1-X
Fig. 39.
so,
The resultant of the load acts at midway between

at P, or
multiplying hy ^{1 x), we find
M=\w{l-xy
Using
this in (1),
Integrating,
(6).
we have
or.
dx^
we have
2EJ
^0
ax
This gives us the slope everywhere
P and Q,
BEAMS.
Now
-r
=0
ax
Hence
there.
where ^
c
= 0,
99
because
beam
the
fixed
is
= 0.
Again integrating,
2EI
w
and as
beam
?/
y = ^px"
where
a;
= 0,
- ^laf +
= 0,
+ G,
yijja;*
and hence the shape of the
is
y=^((ilV-ila^ +
1/
is
greatest at the end where
a;
I,
a,-)
(7).
so that the deflection is
^=M&7^' "'^ = 8 EI
if Tr='Z(;^,
lu
<>
the whole load on the beam.
Example IV. Beam of length I loaded uniformly with

per unit length, supported at the ends.
of the supporting forces is half the total load. The

of ^zvl,
p
q
-------at the distance PQ, is
against the hands of a
*^-il-x-^
-<,X
iwl
iî
watch, and I call this
Each
moment about P
>
direction positive; the

moment of the load
'^^ (2 ^ ~ ^) ^t the average distance
Fig. 40.
^PQ
and hence the bending moment at

^lul (hi
so that,
from
y being the
(1),
x) ^w ( JZ xy,
EI
,^ = ^wP
is
or ^^Z-
^wx'^
. .
.(9),
- \wx'^,
vertical height of the point
of the beam, see Art. 60.
therefore negative,
P is
Integrating
above the middle
we have
dy
dx
EI -^ = \wl~x \wa? 4- c,
a formula which enables us to find the slope everywhere.
7-2
100
^=
determined by our knowledge that
c is
and hence
= 0.
beam
is
X = i?, and
is
0,
what
= 0,
Hence the shape of
0.
is
greatest where
usually called the deflection
is
if"
^=
Beams Fixed
61.
where x =
= aaW'T^^^^^ " 2^)-"(l^X V
^= oQpf
beam, or
a;
Integrating again,
and C=0, because y =

the
where
^^^
of the
the total load.
at the Ends.
Torques applied
end
at the ends of a beam to fix them (that is, to keep the

sections in vertical planes) are equal and opposite if
loading is symmetrical on the two sides of the centre of
beam. The torques being equal, the supporting forces
the
the
are
the same as before. Now if 7ti is the bending moment

(positive if the beam tends to get concave upwards) which
the loads and supporting forces would produce if the ends
were not fixed, the bending moment is now ni c because
the end torques c are equal and opposite, and the supporting
forces are unaltered by fixing.
^^"^
w-
d^^=^r
beam
If the
uniform and we integrate, we find
is
EI .- =
Take x
conditions
as
ini.dx
ex
-\-
const
We
measured from one end.
/=
where x
ax
the length of the beam.

from what
of (2) when ic =
is
0=1
7n
dx
0,
and
,-
dx
(2).
have the Uvo
where x = lAf
Hence if we subtract the value

when x=l, we have
it is
cl,
or c
=J
ri
j
dx,
all over the beam.

the average value of
Draw the diagram
(for symmetric loads):
of bending moment m as if the beam were merely suppoi^ted
that
is,
The
rule
is
is
then
BEAMS FIXED AT THE ENDS.
101
Find the average height of the diagram and

the curved outline of the diagram by that amount.
The resulting diagram, which will be negative at the ends, is
the true diagram of bending moment. The beam is concave
upwards where the bending moment is positive, and it is
convex upwards where the bending moment is negative, and
there are points of inflexion, or places of no curvature, where
there is no bending moment.
at the ends.
loiuer
Thus it is well known that if a beam of length

supported at the ends and loaded in the middle
with a load W, the bending moment is \Wl at the middle
at the ends, the diagram being formed of two
and is
straight lines. The student is supposed to draw this diagram
(see also Example II.).
The average height of it is half the
middle height or ^Wl, and this is c the torque which must
be applied at each end to fix it if the ends are fixed.
The whole diagram being lowered by this amount it is
Example.
is
evident that the true bending moment of such a beam if its

half-way to each end
ends are fixed, is ^Wl at the middle,
from the middle so that there are points of inflexion there,
and iTT^ at each end.
rectangular beam or a beam of
rolled girder section, or any other section symmetrical above
and below the neutral line, is equally ready to break at the
ends or at the middle.
A uniform beam loaded uniformly with

w per unit length, supported at the ends the diagram
is a parabola (see Example IV., where ilf = ^tul^ ^wx^);
Example.
load
for
711
is
the greatest value of
is at the middle and it is ^tul^
at the ends.
Now the average value of is | of its middle
value (see Art. 43, area of a parabola).
Hence c = -^wP.
This average value of
is to be subtracted from every value
and we have the value of the real bending moment everywhere for a beam fixed at the ends.
;
Hence
beam fixed at the ends the bending

middle is i^îvl-y at the ends -î^wP, and the
parabolic, being in fact the diagram for a beam
in such a
moment
in the
diagram
is
supported at the ends, lowered by the amount -^wP everywhere. The points of inflexion are nearer the ends than in
the last case. The beam is most likely to break at the ends.
Students ought to make diagrams
for various
examples of
102
Find m by the ordinary graphical

method and lower the diagram by its average height.
When the beam symmetrically loaded and fixed
at the ends is not uniform in section^ the integral
symmetrical loading.
of (1)
is
^t-i>-^lT
and as before
to find c
it is
(^).
this is
between the limits and I, and hence
necessary to draw a diagram showing the value
111/
of
-J
everywhere and to find
Divide this by the
its area.
area of a diagram which shows the value of
ever3rwhere,
the average height of the Mjl diagram is to be

divided by the average height of the 1// diagram and
we have c. Subtract this value of c from every value of
m, and we have the true diagram of bending moment of the
beam. Graphical exercises are much more varied and interesting than algebraic ones, as it is so easy, graphically, to draw
when the loading is known.
diagrams of
or
The
solution just given is applicable to a beam of which

the / of every cross section is settled beforehand in any
arbitrary manner, so long as / and the loading are symmetrical
on the two sides of the middle. Let us give to / such a
value that the beam shall be of uniform strength every-
where
that
is,
that
M
-jz=fc or
ft
where z is the greatest
.(4),
distance of any point in the section from the neutral line on

the compression or tension side and/, and/^ are the constant
maximum stresses in compression or tension to which the
material is subjected in every section.
Taking /<. as
numerically equal to ft and z = ^d, where d is the depth
of the beam, (4) becomes Trc?=
2/"... (5),
taken over parts of the beam where if
where 31
is
negative.
As
-y
c^^
= 0,
/iff^^Ô
the
is positive,
or,
using
sign being
the
sign
(5-),
(6),
BEAMS FIXED AT THE ENDS.
103
the negative sign being taken from the ends of the beam to
the points of inflexion, and the positive sign being taken
between the two points of inflexion. We see then that to
satisfy (6) we have only to solve the following problem.
In the figure,
is a diagram whose ordinates
EATUGQE
represent the values of
-^
or the reciprocal of the depth of
the beam which may be arbitrarily fixed, care being taken,

however, that d is the same at points which are at the same
distance from the centre.
is a diagram of the values
of m easily drawn when the loading is known.
are re= area
quired to find a point P, such that the area of
EFGE
We
EPTA
Fig. 41.
When
is in the middle of the beam.
of POO'Tj where
is
is a point of inflexion and
found, this point
That is,
is the real
what we have called c.
bending moment
at every place, or the diagram
is at
to obtain the
must be lowered vertically till
and d it is easy to find /
diagram of M. Knowing
PR
EFG
through
PR
(5).
It is evident that if such a
beam
of
uniform strength
uniform depth, the
points of inflexion are halfway between the middle and the fixed ends. Beams of
uniform strength and depth are of the same curvature
ever3rvvhere except that it suddenly changes sign at the
is
also of
points of inflexion.
61.
In the
most general way of loading, the bending
moments required
at the ends to fix
flrom one another, and if m^^

watch apphed at the end A, and
is
?._,
them are
different
the torque against the hands of a

is the torque with the hands of a
104
watch at the end /?, and

merely supported is m
the bending
if
moment
in case the
beam were
Consider a weightless unloaded beam of the same length with the

torques oui and wio applied to its ends; to keep it in equilibrium it is
necessary to introciuce equal and opposite supporting forces P at the
m,
m,
Â
4--
X-
--T--
'
>
P
Fig. 42.
ends as shown in the

as
drawn
in
figure.
Then Fl + m2 = m^f the
forces &c. being
P=i-^^.
42, so that
fig.
If then these torques m.^ and wij are exerted they must be balanced
by the forces P shown that is, at -B a downward force must be exerted
this means that the beam at B tends to rise, and hence the ordinary
supporting force at B must be diminished by amount P. At any place
C the bending moment will be m (what it would be if the beam were
merely supported at the ends) m^-P. BC. .(1). If one does not care
to think much, it is sufficient to say
The beam was in equilibrium
being loaded and merely supported at the ends ; the bending moment
at any place was m ; we have introduced now a new set of forces which
balance, the bending moment at C due to these new forces is
;
-(ma + P.iiC).
So that the tnie bending moment at C is m - m^ - P. BC.
Suppose
r/i2
= 0,
then
P=
9)1
j-,
and the bending moment at
is
m-^.BCovm-P.BC.
62.
Beam
which
fixed at the
end A^ merely supported at
exactly on the same level as A. As

have the very case just mentioned, and
is
BC^x, we
El'^^^^m-Px
We
will first consider
Example
Wg^^
^"d letting
(2).
uniform beam uniformly loaded
It will be found that when x is measured

from the end of the beam, the bending moment in = \wlx -\wx'^-^ if the
beam is merely supported at its ends and \o is the load per unit length.
as in
Hence
IV., Art. 60.
(2) is
EI^ = ^wlx-\wx''--Px
El-^=\wlx'^-\wx^-\Px^\c
(3),
(4).
105
BENDING.
We
have also the condition that -i\=0 where ^=^...(5), for
observed that
we measure
,v
it is
to be
from the unfixed end.
Again integrating,
;ii/=^wla;^-^wa)*-^Pa^ + CA'
(6).
We need noi add a constant because y is when ^ is 0.

We also have y=0 when x=l. Using this condition
we
and also
(5)
find
0=j\v>l^-^PP + c
0=^^wl^-^PP+d
and these enable us
Divide
hence from
We have
by
(8)
to determine
P and
and subtract from
(7)
(7),
(8),
c.
and we have
(d=^wP - ^PP or P= Iwl,

0'=^wP ^wP+CfC- -^g wP.
(7 ),
the true bending moment,
^wlx - J wx^ - \ ivlxj

and
if
(6) gives
us the shape of the beam.
If the loading is of any kind whatsoever and

63.
the section varies in any way a graphic metliod of inte-
gration must be used in working the above example. Now if the value
of an ordinate z which is a function of ^ be shown on a curve, we have
no instrument which can be

z
dx, that
is,
relied
the ordinate of the
upon
for
new curve
showing in a new curve

representing the area of
the z curve up to that value of .r from any fixed ordinate. I have

sometimes used squared paper and counted the number of the squares.
I have sometimes used a planimeter to find the areas up to certain
values of .v, raised ordinates at those places representing the areas to
scale, and drawn a curve by hand through the ten or twelve or more
points so found. There are integrators to be bought I have not cared
to use any of them, and perhaps it is hardly fair to say that I do not
believe in the accuracy of such of them as I have seen.
;
cheap and accurate form of integrator would not only be very

it would, if it were used,
useful in the solution of graphical problems
give great aid in enabling men to understand the calculus.
;
Let us suppose that the student has some method of showing the
value of
z.
dx
in a
new curve
the loading being of any kind what-
soever and
/ varying, since
dx^

CALCULUS FOn ENGINEERS,
106
we have on
integrating,
"-}
We
see that it
where
is -j
ia
make a diagram whose
necessary to
and we mast integrate
Let
it.
w.
x=lf
IX
w.
i'^-'-^l~r-'
becomes the whole area of the
-j
-^ o?^
ordinate every-
be culled
diagram and we
fi
when
will call
this ^j.
make
It is also necessary to
and integrate
is
-J
a diagram whose ordinate everywhere
-.dxhQ called X,
Let
it.
When x=l^
the whole area of the
Then
as in
X
j diagram and we
(9),
will call this X^.
when x=lj
o=f,,-p. x,+c
Integrating (9) again,
X becomes
ao).
we have
Ey=\ii. dx - P
\X dx + ex + C.
.
if we use y O when x=0, we shall find C'=0, and again if

when x=l, and if we use Mj and Xj as the total areas of the /x
and
curves we have
In this
y=0
= Mi-P.Xi + e;*
from
(10)
and
(11) i^
to state the bending
(11),
may be found, and of course P enables us

moment everywhere, -c is the slope when
and
.'t-
is 0.
64.
Example.
Beam
Without using the
letters
of any changing section fixed

fi,
X,
yUj
X^ &c. the above investigation
e:i]--/:t--/:^^
Integrating again between the limits
the same at both limits
and
The
J-
and recollecting that y
with,
m - Px,
is
(11).
J-
integrations in (10) and (11) being performed, the

the true bending moment everywhere
;
can be calculated
<-'
f4]=0=f7'"i..-p/"'f'^%.Z
a;=0
J
is
unknowns P and c
is what we started
BENDING.
any kind of loading.
at the ends^
end where there
107
the fixing couple
is
Measuring x from one
?2)
M=m-m,-rj;
(1),
^'g = ?-'?-''7
^j-,=
Let
Let
F=
foe
X=l
fi
7 dx-m^
'y-^
and
fi^
-P
~r
-y-+constant
(3),
the whole area of the -^ curve;
(dx
1
-y and Fj the whole area of the y curve;
dx
'
(^).
Let
1'
and Xi the whole area of the ~ curve; then
= /Xi-m2Fi-PXi
(4).
Again integrating
y=j/jL.dx
111.2
Y ,dx P \X .dx-\- const.
Calling the integiâls from
to
of the
//,,
F and X curves
Mj, Yj, and X^, we have
= Mi-7?i.,Yi-PXi*
and as
known.
*
We
rrio
and
(5),
are easily found from (4)
have used the Bymbols
/a, A',
Y,
/j.^,
X^, Y^,
M,
and
(5), (1)
is
Y, Mi, Xi, Yi fearing
unfamiliar with the symbols of the calculus

perhaps it would have been better to put the investigation in its proper
form and to ask the student to make himself familiar with the usual symbol
instead of dragging in eleven fresh symbols.
that students are
After
(3)
still
little
above, write as follows
U d}='=} 07"^-
'"').
T-n.-r
w-
Again integrating between Umits
l-U=N"â.-.J'l'^^-r['f'i^
'
x=o
yoyo-'
J
The
J-
(5,
integrations indicated in (4) and (5) being performed, the unknowns m^

can be calculated and used in (1).
The student must settle for
himself which is the better course to take; to use the formidable looking
but really easily understood symbols of this note or to introduce the eleven
letters whose meaning one is always forgetting.
See also the previous note.
and
108
65. In Graphical work. Let

GB (fig. 43) represent m,
the bending moment, if the beam were merely supported at
the ends; let
represent Wg.
represent nv^ and let
Join DE. Then the difference between the ordinates of
AD
BE
Fig. 43.
ACB
ADEB
represents the actual bending moment;

the vertical ordinates of the space between the straight
line
and the curve AFCGB. It is negative from
to
and from / to B, and positive from
to I.
and G are
points of inflexion.
that
and of
is
DE
Useftil
Analogies in
Beam
Problems.
If
io
the load per unit length

on a beam and
is the bending moment at a section
(positive when it tends to
make the beam convex upwards*), a; being horizontal
distance, to prove that
is
dF = ^
If at
the
^^>-
section
at
44, whose distance to the

right of some origin is oc there
fig.
is
a bending
moment
in-
dicated by the two equal and

opposite arrow heads and a
p. ^,
shearing force S as shown,
being positive if the material to the right of the section is
*
This convention
is
necessary only in the following generalization.
BENDING.
109
PQ
acted on by downward force, and if

is hx so that the load
on this piece of beam between the sections at
and Q is
w .hx\ if the bending moment on the Q section is + hM
and the shearing force S + hS, then the forces acting on this
piece of beam are shown in the figure and from their equilibrium we know that
hS io.hx
and taking moments about
or
- = w
(2),
Q,
3I+S.Sx + iw (8xy=^M+ MI,

or
= o + 1^
^
-tT-
ox
and
in the limit as hx
is
made
^
and hence
Now
ox,
smaller and smaller
=S
(3),
(1) is true.
it is
well
known
that in
d2y
beams
if
is
the deflection
M
.(4).
d^"EI
If we have a diagram which shows at every place the

value of Wy called usually a diagram of loading, it is an
exercise known to all students that we can draw at once by
graphical statics a diagram showing the value of
at every
place to scale that is we can solve (1) very easily graphically*.
We can see from (4) that if we get a diagram
showing yn- at every place, we can use exactly the same
method (and we have exactly the same rule as to scale) to

find the value of y
that is, to draw the shape of the
beam. Many of these exercises ought to be worked by all
;
engineers.
*
We
M usually for
a beam merely supported at the ends. Let it

If instead, there are bending moments at the ends we
Then the algebraic sum of
represent these and join DE.
let
and
the ordinates of the two diagrams is the real diagram of bending moment.
be
AGB,
AD
find
fig.
43.
BE
110
In any beam whether supported at the ends
Example.
or not
if
-m;
constant, integrating (1)
is
- h-\-iux
and
M=
we
find
a-\-hx-\- ^tuaf
In any problem we have data to determine a and
(5).
b.
Take the case of a uniform beam uniformly loaded and

merely supported at the ends.
Measure y upwards from the middle and x from the
Then i/= where x = ^l and ^l,
middle.
= ^hl + ^wl-.
and
tt
Hence
0,
ti
Itvl^
and
(5)
becomes
M = - iwl"
which
exactly what we used in Example IV. (Art. 60)
where we afterwards divided M by EI and integrated twice
}- ^wx""
(6),
is
to find y.
Let
e,.
be
-^-
dy
dx
or the slope of the beam.
'
di
dM
dx
EI
dx
dS
dx
we have a succession of curves which may be obtained

from knowing the shape of the beam y by differentiation, or
which may be obtained from knowing w, the loading of the
beam, by integration. Knowing w there is an easy graphical
rule for finding MjEI, knowing MjEI we have the same
graphical rule for finding y.
Some rules that are obviously
true in the w to MjEI construction and need no mathematical
proof, may at once be used without mathematical proof in
applying the analogous rule from MjEI to y. Thus the area
of the MjEI curve between the ordinates x^ and x^ is the
increase of i from x^ to x.2y and tangents to the curve showing
the shape of the beam at x^ and x^ meet at a point which
is vertically in a line with the centre of gravity of the
portion of area of the MjEI curve in question. Thus the
whole area of the M/EI curve in a span IIJ is equal to the
di/
increase in -~ from one end of the span to the other,
and
CONTINUOUS GIRDERS.
Ill
the tangents to the beam at its ends H, J meet in a point

which is in the same vertical as the centre of gravity of
the whole M/EI curve. These two rules may be taken as
the starting point for a complete treatment of the subject
of beams by graphical methods.
If the vertical from this

horizontal distance
from
centre
of gravity
is
at
the
H and GJ from then P

higher than H by the amount HG x
the symbol % being
used to mean the slope at ^
higher than P by the
amount GJ x at J. Hence J
higher than H by the
HG
/,
is
ij^,
J" is
is
amount
HG.i^+GJ.ij,
a relation which
may be
useful
when
conditions as to the
relative heights of the supports are given, as in continuous
beam
problems.
Theorem of Three Moments. For some time,

67.
Railway Engineers, instead of using separate girders for
the spans of a bridge, fastened together contiguous ends
to prevent their tilting up and so made use of what
are called continuous girders.
It is easy to show that
if we can be absolutely certain of the positions of the
points of support, continuous girders are much cheaper than
separate girders.
Unfortunately a comparatively small
settlement of one of the supports alters completely the
condition of things.
In many other parts of Applied
Mechanics we have the same difficulty in deciding between
cheapness with some uncertainty and a gi-eater expense with
certainty.
Thus there is much greater uncertainty as to the
nature of the forces acting at riveted joints than at hinged
joints and therefore a structure with hinged joints is preferred to the other, although, if we could be absolutely
certain of our conditions an equally strong riveted structure
might be made which would be much cheaper.
Students interested in the theory of continuous girders

do well to read a paper published in the Proceedings of
the Royal Society/, 199, 1879, where they will find a graphical
method of solving the most general problems.t I will take
here as a good example of the use of the calculus, a uniform
girder resting on supports at the same level, with a uniform
will
112
ABC
load distribution on each span. Let

be the centre line
of two spans, the girder originally straight, supported at
A, and G. The distance from J. to .S is î and from
to G
205S'
-^^^^^^^^mxww^mm
Fig. 45.
and there are any kinds of loading in the two spans.

Let A, B and G be the bending moments at A, B and G
is I2
beam is concave upwards.

At the section at P at the distance x from A let m be
what the bending moment would have been if the girder
respectively, counted positive if the
on each span were quite separate from the rest. We have

already seen that by introducing couples 77I2 and mi at A and
B (tending to make the beam convex upwards at A and B)
we made the bending moment at P really become what
is given in Art. 61.
Our m^ A^m^^ B, and hence the
bending moment at P is
m-i-
-^
B-A_ EI d'j
(1),
where m would be the bending moment if the beam were

merely supported at the ends, and the supporting force at A
is lessened by
^ the amount
A-B
.(2).
I.
Assume EI
we have
constant and integrate with regard to x and
BA
m .dx Ax + ^x^
-\-
1-
Using the sign jltn. dx dx

.
to
Ci
^'i
mean the
(^^)-
integration of
the curve representing J7a.dx we have

r r
\\m.dx.dx'^\Ax^+^x'
^ +
T)
Ci^p -f
= ^Y
3/ .
4).
As
when
is
7/
cc
symbol
= 0,
//^
THEOREM OF THREE MOMENTS.
113
when ic=0 and
it is
Again y
e is 0.
evident that llm.dx.da;
when
sum jjm.dx.dic
to indicate the
Using the
a;=lj^.
over the whole
span,
fi,
From
+ iAk'-{-ili'(B-A) + cA =
(3) let us calculate the value of
B, and let us use the letter a^ to
curve over the span, or
a^-\-Ak
But
at any point
EI --
mean the
dx, so that
(5).
at the point
area of the
EI ~
at
5 is
+ \k{B-A) + c,
(6).
of the second span, if we had let BQ = x

the same equations as (1), (3) and (4)
for
and the constant Ca.
and G for
we should have had

using the letters
Hence making
point
where
and instead of
change in (3) and finding
EI -^-
= 0, we have (6) equal to Co or

C2-Ci = ai + ^î4-iî(5-^)
'^
this
a:
(5)
+ \BU 4- Û {C-B)- cA =
Subtracting (5) from (8) after dividing by

have
The
(7),
we have
/i,
c,-c,
at the
(8).
Zj
and
l.j
we
= ^-f^ + iAh-iBk + lh{B-A)-ih{C-B)...(9).
equality of (7) and (9)
an equation connecting A,
is
and
C, the
bending moments
at three consecutive supports.

If we have any number of
supports and at the end ones we have the bending moments
because the girder is merely supported there, or if we have
two conditions given which will enable us to find them in
case the girder is fixed or partly fixed, note that by writing
P.
114
(10) for every three consecutive supports we have a

number of equations to determine all the bending
moments at the supports.
down
sufficient
Example. Let the loads be w^ and w^ per unit length

over two consecutive spans of lengths l^ and l^. Then
m = \wlx \wa^, jm.dx= \wla^ \wa?,

Hence
rti
= T^^'j ^^^ \\m.dx ,dx = -^wlaf^ -^wa^.
Hence
/Aj
^+
Hence
tti
y^
or
= -^w^k\
fi^
= i^wjî*.
becomes
-^-fW.}.^
^\ (ukI/
4- w^li"),
and hence the theorem becomes in

Al,
+ 2B (I, + k) +
If the spans are similar
Gl,
+ r-^
Zi
^w^li^,
this case
+ i (wj2^ + w^k') =
(10).
and similarly loaded then
A-h4^B-\-C+^wP=^0
(11).
uniform and uniformly loaded beam rests on

three equidistant supports.
Here A = C = and B = ^wl\
= \w {Ix -- aP), and hence the bending moment at a point
distant x from A is
Case
1.
m
P
\w {Ix The supporting

if
force at
the part of the
shewn
in (2),
beam
+ --^wl\
a^)
is
or ^wl.
^
what it would be
were distinct by the amount
lessened from
AB
It
would have been ^l, so now
^wl at each of the end supports, and as the total

2wl, there remains ^^-wl for the middle support.
it is really
load
is
Case
A uniform
2.
and uniformly loaded beam
four equidistant supports, and the bending

these supports are A, B, G, D.
Now =
symmetry = G. Thus (11) gives us
rests
on
moments
at
D=0
+ 5J5+irf =
or
B=^G=^--^^wl\
and from
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS.
115
AB had been distinct, the first support would

have had the load ^wl, it now has ^wl -^^wl or -^qwI. The
supporting force at D is also -^-^wl. The other two supports
divide between them the remainder of the total load which
The supporting
is altogether ^wl and so each receives \^wl.
forces are then -^^wl, \^wl, \^wl and -^-^wl.
If the span
Shear Stress in Beams. Let the distance

68.
measured from any section of a beam, say at 0, fig. 46,
Let the
to the section at A be x, and let OB x-\-hx.
and at B'BD be
bending moment at G'AG be
+ hM,
C D
EIF
E
Fig. 47.
Fig. 46.
OAB
(fig.
surface.
Fig. 48.
and A A (fig. 47) represent the neutral

want to know the tangential or shear stress /
46)
We
on tlie plane GAC. Now it is known that this is

at
the same as the tangential stress in the direction
on
which is at right angles to the paper and
the plane
parallel to the neutral surface at AB.
Consider the equilibrium of the piece of beam ECDF, shown in fig. 47 as ECE,
and shown magnified in fig. 48. We have indicated only
the forces which are parallel to the neutral surface or at
right angles to the sections.
The total pushing forces on
are greater than the total pushing forces on CE, the tangential
making up for the difference. We have only to
forces mi
state this mathematically and we have solved our problem.
EF
EF
DF
EF
CAC
At a place like
in the plane
at a distance y from
the neutral surface the compressive stress is known to be
p = Y y^ ^^^ ^^ ^ ^ *^^ breadth of the section there, shown

as IIH (fig. 47), the total pushing force on the area ECE is
rAC
P=
\f
b'^y.dy
J
AE
J-
rAC
Jlf
or
P^'y-^
hy.dy
J
(1).
AE
82
116
Observe that if b varies, we must know it as a function of

y before we can integrate in (1). Suppose we call this total
pushing force on EC by the name P, then the total pushing force on
DF will be P + 8^
-r*
The
EF is fx area of EFovf.hx. EE, and
hence
f.Bx.EE = Bx.^~ovf=
J:^
EE
dx
*^
-'
Beam
Example.
i?
dx
(2).
'
^
of uniform rectangular section^ of
constant breadth 6 and constant depth
tangential force on
12m
p^
d.
Then
i2iifr^ 1
F^^-^{\d^-AE%
/= ^
and hence
|(t^'3_^/;.)^^^
(8);
known as soon as
is known.
M, let us choose a case, say the case of a beam
supported at the ends and loaded uniformly with iv lb.
per unit length of the beam.
We saw that in this case, x
so that /is
As
to
being distance from the middle
M \wl^ \wx^.
Hence
7-
dx
= wx,
so that (3)
is
f=~{^l''-AE^)wx
(4).
If we like we may now use the letter y for the distance -4 -^,
and we see that at any point of this beam, x inches measured
horizontally from the middle, and y inches above the neutral
line the shear stress is
/=-5*-2'')'^
^'^-
EF
The sign means that the material below

acts on
the material above
in the opposite sense to that of the
arrow heads shown at EF, fig. 48.
EF
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS.
117
the shear stress is greater

Observe that where 2/ =
than at any other point of the section, that is, at points
in the neutral line.
The shear stress is at C. Again, the
end sections of the beam have greatest shear. A student
has much food for thought in this result (5). It is interesting to find the directions and amounts of the principal
stresses at every point of the beam, that is, the interfaces at
right angles to one another at any point, across which there
is only compression or only tension without tangential stress.
We have been considering a rectangular section. The
student ought to work exercises on other sections as soon as
he is able to integrate hy with regard to 3/ in (1) where h is
rAG
any function of
y.
He
will notice that
hy.dy
is
equal to
AE
the area of EHGHE, fig. 47, multiplied by the distance of its

centre of gravity from
A.
Taking a flanged section the student will find that
is
small in the flanges and gets greater in the web.
Even in a
rectangular section /' became rapidly smaller further out
from the neutral line, but now to obtain it we must divide by
the breadth of the section and this breadth is comparatively
so great in the flanges that there is practically no shearing
there, the shear being confined to the web whereas in the
web itself does not vary very much. The student already
knows that it is our usual custom to calculate the areas of
the flanges or top and bottom booms of a girder as if they
merely resisted compressive and tensile forces, and the web
or the diagonal bracing as if it merely resisted shearing.
He will note that the shear in a section is great only where
or rather
-^\-f]
S,
is
great.
But inasmuch
as in Art. QQ
we saw
that -j-
there
nothing very extraordinary in finding that the actual
is
the total shearing force at the section,
shear stress anywhere in the section depends upon -r-
a uniformly loaded
beam
-7-
is
In
greatest at the ends and gets
and less towards the middle and then changes sign,

hence the bracing of a girder loaded mainly with its own
weight is much slighter in the middle than at the ends.
less
118
Deflection of Beams.
bending
If a
moment
M acts
section of a beam, the part of length bx gets the strain-energy \
dx/FI is the angular change (see Art. 26), and

because
the whole strain-energy in a beam due to bending moment is
.
therefore
m-'^
<\
a shear stress, the shear strain-energy

and by adding we can therefore find
the whole beam.
If
at a
''
is
lf2/2iV...(7),
\}er
unit volume
its total
amount
is
for
By equating tlic strain-energy to the loads multiplied by half the

displacements produced by them we obtain interesting relations. Thus
in the case of a beam of length /, of rectangular section, fixed at one
end and loaded at the other with a load W; at the distance x from the
end,
Wx and the energy due to bending is
M=
172^.2
TF2;
Êj^
The above
dx=WH^lQEI
(8).
expression (5) gives for the shearing stress
f=\îid?-f)W
(9).
The shear strain-energy in the elementary volume h .bx by is

b.bx by.f'^/2K Integrating this with regard to y from - ^c^ to -{-^d
we find the energy in the slice between two sections to be
.
SWH.bx/biYbd,
beam
so that the shear strain-energy in the
is
WH/dNbd... (10).
now
the load
produces the deflection z at the end of the
the work done is ^ Wz,..{\l).
Equating (11) to the sum of (8) and (10) we find
If
.=
i^ +
iL
^^
beam
(12)
Note that the first part of this due to bending is the deflection as
calculated in Art. 60, Example I.
believe that the other part due
to shearing has never before been calculated.
We
If the deflection due to bending is
z^
and
to shearing is
z^^
zjz.^=iomy3Ed^.
Taking A^= as being fairly correct, then zjs.^ = Al^j^d^. If a beam

10 inches deep, when its length is 8-6 inches the deflections due to
bending and shear are equal when its length is 86 inches, the deflection
due to bending is 100 times that due to shear when its length is 0-79
inch, the deflection due to bending is only 1 /100th of that due to
Probably however our assumed laws of bending do not apply
shear.
to so short a beam.
is
BENDING OF
Springs which Bend.
A,
69.
119
STRIPS.
Let
fig.
49 show the centre
line of a sirring fixed at
loaded at
with a small
in the direction
load
shown.
To find the
amount of yielding at B.
The load and the deflection are supposed to be
very small.
Consider
the
piece
of
spring
Fig. 49.
bounded by cross sections at P and Q.

Let
between B and P being
FQ = 8s,
called
the length of the spring
s.
W PR
is
or W.w if x is, the
The bending moment at
upon the direction of W.
length of the perpendicular from
be called y. Consider first that part of the motion
Let
of B which is due to the change of shape of QP alone that
a rigid pointer.
to be perfectly rigid and
is, imagine
The section at Q being fixed, the section at gets an angular
.
BR
PB
P
AQ
change equal to Ss x the change of curvature there, or Bs

8s
or
Wx
'^p^ ...(1),
moment
to this
in fact
where
is
Young's modulus and /
distance
is
the
due
of inertia of the cross section. The motion of
were a straight pointer
just the same as if
gets this angular motion and the
the pointer
by the straight
is this angle, multiplied
of
PB
is
motion
-^rt-
PB
PB
or
Wx
PB
EI
Ss.
Now how much

It is its whole
of B's motion
is
PR
.(2).
in the direction of IF
motion x -p^ or x p-^ and hence B'a
motion in the direction of
W
hs
is
Wx"
EI
.(3).
120
Similarly B'a motion at right angles to the direction of
^-i^
is
(4).
In the most general cases, it is easy to work out the

and (4) graphically.
integrals of (3)
to
We usually divide the whole length of the spring from B

A into a large number of equal parts so as to have all the
values of Bs the same, and then
we may
say
(s
being the
whole length of the spring) that we have to multiply
upon the average values of -^ and -j-
for
each part. In a well
made spring
if b is the breadth of a strip at right angles to

the paper and t its thickness so that / = -f^bt^ we usually
have the spring equally ready to break everywhere or
~r42~~f>
''^
When
constant.
this is the case
(3)
and
(4)
become
2/.^^
^ and
^-^'^^
And if the strip is constant in thickness, varying in

breadth in proportion to x, then
If X and y are the x and y of the centre of gravity of

the curve (see Art. 48)
^- is the total yielding parallel to
W,
li/t
^-^
70.
When
is
the total yielding at right angles to
Exercises.
The curvature
the equation to a curve
is
of a curve
given
it
is
'W.
is
easy to find
STATIC PRESSURE OF FLUIDS.
-^ and vând calculate - where r

r
da?
ax
This is mere exercise work and it
is
121
the radius of curvature.
is not necessary to prove

beforehand that the formula for the curvature is correct.
Find the curvature of the parabola y ax^ at the
1.
point
d?
2.
= 0,
3/
= 0.
The equation
to the shape of a beam, loaded uni-
formly and supported at the ends
is
3/
w
aqtpt
{^^^^^
~ 2^'*),
see Art. 60, where the origin is at the middle of the beam ;
I is the whole length of the beam, lu is the load per unit
length,
is Young's modulus for the material and / is the
moment of inertia of the cross section. Take I = 200, = 5,
29x 10, / = 80, find the curvature where x = 0. Show
E=
may be
that in this case f-^)

1,
and that
Show
really
the
curvature
is
represented by
moment
of
the above
*^^^ ^^^^
^^
that the bending
^^RFT
^^^
" ^'^^'
neglected, in comparison with
^^^^
-vt,.
beam
is
greatest at the middle
of the beam.
3.
Find the curvature of the curve i/= a log x +bx-\-c

where x = Xi.
at the point
71.
Force due to Pressure of Fluids.
Exercise
1.
p, the pressure of a fluid, is constant, the

is
resultant of all the pressure forces on the plane area
and acts through the
Prove that
if
centre of the area.

2.
The pressure
-"t^j
in
a liquid at the depth h

being wh, where w is the
weight of unit volume,
what is the total force due
to pressure on any immei*sed plane area ?- Let
be the surface from
which the depth h is
measured and where the
''\
\
^^\^
DE
^^S- ^0.
Ap
122
pressure is 0.
Let BG be an edge view of the area imagine
its plane produced to cut the level surface of the liquid
in D.
Let the angle
be called a. Let the distance
be called x and let
be called x + hx, and let the
breadth of the area at right angles to the paper at
be
called z.
On the strip of area z hx there is the pressure
wh if h is
the depth of P, and
sin a, so that the
pressure force on the strip is
;
DE
EDO
DQ
DP
PH
h^x
wx
sin
OL
hx,
rue
and the whole
F=wsuyol\
force is
x .z .dx
(1 ).
J 1)B
Also if this resultant acts at a point in the area at a distance

from D, taking moments about P,
rDC
FX=tu sina
.z.dx
xJ
(2).
DB
rDC
Observe in (1) that
x ,z ,dx Ax,
DB
is the whole area and x is the distance of its centre of

gravity from P.
Hence, the average pressure over the
if
area
is
the pressure at the centre of gravity of the
area.
CDC
Observe in (2) that
x^z
.dx
the
moment
of inertia
DB
Letting I kÂ where k is called the

of the area about P.
radius of gyration of the area about P, we see that
,
F=iu sin a
Hence
X = x
.(3),
Ax,
FX = w sin a
the distance from
Ah^.
at
is
rectangular, of
which the
resultant force acts.
Example,
If
DB =
constant breadth h
and the area
then
I=h
CDC
x^.dx
= ^DC\
Jo
and
^ = 6 PC
.
X = fPC, that
so that k^
is,
= ^DC\
Also x
= J PC.
Hence
way
the resultant force acts at | of the
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE IN FLUIDS.
123
down the
rectangle from i) to (7 and the average pressure

the pressure at a point half way down.
is
an easily remembered relation that we find in (8).

a compoimd pendulum, whose radius of
gyration is k and if x is the distance from the point of
support to its centre of gravity and if
is the distance to
its point of percussion, we have the very same equation (3).
Again, if X is the length of the simple pendulum which
oscillates in exactly the same time as the compound one,
we have again this same relation (3). These are merely
mathematical helps to the memory, for the three physical
phenomena have no other relation to one another than a
mathematical one.
It is
For
if
we have
Whirling Fluid.
72. Suppose a mass of fluid to rotate like a rigid body about
an axis with the angular velo-
city of a radians per second.
Let 00 be the axis. Let

be a particle weighing w lbs.
Let OP X.
The
centrifugal
force in
pounds of any mass is the

mass multiplied by the square
o<>
of its angular velocity, multiplied by X.

Here the mass
is
IS
w
"U)
and the centrifugal
force
o?x.
9
Make
Fig. 51.
PR
represent this to scale and let PS represent w

the weight, to the same scale, then the resultant force, reprewhich
sented by PT, is easily found and the angle
makes with the
horizontal.
Thus tan
PT
RPT
w
RPT w^ ot^x or
9
being independent oi w: we can therefore apply our

results to heterogeneous fluid.
Now if y is the distance of
the point
above some datum level, and we imagine a curve
drawn through P to which PT is (at P) tangential, and if at
a^x,
124
every point of the curve its direction (or the direction of its
tangent) represents the direction of the resultant force; if
such a curve were drawn

its
equation
is
y=
its
slope
is
evidently
-2 log x + constant
y- and
(1 ).
The constant depends upon the datum
level from which y is

This curve is called a line of force. Its direction
at any place shows the direction of the total force there. We
see that it is a logarithmic curve.
measured.
Level Surfaces.
If there is a curve to
Fig. 52.
which
PT
is
FLUID MOTION.
normal at the point P,
and in fact
it is
dx
so that the curve
is
125
evident that
its
slope
is
positive
X,
y ^x^-\- constant
(2),
the constant depending upon the datum level from which y

This is a parabola, and if it revolves about the
is measured.
Any surface which
axis we have a paraboloid of revolution.
is everywhere at right angles to the force at every point is
called a level surface and we see that the level surfaces in
this case are paraboloids of revolution.
These level surfaces
It is easy to
are sometimes called equi-potential surfaces.
prove that the pressure is constant everywhere in such a
surface and that it is a surface of equal density, so that if
mercury, oil, water and air are in a whirling vessel, their
surfaces of separation are paraboloids of revolution.
The student ought to draw one of the lines of force and

cut out a template of it in thin zinc, 00 being another edge.
By sliding along 00 he can draw many lines of Force. Now
cut out a template for one of the parabolas and with it draw
many level surfaces. The two sets of curves cut each other
everywhere orthogonally.
Fig. 52 shows the sort of result
obtainable where aa^ hb, cc are the logarithmic lines of force
and A A, BB, GO are the level paraboloidal surfaces.
73.
Motion of Fluid.
If
AB is
si
stream tube, in the
126
mass of fluid between

of length Bs feet along the stream, and
a square feet, where a and Bs are in the limit
be
supposed to be infinitely small. Let the pressure at
p lbs. per square foot, the velocity v feet per second, and let
vertical plane of the paper, consider the
P and
sections at
cross-section
F be
some datum level.

+ Bv and h + Bh.
at the vertical height h feet above
these quantities be ^ + Sp, v

Let the fluid weigh w lbs. per cubic foot.
At Q
let
PQ along the stream, that

stream direction at FQ.
forces urging
Find the
forces parallel to the
is,
pa acts on one end F in the direction of motion, and

(p-\-Bp)a acts at Q retarding the motion. The weight of
and Q is a Bs w and, as if on an
the portion between
component
is
height of plane
inclined plane, its retarding
Bh
weight X
or a. Bs .w ^,
^Tu
rn
length
ot plane
Bs
-,
Hence we have
altogether, accelerating the motion from
towards Q,
pa (p +
But the mass
is
Bp) a
and
Bs
by
Bh
5.
j-
-=-
We
have
.w dv
dt
g -J-
be the time taken by a particle in going from
Bs
to Q, v
and we
Bs
Bs
if Bt
'-
a,
^
-bp-8s.w-^=
^
Now
acceleration,
-7- is its
have merely to put the force equal to

then, dividing
with greater and greater accuracy as Bs

dv
.
is
shorter and shorter.

Also, the acceleration , is more aud
^^
Bv
more nearly kt
(It is more important to think this matter
.
out carefully than the student
Hence
if Bs is
may
very small, Bs
at first suppose.)
.-j-
-^.Bv v ,Bv,
at
we have
Bp
+ w. Bh-^-v
.Bv
so that
ot
(1),
FLOW OF FLUID.
or as
we wish
127
more and
to accentuate the fact that this is

Ss is smaller and smaller,
we may
more nearly true as

write
as
it
^w + dh-\--.dv==0
(2)*,
or integrating,
+ 9- +
= constant
(2).
dp
We
w may
leave the sign of integration on the -^ because
In a liquid where
vary.
/*
constant,
+ --= constant
+^
w
2g
In a gas, we have
74.
is
lu
(3).
-^
^
ocpif the temperature could be
kept constant, or we have the rule for adiabatic flow w x py,

where 7 is the well-known ratio of the specific heats. In either
of these cases
it is
easy to find
and write out the law.
This
law is of universal use in all cases where viscosity may be

neglected and is a great guide to the Hydiâulic EngineerThus
f
in the case of adiabatic flow
dp
/"
_i
w=cpy
the inteOTal of -^
"^constant
we have
h-{--;r--\
In a great
many
is
(4).
problems, changes of level are insignificant and
we
* After a little experience with quantities like 5p &c., knowing as we do

that the equations are not true unless 5/), &c. are supposed to be smaller
and smaller without

get into the
Again,
if
limit
and then we write
/(x)
is
dx-\-F{y) dy
.
dy
+ <p
I
no harm in getting accustomed
equation as
their ratios as
^f
an
&c.,
we
of writing dp, &c. instead of 5p, &c.
1/H 'dx+ F {y)
then
There
way
(1), all across.
[z)
<p{z)
dz =
(1),
d2 = a constant
(2).
to the integration of
such an
128
often use i?^^.,^^*^ constant
Thas,
(4) for gases.
cs
if
is the
pressure and zvq the weight of a cubic foot of gas inside a vessel at
places where there is no velocity and if, outside an orifice, the pressure
isp; the constant in
(4) is
evidently
+ jOq,
and hence, outside the
C8
surface,
v^=-^{pQ'-p')
all sorts
of calculations on the quantity of gas flowing per second.
(5),
and as
make
c is Wq-^PqV it is easy to
Observe that if p is very little less than joq,

mation (1 +)" = 1 -\-naf when a is small, we find
if
we use the
v'=^^{Po-p)
approxi-
(6),
rule which it is well to remember in fan and windmill problems.

In a Thomson Water Turbine the velocity of the rim of the wheel is
a simple
the velocity due to half the total available pressure ; so in an air turbine
there is no great difference of pressure, the velocity of the rim of
the wheel is the velocity due to half the pressure difference.
when
Thus
Pq of the supply is 7000 lbs. per square foot and if p of the

6800 lbs. per square foot and if we take ?^'q=0*28 lb. per
cubic foot, the velocity of the rim V is, since the difference of pressure
is 200 lbs. per square foot,
exhaust
if
is
y%
(100) = 151 feet per second.
Returning to (5) ; neglecting friction, if there is an orifice of area

to which the flow is guided so that the streams of air are parallel, Q
the volume flowing per second is Q=vA and if the pressure is p, the
weight of stuff flowing per second is
W==vAw,
1
or since
w = cp^
and iOQ=cp^
If the student will now substitute the value of v from

a for p/pQ he will obtain
=^"'-N/r^^:(--^^^)
(5)
and put
^^)-
Problem. Find p the outside pressure so that for a given inside

pressure there may be a maximum flow.

FLOW OF
129
GASES.
It is obvious that as p is diminished more and more, v the velocity

mcreases more and more and so does Q. But a large Q does not
necessarily mean a large quantity of gas.
We want W^ to be large.
a maximum 1 That is, what value of a in (7) will make
When is
a^l-a-^ )ova^-a
a
maximum 1
and equating to
Differentiating with regard to a

2
-.v
?; _(i+i)9=o
dividing
by ay we
find a
=(
JUL
p= 527po-
In the case of air 7/= 1-41 and we find
That
is,
second when
there is a maximum quantity leaving the vessel per

the outside pressure is a little greater than half the inside
pressure.
Problem.
When p
is indefinitely
Answer
This
is
-.
diminished what
v= j,./
-^
is
greater than the velocity of sound in the ratio
being 2 -21 for
air.
2413
second x
feet per
inside the vessel
That
is,
Students ought to
into the atmosphere.
is
t-
the limiting velocity in the case of air
*/ -
and there
a/
where
is
is
the absolute temperature
a vacuum outside.
work out as an example, the
velocity of flow
Returning to equations (2) and (4), we assumed h to be of little

importance in many gaseous problems of the mechanical engineer. But
there are many physical problems in which it is necessary to take
account of changes in level. For example if (2) is integrated on the
assumption of constant temperature and we assume v to keep constant,
we find that p diminishes as h increases according to the compound
interest law considered in Chap. 11.
Again under the same condition
as to V, but with the adiabatic law for w we find that p diminishes with
h according to a law which may be stated as " the rate of diminution
of temperature with A, is constant." These two propositions seem to
belong more naturally to the subject matter of Chapter II.
130
75.
A great number of interesting examples of the use
of
might be given.
It enables us to understand the flow of

fluid from orifices, the action of jet pumps, the attraction of
(2)
caused by vibrating tuning-forks, why some

valves are actually sucked up more against their seats
instead of being forced away by the issuing stream of fluid,
and many other phenomena which are thought to be very
light bodies
curious.
Example 1. Particles of water in a basin, flowing very

slowly towards a hole in the centre, move in nearly circular
paths so that the velocity v is inversely proportional to the
distance from the centre^
Take
=-
where a
is
stant and x is the radius or distance from the axis.

(Art. 73) becomes
+P=
k^f-,
2gxw
some con-
Then
(13)
f;.
Now at the surface of the water, p is constant, being the

pressure of the atmosphere, so that, there
and this gives us the shape of the curved surface. Assume

and a, any values, and it is easy to calculate h for any value
of X and so plot the curve. This curve rotated about the axis
gives the shape of* the surface which is a surface of revoc
lution.
Example
2.
Water flowing
follows the law v
=-
if
is
spirally in a horizontal plane
distance from a central point.
h^
Note that p=:G^h^

g X''
The ingenious student ought to study how p and v vary

He has ohly to consider
at right angles to stream lines.
the equilibrium of an elementary portion of fluid PQ, fig. 53,
subjected to pressures, centrifugal force and its own weight
in a direction normal to the stream.
He
will
find
that
if
~- means the rate at which
FLOW OF
131
LIQUID.
varies in a direction of the radius of curvature away from

the centre of curvature and if a is the angle QPR, fig. 53, the
stream being in the plane of the paper, which is vertical,
dp
-T
= wv^
ar
,^,
lusma
g r
(1).
If the stream lines are all in horizontal planes
= ^^'
f
ar
g r
Example
3.
Stream
lines all circular
planes in a liquid, so that h

If
-y
= -, where
(2).
^
and
in horizontal
constant.
is
6 is a constant,
dp _ lu
dr
g
p:=
^
I
^
h'
T^'
+ constant
(3).
r-
We
see therefore that the fall of pressure as we go outShow that

exactly the same as in the last example.
this law, V = hjr, must be true if there is no rotation (See
ward
is
'
'
Example
5).
Example
4.
Liquid rotates about an axis as

= 6/-, then
if it
were a
rigid body, so that v
dr
'
This shows the law of increase of pressure in the wheel of a

centrifugal pump when full, but when delivering no water.
Exercise.
The pressure at the inside of the wheel of
a centrifugal pump is 2116 lbs. per sq. foot, the inside radius
is 0*5 foot, the outside radius 1 foot.
The angular velocity
of the wheel is 6 = 30 radians per second
draw a curve showing the law of p and r from inside to outside when very
little water is being delivered.
If the water leaves the wheel
by a spiral path, the velocity everywhere outside being
;
92
'
132
invei-sely proportional to r, draw also the curve showing

the law of p in the whirlpool chamber outside.
Example
The
5.
expression
1
ti^
which remains constant

called the total
stream
if
^^
Now
store
the motion
dE =~1
-rd?'
is
dv
V
j--\
or
along a stream
all
of energy of 1
steady.
lb.
line,
may be
of water in the
dh
^.
r-4-T- becomes irom equation
dr ar
dp
2\r
dr)
^ \- + -r)
velocity" or "the rotation" or
Hence
This expression
is
2v
dE =
^j-
dr
,.,.
(1),
.
called the "average angular

the 'spin' of the liquid.
X rotation.
When liquid flows by gravity from a small orifice in a

large vessel where, at a distance inside the orifice, the liquid
is the same in
may be supposed at rest, it is obvious the
d IR
stream
anywhere.
all
lines, so
that -T7
is 0,
and there
is
no
'
rotation
If when water is flowing from an orifice in a vessel we

can say that across some section of the stream the velocity is
everywhere normal to the section and that the pressure is
everywhere atmospheric, we can calculate the rate of flow.
It is as well to say at once that we know of no natural
foundation for these assumptions.

However wrong the
assumptions may be, there is no harm in using them in mere
exercises on Integration.
There being atmospheric pressure
at the still water level, if v is the velocity at a point at the
Q=
if a is an element of area of the section,

2a 'J2gh
the summation being effected over the whole section, Q being
the volume flowing. Thus if the section is a vertical plane
and if at the depth h it is of horizontal breadth z, through
depth A,
EXERCISES ON INTEGKATlON.
ISS
the area z Sh water is flowing with the velocity '^2gh, so

that ^2gh z .Bhis the elementary volume flowing per second,
and if hi and h^ are the depths of the highest and lowest
.
points of the
the total flow
orifice,
is
Q = V2^
Example
hi
Rectangular section, horizontal breadth
6.
Q = ^gh{\^.dh = |6\/2^
Example
zh^ dh.
7.
M 1 = lb \f2g (h.^ -
6,
h^^).
Triangular section, angle at depth h^, base

h...
Then within the limits
horizontal of length b at depth
of integration
it will
z=
be found that
j
fl2
Hence Q = |^^ f(2
"W
hih^^
+ A?) dh =
(^
^-^-^f
h'i
If the ratio hJjhi be called
r, it
will
hi
( /<i 4-
h).
ill
W-^hJi^ + W-)\
J
L/t^
be found that
i^^f J6H-10ri+25l.
When
the student has practised integration in Chap. III., he

same way find the hypothetical flow through
circular, elliptic and other sections.
may
in the
Keturning to the rectangular section, there is no case

practically possible in which h^ is 0, but as this is a mere
mathematical exercise let us assume hi 0, and we have
Q= |6 s^'lgh^. Now further assume that if there is a rectangular sharp-edged notch through which water flows, its
edge or sill being of breadth b and at the depth h^, the
flow through it is in some occult way represented by the
above answer, multiplied by a fraction called a coefficient of
=
contraction, then Q
cb \l2gh^. Such is the so-called theory
of the flow through a rectangular gauge notch.
true
theory was based by Prof. James Thomson on his law of flow
from similar orifices, one of the very few laws which the
hydraulic engineer has to depend upon.
We are sorry to
think that nearly all the mathematics to be found in standard
treatises on Hydraulics is of the above character, that is, it
has only an occult connection with natural phenomena.
134
tJALClTLtJS
FOR ENGINEERS.
Magnetic Field about a straight round wire.

76.
There are two great laws in Electrical Science. They concern
the two circuits, the magnetic circuit and the electric circuit,
which are always linked through one another.
The
line integral (called the Gaussage whatever the

be) of Magnetic Force round any closed
curve, is equal to the current [multiplied by 47r if the
current is in what is called absolute C.G.S. units (curious
kind of absolute unit that needs a multiplier in the most
important of all laws); multiplied by 47r/10 if the current
is in commercial units called Amperes].
I.
unit
may
The
II.
the unit
may
closed curve
line integral (called the Voltage whatever

be) of Electromotive Force round anyis
equal to the magnetic current
(really,
[If the inrate of change of induction) which is enclosed.

duction is in absolute C.G.S. units, we have absolute Voltage
in C.G.S.; if the induction is in Webers the Voltage is
in Volts.
We are to remember that in a non-conducting medium

the voltage in any circuit produces electric displacement, and
the rate of change of this is cun-ent, and we deal with this
exactly as we deal with currents in conducting material.
When we deal with the phenomena in very small portions
of space we speak of electric and magnetic currents per unit
area, in which case the line integrals are called ' curls/
Leaving out the annoying 47r or 47r/10, we say, with Mr
Heaviside, " The electric current is the curl of the magnetic
force and the magnetic current is the negative curl of the
When we write out these two statements in
electric force."
mathematical language, we have the two great Differential
Equations of Electrical Analysis.
The
Electrical
Engineer is continually using these two

will be given, later, of the use of the
Many examples
laws.
second law. We find it convenient to give here the following

easy example of the first law.
Field about a round wire.
straight
or
that
10
round wire of
amperes, so
MAGNETIC FIELD.
loO
is the magnetic force at a distance r from the centre

If
of the wire, the Gaussage round the circle of radius r is
is evidently, from symmetry, the same
Hx27rr, because
Hence, as Gaussage = 47rC,
all round.
on
%10
Al
Inside the wire, a circle of radius r encloses the total
current
G,
and hence
from the axis
inside the wire at a distance r
is
2rG r
2r
['' To
BG is
OD
a cross section of the round wire of radius a,

is any plane
n
/^"^
of the
through the axis
p Q
p
If
and
if
wire,
and
f\
\oJ
^
OP==r,OQ = ri-Br:
\0^
y
f".
then through the strip of area FQ, which
54.
/ centimetres
long at right angles to the paper, and Sr wide, area I.Br,
there is the induction If per sq. cm. [We take the permeability as 1.
If /A is the magnetic permeability of the me.I.Br
dium, the induction is yS = fiH per sq. cm.], or
through the strip of area in question. If there are two
parallel wires with opposite currents, and if OB is the plane
through the axes of the two wires, the fields due to the two
If 0' is the centre of the
currents add themselves together.
is
other wire, the total i^ at
P is
2C ^p + yyp
(
Self-induction of two parallel wires. Let the

77.
radius of each wire be a, and the distance between their centres
h, the length of each being I between two planes at right angles
to both.
The wires are supposed to be parts of two infinite
wires, to get rid of difficulties in imagining the circuit completed at the ends.
The
from axis to axis is the sum of the

dr
from the outside of each wire to the
total induction
two amounts,
[^
4>l
1a
J
G-
136
rC
fa
and 41
axis of the other
- dr from the axis of each wire
Jo
own
to its
21G
This
surface.
2 log -
or
Dividing by 10^ we have
Cb'
is
it
2 log -
in
+1
in absolute units.
commercial
units.
This total field when the current is 1, is the self-induction

L of the circuit (we imagine current to be uniformly distributed over the section of the wire), and
= ^ U^g~i +
1^ in c.G.s. units,
in Henries per centimetre length of the
Two
Function of
78.
two
circuits.
Independent Variables.
Hitherto wo have been studying a function of one variable,

which we have generally called x. In trying to understand Natural Phenomena we endeavour to make one
thing only vary. Thus in observing the laws of gases, we
measure the change of pressure, letting the volume only
change, that is, keeping the temperature constant, and we
find
cc
Then we keep
ture alter, and
we
find
cc
and
v constant
t
(where
let
the tempera-
= ^"^ C. + 274).
After
* Notice that one Henry is lO' absolute units of self-induction

our
commercial unit of Induction called the Weber is 10* absolute units of
;
Induction.
The Henry
suits the
The Weber
suits Volts
law
\o\iB= RA+L
= J?^ + iV
dA
^
N
ohms, A amperes, L Henries,

the number of turns in a
circuit, I Weber's of Induction.
In Elementary Work such as is dealt with in this book, I submit to the
use of 47r and the difficulties introduced by the unscientific system now in
In all my higher work with students, such as may be dealt with in a
use.
succeeding volume, I always use now the rational units of Heaviside and I
where
feel
is
in
sure that they
must come into general
use.
TWO INDEPENDENT VARIABLES.

much
trial
pv = Rt
to
137
we find, for one pound of a particular gas, the law

be very nearly true, R being a known constant.
Now observe that any one of the three, p, v or t, is a

function of the other two; and in fact any values whatsoever may be given to two, and the other can then be found.
p = R^
Thus
(1),
we can say that p
is a, function of the two independent variand V.

If any particular values whatsoever of t and v be taken
ables
in (1)
we may
calculate p.
Now take new values, say t + Bt
St and 8v are perfectly independent of one
and v + Sv, where

another, then
s^
p-\-6p
.
We
7?
=R
+ ^^
^
J
and
V -\-ov
s>
6/;
^
n t + Bt
= it
s
Rj^tV
-
V \-ov
see therefore that the change Sp can be calculated if the
independent changes
When
Et
and Bv are known.
the changes are considered to be smaller and

smaller without limit, we have an easy way of expressing Bp
in terms of Bt and Bv.
It is
all
'^-m^^-o
(^>-
be proved presently, but the student ought fii'st

with it. Let him put it in words and
compare his own words with these " The whole change in ^j
is made up of two parts, 1st the change which would occur
inp if V did not alter, and 2nd the change in p if ^ did not
alter."
The first of these is St x the rate of increase of p
This
will
to get acquainted
with
when
v is constant, or as
second of these
is
is
we
write
it
-^ )
Bv x the rate of increase of
Bt,
and the
with v
if t
constant.
This idea
man.
is
constantly in use by every practical
unfamiliar, and a student

subject wîll manufacture
himself.
way of stating it that is

who is anxious to understand the
many familiar examples of it for
It is only the algebraic
138
Thus when one pound of stuff which is defined by its p^ v and t^

changes in state, the change is completely defined by any two of the
changes bp and hi\ or bv and bt, or bp and bt^ because we are supposed
to know the characteristic of the stuff, that is, the law connecting p, v
and
t.
the heat bH given to the stuff in any small change of state

can be calculated from any two of bv, bt and bp, and all the answers
ought to agree. As we wish to accentuate the fact that the changes
are supposed to be exceedingly small we say
Now
dH=k
dt+ l.dv\
= K. dt-\-L.dp>
= r .dp+V.dv)
A', A, P and V are 'all
where the
(3),
coefficients k, I,
functions of the state
of the stuff, that is of any two of v, t and p.
Notice that k dt is the
heat required for a small change of state, defined by its change of
temperature, if the volume is kept constant
hence k is called the
In the same way
specific heat at constant volume.
is called the
As for I and L perhaps they may
specific heat at constant pressure.
be regarded as some kinds of latent hent, as the temperature is supposed
to be constant.
.
These coefficients are not usually constant, they depend upon the
The mathematical proof that if
state of the body.
can be calcudt + l. dv, where k and I are some
lated from bt and bv^ then
numl;ers which depend upon the state of the stuff, is this
If
can
bt-^l.bv-\-a(bty b{bv)^ + c{bt.bv)+e{btf
be calculated, then
terms of the third and higher degrees in bt and bv, where k, I, a, b, c, e
Dividing by
&c. are coefficients depending upon the state of the body.
either bt or bv all across, and assuming bt and bv to diminish without
bH
dH=k
bH=L
bH
limit, the proposition is proved.
Illustration.
Take it that for one pound of Air, (1) is
is, say, 96, p being in lb. per sq. foot and v in
true and
cubic feet.
As = 96
Hence, from
'dp\
,
96
.dt)~
fdp\
\dvj~
'
'
^^^
.M - .hv
^ = ^l,Bt-^.Sv..
V
V
hp
Bp
(2),
(4)
Example. Let t = 300, p = 2000, t; = 1 44.

If t becomes 301 and v becomes 14*5 it is easy to show
that p will became 199283. But we want to find the change
in pressure, using (2) or rather (4),
^
î^=
96
14^
,
><
2000
14:4
><
,
^^^
!=7-22 lb. per sq.ft.,
whereas the answer ought to be
7*17.
SPECIFIC HEATS.
^^
139
Now try Bt = 1 and Bv = '01 and test the rule. Again, try
= 01 and Bv = "001, or take any other very small changes.
this way the student will get to know for himself what
It is only true when the changes
the rule (1) really means.
are supposed to be smaller and smaller without limit.
In
Suppose
Here is an exceedingly interesting exercise
we put hp = in (2). We see then a connection between Bt
:
and 8v when
Divide
these changes occur at constant pressure.
one of them by the other
we have
when p
is
constant,
or rather
fdp\
\dtj
(dv\
dv\
,^s
'^''^
\Tt)-'W{
\dv)
At
sight this minus sign will astonish the student

and give him food for thought, and he will do well to manuThus to illustrate
facture for himself illustrations of (5).
it
first
with pv =
/dv\
'dv\
\dtl
and
Rt
R
_K
~ ~p
Here
(dp\
/dp\
'
\dt)
_R
~ V
(dp\
'
Ivj
Rt
t^
(5) states the truth that
^^_^^( _P
The student cannot have better exercises than those
which he will obtain by expressing hv in terms of ht and Sp,
or ht in terms of Bp and hv for any substance, and illustrating
his deductions by the stuff for which pv = Rt t
79.
Further Illustrations. In (.3) we have the same answer
whether we calculate from dt and dv, or from dt and dp, or from dp
and
c?y.
Thus
for example,
Jt
We
for
dp
dt+l .dv = K
saw that ^P={-j^) (î+{-r-]

we have
de + L
dv,
dp
(6).
and hence substituting this
in (6)
k.dt + Ldv = K.dC + Li'^^]dt-{-L{^^)dv:
(1)"-^:
140
This is true for any independent changes dt jind do\

again let dt=0^ and we have
let
do=0^ and
^-A-+^g)
(7),
Ât)
Again, in
(6) substitute
(>
^^=(j:)^^+(j~)
we have
^^P^ ^^^^
k.dt + l(^dt-\-l(^\dp = K.dt + L.dp.

Equating
coefficients of dt
and of dp as before we have
^+'60=''^'
'-'^
<=^
(^)-
Again, putting h .dt-\-l .dv =
we have
/:
<lt
P .dp+ V
and substituting
doy
+ Ld,' = p(^\ dt+p{^ dv+
V. dv,
-d
*=^(|)
(").
alo
;=/>(*)+ F
(12).
Again, putting
we have
dt + L
dp^ P dp+ V
.
K (j-j dp+K l-r-j dv + L
"">
The
relations
(7),
dv,
and substituting
dp = P dp+ V
.
dt\
^(1)+^=^'
c-^)'
^(1)='^
(>
(8), (9), (lO), (ii), (12), (13)
and
(14)
which
are not really all iudepeiulcnt of one another (and indeed we may get
others in the same way) are obtained merely mathematically
and without assuming any laws of Thermodynamics.
have called
We
THE TWO
141
ELASTICITIES.
heat; t temperature &c., but we need not, unless we please, attach

any physical meaning to thêttei-s.
The relations are true for any substance. Find what
they become in the case of the stuff for which pv = Rt (the matheZT,
We know that
matical abstraction called a perfect gas).
-^
(s)
^_P
/dp\
(dv\_
\dt)~
R
p
_ V
\dp)~~p
(dv\
\dt)~
^^
^j^3^^
(8)
becomes
we
l=-L^
SO that (9) becomes k + l
(8)*,
=K
(9)*
so that (10) becomes
-Z- = X
(10)*,
]c=P-
(11)*
l=-r(-+y
(12)^
It is evident that these are not all
in (9)*
(7)*,
(dp\_'P
\dv)
k=K-{-L
so that (7) becomes
independent
thus using (10)*
obtain (7)*.
Another
Illustration.
80.
defined, see Art. 58, as
The
Elasticity
of our stuff is
dp
dv
Now
if t
elasticity
If
know
it
is
constant,
we
is
will
this
when the
then be just what
is
e^
= v
-,
or the
constant.
the adiahatic elasticity e which
the value of -^
the last expression of (3) put
dv
shall write
when the temperature remains
we
require,
stufl neither loses
dH=Oj and
the ratio of our
wanted or l-f)
we want
nor gains heat.
to
In
dp and our
p> *^
^ being
affixed to indicate that ff is constant or that the stuff neither loses
nor gains heat.
Taking
Hence eij=v ^.
from (14) Art. 79 and
n_
P from
\dvj \dtj
7T%
ei
(11),
142
but we have already seen as in
(5) that*
^^
) -i-
-^ )
-r-; ]
any substance -5 = ^-
hence for
and
(15).
This ratio of the two specific Heats is usually denoted by the

Note that neither of the two laws of Thermodynamics nor a
Scale of temperature is referred to in this proof.
letter y.
General Proof. If u is a function of a- and y, we may

81.
write the statement in the form u=f(x, y). Take particular values
of X and y and calculate u. Now take the values x-\-bx and y + by,
where bx and by are perfectly independent of one another, and calculate
the new u^ call it u + bu. Now subtract and we can only indicate our
result
by
bu=f{x+bx, y+by)-f{x,
y).
Adding And subtracting the same thing f{x^ y + by) we have

bic=f{x+bx, y+by)-fix, y+by)+f{x, y+by)-f{x,
This
^^_
/(^+&r,y+dy)-/(a;,y+&y )
Now
y).
the same as
is
if
g^,
^f{^,y+by)-f{x,y)
^^^^^^^^
bx and by be supposed to get smaller and smaller without
limit, the coefficient of by
or/(^+MzZ(^y)
becomes
by
the
X being
or
(f),
\dy)
In fact this is our definition of a differential

Again, the coefficient of bx becomes
constant.
coefficient (see Art.
^^^^
dy
20, Note).
>
^/
if)
^
iêcause by is evanescent.
Writing then u instead of /(^, y) we have

(")
"=(i)<^-+(g)'y
Thus
82.
where
if
ax^ + 6y^
cxy,
du = i2ax + cy) dx-\-{2by + ex)
we may have
dz=M. dx-\-JSr. dy
dy.
Notice that although
M and iV are functions of x and y
function of
x and
y.
it
(18),
does not follow that ^
For example, we had in
is
(3)
dll'=k.dt+l.dv^
where k and I are functions of t and v. Now

the total heat
which has been given to a pound of stuff is not a function of v and t
it is not a flinction of the state of the stuff.
Stufi' ma^
;
COMPLETE DIFFERENTIAL.
143
receive enormous quantities of heat energy, being brought back to its

original state again, and yet not giving out the same amounts of heât as
The first law of Thermodynamics states however chat if
it received.
p . dv, where p . dv is the mechanical work done, we can
the name Intrinsic
because it is something
give to
which is a function of the state of the stuff. It always comes back to
the same value when the stuff returns to the same state.
dE = dH
Our
but
Energy
E is then some function of
The second law

t
where
^C.
is
and
if
</>
or of
v,
and jo, or of p and
be called
c?0,
then
very important,
the
is called
Entropy
of the
stuff.
if
dz=M.dx-\-N .d)/
(18),
are functions of x and y, to know when

and
where
If this is the case, then (18) is really
of X and y.
that
^"^
is,
is
(
;t-
known
it is
that -.
,-
dy .dx
= -^
dx
(1^)'
a//
d2u
d2u
We gave some
illustrations of this in Art. 31, and

familiar with what is to be proved, he had better
work the old ones over again.
if
the student
is
not yet
work more examples, or
w=/(a?, y);
Let
is
Now this is a
smaller.
f^'^
+ ^'^^y)-f('^'y^
function of y, so
^
(
as 8x gets smaller and
or
^^
is,
by our
tion of a differential coefiicient, the limiting value of

1
f{x + 8x,y + dy)-f{x,y + Sy)
f(x + 8x,y)-f{x,y) ]
8x
$x
by \
as 8y
a function
and iV is (-r-)^
. =
T=
dy dx dx dy
* Proof that
(^)
z is
(^) = ( as^)
i^^"^
because
v,
Thermodynamics is this
If dH be divided by
6Q. being measured on the perfect gas thermo-
a function of the state of the
is
It is
83.
of
+ 274,
JTT
meter, and
stuff,
and
not
is
and 8x
get smaller
and
smaller.
defini-
144
Here we have an exceedingly important
rule:
If
dz=M.dx + N.dy
(18),
a function of x and v (another way of saying that z is a

function of x and y is to say that dz=M ,da;-\-N .dy is a complete
differentiaVjy then
and
if 2 is
(dM\ _
Working the
{
1^
8x
we
reverse way,
(o
find that
f{x+Sx, y + Sy )-f{x-\-dx, y )
-p
is
f{x, y + Sy)-f{x ,y)\

dy
)
Sy
(-)
"f
as Sy and 5x get smaller and smaller. Now it is obvious that these two are
the same for all values of 5x and %, and we assume that they remain the
same in the limit.
M .dx + N.dy
M and N
(1),
can always be multiplied by

some fonction of x and y which will make it a complete differential.
where
are functions of
x and
y,
This multiplier is usually called an integrating factor.

functions of x and y,
and
may be, we can write
whatever
For,
dx-~N
and
this
means that
there
^^'r
some law connecting x and y.
is
Call
it
^,..c.t.en(f).(^-)| =
and as -^ from
and hence
(3) is
the same as in
(\= /xM,
= fiN,
(2) it
follows that
where
/*
is
,3,
)"^(*7
xr
a function of x and y or
else a constant.
Multiplying
(1)
by
/*
we
evidently get
w.
(^h-i^^y
and
this is a complete differential.

It is easy to show that not only is
there an integrating factor /x but that there are an infinite number of them.
As containing one illustration of the importance of this proposition I will
state the ^teps in the proof which we have of the 2nd law of Thermo-
dirnamictt.
1.
by
its t
We have
and
shown that
for
any substance, of which the
state is defined
v,
dH=k.dt+l.dv
(5),
and v.
Observe that t may be measured on any curiously varying scale of temperature whatsoever. We have just proved that there is some function
of t and
where k and
are functions of
/u.
THERMODYNAMICS.
The
84.
If
is
First
dE= dH-p
Law
of
145
Thermodynamics
is this
dE=- k.dt + {l -p) dv, then dE

a complete differential that is, ^returns to its old value when
.
dv, or
V by which if we multiply (5) all across we obtain a complete differential

indeed there are an infinite number of such functions. Then calling the
result d0,
d(f> = fi.dH=fik.dt + fxl.dv
(6).
Let us see
if it is possible to find such a value of n that it is a function

If so, as the differential coefficient of fik with regard to v {t being
supposed constant) is equal to the differential coefficient of fil with regard to
of
t
only.
being supposed constant),
{v
(dk\
(dX\
dti
\di)t~ Tt'^Ûtjv
fdk\ _fdl\
=( ^1 +-. -^
or
law of Thermodynamics
first
.(7).
But the
at
/*
(see Art. 84) gives us
/dk\ _ /dl\ _(dp\

\dv)t~\dt)v \dt)
l/dp\ _
1 djx
and hence
T\dtJ
""
|I
.(8),
(9).
dt
is the condition that /j.. dH is & complete differential, fi being a

function of temperature only. Obviously for any given substance (9) will
give us a value of /x which will answer ; but what we really want to know is
whether there is a value of /* which will be the same for all substances.
This then
Here is the proof that there

2.
students the usual and wellknown proof that all reverp
sible heat engines working
between the temperatures t
and t-5t have the same
efficiency.
Now
let
ABCD
be a figure showing with infinite magnification an ele-
mentary Caru ot cycle. Stuff
at
at
t-8t\
and
-
temperature
the volume
dt
such a value.
the pressure. Let

be the isothermal for
\b
wV
M e
\A^
BC the isothermal
AB and CD being
for t,
adiabatics.
AG
need not here give to
% A^
V^
and
Notice carefully that the

distance
or
{JV is in
DA produced to meet the
ordinate at B) is {dpjdt) dt.
O
Now the area of the
parallelogram
which
represents the work done, is
X XZ (if parallelograms on the
\R
AK
^D
t
the
A I shows
is
^^^8
-^
WB
ABCD
t>
>:
\(
Fig. 55
BW
same base and between the same parallels

be drawn, this will become clear). Call XZ by the symbol 5v (the increase
of volume in going along the isothermal from B to C), and we see that
P.
10
146
the nett work done in the Carnot cycle is (dpldt)5t. 5v. Now the Heat
t and V return to their old values, (or another way of putting it is that
dE for a complete
cycle
is 0).
We have seen that the differential coefficient of k with regard to v,

being constant, is equal to the differential coefficient of lp with
regard to ty v being constant, or
t
(a-(a-(s
This statement, which is true for any kind of
called the first law of Thermodynamics.
The Second Law
stuff, is itself
of Thermodynamics
is
sometimes
this
or
taken in at the higher temperature
hence
=j -
= efficiency = --
is,
from
Art. 78, equal to l.dv
(3),
and
8t... (10),
this is the
same
and
for all
substances.
As it is the same for all substances, let us try to find its value for any
one substance. A famous experiment of Joule (two vessels, one with gas at
high pressure, the other at low pressure witli stopcock between, immersed
after equalization of pressure in the
in a bath all at same temperature
vessels, the temperature of the bath keeps its old value) showed that in
;
gases, the intrinsic energy is very nearly constant at constant temperature,

or what is the same thing, that / in gases is very nearly equal to p, and it is
also well known that in gases at constant volume, p is & linear function of
the temperature. Whether there really is an actual substance possible for
which this is absolutely true, is a question which must now be left to the
higher mathematicians, but we assume that there

in
\dty
such a substance and
"p
\dtj
"
+ 274
'*
If then we take
the Centigrade reading on the Air Thermometer.
d + 2l4: as our scale of temperature and (11) as the universal value of
is
if
t
is
it
( '--;
\dt J
then, from
or Ai=r-, where
we usually
It is
c is
(9),
^
-=--.-r-,or =
t
fi
at
any constant.
ôr
log
ot+
log^=
a constant,
or-
/Jt.
This being an integrating factor for
(5),
take unity as the value of c or
not probable that, even
V, there really is so
if
there
^=-
is
simple a multiplier as
as Camot's function.
one which
ô;^
is
independent of j? or
(where
is
the Centigrade
temperature on the air thermometer) or that there is such a substance as we

have postulated above. Calling our divisor t the absolute temperature, we
is, the
believe that for ordinary values of 0, t is ^ + 274, and the greater
more correctly is t represented by ^ + 274; but when
is very small, in all
probability the absolute temperature is a much more complicated function
The great discoverers of the laws of Thermodynamics never spoke of
of 6.
- 274 C. as the absolute zero of temperature.
PERFECT GAS.
d<f>
= -. dt-\--
.dv
is
...{21),
a complete
- with
of
147
and hence the
diftereutial,
regard
to
differential
coefficient
constant,
equal to the differential coefficient of
v,
being considered
is
V being constant
with regard to
t.
or
^\dt)~^
/^'\
Hence
(ii-Q.-i
This statement, which is true for any kind of

times called the second law of Thermodynamics.
Combining
t,
(20)
and
(22),
we have
any
for
stuff, is itself
some-
stufl'
(t)A
(->-
a most important law, T
Applying these to the case of a perfect gas we

that (23) becomes
Hence
(20) is
(-^
= -,
=0.
or
1=
or l=^p
(24).
much importance
not of
It is
find
perhaps,
but a student ought to study this last statement as an

is, for any substance, a function of v and t, and here we are
told that for a perfect gas, however k may behave as to temperature, it
does not change with change of volume. Combining (24) with (9)* &c.
(p. 141), already found, we have K-kR, and as Regnault found that
is constant for air and other gases, k is also constant, so tliat
practically,
exercise, k
l=p^
We can
L= V, P= y-i-
]'=
^^-Aj-
where
y=x-
y.
now make exact calculations on

we know K and R.
the Thermodynamics of a
perfect gas if
85.
The statements
of (3) Art. 78 become for a
pound of perfect
gas
dH = k.dt + p.dv
=K
V
+ The rule
dt - V
>|
dp
.(1).
-Y 1
dv.
for finding the differential coefficient of a quotient is given in
Art. 197.
102
148
often write this lat in the shape
dJ=k
also
d{pv)-{-p
dv
^=X'^ + constant
.dty or
(2),
(3).
It is easy to obtain from this other forms of

in terms of p and v.
To the end of this article, I consider the stuff to be a perfect gas.
Example
d(h
1.
=k
+^
d<b
i-
dv. or as
'
=
V
do.
Hence, integrating,
<f)=k log t-\-R log V + constant, or
Again
d<^
= --.dt-.
t
Hence
d<f)=
(f>
= log ^v" + constant

=
P
dpy but -
-dt
(4).
dp.
Integrating
=>:
<f)
K log t-Ii log p + constant, or
Substituting for
its
value
(/)
The
-.,
</>
we have
(5)
or
constant,
t^-yp = constant,
or
pv^ = constant.
ni^,y
(6).
may
be written down at
find
or
Students
... (5).
becoming
= log jo^y*'+ constant
adiabatic law^
Keducing from the above forms we
once.
= log t^p " " + constant
manufacture other interesting exercises of this kind
for themselves.
Example 2.
amount of heat
tion from
from
pound of gas in the state p^^ v^^^ t^ receives the

what change of state occurs? We get our informa-
(1).
Let
I.
A
^^j^,
the volume
% keep
constant.
Then dH=k.dt
(I).
The integral of this between ; and

calculate the rise of temperature to t^
Or
again,
dH= -
dp.
t^
is II^^^
= Jc{t^ t^^
and we may
GAS ENGINE.
Hence, the integral, or H^^ =
149
-^ {p^ - p^),
and we may calculate
the rise of pressure.
Let Pq the pressure, keep constant.

dH= dt, hence ^î = ^^ (î - ô)-
II.
-^ dv, hence H^^ =
dH=
Again
-^"^^ (v^
- v^).
At constant temperature.
III.
dH=p.dv
or Hq]^=
p.dv=W,
the work done by the gas in ex-
Vo
panding.
IV.
volume.
Under any conditions

Jf^^
Also from
If
= h (t^ tf^
Hqi =
(2),
-\-
of
changing
pressure
work done.
r(iîî iOo^*o) + work done.
ir=0, the work done=X*(^Q î)
We
often write the last equation of (1) in the convenient shape
^^=7^f^^-W
If in this
we have no
-"
or
j02;'>'=:
This
+y =
.(7).
reception of heat,
_=
dff
or
or
and
^
0,
,.
then
dp
v^
+ y.^ =
0,
or, integrating, log p-\-y log
v = constant,
constant.
is
the adiabatic law again.
Example
3.
In a well known
gas or
Fig. 56.
oil
engine cycle of
CALCULUS FOR ENGINEEIIS.
150
pouiul of gas at p.j,, v-,, t.,, iudicatcd by the point A is

compressed adiabatically to B, wnere we have p^, v,, ^j. The work
done upon the gas is evidently (from iv.) Jc{t^ t^, being indeed the
gain of intrinsic energy.
Heat given at constant volume from B to C where we have
operations, a
Work done
in adiabatic expansion CJ)=k(t^-t^).

Nett work done = work in Ci>-work in AB=
-^ = efficiency eJ'-^l' -^^^=1But we saw that along an adiabatic W~'^
From
t
this
follows that
it
-t
Using this value
in (8)
efficiency
is
= t \-]
h
^^
constant,
>
^"d
(8).
and hence
^^^^"^
of these
\^h)
we have
- f^j
(9),
a formula which is useful in showing the gain of efficiency produced by

diminishing the clearance v^.
Students will find other good exercises in other cycles of gas engines.
Change of
State.
Instead of using equations (3) Art. V8, let us get out equations
86.
specially suited to change of state.
Let us consider one pound of
substance,
being vapour, 1 being liquid (or, if the change is from
solid to liquid,
liquid,
solid), and let
^2
*i
l-m
= cubic feet of
=
of
))
jt>= pressure,
Tf V is the
one pound of vapour,

one pound of liquid,
temperature, p is a function of
volume of
stuff in the
only.
mixed condition,
v=ms2 + {l m)sj
= (*2 i) wi + Si,
if
we
write u for
,%
or v = mu-{-Xi
(1),
Si.
is given to the mixture, consider that t and

take t and
as independent variables, noting that t
and VI define the state. If 0-2 and o-^ be specific heats of vapour and
li(iuitl, when in the saturated condition (for example, 0-2 is the heat given
to one pound of vapour to raise it one degree, its pressure rising at
AVhen heat dJJ
alter.
In
fact,
LATENT HEAT.
151
the same time according to the proper law), then the 7>i lb. of vapour
needs the heat ma^.dt^ and the 1
of liquid needs the heat
{\ m)<j^.dt and also if dm of liquid becomes vapour, the heat L dm
is needed, if L is latent heat.
Hence
dII={(a-2-o-j)m + ai]dt+L.dm
If
E is the Intrinsic Energy, the first law of
(2).
Thermodynamics gives
dE=^dlI-p,dv
Now
if
Using
m and
define the state, v
and
this in (3)
(2)
dE = |(cr2 - o-i) m +
Stating that this
is
we
o-i
(3).
must be a function of
m and
t^
or
find
-p {^j^ dt-\-\L-p {~y^ dm
...
(4).
a complete differential, or
^{(..,-,.,)m + .,-^(|)}=||i;-^(^)}.
we
have, noting from
(1),
dL
-^ +
dt^
by
divide (2)
-i
dp
Now
that
0-1
^
(To = -&
dt
'"
?/,
fdv\
-1
\dm)'
I
and state that
or
d(^
dp
,_.
(5).
'
-4-
dt
is
a complete
dif-
ferential,
dm
dm
dL
or
]~dt \i)
L
-n-^f^\-^^2
Hence, with
To
87.
rapidly.
*
w7
'
~^t
(5)
we have
= -7
(6),
('^)-
T = U -s^
(8),
arrive at the fundamental Equation (8) more

fig. 57 we have an elementary Carnot cycle for one pound
In
T)~
as will be seen later on
when we have
the rule for
differentiating a quotient.
But indeerl we may as well confess that to
understand this article on change of state, students must be able to perform
differentiation on a product or a quotient,
152
of
stuff.
BG the
The co-ordinates of the point

pressure jt? of 1 pound of liquid.
FB=s^
are
the volume, and
At constant tem^^ratrire
t,
and
Fig. 57.
also constant pressure, the stuff expands until it is all vapour at FC^s^ ;
J) A is isois adiabatic expansion to the temperature t-bt at J).
is the final adiabatic operation.
thermal compression at t-bt and
CD
AB
The
vertical height of the parallelogram is bt
senting the nett work,
BO is X,
operation
a Carnot
efficiency is bt
cycle this is equal to
-^
(6)
its area, repre-
(2 ""*i) "^'^-
and so we obtain
From
and
The heat taken

dp
and the
The Entropy.
88.
we can
is bt
dv
- (s.^- s^).
we
(8).
find o-^,-<ri
in,
in
the
^^^^ ^^ i^
i'^
=^
dt\t)'
and
write (2) as
dH=tr^dt-^t.d(^^y\
Hence, the entropy
d(l>
^^ dt
or
<(-
In the case of water,
(We have
- + jut
is
o-j
already stated that
-TIt is
+ di-^\^
\
c?^-f
constant
.(10).
nearly constant, being Joule's equivalent.

our heat is in work units), and
all
+0-1 log
Hence the adiabatic law

TnT
.(9).
f-j-f constant
(11).
for water-steam is
t
o"!
an excellent exercise
log -
= constant
for students to take
(12).
a numerical example.
TWO VARIABLES.
EXAMPLES.
153
Let steam at 165C. (or ^ = 439) expand adiabatically to 85C. (ori = 359).
Take a-i = 14(X) and L in work units, or take (t^ = \ and take L in heat
imits.
In any case, use a table of values of t and L.
1.
At the higher ^2=4^9
Calculate
ii\ at,
say
^^
= 394,
1^^ '^2='"-
(This
L in heat units as
=
Z 796 --695^
Perhaps we had better take

is
easily
Then
chosen at random.)
is
and also m^ at ^^=359.

the formula
remembered.
becomes
(12)
r,r,
(^ - -695) +log^^= m^ (^ - '695) +log^^

logr+wi2(^-'695
^
/2/
695
h
If
we want m^ we
vise t^
Having done this,

there is any law like
instead of
pi;*
which
may
t^.
find the coiTesponding values of
v.
Now
= constant,
be approximately true as the adiabatic of this
m^=-% say,
diagram method is
Rejêat this, starting with
The
try if
instead of
stuff.
'7.
better for bringing these matters

t, <t>
clearly before students, but one or two examples like the above
ought to be worked.
most
89.
When
a complete differential dn, is zero, to solve

= 0.
see that in the case,
We
the equation du
{x" - ^xy - t\f) dx + {if - ^xy -
we have
'Ice")
dy
= 0,
a complete differential, because

-J- (xf^
4fxy
2y^)
= 4;x ^y,
^ if - 4^y - 2^0 = - 4y so that they are equal.
Integrating
a?^
Hence
^xy 2?/^,
it is
since
it
4a-,
of the form
is
Avith i-egard to
154
X assuming y
and adding, instead of a constant, an
constant,
arbitrary function of y,
To
find
</)
{y\
we get ^
we know
ay
Hence
Hence
xi
</,
(y)
\a?
\~j~]y^~ ^^V
that
-2a^- ^yx + ^
Hence
as
= :â^-2afy-2ifx + <i>{y).
<f>
= y^
{y)
or
2x^y
</>
y""
{y)
^xy"^
^^'
- ^.x-y - 2a^,
= \f.
^y^ =zc.
-\-
We have therefore
solved the given differential equation

put this expression equal to an arbitrary constant.
we
when
Solve in the same manner,

1
.,
holve
+^
(/^
- 2 ^ c?y = 0.
2x.dx
f-
J
-Solve
Saf\
^J
(3^- + 3y
Answer
x^
ex.
y^ cy^.
'
^ dx + {^x - 1 + 3/) dy =
Answer
90.
jdy=0.
-;
Answer x^-y^=
x^y"^
+ ot^y^ + 4^^ ^
^y"^
0.
^^yz _ ^y%^
In the general proof of (17) given in Art. 81, we assumed that
X and y were perfectly independent. We may now if we

please make them depend either upon one another or
any third variable z. Thus if when any inde^Hindent quantity z
becomes z + bz, x becomes x + bx and y becomes y+by, of course u
becomes u + bu. Let (IG) Art. 81 be divided all across by bzy and let
bz be diminished without limit, then (17) becomes
du _ /o?w\ dx /du\ dy
.(1).
di ~ \dx) dz "^ XTy)
Thus
and
u = ax^-\-hy^+cxy^
let
x = ez^, y = yz'^.
let
and consequently
-T-
= {2ax + cy) nez:^ ~^-\- {2by + ex) mgz^
+ +
EXAMPLES.
155
In this we may, if we please, substitute

and so get our answer all in terms of z.
x and y
for
in terms of
z,
This sort of example is rather interesting because it can be worked

out in oiu* earlier way. In the expression for w, substitute for x and y
in terms of z, and we find iiâeh'^^+hgh^'^-'rcegz:^'^^^ and
-^ = 2?iae%2n
It will be
+ 2 w6^%2m -
found that this
by the newer method.
is
-I-
m) cegz"" + "*-!.
(,i
exactly the
The student can
same as what was obtained
easily
manufacture examples
of this kind for himself.
For instance,
tells
let
y=uv
where u and v are functions of
^,
then
(1)
us that
dy
dv
du
a5 = "S+^d5E'
.
a formula wliich
See Art. 196.
In
(1) if
is
usually worked out in a very different fashion.
a constant, the formula becomes
is really
du _ du dx
dz " dx Hz
'
which again is a formula which

fashion.
See Art. 198.
In
assume that
(1)
z=x and
dx
is
The student need not now be

(du\
from
\dx)
is
a function of x, then
^'^^^
\dy) dx
told that ;,- is a very different thing
u = ax^ + hy'^ + cxy^
Let
y=gx'^.
let
Hence
More
"^
Example.
and
usually worked out in a very different
that
\dx)
'
j-
(2) is,
{2ax + cy) + (26y
directly, substituting for
in u,
ex)
mga/^-K
we have
u = ax^ + 6^2^2m ^ ^^^ + 1^

J-
and
= 2ax + 2?6^2^'2' - +
this will be found to be the
(771
+1
cgx^,
same as the other answer.
156
If M is a function of three independent variables

as in Art. 81, that
it is
easy to prove,
,MJ'-\a.+m,,U^-)^,
(3).
When
Example.
is vibrating with one degree
91.
a mass
of freedom under the control of a spring of stiffness a, so that if x is
the displacement of the mass from its position of equiHbrium, then ax
we know that
is the force with which the spring acts upon the mass
the potential energy is ^ ax^ (see Art. 26), and if v is the velocity of the
mass at the same time t, the kinetic energy is ^tnv^, and we neglect the
mass of the spring, then the total store of energy is
;
When X
is 0,
is
Suppose this store

^, then
1.
when
at its greatest;
to
is 0,
is
at its greatest.
be constant and differentiate with
regard to
= mv^^ + ax--^^
.
or as V
dx
IS ~j-
...
,
writnig
d^x
dv
-y-^
for
-j-
we have
^1-^^-0
which
is (see
Art. 119)
tlie
well
(1)'
known law
^^)-
of simple harmonic motion.
If the total store of energy is not constant but diminishes at

a rate which is proportional to the square of the velocity, as in the case
2.
rf If
of Fluid or Electromagnetic friction, that
becomes - Fv^^mv y-4- axj
d2x
Compare
is,
if
-r
= - Ev^
then
(1)
or (2) becomes
F dx
^^
(1) of Art. 142.
Similarly in a circuit with self induction L and resistance R,

92.
joining the coatings of a condenser of capacity K, if the current is C\ and
if the quantity of electricity in the condenser at time t is
V so that
C= -K dV
^LC'^ is called the kinetic energy of the system, and \KV^
--J-J
is
the potential energy, and the loss of energy by the system per second
So that if
is the store of energy at any instant
is RC'^.
E=^LC'' + \KV\
EXAMPLES.
LC"^-
or
157
C+EO^=0,
V.
at
L^-V+RC=0,
at
or
R dV^ 1 Tr
aF + L^+EK'^=^
this
across and replacing K -r- with C we have a
d2V
Differentiating
93.
mass
is its total
^^^-
all
similar equation in C.
If this
/%
Compare
(4)
moving with
of 145.
velocity v has kinetic energy \mv^.
store E^
If
diminishes at a rate proportional to the square of
as in fluid friction at slow speeds,
dE
jy
dv
FV
-j-=
dt
or
its
velocity
dv
.,
,^,
(5).
'
We
have a similar equation for the dying out of current in an

electric conductor, \LC'*- being its kinetic energy, and RC^- being the
rate of loss of energy per second.
94.
In
assume that u
u=f{x, y) = G
of Art. 90,
(2)
example that
if
is
df{x, y) \
(dn^\_y)\
(
dx )^\ dy )
\
.
so that if /(^-j y)=o' or
=0,
x^^f = c,
we
1.
Thus
2.
Alsoif^^+f-!-l=0,?|'
if
a^
3.
Again
Hence
i{
if
W-
a^
^^=0,
'
or
^= -^'.
= 0,orf'=-^;i;,
+ |^/
dx
a^ ij
h^ dx
'
u = A a;"' + %",
u = 0, or a constant, we have
dy _
dx~
di_
dx~
we
easily obtain g^.
2..+2y
'
a constant and
mAx'^~^
nBy'^~'^
find for
158
y-
a,'"
u==Zi + 1:..
If
4.
2a;
If
6.
If
^-3
5.
= i^
+3,3 _ 3.^^
find
2y
Answer
^,
'''''
.rlogy ylogA'=0,
/^log.
t/y^y ^^logy-y\
t/y_y
.v
xj
Example. Find the equations to the
95.
to the ellipse
^
'
.,
4. 2^
= l,
t^
^^-0
Hence the equation
at the point
A'l,
or at the tx)int
tangent and normal

yi on the curve.
^^-
-?^' î
to the tangent is
y-^yi^_62.ri
^ Vi
a;a;i
-^+-52-;^ + ^'
'''
and as
x^
and y^ are the co-ordinates of a point in the curve,
Hence the tangent
The
normal
is
slope of the normal

is
tiî = "
x-Xi b^
^J
x^
=
a^/ + '^
b^
is v^
this is
1.
1.
and hence the equation to the
APPENDIX TO CHAP.
I.
Page 19. In an engineering investigation if one arrives at mathematical expressions which cannot really be thought about because
they are too complicated, one can often get a simple empirical formula
to replace them with small error within the limits between which they
have to be used. Sometimes even such a simple expression as a-|-6.r,
or x^ will replace a complicated portion of an expression with small
Expertness in such substitution is easily attained, especially in
error.
calculations where some of the terms can be expressed numerically or
when one makes numerical experiments.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.
159
The following observed numbers are known to follow

Exercise 1.
a law like y = a-\-bx, but there are errors of observation. Find by the
use of squared paper the most probable values of a and h.
X
4i
12
13
5-6
6-85
9-27
11-65
12-75
16-32
20-25
22-33
Ans.
y = 2*5 + 1 'hx.
Exercise 2.
The following numbers are thought to follow a law like
y=zax\{\-^sx). Find by plotting the values of y\x and y on squared
paper that these follow a law ylx + sy=a and so find the most probable
values of a and s.
Ans.
78
0-3
1-4
2-5
97
r22
-55
1-1
1-24
y = 3^/(1 + 2.r).
Exercise 3.
If p is the pressiu-e in poimds per square inch and
the volimie in cubic feet of 1 lb. of saturated steam,
if
6-86
14-70
28-83
60-40
101-9
163-3
250-3
53-92
2636
14-00
6992
4-28
2-748
1-853
Plotting the common logarithms of

the truth oi pv^'^^^^Ti^.
and
on squared paper test
The following are results of experiments each lasting for

Exercise 4.
four hours ; / the indicated horse-power of an engine, transmitting
horse-power to Dynamo Machines which gave out
horse-power
(Electrically), the weight of steam used per hour being TFlb., the weight
of coal us^ per hour being G lb. (the regulation of the engine was by
changing the pressure of the steam).
Show that, approximately,
fr=800+21/, i5=-95/-18, ^=-935-10, C=4-2/-62.

1
190
142
108
65
19
^y
163
115
86
43
143
96
69
29
4800
3770
3080
2155
1220
730
544
387
218
Page 34. It has been suggested to me by many persons that I

ought to have given a proof without assuming the Binomial Theorem,
and then the Binomial becomes only an example of Taylor's. In spite
160
of the eminence and experience of my critics, I believe that my method

the better to tell a student that although I know he has not proved
the Binomial, yet it is well to assume that he knows the theorem to be
correct.
The following seems to me the simplest proof which does not
is
assume the Binomial.

Let
Supjjose
(1)
In the
limit,
na
to
n terms
(2)
made
side is
smaller and smaller, until ultimately
-^ and the right-hand side
Suppose n a positive
and so
We
fraction,
and put
n=
= -^
=
Xi X
X% X
have
is
- where
^-
x^~'^+x'^~^
~i,i
Zt
and
;^ where
m are
a;'"
=2,
on.
of
(h-^)ih'-'+^'h'~'+
+^'-')
{zi-z){z{^-i + z.Zi''^-'^ +
-|-2'-i)
Suppose n any negative number =
x-'"
we have
m say, where vi is positive,
*'
then noticing that Xi~^-x~'^=
x\
XyX
/It
Now
then
dx
^-linut
dx~
(3)
is
so that j-=7iar~i.
positive integers.
Xi=Zj^^j
positive integer
when bx
Xi=x\ the left-hand

-f...
x+bx=x\^ y + ^^=yi
y^î
the limit of
be integral or
wi
^^"^
=mx'^-'^ by cases (1) and
Xi x
(2)
'
whether
111
fractional.
.'.
-r-= -^
'
Thus we have shown that
mx'^ - 1 =
-j- (^*)
771^- '- 1 = MA*""
= 7w?-i,
positive or negative, integral or fractional.
where
?i
1.
is
any constant,
COMPOUND INTEREST LAW.
CHAPTER
161
II.
e* and sinx.
The Compound Interest Law. The solutions

97.
of an enormous number of engineering problems depend
only upon our being able to differentiate x'\ I have given
Surely it is better to remember that
a few examples.
the differential coefficient of x^^ is nx^~^, than to write
hundreds of pages evading the necessity for this little bib
of knowledge.
We
come now
to a very different kind of function, e*,

a constant quantity e (e is the base of the
Napierian system of logarithms and is 2*7 183) which is
raised to a variable power.
We calculate logarithms and
exponential functions from series, and it is proved in Algebra
where
it
is
that
The continuous product

by 4
Now if we differentiate
or sometimes
2 3 4 or 24
.
is
denoted by
.4
e*
term by term, we evidently
obtain
SimiSO that the differential coefficient of

is itself e*.
larly we can prove that the differential coefficient of e^^ is
a^". This is the only function known to us whose rate of
increase is proportional to itself; but there are a great many
Lord
phenomena in nature which have this property.
Kelvin's way of putting it is that "they follow the compound
interest law."
P.
11
162
Notice that
that
is,
dy
-i
= ay
if
the rate of increase of y
is
(1),
proportional to y
itself,
then
y = be"
where
h is
any constant whatsoever
the value of y
when
a;
(2),
;
h evidently represents
= 0.
Here again, it will be well for a student to illustrate his

proved rule by means of graphical and numerical illustrations.
Draw the curve y = d^, and show that its slope is equal to its
Or take values of a?, say 2, 2-001, 2002, 2003, &c.,
ordinate.
and calculate the corresponding values of y using a table of
Logarithms. (This is not a bad exercise in itself, for practical
men are not always quick enough in their use of logarithms.)
Now divide the increments of y by the corresponding increments of X. An ingenious student will find other and
probably more complex ways of getting familiar with the
idea.
However complex his method may be it will be
valuable to him, so long as it is his own discovery, but let him
beware of irritating other men by trying to teach them
through his complex discoveries.
It will perhaps lighten our study if we work out a
98.
few examples of tbe Compound Interest Law.
Our readers are either Electrical or Mechanical En-
If Electrical they must also be Mechanical.

The
Mechanical Engineers who know nothing about electricity
may skip the electrical problems, but they are advised to
study them at the same time it is well to remember that
one problem thoroughly studied is more instructive than
gineers.
thirty carelessly studied.
Example
K,
1.
An electric condenser of constant capacity
58, discharging through great resistance

potential difference (at a particular instant)
fig.
R. If v is the
between the
condenser coatings, mark one coating as v and the other as

on your sketch, fig. 58. Draw an arrow-head representing
the current G in the conductor then C =v-t-R.
;
But q the quantity of
electricity in the condenser is
Kv
LEAKAGE RESTSTANCE.
163
and the rate oi diminution oiq per second or
^ or
Hence
the very same current.
.dv
dv
= _
,^
~di~~KR'"'
kr'di'That
Fig. 58.
the rate of diminution of v per second,
is,
and whether
is
EX
-^ di ~R'
^''
K-r-.
is
propor-
a diminution or an increase we
call this the compound interest law. We guess therefore that
we are dealing with the exponential function, and after a little
experience we see that any such example as this is a case of
(1), and hence by (2)
tional to
V,
it is
v=^he~^'
It is because of this that
(8).
we have the
rule for finding the
leakage resistance of a cable or condenser.
For
(log 6
So that if Vi
potential at time
is
-log 2;) =
^^.
the potential at time
ti
and
if v^ is
the
fg
KR{logb-\ogv,) =
t^,
KR (log h log V2) =

KR (log log Vo) U
^2.
Subtracting,
v^
R = {U - t,)/K log ^
So that
It is hardly necessary to say that the
of a
number
logio?!
ti
n,
\ogn,
is
equal to the
Napierian logarithm
common logarithm
multiplied by 2-3026.
Such an example as this, studied carefully step by step by

an engineer, is worth as much as the careless study of twenty
such problems.
Example 2. Newton's law of cooling. Imagine a

body all at the temperature v (above the temperature of sur-
11-2
CALCULUS FOR ENGINEEKS.
164
rounding bodies) to lose heat at a rate which

to
is
proportional
v.
Thus
let
-T.
= ^j
at
where
t is
Then by
time.
(2)
= 6e-
log V = at.
log h
V
or
Thus
let
the time
t^,
(4),
the temperature be Vi at the time t^ and v^ at

then log Vi log I'g = a (^2 î), so that a can be
measured experimentally as being equal to
Example
rod (like a tapering winding rope or like

of iron, but it may be like a tie rod made of
stone to carry the weight of a lamp in a church) tapers
gradually because of its own weight, so that it may have
lbs. per
everywhere in it exactly the same tensile stress
If 3/ is the cross section at the distance
square inch.
X from its lower end, and if y + 5y is its cross section
at the distance oc-{- Sx from its lower end, then /. By is
evidently equal to the weight of the little portion between
is
This portion is of volume BiV x y, and if
OS and w + 8x.
the weight per unit volume
3.
a pump rod
f.Bi/
= tv.y.
B.
or rather ;r;
= rpl/-
y=ibe^
Hence as before,
(5).
If when a7 = 0, y = yo, the cross section just sufficient to
support a weight W hung on at the bottom (evidently
yQ=b because e=l.

however unnecessary to say more than that (5)
the law according to which the rod tapers.
fy^zrzW), then
It is
is
Example 4.
Compound Interest. 100 lent at
3 per cent, per annum becomes 103 at the end of a year.
The interest during the second year being charged on the
increased capital, the increase is greater the second year, and
Here the addition of
is greater and greater every year.
it might be
interest due is made every twelve months
;
SLIPPING OF A BELT.
165
made every
six or three months, or weekly or daily or every

Nature's processes are, however, usually more
continuous even than this.
second.
Let us imagine compound interest to be added on to the

and not by jerks every year, at the rate
of r per cent, per annum.
Let P be the principal at the
piincipal continually,
end of
years.
dP -
r
-zrP,
100
dt
Then hP
and hence by
for the
time
ht is
-^ P .ht
1^^
(2)^
^ ^
or
we have
P^he^\
where 6 = Po the principal at the time
Example
5.
= 0.
Slipping of a Belt on a Pulley.
When
students make experiments on this slipping phenomenon,

they ought to cause the pulley to be fixed so that they may
see the slipping when it occurs.
The pull on a belt at

the pull To but also the
friction between the belt
and the pulley. Consider
the tension I' in the belt
at P, fig. 59, the angle
QOP being 6] also the
tension
at >Sf, the
angle QO>Sf being (9 + 8(9.
is Ti,
and this overcomes not only
T+BT
Fig. 60 shows part of

greatly magnified,
OPS
SO being very small.
In
calculating the force pressing the small portion of

Fig. 59.
belt P>Si against the pulley
rim, as we think of
as a shorter and shorter length, we see
that the resultant pressing force is T. hd*, so that /ju.T.BOis
PS
* When two equal forces T make a small angle dd with one another,
The three forces are parallel to the sides
find their equilibrant or resultant.
represents 2', where
of an isosceles triangle like fig. 01, where
AB=CA
Fig. 61.
1G6
the friction,
of friction.
if /x, is
the coefficient
It is this that
BT
required to overcome. When

fi.T .BO is exactly equalled by
BT sliding is about to begin.
is
Fig. 60.
Then
fi
B6 =
BT or, ^ = fiT,
the compound interest law.
Hence T=^he^^. Insert now T^T, when ^ = 0, and

when e^QOW or 6, and we have T, = h, T, = ToCf'K
,
In calculating the horse-power
we must remember
pulley,
that
H given
T = T^
by a belt
to
H={1\ - T,)
F-=- 33000, if
is the velocity of the belt in
and T^ are in pounds and V

Again, whether a belt will or will not tear
depends upon T^ from these considerations wo have the
well-known rule for belting.
Ti
feet per minute.
Atmospheric Pressure. At a place

6.
h feet above datum level, let the atmospheric
pressure be p lbs. per sq. foot
at h + Bh let the pressure
be p-\-Bp {Bp is negative, as will be seen). The pressure
at h is really greater than the pressure at h+Bh by the
weight of air filling the volume Bh cubic feet. If w is the
weight in lbs. of a cubic foot of air, Bp = w. Bh. But lu = cp,
where c is some constant if the temperature is constant.
Example
which
is
Hence Bp= cp.
Bh...(l), or, rather
Jr
= cp.
Hence, as
we have the compound interest law; the rate of fall of

we go up or the rate of increase of pressure as we
come down being proportional to the pressure itself. Hence
p = ae~'^^y where a is some constant. If ^; = po> when /i = 0,
before,
pressure as
then a
= jôj
so that the law
is
p=Poe-'^
(2).
an
As
we
be
--
w^ being the weight

Po
of a cubic foot of air at the pressure po.
If t is the constant
(absolute) temperature, and Wq is now the weight of a cubic
for
easily find it to
foot of air at 0 C. or 274 absolute, then c is
w
274
Po
BAG =56
5^ is less
equilibrant
and BC represents the equilibrant. Now it is evident that as

and less, BG-ÂB is more and more nearly 5^, so that the
is more and more nearly T 50.
.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.
If
follows the adiabatic law, so that pw-y
constant or w=cp^^y where 7
comes
Bp = cp^ly Bh
or
=oh+G.
If ^
^1 P
167
= 1*414
f~ = cBh or rather
=po where A =
0,
we can
is
(1) be-
^=
ch or
find G, and
p y=po y
we have
Then
for air.
ch
(3),
as the more usually correct law for pressure diminishing

upwards in the atmosphere.
Observe that when we have the adiabatic law pyy = 6, a
constant, smd pv=Rt; it follows that the absolute temperature
1
is
proportional to
So that
(3)
becomes
1
7-1
li
So that the rate of diminution of temperature is

constant per foot upwards in such a mass of gas.
Compare Art. 74, (4), if v is 0.
Example
7.
Fly-wheel stopped by a Fluid Frictional
Resistance.
Let a be its velocity in radians per second, / its moment of
Let the resistance to motion be a torque proportional
to the velocity, say Fa, then
inertia.
Fa = Ix angular
/
acceleration
J + iâ=0
(1),
(2),
da
* = -/"
Here
to
a,
rate of diminution of angular velocity a, is proportional

so that we have the compound interest law or
oL
where
a^ is
aê
the angular velocity at time
(3),
0.
168
Compare
this with the case of a fly-wheel stopped by

Let a be the constant solid-frictional torque.
solid fHction.
(1)
becomes
da/dt
or
a=
or
where
Oo is
+ a/I = 0,
at/T -f a
a
or
= Ida/dt,
= ao a^//
the angular velocity
Returning to the case of

is
constant,
when
(4),
t
= 0.
fluid frictional resistance, if
a varying driving torque applied
to
fly-wheel,
we have
^=^+4;
<>
Notice the analogy here with the following electric circuit

law.
Example
8.
Electric Conductor left to
itself.
Ohm's law is for constant currents and is V= RC, where

R is the resistance of a circuit, C is the current flowing in it
V the voltage. We usually have R in ohms, C in amperes,
V in Volts. When the current is not constant, the law
becomes
V = RC + I.g
where
dC
-7- is
(1).
the rate of increase of amperes per second, and
L is called
the self-induction of the circuit in Henries.

It is
evident that L is the voltage retarding the current when the
current increases at the rate of one ampere per second.
1.
IfF=Oin(l)
dC__R^
dt~
which
is
'
the compound interest law.
Consequently
C = CoC
-St
^
(2).
EXERCISES IN CURVES.
so that from (1)
Now
let
169
V==Ra-\-(Rh- Lgh) e-^K
R = Lg or
ffY and we have V= Ra, so
that the
may keep constant although the current alters.

Putting in the values we have found, and using Vq for the
constant voltage so that a= Fq -4- R, we find
voltage
G^'^+be'L'
If
we
C=0
let
when ^ =
G=
write
0,
then
(3).
^, and hence we may
-^{l-e~L^)
(4).
The curve showing how G

is
applied to a
cii'cuit,
particular case.
What
99.
of
is
increases when a constant voltage

ought to be plotted from ^ = for some
Thus
plot
when
the current finally reached
Fo
= 100,
-R
= l, L01.
Easy Exercises in the Differentiation and Integration
e**^.
1.
Using the formula of Art. 70, find the radius of
curvature of the curve y = eF, where a; = 0. Answer r = \/8.
:
.(
2.
point ;ri, y^ is in the curve y
equation to the tangent through this point.
= hef^,
Answer: y^Zyi
X Xi
Find the equation to the normal through
Answer
the
find
Vl^
a
this point.
- ^ =
Xy^
Find the length of the Subnormal. Answer y

:
Find the length of the Subtangent. Answer
?/i
-- or
y^-ja.
\y-\--^- or a.
CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERS
170
3.
Find the radius of curvature of the catenary
y = - (e^'c
+ g-*/''),
At the
any
at
when
vertex
a?
Answer
place.
= 0,
y^jc.
= c.
If y = Ae''^^ where i stands for V 1.

4.
Show that if
behaves as an algebraic quantity so that i^ = 1, i' = i,
{*
= !,
5.
i^
= I,
^=-
&c. then
Find a so that y = Ael^ may be true when
Show
that there are two values of a and that
y
6.
a^y.
= Ae-"^ + 5e-3.
Find the subtangent and
Catenary y =
/J
{^"^
+ e"*'"),
or,
subnormal to the
as it
is
sometimes written,
y = c cosh xjc.
Answer
X
the subtangent
is c
coth - or c
(e^^"
c
C
the subnormal
is
or 2
c
2ul7
^ sinh
+ e~^l*')l{d^'*' e~^l*^),
(e^^^
g-^^/c).
The distance PS, fig. 8, being called the length of the

7.
tangent, the length of the tangent of the above catenary is
2z
cosh^ -
The length
of
sinh -
cj
PQ may be
called the length of the normal,

rn
and
for the
catenary
it is c
cosh^ - or y^/c.
c
Find
8.
(e" -{-e
the
).
length of an
The
rule
is
arc
of
the
given in Art. 38.
catenary
Fig.
62
being the origin, the distance

shows the shape of the curve,
A being c. The point P has for its co-ordinates x and y.
CURVES.
Now
-f-=
^(e''
171
Squaring this and adding to 1
^).
and extracting the square root gives us ^(e^

integral of this is
arc
AP,
as
(e ^
is
\.
^).
The
the length of the
We may write
when x = 0.
it is
which
^ )
it,
= c sinh w/c.
pA
Fig. 62.
Find the area of the catenary between
9.
SP,
Area =1
c2
ros 1
(e^
-^
area
up
The Catenary
to
i/
{e
*"
and
dw^
OS
OS
_~|
or
Or the
OA
62.
fig.
(e
any ordinate at x
= -{e^"^ + e~^"')
-e
'^
is
" ).
& sinh x\c.
revohês about the axis of x^ find
the area of the hour-glass-shaped surface generated.
See Art. 48.
%
Area = -
{e^ "^ -\- e~="''f
ire-
=-^(^
between the ordinates at x = x and
IC
dx
^ ff-'lx )+'ncx
IC'
.^'=0.
curious that the forms of some volcanoes are as if

their own sections obeyed the compound interest law like an
inverted pump rod. The radii of the top and base of such a
It
is
172
volcano being a and h respectively and the vertical height h,

find the volume.
See Art. 46. Taking the axis of the
volcano as the axis of x, the curve ij = be^^ revolving round this
axis will produce the outline of the mountain if c
The volume
is
ttJ 6-
e"'""
da)=^
^-
-r
log ^
e-'^^
= 2^(e--l).
Now
be^^,
so that our answer
IT
is
^ {a^
6-).
Harmonic Functions.
100.
Students ought to liavc already plotted sine curves like

y = asm{bx + e)...(l)on squared paper and to have figured out
It ought to be
for themselves the signification of a, b and e.
unnecessary here to speak of them. Draw the curve again.
Why is it sometimes called a cosine curve ? [Suppose e to
Note that however great
be ^ or
90.]
{bx-\-e)
can never exceed
and never be
= 0,
student knows of course that sin

sin
^ (or
sin
90)
= 1,
(or 225)
sin
-J
=-
(or 135)
'707,
may
a;
less
sin
= '707,
sin '-^ (or
be, the sine of
than
1.
The
j (or 45) = '707,
sin tt (or 180)
270)
= -
1,
= 0,
sin
^~
= --707, sin 27r (or 360') = again and, thereafter,

= sin (^ 27r). Even these numbers ought almost to
(or 315)
sin ^
be enough to let the wavy nature of the curve be seen.

Now as a sine can never exceed 1, the greatest and least
values of y are a and a. Hence a is called the amplitude
of the curve or of the function.
A" = 0, y a sin e.
This gives us the signification
Another way of putting this is to say that when ba;
When
of
e.
was
=e
when bx
or
is
A"
=J y
,
was
When x
0.
the angle passed
eccentric, e gets several
names
indicates time or
through by a crank or an
Valve-motion engineers call
SINE FUNCTIONS.
173
it the advance of the valve ; Electrical engineers call

lead or (if it is negative) the lag.
it
the
Observe that when bx 27r we have everything exactly

when x was 0, so that we are in the habit of
the same as
calling
-J
the periodic value of
(i\
Besides the method given in Art. 9, I advise the student

draw the curve by the following method. A little knowledge of elementary trigonometry will show that it must
It is just what is done in
give exactly the same result.
drawing the elevation of a spiral line (as of a screw thread)
Draw a straight line OM. Describe
in the drawing office.
to
Fig. 63.
circle
equal to
with a as radius. Set off the angle BOG

about
Divide the circumference of the circle into any
e.
mimber
of equal parts numbering the points of division

may call the points 16, 17, 18, &c., or
&c.
32, 33, 34, &c., when we have gone once, twice or more times
towards
on
round. Set off any equal distances from
the straight line, and number the points 0, 1, 2, &c. Now
project vertically and horizontally and so get points on the
represents to some scale or other
curve.
The distance
0,
1,
3,
We
BM
the periodic value of x or
27r/6.
If OG is imagined to be a crank rotating uniformly

against the hands of a watch in the vertical plane of the
paper, y in (1) means the distance of G above OM, hx means
the angle that OG makes at any time with the position OM,
and if x means time, then h is the angular velocity of the
crank and 27r/6 means the time of one revolution of the crank
174
or the periodic time of the motion, y is the displacement at

any instant, from its mid position, of a slider worked vertically
from G by an infinitely long connecting rod.
simple harmonic motion may be defined as one which

represented by s = a sin (bt + e), where s is the distance
from a mid position, a is the amplitude, e the lead or lag or
advance, and 6 is 27r/T or îrf where T is the periodic time or
/is the frequency. Or it may be defined as the motion of a
point rotating uniformly in a circle, projected upon a diameter
of the circle (much as we see the orbits of Jupiter's satellites,
edge on to us), or the motion of a slider worked from a
uniformly rotating crank-pin by means of an infinitely long
connecting rod. And it will be seen later, that it is the sort
of motion which a body gets when the force acting upon it is
proportional to the distance of the body from a position of
equilibrium, as in the up and down motion of a mass hanging
at the end of a spring, or the bob of a pendulum when its
swings are small. It is the simplest kind of vibrational
motion of bodies. Many pairs of quantities are connected by
such a sine law, as well as space and time, and we discuss
simple harmonic motion less, I think, for its own sake, than
because it is analogous to so many other phenomena. Now
let it be well remembered although not yet proved that if
is
y = a sin
ly
and
101.
let
(bx
When c =
+ c)
before, let
Subtract (1)
a;
= 1 and
y ^mx
and
2 cos (x
Hence
= ab cos
a=
(bx +
c)
c).
that
is
when
(1),
coefficient.
be increased to x-\-hx and find y +
y-^hy sin {x + hx)

from (2) and we find
hy
or
dy
-?i
dx = -- cos(bx +
us find the differential
As
then
By,
(2).
= sin {x + hx) sin x,
+ \Bx) sin \hx.
^ = cos
(a?
(See Art.
+ JS^) ^^^^
3.)
(3).
a sin (Kv
-{
175
c).
It is easy to see by drawing a small angle a and recollecting what sin a and a are, to find the value of sin a -r a as a
Thus in the figure, let
gets smaller and smaller.
be
the angle. The arc
divided by OP is a, the
angle in radians.
And
the perpendicular PB
divided by OP is the
pj g^
sine of the angle. Hence
POA
PA
= -pr-r
PA
and
it
is
evident that this
is
more and more
nearly 1 as a gets smaller and smaller.

In fact we may
a, sin a and tan a to one another to
be 1, more and more nearly^ as a gets smaller and
smaller. If we look upon ^Bx as a in the above expression,
we see that in the limit, (3) becomes
take the ratios of
dy
-r^
*
Here
The proof
of the
r
if
= cos X
y = sin x.*
more general case
is
of exactly the
i/
= actln(bx + c),
y + Sy = a sin {b{x + Sx) + c},

Sy = 2a COB {bx+c + ^b, Sx) sin (^ 6
= ab
5a;
Sx
Now make
smaller and smaller and
cos (bx 4. c) and hence
Again, to take another case

If
same kind.
it is
ysa cos (bx + e),
-=^
dx
a cos (bx + c) dx = - sin (bx
J=a 8in(6aT + c),
say.
+e+-
^ = ab sin (bx +
/
6a:
a sin (bx
+ c)
3.
^b.Sx
= a6 cos (6a; + c)
(
See Art.
we have
same as
this is the
= a&C08
Hence
dx).
y = asin( 6x+e + -
Hence
e).
dx = - cos (bx + c)
+ c).
176
And
hence
cos
dx
A'
sm a%
Now it is not enough to prove a thing like this, it

102.
must be known. Therefore the student ought to take a book of
Mathematical Tables and illustrate it. It is unfortunate that
such books are arranged either for the use of very ignorant
or else for very learned persons and so it is not quite easy to
convert radians into degrees or vice versa. Do not forget
Make out
that in sin x or cos x we mean x to be in radians.
such a lit tie bit ot tab le as this, w hich is taken at ranciom.
L
Angle in
Average
y = sina;
or angle in
degrees
radians
6981
6427876
41
7156
6560590
7330
42
average value of
be seen
will
-^^
why
it
It is easy to
y = cos X,
sign
is
Angle in
degrees
=-
sin
Bi/ -^
7512
7547
Bx in each case
is
really the
show
x and
in exactly the
F
Isin
troublesome to remember.
same way that
x dx = - cos x.
.
Here
is
Average
i/
= C08a;
radians
3491
9396926
21
3665
9335804
3840
The
if
an illustration
X
or angle in
it
20
22
0130716
not exactly equal to the cosine of x.

for himself, to see if "7547 is really
is
nearly equal to cos 41
dy
ji-
7583
one degree or ^01745 of a radian,
for
Has the student looked

103.
0132714
6691306
remembered that
it is
'6y_
dx
40
If
dy~$x
5y
9271839
negative
8x
0061122
-3513
0063965
-3666
5y
5x
- -3584
sin
vn
d.
Notice that y diminishes as x increases.

sin 21 or sin (-3665)
Here
Notice that
= '3584.
another illustration of the fact that the

x is cos x. Let AOP, fig. 65, be
Let PQ be a short arc drawn with
Let AOQhe
-h SO.
is perpendicular to QB.
as centre. Let OP = 0Q= 1.
104.
is
differential coefficient of sin

6.
PR
Fig, 65.
Then
AP ^y = sin e, BQ = sm(0 -^ Be) = + By, QP = B0

i/
and EQ = 8y. Now the length of the arc PQ becomes

more and more neai-ly the length of a straight line between
P and Q as B6 is made smaller and smaller.
Thus
or cos
Yyp
01^ ]Si
is
more and more nearly equal
to cos
PQR
0.
In the limit
imit*'
Similarly
if
-J2J
d9
= cos d
y=
if
= cos = OA,
Bz
sin 0.
= BA = RP
and
RP
d9=-QP = """^dz
>,
Illustrations like these are however of most value when a

student invents them for himself. Any way of making the
fundamental ideas familiar to oneself is valuable. But it is

a great mistake for the author of a book to give too many
illustrations. He is apt to give prominence to those illustrations which he himself discovered and which were therefore
invaluable in his own education.
105.
Observe that
ii
^=A sin ajc 4- B cos ax;

<^% and
Compare
p.
this with the fact that if
^=V
y = e*, ;7-^=aV) ;7^=^V
12
^^
178
the higher applications of Mathematics to Engineering this resemblance

and difference between the two functions
and sin ax become important.
Note that if i stands for s] -\ so that i^= -\^ {*=1, &c.
Then
if
y=e^ 1^~ ~^V>
;7:^=^"V j^^^ ^^ î*^ *^
s^^^
function.
Comi)are Art. 99.
106. Exercise. Men >yho have proved Demoivre's theorem

in Trigonometry (the proof is easy
the proofs of all mathematical rules which are of use to the engineer are easy
;
difficult proofs are
that
only useful in academic exercise work) say
for all algebraic purposes,
sin CW7
= ^ (e^***
e~^^).
If this
coâx=\{e^^-\-e~^^)^ and
is so,
prove our fundamental
propositions.
Example. A plane electric circuit of area A sq.

107.
cm. closed on itself, can rotate with uniform angular velocity
about an axis which is at right angles to the field, in a uniform magnetic field H.
is supposed given in c.G.s. units;
measuring the angle ^ as the angle passed through from the
position when there is maximum induction
through the
circuit in the position 6, the induction through the circuit is
evidently A.H. cos 6.
If the angle 6 has been turned
through in the time t with the angular velocity q radians
per second, then 6 = qt. So that the induction /=
cos qt.
The rate of increase of this per second is
în qt, and
this is the electromotive force in each turn of wire.
If there
are n turns, the total voltage is nAqH^m qt in C.G.S. units;
if we want it in commercial units the voltage is
HA
AqH
- nAqH 10"8 sin qt
AH
volts,
being a simple harmonic function of the time. Note that the

is now being employed for the line integral of
electromotive force even when the volt is not the unit used.
term voltage
The coil of an alternator passes through a

such that the induction through the coil is
Example.
field
/= ^0 + A^ sin {6 + fi) + Ar sin {rO + Cr),

where 6
is
the angle passed through by the
coil.
If q
is
the
179
ILLUSTRATIONS.
relative angular velocity of the coil
are n turns of wire on the
nq {Ai cos (qt
coil,
and
field,
= qt.
then the voltage
is
If there
-7-
or
+ ej) + ^,.r cos (rqt + e^)].
So we see that irregularities of ? times the frequency in

the field are relatively multiplied or magnified in the
electromotive force.
108.
In Bifilar Suspension, if
is the weight of
the suspended mass, a and b the distances between the
threads below and above, h the vertical height of the threads;
if the difference in vertical component of tension is n times
the total weight W, and 6 is the angle turned through in
azimuth, the momental resistance offered to further turning is
{{l-n')Wjsmd
make
(1).
the arrangement more sensitive it is

only necessary to let more of the weight be carried by one of
the threads than the other.
Note that
to
The momental
which
is
'
'
resistance offered to turning
by a body
fi-om its position of equilibrium, is often propor-
W
W
if
is the weight of a compound
the distance from the point of support
to its centre of gravity,
OG sin 6 is the moment with
which the body tends to return to its position of equilibrium.
If
is the magnetic moment of a magnet displaced
from equilibrium in a field of strength H, then
sin 6 is
the moment with which it tends to return to its position of
equilibrium. A body constrained by the torsion of a wire or
a strip has a return moment proportional to 0. When
angular changes are small we often treat sin
as if it were
equal to 6.
Sometimes a body may have various kinds of
constraint at the same time.
Thus the needle of a quadrant
electrometer has bifilar suspension, and there is also an electrical constraint introduced by bad design and construction
which may perhaps be like a6 + bO^. If the threads are stiff,
their own torsional stiffness introduces a term proportional to
6 which we did not include in (1). Sometimes the constraint
is introduced by connecting a little magnetic needle rigidly
tional to sin
6.
Thus
pendulum and OG
is
HM
122
180
with the electrometer needle, and this introduces a term

proportional to sin 6,
In some instruments where the
moving body is soft iron the constraint is nearly proportional to sin 26,
Now if the resisting moment is
and a body is turned through the angle hO, the work
done is M. Bd,
Hence the work done in turning a
body from the position 6^ to the position ^.^, where S.^ is
greater than
î, is
is
what work
Answer,
is
by a body
the angle turned through,
done in turning the body from 6^ to 6.J
a sin 6 .d6 =
6,
The momental
asin^ where 6
Example.
to turning
M .dd.
/
.
resistance offered
is
a (cos ^2 cos d^=â (cos 6^ cos 6.).
e,
Example. The resistance of a body to turning is partly

a constant torque a due to friction, partly a term b6-{-c&-,
partly a term esinO; what is the work done in turning from
^ = to any angle ?
M the torque = a-{-bd +

V the
cd"
+ e sin =f(0)
say,
work done
= aO + ibO' + icd'-\-e(l- cos 6) = F(e)

This
is
position
called the potential
energy
of the
body in the
6.
-^-j
is
body
the body's
is
say.
moment
of inertia about its axis.
at 6 its total energy
where
When
E is \I i~\ + F {$).
If the total energy remains constant and a body in the

position 6 is moving in the direction in which 6 increases,
and no force acts upon it except its constraint, it will continue to move to the position 6^ such that
So that when the form oi F {6) is known, 61 can be

if we know the kinetic energy at 6.
calculated,
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Thus
M=e sin
let
(jY + e (1 - cos
1/
from which
so that
0,
181
F(0) = e(l- cos 0), then

(9)
= e (1 - cos
e,),
the extreme swing can be calculated.
î
Show that if the righting moment of a ship

Exercise.
is the heeling angle, and
proportional to sin 4)6 where
if a wind whose momental effect would maintain a steady
inclination of llf degrees suddenly sends the ship from rest
and remains acting, and if we may neglect friction,
at ^ =
the ship will heel beyond 33J degrees and will go right over.
Discuss the effect of friction.
is
body is in the extreme position 0^, what will be

kinetic energy when passing through the position
Answer,
of equilibrium ?
(Oi).
its
Thus
let
F
M^hO + ce^-ê sin 6.
Calculate
swing
6,
=^
= 0,
the angular velocity at
a,
if its
extreme
Here
is 45.
and F(e) = ^6^
from which we
Problem.
may
-f
calculate
^c6'
+ e(l- cos
6),
a.
Suppose we desire to have the potential
energy following the law
V=F(e)=
a6^
+ hO^ + ce'""^ + h sin 26,
and we wish to know the necessary law of constraint, we see

at once that as
dV
= -y^
Jllf
M=f
Problem.
3&^ +
mc'''^
+ 2/i cos W.
body in the position
6^,
a,
suddenly given to
The moment
if a' is its
-f
moving with the
in the direction of increasing 6, has

impulse
in the direction of increasing
angular velocity
momental
al9''
of
it
how
far will
momentum was
new angular
velocity
ot'
it
/a, it
=a+y
a
6
swing ?
is now loi + m and
CAI.CULUS FOR ENGINEERS.
182
The body
energy |/ a +
(
sum
then in the position
is
with the kinetic
and the potential energy F{Oq), and the
of these equated to
The student
0^
F{6^
enables
easily see that
will
be calculated.
6i to
the general equation
of angular motion of the constrained body
fid)
may
109.
carefully
is
include a term involving friction.
Every one of the following exercises must be worked
by students
the answers are of great practical use

but more particularly to Electrical Engineers. In working
them out
it
necessary to recollect the
is
trigonometrical
relations
- 1 = 1-2 sin2^,
=
cos
sin (^ +
+ sin {6 - ^),
= cos (^ + + cos {$
cos
cos (6 + <^).
sin <^ = cos (0
cos 2(9= 2 cos2^
Such
2 sin ^
2 cos 6
2 sin ^
</)
</>)
<fi
</))
(j)),
(f))
exercises are not merely valuable in illustrating the
calculus; they give an acquaintance with trigonometrical

expressions which is of great genei-al importance to the
engineer.
The average value

evidently the area
of /(.r)
from
ii'
f(x) dx divided by
.r.,
ooi
to
.T
a?.^
is
a'i.
Every exercise from 6 to 20 and also 23 ought to be

by students. Good hand sketches of
the curves whose ordinates are multiplied together and of the
illustrated graphically
resulting curves will give sufficiently accurate illustrations.
2ax
4a
sin
sin- (Lxdx
sin
2ax
4>a
sm ax
3.
cos bx
dx =
~
~
2(a +
cos (a-\-h)a;
6)
cos (a
h)x
rf2(a-6)
183
EXERCISES.
f
sm ax
sin bx
d^
5.
cos
a^ cos bx.cix
.
-I'
The
6.
~
^,{a + b)
2(a + 6)
sin
^,
2
x
h
"^
~27a^;^6)~
is 0.
r2jr
"I
sinfl7.fZic=
cosiT
= (1 1) = 0.
Find the area of the positive part of a sine curve,
7.
that
+ h) x
(
+ b)
sin (a b) x
sin (a
r-r
area of a sine curve for a whole period
r2.1T
I
sm(a~b)x
^
2 (a 6)
is
sin
câ;
cos
= ( 1 1) = 2.
Since the length of base of this part of the curve is tt,

2
Its greatest height, or amplithe average height of it is .
tude,
is 1.
The area of y a-\-b sin x from

8.
the average height of the curve is a.
9.
As
27ra
is
and
Find the average value of sin- x from a; = to ^ = 27r.

2^' = 1 - 2 sin^ x, sin^ ^ = | (1 - cos 2x). The integral
is |.2J - J sin 2x, and putting in the limits, the area is
cos
of this
(^27r-isin47r-04-isinO) =
the area
10.
-j-
27r,
and hence
11.
= T is
The average value
The average height
of cos- x from
The average value

g
7r.
is
it is ^.
In the following exercises

whole numbers and unequal
to 27r
^;
to
iz?
= 27r
be
^=0
to
and r are supposed
of a
niri^
{sqt \- e)
being a whole number and q
from
= îrlT.
is \.
to
is
the
periodic time.
12.
The average value
cos sqt
13.
I
of aQ,o^îsqt-\-e) from
sin sqt ,dt=^0.
to
184
[^
14.
sin sqt
sin rqt ,dt
0.
cos sqt
cos rqt .dt
0.
sin sqt
cos rqt .dt
= 0.
Jo
rT
15.
Jo
16.
Jo
17.
The average value
of sin^ sqt from
to
^T is
^.
18.
The average value
of cos^ sqt from
to
^T is
J.
19.
sm 55^
sin rqt
a^
= 0.
cos rqt ,dt
= 0.
rhT
20.
I
21.
cos 55^
Find
/sin
Here,
a;
sin (x
sin {x-\- e)
Hence we must
integrate
+ e)
= sin
sin'*
X cos X .dx = \
.
and hence our integral

fx
(
22.
-\-
cos
a;
sin
e.
e-^-smx cos a;
cos
sin
e,
sin 2a;
a?
cos e
J
(â;
= J cos 2a;,
% cos ^2a7
Prove that (sin qt sin

.
(^-^
+ e)
sin2gA
sin
e.
f/^
Prove that the average value of sin qt sin {qt e) or

+ a) sin (5'^ + a e) for the whole periodic time T
.
of sin (qt
(if
cos e
is
/^
23.
dx.
(sin 2a?
sin 2a;\
a?
/sin'' X .dx =
(sin
= y)
^s
i cos
e.
USE OF IM AGIN ARIES.
185
This becomes evident when we notice (calling

sin
(ft
Now
sin
e) = sin
= sin^
((f)
(ft
(sin
.
<l>
the average value of sin-
and the average value of
sin
<^
sin
(/>
cos
cos
.
(f>
(f)
cos
sin e)
</>
sin
e.
a whole period
for
= (p),
is
|^,
<^ is 0.
IT
By making a = ^
cos e
(j)
cos e
qt-\-
we
in the above
see that the average
value of cos qt cos {qt e) is ^ cos e, or the averages value

for a whole period of the product of two sine flinctions
of the time, of the same period, each of amplitude 1, is
half the cosine of the angular lag of either behind the
other.
.
Referring to Art. 106, take
24.
cosa(9
= J(e'^ + e"'^),
= cos ad -f i sin aO,

e"^ = cos ad i sin aO,
or take
e^^
L^ cos ad
and find
This becomes
dO.
\j{e^''-''^'-Ve^'-''^')dd
(b+ai)0
(6
i^
+ ai
f
"^r-;
+V
.
aid
^-^
ib~ai)e)
cos
Similarly
a^
a0.dd=
+16 ~ ai
and on substituting the above values

I
ai
^ e^
it
(b cos
becomes
a^
+ a sin a^)
. .
.(1).
we have
fe^ sin
adds = -^^-^ e^ (b sin a(9 - a cos a(9)
(2).

CALCULTTS FOn ENGINEERS.
186
Notes on Harmonic Functions. In the fol110.

lowing collection of notes the student will find a certain
amount of repetition of statements already made.
A function ^ = tt sin qt is analogous to the straight

motion of a slider driven from a crank of length a
(rotating with the angular velocity q radians per second)
by an infinitely long connecting rod. x is the distance of the
slider from the middle of its path at the time t At the zero
of time, ^ =
and the crank is at right angles to its position
111.
line
q = 27rf = -=-
of dead point,
if
T is
the periodic time, or
if/
is the frequency or number of revolutions of the crank

per second, taking 1 second as the unit of time.
function x = a sin {qt -}- e) is j ust the same, except

112.
that the crank is the angle radians (one radian is 57 '2957
degrees) in advance of the former position; that is, at
time the slider is the distance a sin e past its mid-position*.
*
lias
The student
is
drawn a curve
here again referred to 10, and
it is
assumed that he
to represent
x=6c""'sin
{qt
+ i)
(1).
Imagine a crank to rotate uniformly with the angular velocity q, and to

drive a slider, but imagine the crank to get shorter as time goes on, its
length at any time being fl~
Another way of thinking of this motion is:

Imagine a point P to move with constant aiujnlar velocity round O,
keeping in the equiangular spiral path APBCDEF; the motion in question

is the motion of P projected upon the straight line
and what we have
called the logarithmic decrement is tt cot a if a is the angle of the spiral.
MON
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION.
187
113.
A fiuictiou X = a sin (ryi + e) + o! sin {(jt + e') is the
same as X = A sin (5'^ + ^); that is, the sum of two crank
motions can be given by a single crank of proper
length and proper advance. Show on a drawing the
positions of the first two when ^ = 0, that is, set off
YOF = e
YOQ = e'
and
and
OF = a,
OQ = a/.
Complete the parallelogram OPRQ and draw the diagonal

OR, then the single crank OR = A, with angle of advance
YOR = E, would give to a slider the sum of the motions
which OP and OQ would separately give. The geometric
proof of this is very easy.
Imagine the slider to have
a vertical motion. Draw
OQ,
OR
and
OP
in their
relative positions at
any
time, then project P,
The
and Q upon OX.
crank OP would cause
the slider to be OP' above
its mid-position at this
crank OQ
instant, the
would cause the slider to
be OQ' above its mid-po^^g- ^'^'
sition,the crank OR would
cause the slider to be OR' above its mid-position at the same
instant; observe that OR' is always equal to the algebraic
sum
of
OP' and OQ.
We may
OP
thus:
"The s.H.M. which the crank
would give, + the s.H.M. which OQ would give, is equal to
the S.H.M. which
would give." Similarly "the s.H.M.
which
would give, is
would give, - the s.H.M. which
sometimes
equal to the s.H.M. which OQ would give."
say:
and OQ.
the crank
is the sum of the two cranks
Cranks are added therefore and subtracted just like vectors.
put
it
OR
OR
OP
We
OP
OR
that is, the constant acute angle which OP everywhere makes with the curve,
or Tfcot a = aT/2 and g = 27r/r, so that cot a = alq. If fig. 66 is to agree with
fig. 67 in all respects
is the position at time 0, then
being vertical and
= angle iVOP -7r/2.
NM
188
114. These propositions are of great importance in dealing

with valve motions and other mechanisms. They are of so
much importance to electrical engineers, that many practical
men say, "let the crank OP represent the current." They
mean, " there is a current which alters with time according
to the law (7= a sin (5^ 4- e), its magnitude is analogous to
the displacement of a slider worked vertically by the crank
OP whose length is a and whose angular velocity is q and
OP
is its
115.
same
as
position
when t = 0." t
Inasmuch
as the function
asinf^^ + ^j,
it
w=a
cos qt
is
represents the motion due to a
crank of length a whose angle of advance is 90.

time t the velocity of a slider whose motion is
{V
just the
At any
= a sin (qt + e),

due
vâq cos (qt 4- f) = -^
is
or
^r
= aq sin (,* + e + |).

can be represented by the actual position at any
by a crank of length representing
aq, this new crank being 90 in advance of the old one.
cl?x
dv
The acceleration or -^^ or -7- or v is shown at any instant
that
is, it
instant of a slider worked
by a crank of length
aq^ placed 90 in advance of the v

crank, or 180 in advance of the x crank, for
Accel.
The
= - aq^ sin {qt + e)

= aq^ sin {qt-\-e + ir).
characteristic property of S.H. motion is that, numerically,

is q^ or 47r-/- times the displacement, /being
the acceleration
the frequency.
If anything follows the law a sin {qt + e), it is analogous

motion of a slider, and we often say that it is repre-
to the
sented by the crank OP its rate of increase with time

is analogous to the velocity of the slider, and we say that it
is represented by a crank of length aq placed 90 in advance
of the first.
In fact, on a S.H. function, the operator djdt
multiplies by q and gives an advance of a right angle.
;
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT.
189
Sometimes instead of stating that a function is

e) we state that it is a sin qt + b cos qt.
Evidently this is the same statement, if a? + h^ = A^ and if
116.
A sin (qt +
tan
h
-.
a
It is easy to prove this
trigonometrically,
phically in fig. 68.
The crank
of
OP
tan
We
117.
the sum
tan e or
08 and OQ, and
FOP = -.
a
Fig. 68.
graphical
is
and graLet
have already in Art. 100 indicated an easy
method of drawing the curve
x = asm (qt + e),

where
a;
and
Much
are the ordinate and abscissa.
information
is
to be gained
by drawing the two of
the same periodic time,

a;
= a sin (qt + e)
and x a
and adding their ordinates together.
sin (qt
+ e),
This will illustrate 113.
volts, the
If the voltage in an Electric Circuit is
118.
current G amperes, the resistance
ohms, the self-induction
Henries, then if t is time in seconds,
V==RC+L
Now
if
dC
.(1).
dt'
= Co sin qt,
T- = G^q cos qt,
Y= RGq sin qt + LG^q
so that
and by
Art. 116 this

.
cos
qt,
is
V=Go^/W+LY^^^(qi + ^)
(2);
190
nR^ 4- L^q^
tan
6 is
Hence again
is
-^*
called the
= ^
impedance
if/ is frequency
lag of current behind voltage.
V = VoSin qt
if
(3),
C = ;7=^Bin(qt-tan-^)l
then
(4).
is given as in (3) the complete answer

if
includes an evanescent term due to the starting
conditions see Arts. 98, 147, but (4) assumes that the simple
has been established for a long time. In practical
harmonic
electrical working, a small fraction of a second is long enough
to destroy the evanescent term.
Notice that
for
119.
We may wiite
the characteristic property of a simple
harmonic motion as
W-
S+<'*=o
(compare Arts. 26 and 108) and
that
it
if (1) is
x = a8mqt+hQ0>iqt or x =^
where
given us we know
means
and
e,
or a
and
h are
^m
{qt
+ e)
(2),
any arbitrary constants.
Example. A body whose weight is W lb. has a simple

harmonic motion of amplitude a feet (that is, the stroke is
2a
and has a frequency / per second,

mass this motion ?
feet)
to the
If
feet is the
position at
any
what
forces give
displacement of the body from midwe may take the motion to be
instant,
x= a sin qt
or a sin 2irf.
t,
and the numerical value of the acceleration at any instant is

îr^px and the force drawing the body to its mid -position is
in pounds îr^f'^xW-^ 322, as mass in engineer's units is weight
in pounds in London -r- 32 "2, and force is acceleration x mass.
CONNECTING KOD.
191
120. If the connecting rod of a steam or gas engine were

to be the weight of piston and
long enough, and we take
rod, the above is nearly the force which must be exerted
by the cross-head when the atmosphere is admitted to both
Observe that it is
when a? is and is
sides of the piston.
proportional to o), being greatest at the ends of the stroke.
Make a diagram showing how much this force is at every
point of the stroke, and carefully note that it is always acting towards the middle point.
Now if the student has the indicator diagrams of an

engine (both sides of piston), he can first draw a diagram showing at every point of the stroke the force of the steam on
the piston, and he can combine this with the above diagram
Note that steam
to show the actual force on the cross-head.
pressure is so much per square inch, whereas the other is the
total force.
If the student carries out this work by himself
it is ten times better than having it explained.
Since the acceleration is proportional to the square of the
frequency, vibrations of engines are much more serious than
they used to be, when speeds were slower.
121. As we have been considering the motion of the piston
of a steam engine on the assumption that the connecting rod is
infinitely long, we shall now study the effect of shortness of
connecting rod.
In Art. 11, we found the distance of the piston from the
end of its stroke when the crank made an angle 6 with its dead
point.
Now let x be the distance of the piston to the right
of the middle of its stroke in fig. 3, so that our x is the old s
minus r, where r is the length of the crank.
6"
Let the crank go round uniformly at q radians per second.

Again, let t be the time since the crank was at right
angles to
its
dead point position, so that
0 - = qt,
^
find
x z= - r
or
x=
cos
iiin
qt
-^ I
\l
- \/ 1
\i
\/ 1
-^ sin2 oi
j~ cos^
qt
and we
192
Vl a =
Using the approximation that

small enough we have
X =^ r sm
qt
x=
We
r sin qt
+ î
â
if
is
^. cosqt
-\-
But we know that 2 cosqt-'l= cos 2qL
Hence
(See Art. 109.)
(2qt)
^ôs
(1).
see that there is a fundamental simple harmonic motion,

its octave of much smaller amplitude.
and
Find
-jr
and
also -f-
at
This latter
is
dt^
acceleration
= rq- sin qt
cos
'2.qt.
be seen that the relative importance of the octave

four times as great in the acceleration as it was in
the actual motion.
may, if we please, write 6 again for
It will
term
is
We
2^
2 and get
d\
= r^' cos
r-if'
cos
2(9.
.2^2
r^q
When
= 0,
When
90^
the acceleration
is rif- H
the acceleration
is
When
= 180,
the acceleration
is
rq^ + j-
is the frequency or number of revolutions

(q is 27rf, where
of the crank per second).
If three points be plotted showing displacement x and
acceleration at these places, it is not difficult by drawing a
curve through the three points to get a sufficiently accurate

idea of the whole diagram.
Perhaps, as to a point near the
middle, it might be better to notice that when the angle
OPQ is 90, as is moving uniformly and the rate of change
of the angle Q is zero, there is no acceleration of Q just then.
This position of Q is easily found by construction.
VALVE GEARS.
The most important things
193
(1) that
necessary to cause
motion, are four times as great if the frequency is doubled,
and nine times as great if the frequency is trebled (2) that
the relative importance of an overtone in the motion is
greatly exaggerated in the acceleration.
to
and therefore the
accelerations,
recollect are
forces
Take any particular form of link motion or radial

122.
valve gear and show that the motion of the valve is always
very nearly
{t
being time from beginning of piston stroke or

through by crank from a dead point),
qt being angle p?^sed
= a^ sin {qt + 61)4-02 sin {^qt + 63)
(1).
a very simple method of obtaining the terms Oj

When the overtone is
neglected, a^ is the half travel of the valve and ei is the angle
of advance. In a great number of radial valve gears we find
The best way of studying the effect produced
that 6-2 = 90.
by the octave or overtone is to draw the curve for each term
of (1) on paper by the method of Fig. 63, and then to add
the ordinates together. If we subtract the outside lap L
from cc it is easy to see where the point of cut-off is, and how
much earlier and quicker the cut-off is on account of this
octave or kick in the motion of the valve.
(There
is
and
by inspection of the gear.)
a^
In an example take
The
1,
e^
= 40,
a^
= '2,
e^
90"^.
engineer will notice that although the

octave is good for one end of the cylinder it is not good for the
We
other, so that it is not advisable to have it too great.
may utilize this fact in obtaining more admission in the up
stroke of modern vertical engines we may cause it to correct
the inequality due to shortness of connecting rod.
practical
Links and rods never give an important overtone of

1.
It is always 2 to 1
frequency 3 to
In Sir F. Bramwell's gear the motion of the valve

to be
by the agency of spur wheels, caused

a?
= ! sin {qt -f Cj) + Oo sin {^qt
Draw a curve showing
this
a, = 1-15 inch,
P.
e^ =
-t-
e,)
(2).
motion when
47",
a._
'435,
e,
= 62.
13
is,
194
>A^
If the outside lap is 1 inch and there is no inside lap, find

the positions of the main crank when cut-off, release, cushionShow that this gear and any gear
ing and admission occur.
giving an overtone with an odd number of times the fundamental frequency, acts in the same way on both ends of the
cylinder.
123.
If
a?
= Oi cos (^1^ + i) -H 02 cos {q4 \- e^
q^^îrfi and
where
(3),
q^'îrf^,
there being two frequencies; this is not equivalent to one

S. H. motion.
Suppose a^ to be the greater. The graphical
method of study is best. We have two cranks of lengths a^
and tta rotating with different angular velocities, so that the
rotating with the average
effect is as if we had a crank
angular velocity of a^, but alternating between the lengths
always nearer a^s> position than Og's in
tti + tta and ai tta
fact, oscillating on the two sides of Oi's position.
If q^ is
nearly the same as q^ we have the interesting effect like
beats in music*.
Thus tones of pitches 100 and 101 produce 1 beat per

The analogous beats are very visible on an incandescent lamp when two alternating dynamo-electrical
machines are about to be coupled up together. Again, tides
of the sea^ except in long channels and bays, follow nearly
the s. H. law a^ is produced by the moon and a^ by the sun
second.
ai=2'la2, so that the height of a spring tide is to the

height of a neap tide as 3*1 to 1*1. The times oi full are
times of lunar full. The actual tide phase never differs more
than 0*95 lunar hour from lunar tide 095 lunar hour = 098
if
solar.
Periodic Function of the time is one which

124.
becomes the same in every particular (its actual value, its
rate of increase, &c.) after a time T.
This T is called the
* Analytically.
Take cos (^vf^t + eg) =co8
therefore
where
a;
r^
{îrf-J,
= r cos (2t/i + 6)
- 2t
(/^ -/2)f
= a-^ + a^ + 2aâ^ cos {27r (/^ -/g) t + Cj - Cg}
and the value of tan 6
is
easily vrritten out.
+ e^},
ROTATING MAONETTO FIELD.
195
and its reciprocal is called

the frequency.
Algebraically the definition of a periodic function is
periodic time
where n
is
any positive or negative
integer.
Fourier's Theorem can be proved to be true. It

any periodic function whose coraplete period is T
125.
states that
is ^tt\T or 27r/) is really equivalent to the sum of a

constant term and certain sine functions of the time
(and g
fif)
= ^0 + ^1 sin {qt + E^ + A^ sin {%qt + E^ +

^3 sin (3^'^ + '3) 4- &:c
(1).
In the same way, the note of any organ pipe or fiddle

string or other musical instrument consists of a fundamental
tone and its overtones.
(1) is really the same as
= ^0 + i sin 5^ + 61 cos qt + ag sin ^qt -f
/(^)
if
ar
+ &r = A^ and
126.
the law
tan
JS^^
is
cos Iqt
+ &c.,
&c. t
the direction x follows

Another in the
time.
at right angles to x, follows the law
varying magnetic
X = a sin qt
direction y, which
6.,
where
field in
is
Ya cos qt.
At any
instant the resultant field
is
R = VZmT^ = a = a constant
making with y the angle 6, where tan = F/X, or ^ = qt
Hence the effect produced is that we have a constant field
rotating with angular velocity q.
When
the
fields are
X = Oi sin (qt +
Cj)
and
F = aa sin (qt +
e^),
it is better to follow a graphical method of study.

The
resultant field is represented in amount and direction by the
radius vector of an ellipse, describing equal areas in equal
times.
Let OX and OY, fig. 69, be the two directions mentioned.

Let OAi in the direction OX = a^ With 0-4 as radius describe
.
132
196
Let YOO be the angle ei. Divide the circle into

equal parts starting at
and naming the points of
division 0, 1, 2, 3, &c.
Draw lines from these points parallel
to OY,
Let 0A in the direction
be ag. Describe a
circle with OA2 as radius.
Set off the angle X'OO'as e^ and
a
circle.
many
OF
divide this circle at 0', 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., into the same number

of parts as before.
Let lines be drawn from these points
parallel to OX, and where each meets the corresponding line
from the other circle we have a point whose radius vector
at any instant represents, in direction and magnitude, the
resultant magnetic field.
OX
OY
If
and
are not at right angles to one another,
the above instructions have still to be followed.
If we divide the circle OA2 into only half the number of
= Oj sin (qt + fi)
parts of OJ-i we have the combination of
and
F=
ttg
sin (2qt
4- 62).
= any periodic
If we wish to see the combination
function and
any other periodic function, let the curve
SINE CURVE.
197
from Mo to N^ show F, M^N^ being the whole periodic time and

let the curve from M^ to N^ show X, the vertical distance M^Ni
;
Fig. 70.
being the whole periodic time.
If Pi and Pj are points on the

two curves at identical times, let the horizontal line from P^
meet the vertical line from Pj in P. Then at that instant
OP represents the resultant field in direction and
magnitude.
on
Carry out this construction carefully. It has a bearing

of problems besides problems on rotating mag-
all sorts
netic fields.
127.
The area of a sine curve for a whole period or for
any number of whole periods is zero. This will be evident if
one draws the curve. By actual calculation; let s be an
integer and
g=
-,
2.
sin sqt.dt
r^
'
.-/cos.^P
cos sat
cos
0,
/;
because cos5 -^
Tor
cos s2it
.J,
Again,
=1
and cos
1.
^.
cos sqt .dt
^0
= sm sqt1
.0
J
1 /
27r,,,
because sin s~^
T= sin s27r =
and
sin
27r
0=0.
sin
)=..
198
If the ordinates of two sine curves be multiplied

128.
together to obtain the ordinate of a new curve the area of
for any period which is a multiple of each of their
it is
Thus if s and r are any integers
periods.
:
T
sin sqt
cos rqt dt
(1),
sin sqt
sin rqt. dt
(2),
cos sqt cos rqt dt
/,
.(3).
These ought to be tried carefully. '1st as Exercises in

2nd Graphically. The student cannot spend
Integration.
too much time on looking at these propositions from many
He ought to see very clearly why the
points of view.
answers are 0. The functions in (1) and (2) and (3) really
split up into single sine functions and the integral of each
such function is 0. Thus
2 sin sqt cos rqt
.
= sin
(s
+ r) ot 4- sin {s r) qt,
and by Art. 127, each of these has an area
0.
The
physical importance of the proposition is enormous.

= r the statements (2) and (3) are untrue, but (1)
continues true. For
/T
rT
sin^ sqt . dt = / cos^ sqt . dt = ^T
(4),
Now
if 5
Jo
.'o
whereas (1) becomes the integral of ^ sin 2sqt which is 0. (4)

ought to be worked at graphically as well as by mere integration.
Recollecting the trigonometrical fact that
cos2^
= 2cos2^-l
or 1
2 sin^
^,
and therefore that

cos^
qt=^ cos
the integration
method
129.
be
T.
is
2qt
+ i,
sin^
g'^
= J J cos
2qt,
easy and the student ought to use this
as well as the graphical method.
To illustrate the work graphically. Let 0C\ fig. 71,

Taking s = 2, the curve OPQRSC represents sin sqt

ELECTRICAL ILLUSTRATION.
Its
maximum and minimum
sin^^^^
is
fluctuates
always
between
and
and
Now note that

OP'Q^R^Sfi. It
average height is \ or
heights are
it
is
and
shown
its
199
1.
in
Fig. 71.
the area of the whole curve from

to (7 is ^T.
The fact
that the average value of sinsqt. x sinrqt is 0, but
that the average value of sin sqt x sin sqt is \, is one of
the most important in practical engineering "work.
Illustration in Electricity. An electric dynamocoils

one fixed, through which, let us suppose,
a current G flows the other moveable, with a current c. At
any instant the resultant force or couple is proportional to
Go and enables us to measure Gc. But if G and c vary
rapidly we get the average value of Gc.
Prof. Ayrton and
the author have carried out the following beautifully illustrative experiment.
They sent a current through the fixed
This was
coil which was approximately, G=Gq sin 27rft.
supplied by an alternating dynamo machine. Through the
other coil they sent a current, c = Co sin 2'nf't whose frequency
could be increased or diminished. It was very interesting to
note (to the average practical engineer it was uncanny,
unbelievable almost) that although great currents were
passing through the two coils, there was no average force
in fact there was no reading as one calls it in the laboratory.
Suppose / was 100 per second, /' was gradually increased
from say 10 to 20, to 30 to 40 to 49. Possibly about 49 to
130.
meter has two
;;
200
51 a vague and uncertain sort of action of one coil un the

other became visible, a thing not to be measured, but asf
increased the action ceased.
No action whatever as
became 60, 70, 80, 90, 97, 98, 99, but as

approached 100
there was no doubt whatever of the large average force
a reading could be taken and it represented according to the
usual scale of the instrument ^CqCo; when/' increased beyond
100 the force suddenly ceased and remained steadily
until
/' became 200 when there was a small force to be measured
again it ceased suddenly until /' became 300, and so on. We
know that if C and c had been true sine functions there
would have been absolutely no force except when the
frequencies were exactly equal.
In truth, however, the
octaves and higher harmonics were present and so there were
slight actions
when /and/' were
as 2 to 1 or 1
2 or 1
3,
&c.
This is an extremely important illustration for all electrical

engineers who have to deal with alternating currents of
electricity.
131. Exercise in Integration. C and c being alternating

currents of electricity. When G = Co sin qt and c = cv sin(qt e)
and these two currents flow through the two coils of an
electro-dynamometer, the instrument records ^ CoCo cos e as
this is the average value of the product Cc.
.
When G
G=
current
instrument records the average value of G^
^j
which we know
reading
~r^ Gq is
is
when
and c are the same, that is,

G^ sin (qt + e) passes through
to
G,'8m'{qt
be ^Gq^
usually called the
what
is
known
both
.
dt,
the same
coils, the
or
+ e).(lt
The square
effective
(1),
root of any such

current, so that
as the effective value of
V^
Effective current
Cô
sin qt
is defined as the square root of

of the current.
Thus when an electrical
engineer speaks of an alternating current of 100 amperes he
means that the effective current is 100 amperes or that
G= 141*4 sin {qt + a). Or the voltage 1000 means
mean square
t;
= 1414 sin (</^ + /3).
EFFECTIVE CUKRENTS.
What
Exercise.
tto
4-
is
the
effective
^1 sin {qt + ti)
201
value of
+ A.2 sin {^qt + 63) + &;c.
Notice that only the squares of terms have an average

during a
any other product being
value, the integral of
Answer:
complete period.
\/ a^ -^
^{A-^ -{-A.^ -{ kc).
Observe the small importance of small overtones.

If V
we
shall see
for
what
called
q=
(sin qt
+ J sin ^qt + i sin aqt &c.).
from Art. 135 that this
is
(2),
the Fourier expression
shown in the curve (fig. 72) the distance OM being

Vq and the distance OQ being the periodic time T, where
is
27r
rp
s-i^d
is
measured upwards from the
line
OQ.
Fig. 72.
The
effective
Again in
fig.
73,
^^ Vl + * + ^V + ,V +
where
(sin qt
IT'
PM =
Vq
and
&<=.
(3).
OQ = T,
^ sin Sqt + ^ sin 5qt &c.)
. .
.(4).
Fig. 73.
The
effective
?;
= -";. VI
+-J^
^ + &c
(5).
Again note the small importance of everything except

the fundamental term.
202
If
Exercise.
C=Go-{-A^smqt-\- B^ cos qt
4-
and
c
^2
sin 2qt
+ B^ cos 2qt + <fec
((3),
if
= Co + ! sin qt 4- 6i cos + aa sin 2^'^ 4- h^ cos 2^^ + &c.

G^c^ + J (îtti 4- BJ)^ 4- ^./ta + BJ)^ + &c.).
g'<
Average Cc =
It will
be seen that there are no terms like
Let
. .
.(7).
.(8).
or A.^^,
A.]),^
AB and BG be
parts of an electric circuit.

In
let the resistance be
yj^^
-- ->, ^j^^ j^^ there be no self-in--^^duction.
In
let the re^vsAAAAAAAAA/Tfnrinnpnnr-*^
^
^
^ i '
^
sistance be r and let there be
T,^'^' ^^self-induction Z. If 0= Co sin î
is the current passing.
Let Vab &c. represent the voltage
132.
AB
BG
between the points A and B, &c.

voltage between A and B.
Vab =
-^C'o sin qt,
Vbc =
Go Vr 4-
Vac =
Co \/(i24-r)2
F..=
-î2C,
ly sin
^^^
Let
+ tan-^ -^')
4-?Y sin
F..=
V^c
is
(^ 4- tan"^
effective
see Art. 118,
^^-)
i^^^V^+>'
Fô=-^(i2 + r)Ooyi4Observe that
F^ mean the
^'^'
alTvays less than Vj^^
4-
Vbc^ or
the effective voltage between A and C is always less

than the sum of the effective voltages between A and
and between
and C.
Thus take
Co =141*4, jR=l, ?'=1, lq=l, and

a fact that sometimes puzzles electrical engineers.
in
illustrate
Rule for developing any arbitrary function

133.
a Fourier Series.
-|*The function may be represented as in fig. 75, P^ repre-
sents the value of
y at the time
which
is
represented by
FOURIER ANALYSIS.
00
OE,
curve
is
203
At G the
represents the whole periodic time T.
(Instead of using the letter
itself.
about to repeat
^^""^^^
|\
E
'
>
Fig. 75.
We
have functions which are

t we may use x or any other.
periodic with respect to space for example.)
Assume that y
can be developed as
yâ^^-ai
sin qt
sin 2qt +
cos 2qt
+ hi cos qt
+ as sin 3^^ + 63 cos ^qt 4- &c.
-}- a.^
h.^
. .
.(1),
27r
where
from the results given in Art. 127 that a^

or the average
value of y.
This can be found as one finds the average
height of an indicator diagram.
Carry a planimeter point
from
to FPHGCO, and divide the whole area thus found by
OC. If we have not drawn the curve if we have been given
say 36 equidistant values of y, add up and divide by 36.
The reason is this; the area of the whole curve, or the
integral of y between the limits
and T, is a^T, because
the integi'al of any other term such as Wi sin qt or 63 cos Sqt
is 0.
In fact
It is evident
is
the average height of the curve,
rT
rT
sin sqt .dt or
J
if s is
tti
from
an
cos sqt
dt
is 0,
.'0
integer.
twice the average height of the curve which results

multiplying the ordi nates y by the corresponding
is
204
ordinate of sin^^;
and integrate from
for,
multiply (1)
to T,
rT
rr
y.sinqt.dt==0-\-aij ain' qt,dt
all
across by sinqt,
Art. 128
and we have by
-^-O -\-0
+ &i}c,=âiT...{l);
Jo
Jo
dividing by
evidently Oi.
gives the average value, and twice this

Similarly
is
rT
y.coaqt,dt-=^b/r
(2).
.0
In fact, by the principles of Ai't. 128, a.^ and bs are twice

the average values of y sin sqt and y cos sqt^ or
.
2 f^
^^=^t/ y. sin sqt, dt
(3).
dt
i
.'
In the Electrician newspaper of Feb. 5th, 1892, the

134.
author gave clear instructions for carrying out this process
numerically Avhen 36 numbers are given as equidistant
values of
y.
In the same paper of June 28th, 1895, the author described a graphical method of finding the coefficients.
graphical method is particularly recommended for developing any arbitrary function.
The
Students who refer to the original paper will notice

that the abscissae are very quickly obtained and the curves
drawn.
In this particular case we consider the original curve

showing y and time, to be wrapped round a circular cylinder
whose circumference is the periodic time. The curve is projected upon a diametral plane passing through ^ = 0.
Twice
the area of the projection divided by the circumference of
the cylinder is di. Projected upon a plane at right angles to
When the curve is
the first, we get bi in the same way.
wrapped round s times instead of once, and projected on
the two diametral planes, twice the areas of each of the
FOURIER ANALYSIS.
two projections divided by
cylinder give cig and hg*
205
times the circumference of the
Prof Hem'ici's Analyzers, described in the Proceedings

of the Physical Society, give the coefficients rapidly and
accurately.
The method of Mr Wedmore, published in the
Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, March 1896,
seems to me very rapid when a column of numbers is given as
equidistant values of
y,
When
a periodic function is graphically represented

like fig. 72 or fig. 73 we may obtain the
direct integration.
Thus in fig. 76, the
Electrician's Make and Break Curve:
135.
by straight lines
development by
w
Q
P
Fig. 76.
y=OA,
y
from
= iT or OP,
Evidently
as
2
= 7w
ao
= Vo,
a,
is
= OP =îT;
t==T or OQ.
ri^
2 r*^
2i'o
sin sqt
dt,
T [hT
27r
"^=-T-25;^Lr'- r^
The method
= -^;
4i;o
to
to
277
5'
fi^
I
t-
or 2^0 say, from
based upon
h = jp\
,
2vq cos sqt
4t;o
(cos sqt)
=-
V^T
dt.
27r
this, that
= ^\y.m.nsqt.dt = -^\y.d
/ 1/
^ (cos sqt).
Drawing a complete curve of which y (at the time t) is the ordinate and
COB sqt is the abscissa, we see that its area as taken by a Planimeter
divided by sir gives a^ . This graphical method of working is made use of
in developing arbitrary functions in series of other normal forms than sines
and cosines, such as Spherical Zonal Harmonics and Bessels.
By
the above method

'
^'=hfy'
d (sin sqt).
206
2^0
ii
if is
2vo /
cos 0) =
...
(cos SIT
aii=
\- 2
if
.9
is
ij
if s IS
even\
odd
odd,
Sir
2v,
ha=^ (sin sir - sin 0) = 0.

STT
Hence the function shown

y = Vf,+ --
(sin at
in
fig.
\ sin Zqt
IT
76 becomes
+ J sin ^qt + &c.)
(1).
Fig. 77.
(fig. 76), as in
and
If the origin is half-way between
77, so that instead of what the electricians call a make
and break we have Vq constant for half a period, then Vq
for the next half period, that is, reversals of y every half
fig.
period,
we merely subtract
y
v^,
then
^ (sin qt-\-l sin ^qt + i sin oqt + &c.)
Let the origin be half-way between

of (1) being put equal to a new t-\-\T,
sin sqt
where
sin s
or
-^
where 5=1,
s is odd,
= 3,
5,
= vo +
(cos
.(2).
70; the
fig.
sin sq {t -f \T),
(t-\-^T) or sin Uqti-s'^],

9,
7, 11,
and consequently with the

and P,
becomes
and P,
. .
13 &c. this becomes

15 &c.
cos sqt,
cos sqty
origin at a point half-Avay
between
qt-^ cos Sqt + i cos Sqt - 1 cos Iqt + &c.).
FOURIER ANALYSIS.
207
To represent a periodic function of x for all values

136.
of X it is necessary to have series of terms each of Tvhich
The Fourier series is the
is itself a periodic function.
simplest of these.
If the values of y, a function of x, be given for all
137.
values of x between a; =
and x c\y can be expanded in a
series of sines only or a series of cosines only.
Here
we regard the given part as only half of a complete periodic
function and we are not concerned with what the series
represents when x is less than
or greater than c.
In
the previous case y was completely represented for all
values of the variable.
I.
Assume y = ai sin qx + a^ sin 2qx + &c. where q = tt/c.
Multiply by însqx and integrate between the limits
and c. It will be found that all the terms disappear except
as
sqx dx which
sin'^
is Jac,
so that a^ is twice the average
/,
value oiy,îxisqx.
Thus
let
y be a constant m, then
/'
2m p
m sm sqx .dx=
,
C /a
(cos 57r
csq^
cos sox
esq Lo
^ _
1
'
=
m=^
Hence
II.
is
s IS odd,
II
SIT
(sin qx-\-\ sin
if s is
Zqx
even.
\ sin hqx
+ &c.)*.
Assume y = 6o + &i cos 5-5; + &2 cos 2^-^ + &c. Here 60

mean value of y from a? = to a; = c. In the
evidently the
* Exercise.
Develope
ymx
from a;=0 to .r=c in a
series of sines.
mx a^ sin qx + a^ sin ^qx + Ac, where = g-
8 IS
For
mx sm sgâ; = -gî"
.
Hence
'=
~ *5^ ^^^
^^^ ^^^
this integral refer to (70)
page 365.
2mc f
IT
1
27r
1
sin-a;--8in
a;+-sin
TT
c
2
c
6
\
.
-""/^
Stt
x-
&c.
\
j.

208
same way as before we can prove that

vakie of
138.
circuit.
t/
hg is
twice the average
cos sqx*.
In Art. 118 we gave the equation for an electric

The evanescent term comes in as before but we shall
neglect it. Observe that if

is not a simple sine function of
t, but a complicated periodic function, each term of it gives
rise to a term in the current, of the same period.
Thus if
F=Fo + SF,8in(5^^ +
R
If
Lq
\IB?
+ XV^2
(1),
very large compared with
is
6')'^
R we
may
take
^^^
^î-Îsq''''^^''^^^''^
Thus, taking the make and break curve
for V, fig. 76,
4F
F=F+
\Hmqt-\\sm^t^&c.)
(4),
TT
V 2VT
^=^^^ (ôs qt-hi cos 3^^ + ^ cos 5qt + &c.)
which
is
shown by the curve of fig.
being at
73,
. .
.(5),
T
j
When electric power is supplied to a house or

139.
contrivance, the power in watts is the average value of CV
where G is current in amperes and
the voltage.
Thus
let
^ ,
find
y=ma? between x=0 and x = c.

tmr
4wt /
y~~o
cos9a;
+ -co8 3gx
Evidently bQ=^mc, and we
1m
+
2^cos5gar + <S:c.
\
.
There are many other normal forms in which an arbitrary function of

X may be developed. Again, even of sines or cosines there are other forma
than those given above. For example, if we wish generally to develope y a
function of x between
and c as y = Sa^ sin a^x by the Fourier method, the
essential principle of
are different
Fourier series
which
is
sin
we must have o and o-,

s is oo
a,j.T
sina^-r
roots of
^.
and n
rfa;=0,
where
- =a.
In the ordinary
ALTERNATING CURRENT POWER.

Let
209
F= Fo sin qt and 00^ sin

P = \GqVq cos ef, or half the product
e).
(g'^
Then
of the amplitudes multiplied by the cosine of the lag. When the power
is measured by passing G through one coil of a dynamometer
to send a current c through the other coil, if
and allowing
this coil's resistance is r and self-induction I
c= ,^'
What
is
really
sinfg^-tan-^^)
measured therefore
of Gc, or
i
i
=:
COS
v/r2 4- pQ"^
is
(6).
the average value
tan^
rj
Usually in these special instruments, large non-inductive

resistances are included in the fine wire circuit and we may
take it that Iq is so small in comparison with r that its square
may be neglected. If so, then
apparent power
cos le
true power
Observe that tan~^

apparent power
-E-f
true power
Now
sight
it
nearly
tan~^~)
rJ
cos e
is
a very small angle, call
it a,
= cos e cos a + sin e sin a = cos a -H sm a
tan
e.
cos e
is practically 1, and sin a is small, and at first

might seem that we might take the answer as
cos a
1.
But if e is nearly 90 its tangent may be exceedingly

large and the apparent power may be much greater
than the true po'virer.
It is seldom however that e approaches 90 unless in coils
of great diameter with no iron present, and precautions taken
to avoid eddy currents.
Even when giving power to a
choking coil or unloaded transformer, the effect of hysteresis
is to cause e not to exceed 74.
140.
True Power Meter.
wound together
P.
Let
EG
and
GD
as the fixed part of a dynamometer,
be
coils
and
14
let
210
DB
be the moveable
The current C + o
coil.
passes from
Part of it c goes along the

non-inductive resistance GF which.
has a resistance R. The part G
and
to B and
flows from G to
through the house or contrivance.
The instantaneous value of Rc.C
is the instantaneous power.
to G.
<c
<#^c _.^
The
coils
EG and GD are
fully adjusted so that
when
carec
and the currents are continuous

currents, there shall be no deflecHence the combined action
tion of the moveable coil DB.
of C + c in EG and of C in GD upon C in DB is force
or torque proportional to cG, and hence the reading of the
Fig. 78.
With varying
is proportional to the power.
currents also there will be no deflection if there is no metal
near capable of forming induced currents.
instrument
The student ought
141.
to get accustomed to translating

into ordinary language such a statement as
Having done so, consider a
(1) of Art. 119.
lb.* hanging from a spring whose
mass of
stiffness is such that a force of 1 lb. elongates
is at
it h feet. If there is vibration ; when
-rB
the level CO, fig. 79, a? feet below (we imagine
-0
Fig. 79.
it moving downwards) its position of equilibrium 00, the force urging it to the position
of equilibrium is x-^h pounds, and as the
moving mass
is
W (neglect
spring itself or consider one-third of

moving body),
it
the mass of the
as being added to the
W X the acceleration = Xrh

.
The
*
of
it
xo
acceleration
= -t4t
The
acceleration
is
The name
lb. is the weight of a certain quantity of stuff
in Engineers' units is W-i-S2'2.
then pro;
the inertia
MECHANICAL VIBRATION.
portional to x,
stands for
shows the law connecting
a)
Notice carefully that the
(2)
body
is
in (1) of Art. 119,
g--
and
and t
sign in (1) is correct.
The
is increasing, so that doo/dt
moving downwards and x
is positive.
its
and our
211
But
motion as
a)
-j is negative, the
in
increases.
Imagine the body
142.
body getting slower
to
be retarded by a force which

die
is
as
proportional to
J acts, that
its velocity,
is
or b
-r.
Observe that this acts
upwards, towards the position of equi-
librium.
Hence we may write
Wd^x
dx X
Jdi^^^di-^h'^^
We
this
shall presently see
damped
(^>-
what law now connects x and
in
vibration.
Suppose that in the last exercise, when the body is

143.
is also y feet
displaced x feet downwards, its point of support
below its old position. The spring is really only elongated
by the amount xy, and the restoring
force is
7-^
Con-
sequently (1) ought to be
x_y
Wd'x
dx
drh'h
dt'^^
^^^'
Now imagine that the motion y is given as a function of

the time, and we are asked to find a; as a function of the time.
y gives rise to what we call a forced vibration. If 2/ =
we have the natural vibrations only.
We give
not for the purpose of solving it just now,

not difficult, but for the purpose of familiarizing the student with differential equations and inducing
him to translate them into ordinary language.
although
this,
it is
142
212
Notice that if the angular distance of a rigid body

of equilibrium is 0, if / is its moment of
inertia about an axis through the centre of gravity, if H6 is
the sum of the moments of the forces of control about the
144.
from
its position
in
same
axis,
and
if jP vr
the
is
moment
of frictional forces
at
which are proportional to velocity,
4'+^!+^^=^^'
<'^)'
the forced angular displacement of the case to which

the springs or other controlling devices are attached.
if B' is
145.
The following
is
a specially good example. Referring
we hud CR, the voltage in

the circuit, connecting the coatings of the condenser. If we
take into account self-induction L in this circuit, then the
voltage V is
back to Example
1 of Art. 98,
^C' +
ii =
w-
''
We
may even go further and say that if there is an

alternator in the circuit, whose electromotive force is e at any
instant (e, if a constant electromotive force would oppose G
as shown in the figure)
RG + L^ = v-e
But we saw that the current G =^
Using
this value of
in (5)
K-jj
is
we
t;
imagine that e
are asked to find
e gives rise to
(6).
we get
LK^ + RK^+v =
Kow
(5).
(7).
given as a function of the time

as a function of the time.
what we
in the system.
If e
of the system.
Having
a forced vibratory current

vibrations only
(6) gives us (7.
call
we have the natural

v,
and

FORCED VIBRATIONS.
218
If (7) is compared with (2) or (3) we see at once

146.
the analogy between a vibrating mechanical system
and an
electrical one.
They may be put
W d^x
..dx
^f
^S+^S+^=i'E^-*'^-i
W corresponds with self-induction L.
The mass
The
(^)-
friction
per foot per second
&,
corresponds with the
resistance R.
The displacement x, corresponds with voltage v, or to be

seemingly more accurate, v is Q the electric displacement
divided by K.
The want of stiffness of the spring h con-esponds with

capacity of condenser K.
The
forced displacement
an alternator.!
y corresponds with the
forced
E.M.F. of
The complete solution of (8) or (9), that is, the

147.
expression of x or i; as a function of t, will be found to
include:
(1)
The
This
is
solution if i/ or e were 0.
the natural vibration of the system, which dies
away at a rate which depends upon the mechanical friction
in the one case and the electrical friction or resistance in the
We shall take up, later, the study of this vibraought to be evident without explanation, that if y
0, we have a statement of what occurs when the
other case.
It
tion.
or e
is
system
is left
(2)
only.
The
The sum
to itself
solution which gives the
of these two
is
forced vibrations
evidently the complete answer.!
Forced Vibration.
148.
As the Mechanical and
Electrical cases are analogous, let us study that one about
CALCULUS FOn ENGINEERS.
214
most easy to make a mental picture, the mechanical

assume no friction and neglect
the natural vibrations, which are however only negligible
when there is some friction. Then (8) becomes
which
it is
case.
We shall in the first place
<i*^>-
dt?^wi.'my
Let y = a sin qt be a motion given to the point of support

of the spiral spring which carries
y may be any compli;
cated periodic function, we consider one term of it.
We
be
know tha t
= 6 sin
a;
4/
y were
if
^-jj
+ ^^^
0,
the natural vibration would
where h and
might have any
It is simpler to use n"^ for glWh as

values whatsoever.
we have to extract its square root, n is 27r times the
frequency of the natural vibrations of W.
had better
write the equation as
We
Now
try
there
if
is
= n^y = n-a sin qt
-f i^^x
a solution,
00
=A
since ,-
= Aq- sin qt Bq^ cos qt
of sinqt
and
A =
n^
We
also those of cosqt,
and
q^
see that
Bq^
= 0,
^ + ii^B
we have the
r,in
(11).
qt
+ B cos qt
If so,
equating the coefficients
Aq- -[ nÂ = nâ,
so that
B=
so that
unless n
= q,
*
solution
(12)-
^^n^Zrjf^'^'i^
This shows that there is a forced vibration of

which is
synchronous with the motion of the point of support
its
;
amplitude being
Now
times that of the point of support.
take a few numbers to illustrate this answer. Let a
= 1,
" be great or small. Thus ^ = -X means that the forced

^^
^
n
n
frequency is one tenth of the natural frequency.
let
FORCED VIBRATIONS.
?
n
Amplitude of
's motion
'/
j
215
Amplitude
JF's motion
101
1^33:3
1^01
-50
2^778
5^263
1-03
-16^4
1^1
98
1026
1692
2525
99
50^25
95
97
15
20
50
100
4-762
- 0-8
- 0-333
- 0042
- 0010
Note that when the forced frequency is a small fraction

of the natural frequency, the forced vibration of TT is a
faithful copy of the motion of the point of support
the
;
spring and
move like a rigid body. When the forced is
increased in frequency the motion of TT is a faithflil magnification of B's motion. As the forced gets nearly equal to the
is an enormous magnification
natural, the motion of
of B's motion.
There is always some friction and hence the
amplitude of the, vibration cannot become infinite. When
the forced frequency is greater than the natural,
is always
a half-period behind B, being at the top of its path when
is at the bottom.
When the forced is many times the
natural, the motion of
gets to be very small it is nearly
at rest.
Men who design Earthquake recorders try to find a

steady point which does not move when everything else is
moving. For up and down motion, observe that in the last
case just mentioned,
is like a steady point.
When
the forced and natural frequencies are nearly equal,

we have the state of things which gives rise to resonance
in acoustic instruments which causes us to fear for suspension bridges or rolling ships.
could easily give twenty
interesting examples of important ways in which the above
principle enters into engineering problems.
The student
may now work out the electrical analogue for himself and
study Hertz' vibrations.
;
We
149.
Steam
engine
motion of the pencil
is
Indicator
vibration.
The
to faithfully record the force of
216
the steam on the piston at every instant this means that

the natural vibrations of the instrument shall be very quickly
destroyed by friction. Any friction as of solids on solids will
cause errors.
Indeed it is easy to see that solid friction
causes diagrams to be always larger than they ought to be.
Practically we find that if the natural frequency of the
instrument is about 20 times that of the engine, the diagram
shows few ripples due to the natural vibrations of the indicator.
If the natural frequency is only 10 times that of the
engine, the diagram is so upset as to be useless.
;
'
The frequency
'
F at the end of a spring whose
of a mass
if
yieldingness
We shall
of a
is hy
see Art. 141,
is
^ ^gj Wh, neglecting
consider friction in Art. 1 GO.
mechanism
by a spring
.9,
is
a mass
the displacement of
if
w
of
of the end of the spring

any ordinary indicator) is 1 imagine
;
we have
w
s^
a mass
Thus the frequency
the spring.
and
when the displacement
(really the piston, in
that instead
frequency
what we have in an indicator, controlled

Answer If at any point of the indicator
like
mechanism there
this point is
What is the
friction.
is
at the end of
9
^ a/ hXsHv'
^
To
shown in fig. 80 GAB is

a massless lever, hinged at 0, with
the weight
at B. The massless
spring is applied at A.
illustrate this, take the case
Se
When A is displaced downwards
from equilibrium through the
)
îg- 80.
ment
to
tance
X
is
-r
x,
The angular displacement of
the lever, clockwise,
of Inertia x angular acceleration,
moment
of force.
dis-
the extra pull in the spring
is
The Moment of
is
j-j
UA
Mo-
numerically equal
Inertia
is
W OB^,
9
VIBRATION INDICATOR.
The angular
that
acceleration
is
yr-j
217
where x stands
for
-^
so
-0i?^;^ + 7. 0^ = 0,
OA
^+^.^.^ =
And
OR
yya
^^
what we
called
5,
0.
so that
W when W was hung directly
of our old
s^W
fronri
takes the place
the spring.
Vibration Indicator.
150.
Fig. 81 shows an instrument which has been used for indicating quick vertical
vibration of the ground.
Fig. 81.
The mass
GPQ
friction wheels.
line
with
is
The
and
Q.
supported at
by a knife edge, or by
centre of gravity G is in a horizontal
Let
FG=a,
GQ=:h,
PQ = a+b=l
The vertical spring AR and thread BQ support the body at

Q. As a matter of fact AR is an Ayrton-Perry spring, which
shows by the rotation of the pointer R, the relative motion of
A and Q; let us neglect its inertia now, and consider that
the pointer faithfully records relative motion of A and Q.
It would shorten the work to only consider the forces at P
and Q in excess of what they are when in equilibrium, but for
clearness
we
When
shall take the total forces.
a body gets motion in any direction parallel to

the plane of the paper, we get one equation by stating
that the resultant force is equal (numerically)
to the mass multiplied by the linear acceleration
of the centre of gravity in the direction of the
resultant force.
We get another equation by stating
218
moment of force about an axis

at right angles to the paper through the centre of
gravity is equal to the angular acceleration, multiplied by moment of inertia about this axis through
the centre of gravity. I shall use x, x and ic to mean
that the resultant
fj
displacement, velocity and acceleration, or
IT
Cm
nf*
x, -j-
and
-v-
Let P and A get a displacement x^ downward. Let Q

be displaced x downward. Let the pull in the spring be
Q = Qq-\- c{x Xi) where c is a known constant (c is the
Let
be the weight
reciprocal of the h used in Art. 141).
Then if Pq and Qo be the upward forces at the
of the body.
points marked P and Q when in the position of equilibrium,
Q(a
+ Z>)= Wa
bW
J,
Hence
and
ô
= ^^^,
Qo
Po+Qo=
=
W.
aW
^-7-^
(1),
Q=Qo + c{x-x,).
Now G
is
displaced
^
downwards
=-
a+6
Xi H
a+b
so that
x,
W-P-Q='^{b-, + aB]^^
The body has an angular displacement
X - X
amount
centre of mass, of the am<
r
(2).
clockwise about
So that
if
is
its
its
a-{-b
moment
of inertia about
--Qb
Hence
(2)
and
/ = Mk^ where k
(3)
is
+ Pa = ^^^^^(x-x,)
give
us, if
stands
(3).
for
the radius of gyration about G,
and
if
VIBRATION INDICATOR.
If ki
219
the radius of gyration about P,
is
we
find that (4)
simplifies to
if
n stands
for 1
r-2
for
[^
tta/ ir?=
Call X
^tt
Xihy
x natural frequency, and e^ stands

the letter y because
it is
really
that an observer will note, if the framework and room and

Then 2^ y = x XiOv x = y-\-Xx
observer have the motion x^.
So that
+ Xi-\- n^ (y + ^'i) = ^Xi 4- n^Xi

y + n^y = (^-l)xj_
y+
or
Let
Xj^
w'2/
(5),
+ pî = ^
(6)-
= A sin qt.
We
are neglecting friction for ease in understanding our

results, and yet we are assuming that there is enough
friction to destroy the natural vibration of the body.
We find that
if
we assume y =
al
([-
a sin
qt,
then
That is, the apparent motion y (and this is what the

or a light
pointer of an Ayrton- Perry spring will show
mirror may be used to throw a spot of light upon a screen),
;
is T-
A-j*
q^^
-r^
n^
times the actual motion of the framework and
room and observer. If q is large compared with n, for

example if q is always more than five times n, we may take
it
that the apparent motion
is
independent of frequency.
whatever (whose
is y-^
times the real motion and
Hence any
periodic motion
periodic time is less say than Jth of the
periodic time of the apparatus) will
be faithfUlly indi-
cated.
Note that if al ~ Tc^ so that Q is what is called the point

of percussion, Q is a motionless or steady point. But in
practice, the instrument is very much like what is shown in
*
'
220
the figure, and
the same kind
Q is by no means a steady point. Apparatus of

may be used for East and West and also for
North and South motions.
Any
151.
or -^
equation containing
or any other
said to be a " Difierential

is
be found that differential equations
contain laws in their most general form.
coefficients
differential
Equation/'
Thus
means
It
if o) is
d^x
that ,-
will
linear space
and
time, the statement -f^
^^
.
,
(the acceleration), does not alter.
It is the
most general expression of uniformly accelerated motion.
When we
integrate and get
-7^=
ci,
we have introduced
the more definite statement that the constant accelei-ation

known to be a. When we integrate again and get
is
dx
^ = at +
we are more
when ^ = 0.
When we
we
state that
definite
still,
for
we
h,
say that h
is
the velocity
integrate again and get
=c
X = âf -i-bt-^-c,
when ^ = 0.
will be better seen, that many of our great

general laws are wrapped up in a simple looking expression
in the shape of a differential equation, and it is of enormous
importance that when the student sees such an equation he
should translate it into ordinary language.
Later on,
152.
An
it
equation like
g-^S-2-^l-^=^
are functions of x only, or constants, is

Py Q, R, S and
said to be a linear differential equation.
if
Most of our work in mechanical and electrical engineering

leads to linear equations in which P, Q, &c., are all constant
with the exception of X. Thus note (8) and (9) of Art. 146.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
221
Later, we shall see that in certain cases we can find the

is
that is, that the solucomplete solution of (1) when
Now suppose
tion found will include every possible answer.
shall see that it will include four
this to be y =/(*').
We
arbitrary constants, because

coefficient in (1),
we can guess
and we
^^
is
the highest differential
shall prove that
at one solution,
and we
if,
call it
when
y= F
not
then
is
(os),
0,
j,=f{x) + F(x)
We
a solution of (1).
the complete solution of
is
shall find in
Chap.
III. that this is
(1).
In the remainder of this chapter we shall only consider

P, Q, &c., as constant let us say
;
where A,
We
da^^^d^^^d^^^dx^^y-^
B, G, E are constants and Xis a function o{
Taking the very simplest equation
J-y = o
the solution, where
154.
we
like (3).
Let
W'
obvious (see Art. 97) that
y
is
a;.
often write (2) in the form
153.
it is
^^^'
Now
is
= Me^''
any constant whatsoever.
^-'.y =
taking
(5)
(6),
see by actual trial that

2/
is the solution,
But
if
where
we take
= if* + i\r6-^
(7)
M and N are any constants whatsoever.

^^n^y =
(8),
222
we
see that as the a of (6)
is like
ni in (8) if i
means
V 1,
then
y =: Me''^ -\- Ne-""^

is
the sohition of
If
(8).
we
try
(9)
whether this is the case, by

behaves like a real quantity
assuming that i
and of course i^ = 1, i^ = i, i* = l, {^ = i, &c., we find that
it is so.
But what meaning are we to attach to such an
answer as (9) ? By guessing and probably also through redifFerentiat.Ton,
collection of curious analogies such as we describe in Art. 106,

trial, we find that this is the complete solution also,
and by
As
and
Mi sin tix + N^ cos nx
(10).
both complete solutions (Ai-t. 152) because they both contain two arbitrary constants which may be
unreal or not, we always consider an answer like (9) to be the
same as (10), and the student will find it an excellent exercise
to convert the form (10) into the form (9) by the exponential
forms of sinew; and coscu?, Art. 106, recollecting that the
arbitrary constants may be real or unreal.
Besides, it is important for the engineer to make a practical use of those
quantities which the mathematicians have called unreal,
(10)
155.
(9) are
Going back now
X = O, we try
if
2/
more general form (3) when

a solution, and we see that it is
to the
= Me'^
is
so if
,
m^
+ Am^
Bni"
-\-
-{
Gm-\-
E=^
(1).
This is usually called the auxiliary equation. Find the

four roots of it, that is, the four values of
which satisfy it,
and if these are called 7?ii, "nfi^y Wg, m^, we have
as the complete solution of (3) when

any arbitrary constants whatsoever.
156.
if
Thus
X = 0;
M^,
to solve
we assume y =
e*"*,
?M^
we
find that
oiit^ -f
om^
m must satisfy
om 6 = 0.
&c.,
being
223
= l is a root; dividing by
guessing we find that
l is a root
and again guessing, we find that
again dividing by
+ 1 we are left with a quadratic expres 2 and
= 3 are the
sion, and we soon see that
By
m1
remaining
m=
i/s) &c.,
il/i,
being any constants
Now an equation like (1) may have an unreal root like
157.
7ii,
Hence
roots.
is the complete solution,

whatsoever.
7n
m=
where
J 1,
written for
t is
and
if so,
we know from
algebra, that these unreal roots go in pairs ; when there is

one like
+ ni there is another like ni ni. The corre-
sponding answers for y are
y
or
M ('"~"^' ^ 4- N 6 <"*+*"^ *
e"*^ {ii-^'^ + iVi+"'*),
and we see from (10) that
where
M and
158.
happen
to
iV"
may be
this
written
N cos nx],
y=
e"**
are
any constants whatsoever.
{31 sin
nx +
Suppose that two roots m of the auxiliary equation,

be equal, there is no use in writing
because this only amounts to (M^ + M,^) e*"^ or ife**^ where

is an arbitrary constant, whereas the general answer must
have two arbitrary constants. In this case we adopt an
artifice
we assume that the two roots are
and 7n + h and
we imagine h to get smaller and smaller without limit
=
but by Art. 97, e^
therefore y
Now
e"'^
=1+
(Ml
/Â-
-H ifê^^^),
^ + j^3
= e"^^ (m^ + M^ + MJiw + M^
let i/2^
be called
N and
4- &c.,
^ + ^c)
imagine h to get smaller
224
and smaller, and M2 to get larger and larger, so that MJi may
be of any required value we please, say N, and also
as h gets smaller
and smaller without
limit
we
find
If this reasoning does not satisfy the reader, he is to

test our answer and we always find it
remember that we can

to be correct.
way
that we are led to the folthe solving of a linear differential

equation with constant coefficients. Let the equation be
159.
It
in
is
this
lowing general rule
for
fl + A^^+Bf;^, + S^. +G^^ +

Form
%=
0...(1).
the auxiliary equation

m**
+ ^m^-i + ^m'*-^ + &c. + Gm + iT = 0.
The complete value of y will be expressed by a series of

terms
For each real distinct value of m, call it a, there will
exist a term Mie*'*'; for each pair of imaginary values a^ ySgi,
a term
:
6*^ (ilfa
sin
^^ + iVs cos ^.^)
each of the coefficients M^y M^, N2 being an arbitrary

constant if the corresponding root occurs only once, but a
polynomial of the r 1th degree with arbitrary constant
coefficients if the root occur r times.
Ea^rcue.
g+ 12^ + 66 f|+ 206 g

dx^
dx*
aa:^
do(?
+ 345^ + 234y = 0.
Forming the
auxiliary equation, I find
by guessing and
trying, that the five roots are
3,
- 3, - 2, - 2 + 3i, - 2 - 3i.
Consequently the answer
= (ifi
+ N^x) -^
is
+ Mê-"^ + -^ (i/g sin Sx + N, cos 3^).
NATURAL VIBRATIONS.
Exercise.
Integrate ^t^
1.
Answer
Answer
Here
= e^
{A sin ^x + B cos 3^j.

9, =
= (^ + 5i) e~^.
- Ib^m + 169 = 0, and
627?t2
The
found to be a perfect square.

equation will be found to be
3
Hence the
y
We
6^*
shall
0.
g-l^g + esg- lo6|+ 169, =
- 12m^ +
vv'
0.
y= A^+ Bg^.
g + 6| +
Answer
Integrate
Integrate
- 4 ^ 4- 3y =
g-loJ+34y = 0.
lutegrate
3.
225
solution
{(^1
2i,
2'i,
- 1i,
0.
this will be
roots of the auxiliary
2i
is
+ B^x) sin 2*- + (^2 + BrO)) cos 2^j.
now take an example which has an important
physical meaning.
Natural Vibrations.
Example.
160. We had in Art. 146, a mechanical system vibrating

with one degree of fi-eedom, and we saw that it was analogous
with the surging going on in an Electric system consisting of a
condenser, and a coil with resistance and self-induction. We
neglected the friction in the mechanical, and the resistance
in the electric problem.
We shall now study their natural
vibrations, and we choose the mechanical problem as before.
If a weight of TTlb. hung at the end of a spring which
elongates
motion by
feet for a force of x -^Ji lb., is resisted in its

friction equal to 6 x velocity, then wc had (8) of
Art. 146, or
IL^ h^ --0
d^x
-rfF
i\
hq dx
xq
+ F-rf*+m =
,^.
*^
(!>
15
^26
Let ^^ be called 2/ and
-^ =
let
?i=
(1)
becomes
5+2/.J + n'. =
Forming the
auxiliary equation
we
(2).
find the roots to be
We
have different kinds of answers depending upon the

must be given sufficient information
and n.
values of
about the motion to be able to calculate the arbitrary conthe body is at w =
I will assume that when t ia
stants.
and is moving with the velocity Vq.
We
Let
I.
and
- 13.
/ be
IL
IIL
Let /be equal to
IV.
Let/= 0,
Let /be
Then according
In Case
and
^
greater than n, and let the roots be
if
we
= 0, we
terms of
I,
less
n,
than
the roots are
n,
and
the roots are
let
/and
a
the roots be
bi.
ni.
to our rule of Art. 159,
our answer
are told that
can calculate
is
when
and
<
and so
dos
H=
when
and
-y;
find
x exactly
Vo
in
In Case
II,
In Case
III,
our answer
is
our answer
X=
-*
{A
In Case IV, our answer
is
sin
U + B cos U]
is
A^mnt'\- B cos nt.
161. We had better take a numerical example and we assure

the student that he need not grudge any time spent upon it
and others like it. Let n = 3 and take various values of /.
For the purpose of comparison we shall in all cases let a? =
"*"
when ^ =
0;
dx
and ^.
= 20
feet per second,
when
= 0.
NATUKAIi VIBRATIONS.
227
A sin nt + 5 cos nt,

= AxO + Bxl, so that 5 = 0,
Let/= 0,
Case IV.
da)
= nA
cos
then
a;==
iiB sin n^,
?^
dt
20
= SA,
so that
Plot therefore *= 6*667 sin
^ = ^-.
3^.
This is shown in curve 4, fig. 82. It is of course the

ordinary curve of sines: undamped S.H. motion.
Fig. 82.
Lety =
The
Case
III.
Here
= - -3 \/-09 - 9 = - -3 2-985t.
a = '3 and 6 = 2-985 in
"S.
auxiliary equation gives
771
xê-^'^lAsinU-tBcosbt}
(1).
You may not be able to differentiate a product yet, although

we gave the rule in Art. 90. We give many exercises in
Chap. III. and we shall here assume that
=-
dx
ae-"*
(A
sin ht
+ B cos bt)
+ 6e-(^cos6e-5sin60
(2).
152
228
Put .=0 when
and
-r:
= 20 when
= 0.
Then
at
B=
from (1) and
and hence
os
= 6-7-** sin 2-985^.*
This is shown in curve 3 of fig. 82.

has altered because of friction.
Case
are
?/i
Let/= 8. The roots of the

3, equal roots. Hence
II.
Notice that the period

auxiliary equation
3 and
= (^+^0^"''
(!)
Here again we have to differentiate a product and
~ = B-''-S{A+Bt)e-'^'
Putting in
^=
a;
from (1) and
when
J5
Hence
This
is
Case
are
I.
and
in curve 2 of
Let
--
f=o.
and
20 from
o)
shown
20^
fig.
The
-17
(2).
20 when
e-'K
82.
roots of the auxiliary equation
= Ae-''^ + Be-\
^=-9^6--l?6-'.
at
Putting in the
initial conditions
we have
= A-hB, 20^-9A-B.
J. = - 21,
5 = 2^,
Hence
<'=2i (-*--)
This
is
shown
in curve 1 of
fig.
82.
Students ought to take these

OS
=10 when tÔ
= 0,
(2).
1,
0!
and
initial conditions
-77
dt
when t = 0.
VIBRATIONS.
229
This would represent the case of a body let go at time

in the electrical case, a charged condenser begins to be
discharged at time 0.
or,
Notice that
have
if
using v for
we
differentiate (1), Art. 160, all across
we
-j-)
a
hqWdt^
^ dv P
Wh
d^v
?)
=^
dt^^
We
have therefore exactly the same law for velocity or

acceleration that we have for x itself.
Again, in the electrical case os
if
we
differentiate
across
all
we
-r:
represents current,
find
exactly the
same
law for current as for voltage.

Of course differences are
produced in the solutions of the equations by the initial
conditions.
162. When the right-hand side of such a linear differential

equation as (2) Art. 152 is not zero and our solution will give the
forced motion of a system as well as the natural vibrations, it
is worth while to consider the problem from a point of view
which will be illustrated in the following simple example.
To
solve (11) Art. 148,

-\-
-J-
which
ii^x
is
nâ sin qt
(1),
the equation of motion of a system with one degree of
freedom and without
friction.
Differentiate twice
Hence from
To
(1),
and we
^d^x
d*w
find
,
^+(712 + 52)^+^^^ =
solve (2), the auxiliary equation
m^
(ii'
(2).
is
+ 50m2 + g'2|i2^0
(3),
and we know that + ni are two roots and + qi are the other
two roots. Hence we have the complete solution
?
=^
sin nt
+ B cos nt -^-G sinqt-^ D cos qt
(4).
2S0
Now it was by differentiating (1) that we introduced

the possibility of having the two extra arbitrary constants C
and D, and evidently by inserting (4) in the original equation,
we shall find the proper values of C and D, as they are really
not arbiti-ary. It will be noticed that by differentiating
(1) and obtaining (2) we made the system more complex,
gave it another degree of freedom, or rather we made it
part of a larger system, a system whose natural vibrations
are given in (4).
When we let a mass vibrate at the end of
a spring, it is to be remembered that the centre of gravity of
the mass and the frame which supports it and the room,
remain unaltered. Hence vibrations occur in the supporting
frame, and there is friction tending to still the vibrations.
If there is another mass also vibrating, this effect may be
lessened.
For example in fig. 83, if
vibrates at the end of
the strip MA, clamped in
the vice A, any motion
of
to the right must be
accompanied by motion of
and the support, to
the left. But if we have
two masses Mi and il/g (as
in a tuning fork), moving
in opposite directions at
each instant there need be
no motion of the supports,
consequently the system
MjMo vibrates as if there
were
Fig. 83.
and
this
utilized
in
less friction,
principle
is
tuning forks. Should a

motion be started, different
from this, it will quickly
become like this, as any part of the motion which

necessitates a motion of the centre of gravity of the
supports, is very quickly damped out of existence.
The makers of steam engines and the persons who use
them in cities where vibration of the ground is objected to,
find it important to take matters like this into account.
163.
If
is
known
function of
oc,
we
are instructed
by
SYMBOLS OF OPERATION.
231
Art. 152, to perform a complicated operation

as
(3),
upon
it.
Sometimes we use such a symbol
{e'-\-Ae'-{-Bd^+ce+E)y
= x,
to mean exactly the same thing ; 6y meaning that we differentiate y with regard to x, 6^y meaning that we differentiate
y twice, and so on.
symbols of operation easy enough to underneed hardly say that 6'^y does not mean that
there is a quantity 6 which is squared and multiplied upon
y: it is merely a convenient way of saying that y is to be
differentiated twice.
66y would mean the same thing.
6, 6^, &c.,
are
stand.
We
On
same system, what does (6 -\-a)y mean
this
^+ay.
(Py
~T^
What
dy
-4 1^ -h
-}-
does
(6''
+ A0 + B)y mean?
add a times y, for a is a mere multiplier although

and yet, note that (6 -\-a)y= 6y + ay.
In
fact
we
If
u and
find
it
that 6
is
what
enters into these
V are functions of x
+ v)=
we know
6u
not
so,
operational
it is
that
+ Ov.
called the distributive
is
is
were an algebraic quantity, although
e {u
This
means
It
(6-{-a)y instructs us to differentiate y and
By.
expressions as if
not one.
means
It
law.
Again, if a is a constant, 6au = a6u, or the operation 6a is

equivalent to the operation aO. This is called the com-
mutative law.
Again 6^6^ 6^+^.^ ^\^\^ jg ^j^^ index law. When these
three laws are satisfied we know that 6 will enter into
ordinary algebraic expressions as if it were a quantity. 6
follows all these laws when combined with constants but note
;
that
if
u and
v are functions of x,
very different thing from 6
uv.
vdu meaning v
When we
-j-
is
are confining our
232
we
attention to linear operations

mistakes.
Thus operate with
6-{-b
are not
upon (0
{e-\-a)y=-ey-\-ay or
^+
make
Now
a) y.
-f
likely to
ay.
Operating with 6 \-h means "diflFerentiate (this gives us
/7/S"^^^) ^^^ ^^^ ^ times
We see,
-^-
+ ay"
Consequently
it
gives
therefore, that the double operation
{e
h){d
+ a)
gives the same result as

[&'-\-{a-\-h)e^-ah].
In this and other ways it is easy to show that although 6 ia

a symbol of operation and not a quantity, yet it enters into
combinations as if it were an algebraic quantity, so long as all
the quantities
is
a, h,
&c. are constants.
the same as
{0
+ h){d
-\-
Note
also that
a).
The student ought to practise and see that this is so and

get familiar with this way of writing. He will find that it
saves an enormous amount of unnecessary trouble.
Thus
compare such expressions as
(ae-hh)(ae-h^)y
with
jaa^-^
+ (a^ +ah)e + h^} y,
164. Suppose that Dy is used as a symbol for some curious

operation to be performed upon y, and we say that Dy =
does this not mean that if we only knew how to reverse the
operation,
then y
with
Now
and we indicate the reverse operation by D~^ or
= I)~^ X or
yy
-^ + ay =
p.
We evidently mean that if we operate
D upon D~^X, we annul the

if
233
or l-j-
-\-
a] y
effect of the
or {6
D~^ operation.
{ a) y =X
let
us
indicate the reverse operation b}^
y-^^x-^^y^^î^+^rx
or
or ^
(1),
,^^
(2).
ax
Keeping to the last of these; at present ^

v-\-a
symbol for an inverse operation, but
y=-â
is
a mere
(^>
submits to the usual rules of multiplication, because (3)

the same as
(6
+ a)y= X
is
(4);
and yet
(4) is derived from (3) as if by the multiplication of

both sides of the equation by {6 + a),
Again,take^ + (a + 6)^+a62/ = Z
+ ab]y=^X
(e + a)(d + h)y = X
{e^+{a-{-h)e
or
or
Here the
gives us
(5),
(6),
(7).
direct operation 6 + a performed upon (0 -{h)y

hence by the above definition
(^+6)y=^
(8).
and repeating, we have

2/
~(e-hh)\d-\-aj
"^^^'
H
234
But
consistent with our
it is
way
of writing inverse operations
to write (6) as
^^^^'
^ê'-^(a+b)e+ab
and
so
the 6
we
-{-h
see that there is nothing inconsistent in our treating

and ^ + a of (9) as if ^ were an algebraic quantity.
We know now
165.
that the inverse operation
{^+(a+6)(9 + a61-^
may be
effected in
two steps
first
then operate with (6 + a)~\

Here is a most interesting question.
were really an algebraic quantity,
^ + (a + 6) ^ + a6
And
it is
important to know
(1),
operate with (6
We
know
1^1
b-a\d-\-a
O-^b,
if
-\-
h)~^
and
that if 6
.(2).
the operation
^^^'
irrs(5n"ff+b)
exactly the inverse of

+ (a + b) d + ab?...(4). Our
only test is this it is so, if the direct operation (4) comand now apply (4) to
pletely annuls (3).
Apply (3) to
is
the result;
if
we apply
dX
tf
(d-{-b)X or -T-
+ 6X
dently obtain (^
+ a) X
1
b
(4) to ^
X, we evidently obtain
ct
we apply
if
or
-^ + aX,
(4) to
j^v X
we
evi-
and
f + 6X-(f + X)^=X.
We see therefore that (3) is the inverse of (4), and that we have
the right to split up an inverse operation like the left-hand
side of (2) into partial operations like the right-hand side of
We have already had a number of illustrations of this
(2).
when the operand was 0. For it is obvious that if a^, oui, &c.
are the roots of the auxiliary equation of Art. 159, it really
means that
e^'Â e>'-' +
+ ka. \- GO \ ttj) {6 a^), &c,
J5l9"-=^
splits up into the factors {6
=
235
Observe that
= X, or 6y = X, or y -^, or y = 6~^X,
if
-J^
is to be intethe inverse operation ^^ simply means that

Again, 0~^ means integrate twice, and so on*.
grated.
*
Suppose in our operations we ever meet with the symbols 6^ or
d~^
or 6"^ &c., what interpretations are we to put upon them ?

It is not very
necessary to consider them now. Whatever interpretations we may put
upon them must be consistent with everything we have ah"eady done. For
example 6^
or 6~^6^.
will
d~
be the same as 60^ and
-^
will be the
same
as d^ d~^
We
have to recollect that all this work is integration and we use

symbols to help us to find answers we are employing a scientific method of
guessing, and our great test of the legitimacy of a method is to try if our
answer is right; this can always be done.
Most of the functions on
which we shall be operating are either of the shape ê"* or B sin bx or sums
Observe that
of such functions.
;
^ê^=â
n
an integer either positive or negative. There is therefore, a likelihood

that it will help in the solution of problems to assume that
if
is
eÂ6*^
or that
0B
Again
sin bx
= Bb
cos bx = Bb
e^B sin bx= - Bb^
and
true
when n
is
sin
6a;
sin.
(1).
(bx + ^\
Bb^ sin
(&a;
+ tt)
0^B sin bx=Bb'' Bin (bx + n'^j
Evidently this
= Aa^6^
(2).
is true when n is a positive or negative integer ; assume

a positive or negative fraction, so that
623 sin bx = Bb2 sin
bx + ^^
it
.(3).
There are certain other useful functions as well as
e*"*
and
si7i
bx such
to the effect of operating with 6^ upon

them. It will, for example, be found, if we pursue our subject, that we shall
make use of a function which is for all negative values of x and which is a
constant a for all positive values of x. It will be found that if this function
is called /(.r) then
that
we
are able to give a
meaning
0if(x)=a4-x-^
and the meaning of d^ or ^^ or
differentiation or integration.
^~i
or
(4),
9~^
The Mnemonic
&c.
bn
proof
or reason,
*^
is
d^x'^
=~=^~ x"^'^.
\m-n
is
for this,
Let w=i,
^
easily obtained
we need not
m=0
by
call it
and we have
CALCxn.us for engineers.
286
Electrical Problems.
166.
Circuit with resistance
R and self-induction L,
let
-^ be indicated by
then
0,
V=(R + Le)G or
V
R + Ld'
In fact in all our algebraic work wo treat

were a resistance.
R + "LO
as
if it
Condenser of capacity K farads. Let

between coatings.
condenser, that
is
is,
to
Or ^ = 7^
increasing.
assumed
V volts, be voltage
be current in amperes into the
the rate at which Q, its charge in coulombs,
Let
be constant,
= "7^ (-^^^
^^'
^^
usually
dV
(7
= TTr-
at
The conductance
Hence the current
of a condenser
is
KO, therefore
into a condenser is as if the condenser
had a resistance ^.
Fig. 84.
Circuit with resistance, self-induction and capacity, fig. 84.

worked out as if we had a total resistance
All problems are
R + I-^ + xFZJ
kS
^x
dhx^=-.
2.
But |- i has no meaning.
Give
(!)
it
a meaning by assuming
|_IL2
that whatjs true of integers, is true of all numbers, and use gamma function
It is found that the solutions
of I or ^ which is Jir instead of l~^'
effected by means of this are correct.
!
EASY RULE FOR ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS.
287
167. In any network of conductors we can say exactly

what is the actual resistance (for steady currents) between
any point A and another point B if we know all the resist-
ances 7\, r^, &c. of all the branches. Now if each of these
branches has self-induction î, &c. and capacity Ki, &c.
what we have
to do is to substitute r^
the mathematical expressions, and

right for currents that are not steady.
Ti in
+ l^d -f
t^-t,
instead of
we have the
resistance
How are we to understand our results ? However complicated an operation we may be led to, when cleared of
fractions, &c. it simplifies to this; that an operation like
4- dO' + ed'+fd' + &c
+ b'd + c'0'' + d'e' + e'e'~tf'e'-{-&}c.
a-\-b0-\- cB'
a'
^'
has to be performed upon some voltage which is a function

of the time.
On some functions of the time which we have
studied we know the sort of answer which we shall obtain.
Thus notice that if we perform (a -}- bd -\- &}c.) upon e** we
obtain
{a
+ b2 + col' + da^ + ea.^ +/a^ + &c.) e*^
(2).
Consequently the complicated operation (1) comes to be a

mere midtiplication by A and division by A', where A is the
number a -f 6a +
+ &c. and A' is

a + Vol + c V
ca^
the
-|-
Again,
if
wc operate upon
6"-
and
and so on
whereas
And
in sin {nt
would give
would give
6^
6^
number
&c.
e),
observe that
mn^ sin {nt + e).

+mn^mn{nt-\-e\
inn cos {nt + e).
mu^ cos {nt + e).
+ mn^ cos {nt + e).
hence the complicated operation (1) produces the same
effect as -^
^^ where
,
p a cn^-hen* &c.,
a = a' - c'n2 -\-e'n^ - &c.,
dn- -^fn^ &c.

^ = b' - dn" +fn' - &c.
q=^b
238
+ qO operating upon m sin (tit 4- e)

by Vp^ + qîi^ and causes an advance
Observe Art. 118, that p

multiplies the amplitude
of
tan~^
The student ought
although he has already done
(p + qO)
Similarly,
the
sin nt
Show
in another way.
= V^T^ sin (nt + tan-^ 2!!:^

operation
invei-se
amplitude by Va"
it
to try this again for himself,
+ yS^/i^ ^j^^j
l/(a
^6)
that
the
divides
produces a lag of tan~^
and
hence
^-j-|gmsm(7i+e)
a labour-saving rule of enormous importance.

168.
In all this we are thinking only of the forced
vibrations of a system. We have already noticed that
when we have an equation like (1) or (2) Art. 152, the
solution consists of two parts, say y f(x)-{- F{x)\ where
of (2) is 0, the natural action of
f{x) is the answer if
the system left to itself, and F {x) is the forced action.
If in (2)
we
indicate the operation
{ d'
then
d^
d''
^ d
D (y) = X gives us
Where
I)-^{0) gives /(^)
and B-^(X) gives F(x).
if^+ayÔ, or fj- + a]y = 0, or (^ + a)y = 0, we

know Art. 97, that y = ^.e-**^.
O is not nothing^ but is Ae'
Thus
Hence we
see that x
so that if ^-\-ciy'=
a
X, the complete solution
is
ELECTRICAL EXAM^lS^^^V
239
^^
"We are now studying this latter paiX't^the forced part, only.
In most practical engineering problems the exponential terms
rapidly disappear.
169.
Thus
in an electric circuit
where
V=(R + Ld) C,
if
V = Vq sin qt,
we have
already found the forced value of G,
^_
and according to our new
becomes
0=
But besides
ZV
this
Fosin^
R+Ld'
rule, or
s^^
according to Art. 118, this
f^^-tan-^^)
....(1).
term we have one
-R-^Ld'^'^TT^'
and according to the above rule
A,e
Or we may get
this
(Art. 168) this gives a
term
^'
(2).
term as in Art. 97,
iJ(7+X^ = 0,or ^=-j;0.

compound
give's us the answer (2),

complete answer. If we
know the value of G when ^ = 0, we can find the value of the
constant Ai (2) is obviously an evanescent term.
This
is
the
and the sum of
(2)
interest law
and
and
(1) is the
Thus
again, suppose
V to be
=
constant = Vq,
R + ieV
It is evident that G = ~ is the forced current, for if we
^
Y
operate on G=-~ with R + LOwe obtain Fo, and the e vanes-
240
cent current
whatever
always the same with the same
is
Fmay
be,
and
namely Ai~l^,
The complete answer
then
is
n
^t
GÂ,e-L^+^^
Let, for example,
(2).
when t Oy then
C=
V
and
(2)
becomes
(7=
"
The student ought

show how
V
- e"!')
(l
to take
Fo=100, jK=1,
We have
increases.
(3).
had
L=1
and
this law before.
and a
Example. A condenser of capacity
170..
non-inductive resistance r in parallel; voltage V at
The two currents are c V/r,
their terminals, fig. 85.
C=KOV,
and their sum
is
C+c=v(^^ + Ke\
or
v(^-'~^^\
V
so that the
two in
parallel act like a resistance
..
,T^n
g^c>
C
K
Fig. 85.
UV^Vosinnt,
''
C + c = Vl + r'^K'^n'', sin ini + tan-^ rKn\

r
sin nt,
C=
V^n sin
n^ 4- ^
ELECTRICAL EXAMPLES.
A circuit with resistance,
171.
capacity
241
self-induction and
V= Fosin z*^
86) has the alternating voltage

established at its ends what is the current ?
(fig.
Answer,
G=
-, and by Art. 167
R + Ld +
^^
^'^'^
l + RK.e + LK.e^
rC=
^^
{l-LK7i') + RKe
:
Sin
nt
^{l-LKnJ + R^KHi-'
The
earnest student will take
much numerical
+K2
tan
^ rr
l^-LKnV
numbers and
find out
by
If he were only to
work this one example, he would discover that he now has a
weapon to solve a problem in a few lines which some writers
solve in a great many pages, using the most involved mathematical expressions, very troublesome, if not impossible, to
follow in their physical meaning.
Here the physical meantrial
what
this
means.
ing of every step will soon become easy to understand.
K=l micro-
Numerical Exercise. Take Fo = 1414 volts,

= 100 ohms and n = 1000, and
farad or 10-,
following effects produced by altering L.
following table and the curves in fig. 87
'
we
We
find the
give the
Fig. 86.
A BCD shows
A where Z =
how the
current increases slowly at
first
from
X is increased, and then it increases more

rapidly, reaching a maximum when Z= 1 Henry and diminishas
ing again exactly in the
way
shows the lead which at
X=
which it increased. EFG

changes rather rapidly to a
in
1
The maximum current (when LKn^=l) is the same as

we had no condenser and no self-induction, as if we had a
lag.
if
mere non-inductive resistance R. It is interesting to note

in the electric analogue of Art. 160 that this LKn^=l is the
relation which would hold between L,
and n (neglecting the
P.
16
242
small resistance term) if the condenser were sending surging

currents through the circuit R, L, connecting its two coatings.
/y, ill
Henries.
Lead
Effective
ciuTent, in
of
current, in
degrees.
amperes.
Henries.
1-05
8-944
11
7071
1-2
1-3
4-472
3-162
1-4
2425
1-5
2-5
1-961
1-644
1-414
1-240
1-110
0-995
0-665
30
0499
0-1
1110
0-2
0-8
1-240
1-414
1-644
1-961
2-425
3-162
4-472
84-28
83-67
82-87
81-87
80-53
78-67
75-97
71-57
63-43
0-9
7071
450
1-9
0-95
0-975
8-944
9-701
26-57
20
1403
0-995
0-8
0-4
0-5
0-6
0-7
100
1025
1-6
1-7
1-8
1000
~~~
10
T~
-f
"s.
s'
K
5
100
\
'J
iu
-26-57
-45-0
-63-43
-71-57
-75-97
-78-67
-80-53
-81-87
-82-87
-83-67
-84-28
-86-18
-87-13
-14-03
9-701
Effective
Lead of
current, in current, in
degrees.
amperes.
/
f
//
^
i
V \\
V
v^
^^.^
V
Q-
-2
'4
-8
1-0 1-2 1-4 1-6 1-8 2-0
8ELF-1NDUCI10N
IN
'*"
22
- -=
1003
2-4 2-6 2-8 S'O
HENRIES.
Fig. 87.
Experimenting with numbers as we have done in this example

much cheaper and much more conclusive in preliminary
work on a new problem, than experimenting with alternators,
coils and condensers.
is
IDLE CURRENTS OF TRANSFORMERS.
243
172.
Even if a transformer has its secondary open there
power being wasted in hysteresis and eddy currents, and the
effect is not very different from what we should have if there
was no such internal loss, but if there was a small load on.
Find the effect of a conAssume, however, no load.
denser shunt in supplying the ''Idle Current."
is
The
current to an unloaded transformer, consists of the

term of the same
^C*c
V
frequency as the primary voltage,
po
and other terms of three and five
times the frequency, manufactured
by the iron in a curious way.
With these "other terms" the conC-.c'denser has nothing to do it cannot
Fig. 88.
disguise them in any way the total
shall not speak of them,
current always contains them.
as they may be imagined added on, and this saves trouble,
for if the fundamental term only is considered we may
imagine the permeability constant that is, that the primary
circuit of an unloaded transformer has simply a constant
fundamental
We
;
self-induction.
In
fact
resistance
between the ends of a
coil (fig.
88) which has
R and self-induction L, place a condenser of capacity
F=
K.
Let the voltage between the terminals, be

Fo sin nt.
be the instantaneous current through the coil and
be the current through the condenser, then
+ c is the
Let
let c
current supplied to the system.
Now
and
Fo sin nt
G:
Fo sin ??^
R+LO
-7-
-^^
or c
= Kn Fo cos nt,
0ô=[^^^Ke)v.sinnt
_ 1 + RKd -H LKd'
R + LO
^_ l-LKn' + RK.e y
R + Ld
by our rule of Art. 167.

It is quite easy to write out
by Art. 167 the
full
value of
162
244
+ c,
we
but as we are not concerned now with the lag or lead,
shall only state the amplitude.
"V
and the
R' + JJn^
value of
effective
It is evidently
+c
(7
(what an ammeter would
give as the measure of the cuiTent),
C+
Observe that
is
this divided
by
\/2.
when
c is least
(Note that if L is in Henries and n = 27r x frequency (so

Now even a
is in farads.
that in practice n = about GOO),
condenser of J microfarad or J x 10"" farad costs a number of
pounds sterling.
have known an unpractical man to
suggest the practical use of a condenser that would have cost
millions of pounds sterling.)
We
When
R/JR^ +
this is the
L'^n-
the effective current
case,
C + c,
is
times the effective value of G.
The student ought
Thus
to take a numerical case.
in
an
actual Hedgehog Transformer we have found iJ = 24 ohms,

L = 6'23 Henries 7i = 509, corresponding to a frequency o^
about 81*1 per second. The effective voltage, or Fo-rV2
2400 volts. In fig. 89 we show the effective current calis

culated for various values of K. The current curve
a hyperbola which is undistinguishable except just at the
^^
~
""
vo
is
ABCD
r-
-%
9
\
2-8
1
s.
sA
i:
',*
'8
/
D
ll
s.
s.
... ...
i
-6
/
J\A
B^
i/
r
-5
-6
-7
CAPACiTV
in
-8
' ._
-9
10
...
-10
2
1-3 1-4 \-h
MirROfARAOS
Fig. 89.
vertex, from
two straight
minimum when
K Lj(R?
lines.
-^ LSi^)^
The
total
in this case
current is a
618 micro-
ELECTRICAL EXAMILES.
245
and the effect of the condenser has been to diminish

the total cun-ent in the ratio of the resistance to the impedance. It is interesting on the curve to note how the
great lag changes very suddenly into a great lead.
farad
173.
connected
If currents are steady and if points

by parallel resistances 7\, 7\, r^y if
and
are
the
and B, and if the three currents are
voltage between
Ci, C2, C3, and if the whole current is (7; then
is
_F
_F
_7
In fact the three parallel conductors act like a conductance

1
-+
Also
if
G is
-1 + -IN
known, then
111,
i\
r^
Vs
Now let there be a self-induction I and a condenser of

capacity k in each branch, and we have exactly the same
instantaneous formulae if, for any value of r, we insert
The algebraic expressions are unwieldy, and hence numerical examples ought to be taken up by students.
174.
Two circuits
in parallel.
and ?-2 and self-inductions l^

and I2 how does a total current
C divide itself between them ?
If the current were a con-
They have
resistances
Vi
tinuous current, Cj (fig. 90) in

the branch 7\ would be
ASLîî&SliSiSi
"ÎSlSUUlSlSlMSi
"
p-
'
qq
246
TT
now
Jtieiice it IS
If
Ci
a= Oo sin nt,
r.+ LO
,^
rz~n ^.
-.
then by Art. 167
'^'"''"Vcn + ny + i/i + Lyrr

sin
+ tan^
tan^
-^^
In the last case suppose that for some instrumental

purpose we wish to use a branch part of C, but with a
lead.
We
arrange that tan~^
tan~^
7*2
equal to the required lead, and

r^ for our purpose.
?!
we
^^
shall
be
?,
use the current in the
branch
Condenser annulling
effects of self-induction.
voltage between points A and B follows
any law w^hatever^ and we wish the current flowing into
175.
When
the
and out at
to be exactly -^
whatever
may
be,
and
A and B a coil of resistance

and self-induction L, show how to arrange a condenser
shunt to effect our object.
when we have already between
Connect
self-induction
The
and 5 by a circuit containing a resistance

and condenser of capacity K, as in fig. 91.
?,
total current is evidently

r
V
V
M-hLd^ r^ld
^j.
^
'^
AJUMilfiJUMiU
R
Fig. 91.
or,
bringing
denominator
terms,
all to
and
'
j^^
a common
arranging
it is
+ e (vK + RK) -ê^-{lK + LK)

y
LrK) + LIKO'
R+e (RrK -\-L)+&' {RIK
-I-
Observe that as V may be any function whatsoever of the

time Ave camiot simplify this operator as we did those of
ELECTRICAL EXAMPLES.
Now we
Art. 167.
wish the
247
effect of the operation to
be the
Equating and clearing of fractions we see that
same as p F!
R + e (BrK+ B?K) + &" (IilK+ RLK)

must be
identical with
jR
(9
{RrK + X) +
(9^
{RIK + LrK) + LIKO'.
V may
As
be any function whatsoever of the time, the

operations are not equivalent unless LIK =
that is, lO)
so there must be no self-induction in the condenser circuit,
;
RrK + R^K = RrK + L
that
RIK + RLK = RIK + LrK
that
we must shunt
condenser circuit
176.
is,
the circuit
R = r;
must be equal
so the resistance in the condenser circuit

that in the other.
In fact
i(^=
is,
R + L^
to
by a
Ii
R + ==3 where K = =^
If in the last case
F= Fq sin nt,
the operator
may
be simplified into
l-K(l-\-L)n'-^K(r+R)e
R-K(Rl + rL) n^ + {RrK + L - LlKn'}

R-K(Rl-\- rL) n^ RrK + L- LlKn'
'
(9
^^^'*
l-K{l-\-L)n'
K(r + R)
then although the adjustment alters when frequency

we have for a fixed value of n the current flowing in at
out at B proportional to V and without any lag. If
the current
is
equal to
alters,
and
Rr
Y
^
To explain why the effective voltage is some177.

times less between the mains at a place D, fig. 92, than
at a place B further away from the generator. This
is usually due to a distributed capacity (about J microfarad
is usual) in the mains.

We may consider a distributed capacity later at present assume one condenser of
per mile
248
capacity
K between the mains at B.
Let the non-inductive

between
at B be r.
Let the
and self-induction of
between D and B be
Let v be the voltage
^ the current from D
resistance, say of lamps,
000000/
*^ mains
jn
resistance
Kfrnlr
the mains
If
^^ ^ ^^^
to B.
Fig. 92.
The current
and L.
into the condenser
The current through
is
-^
ifn^^ ^^^'
V
?-
is
- so that
,
O=(if0 + i).
The
cZro/)
of voltage between
{R + X^)
D and 5 is
or (jK
+ LO) (kB + ^)
1^ 4- (rK + ^)
or
Now if V =
The
voltage at
t;o
(1).
(9
t;,
+ LKe\ V.
sin nt, the fZrop is
D is the drop plus v, or
A-f ir7
square of effective voltage at
square of effective voltage at
{l
+ ^-LKn^\{RK +
and there are values of the constants for which

than 1. As a numerical example take
r= 10, R = '\,
and
let
change from
K=lx
10-^ w = 1000,
to 05, "01, '02, '03 &c.
^^'n\
this is less
TWO
CIRCUITS.
249
The student will find no difficulty in considering this

problem when r + ^^ is used instead of r in (1) that is, when
not merely lamps are being fed beyond B, but also coils
having self-induction.
;
Most general case of
Two
Coils.
Let there be a coil, fig. 93, with electromotive force

178.
E, resistance i2, self-induction L,
capacity K\ and another with e, r,
RLC
ric
m
I,
h Let the mutual induction
|o
be m.
Em
fe
Using then
and
r for r
R for R
-{-1-/(9
-\-
Ld \- -^^,
^^^-
4--^^^.
'^^
the equations are
E = RG + m6c,]
e
Notice hoAV important it

himself about the signs of
answers.
From
these
we
^^'
= meC + rc
is for
and
a student not to trouble

he obtains his
c &c. until
find
Re mOE
,^.
^^>'
'=w^.^^
^ rE-mOe
^^Rr-mê'
We
can now substitute for

obtain the currents.
i2, r,
,.
^^^-
and
e their
values and
Observe that
may be a voltage established at the
terminals of part of a circuit, and then
is only between
these terminals.
The
following exercises are examples of this general case.

There are a gi-eat. many other examples in which mutual
induction comes in.
179.
Let two circuits
(fig.
94),
with self-inductions,
250
be in parallel^ with mutual induction

them.
between
umsmsmsu
r c
1
Fig. 94.
At
(1)
becomes
into r
their terminals let v
fs
iTTv.
= Vo sin nt
Or, chanerinof
v-
(2) of last exercise
R into
R-\-L6 and r
4- 16,
R + {L-m)e
^""[Rr- (LI (2)
How
does a current
^
-
G+ c
on
>.
+ (Zr + IR) 6
sin nt divide itself
^*
between two
=
^ we can find at once -^
G r-mO
G+c
{L-m)e
R
+
A
Answer c = Tr,
^Vr r7ir^ operatmsf^
{R + r)-{-{L+l-2m)0
such circuits
A
and
m'') n^)
Since
-p^
-4 sin nt.
We think it is hardly necessary to work such examples

out more fully for students, as, to complete the answers they
have the rule in Art. 167.
180. In the above example, imagine each of the
circuits to have also a mutual induction with the comshall use new letters as shown in fig. 95.
pound circuit.
We
c,lir,
viznnnfg
c+Co=C
c,Lr
Fig. 95.
If V
two
for
is
the potential difference between the ends of the

which are in parallel. Using r, /jl and
to stand
circuits
4-
W,
fiO
and mO,
V
?-iCi
+ fiCi + nh (ci + Co).
ROTATING FIELD.
Hence the equations
251
are
= (7\ + 71h) Ci + (/X + nil) Ca,

V = (ft + m^) Ci +
+ mg)
(r, + m,)-(/^ + mO
_
^
(ri + mi)(r2 + 7?i2)-(/A + mi)(/A + m.2)
V
(r.,
^.
'
with a similar expression for

Also a total current
c.,,
*"^
^'
Cg.
C divides
7-1+ ro
itself in the following
2//-
way
'^'
If we write these out in full, we have exceedingly pretty

problems to study, and our study might perhaps be helped by
taking numerical values for some of the quantities. If we care
to introduce condensers,
we need
only write ^
+ ^^ + r^
with
proper affixes, instead of each ?; fi becomes fiO and m

becomes mO.
To what extent may we make some of the ma negative?
I have not considered this fully, but some student ought to
try various values and afterwards verify his results with
actual coils.
Taking (2) without condensers
_ f\+ (h+
fn-2
1^ '^^h) p
181.
Rotating Field. Current passes through a coil
wound on a non-conducting bobbin
the same current
passes through a coil wound on a conducting bobbin.
The
;
and have no mutual induction

which are at right angles at the
centre of the two bobbins.
Let the numbers of turns be rii
and
Instead of a conducting bobbin imagine a coil closed
on itself of resistance 7\, and ng turns and current c. For
simplicity, suppose all three mean radii the same, and the
coils 7i2 and % well intermingled.
One field F^ is propor-
coils
are at right angles
find the nature of the fields
71.2
tional to iiiG per square centimetre, call it iiiC The other F,

proportional, or let us say equal to,??2(7
^gC per square cm.
Take the total induction / through each of the coils as
is
252
proportional to the intensity of field at its centre, say b times.

Then for the third coil, we have
= nc + risdl
= rgC +
or
{n.C
-\-
n^c),
bi^n-iOC
c=
so that
bn-iO
rs-hbn,ê'
and hence
F.,
= v..G
\-^bn^ê
G= Cq sin qty
If then
Fi
n + bn^ê'
= 71jGq sin qt,
^2=
2*
sin
7^-tan-i
q):
126, shows the nature of the rotating field.

We
can assure the student that he may obtain an excellent
j-otating field in this way.
Art.
It is evident that
third
coil,
bn-i
really
bn^
- means
and
means the self-induction of the
its
time constant.
coil
of one
turn,
that is, a conducting bobbin, will have a greater time
constant than any coil of more than one turn wound in the
same volume. It is evident that if the bobbin is made large
enough in dimensions, we can for a given frequency have an
almost uniform and uniformly rotating field by making
n^^b
This
is
q=nj.
one of a great number of examples which we

illustrate the usefulness of our sign of opera-
might give to
tion
6.
182. In Art. 1 78 let E= V the primary voltage of a transformer, the primary circuit having internal resistance B and
self-induction L
let the secondary have no independent
E.M.F. in it; let its internal resistance be 7\ and self-induction
I and let it have an outside non-inductive resistance
p, of
lamps. Let the voltage at the secondary terminals be = cp.
;
i^
TRANSFORMERS.
Then
in (1), (2)
use R-\-Ld.
and
253
F^V,
e=0; instead of
(3) Art. 178, let
Id which is really i\-{- p
W,
Instead of r use r
....(1).
Br + (Rl -trL)e + {LI - m"") ^

(7
(r-^W)V
""
Rr + (Rl + rL)e+(Ll-m^)d'
Note that the second equation of (1)
Art. 178
(2).
is
0==meG + (r + W)c
From
I.
(2)*, if
is
Co6**, c
=
r
+ la
ma
r + la
1)
If r
C=
(2)*
small compared with la
Rss r
'
"o
o-
F^
I
Fi^. 96.
II.
If
C = Cq sin qt,
again using (2)*
Hence
effective c
effective
rJ
Wr^-\'Pq''
V^ + '
Except when the load on the secondary
ever
is
usually in practice, r
Iq (a practical
may
is
is less than it
compared with
to test this) and we
insignificant
example ought to be tried
take
C=Gq sin qt.

c=
or
Gg-j- sin (qt
-c
C
m
T
tt),
.(3>
254
It may become important in some application to remember that the ratio of the instantaneous values of c and
G is
that of
r sin qt
and
sometimes
this
Returning to
is oo
Let LI
(1).
mq cos qt,
to
m^
(this is the condition
Rr be negligible. In
found to be negligible even when r
so great as to be several times the resistance of only one
called
any
is
+ Iq cos qt
no magnetic leakage) and
practical case, Ri'
let
is
lamp, t
-^ =
'f'^-
B^Z
W'
F as
SO that c is a faithful copy of

C is so also.
a function of the time.
and n are the numbei*s of windings of the two

If
on the same iron,
is,
l^Nn
7^
N^
71^
(6);
is
the same as
the trans-
an extra resistance were introduced which I
If the volumes of the
two
call
the
IR-^).
coils
were equal, and
volumes of their insulations were equal,

Vy
if
acted in the secondary circuit, but
transformed primary resistance
to
so
(5),
the secondary current
formed voltage
as if
c=
so that
that
coils
if
the
R ^^ would be equal
the internal resistance of the secondary.
Assume
and then
-^=2;tt7
^'^^
it
DROP IN VOLTAGE.
also
v=
or
/)c
255
JSf
(8).
As
and
Vi is
is
usually small compared with
p,
called the drop in the secondary voltage
due to load.
^2
As = P, the power given

fractional
to the
drop
number
2r
is
^ P and
is
to
lamps
IP and
-=
-^
the
proportional to the Power, or
of lamps which are in circuit.
The above results may be obtained in another way.

Let / be the induction, and let it be the same in both
coils.
Here again we assume no magnetic leakage,
183.
V^RC-^NOI
O^rc + ndl
Multiplying each equation by
or r and adding
its
NV
(m
(1),
(2).
N or n and dividing by
its
n\ ^^
-^ = ^ + U+-)^^
(^)'
A NC + nc, and
Now when we know
where
is called the current turns.

the nature of the magnetic circuit,
that is, the nature of the iron and its section, a square centimetres, and the average length X centimetres of the magnetic
circuit, we know the relationship between A and /.
I
have gone carefully into this matter and find that whatever
be the nature of the periodic law for A, so long as the
frequency and sizes of iron &c. are what they usually are in
practice, the term
is utterly insignificant in (3).
Rejecting it we find
'^
SZhk '^^--^^^
'"'
"^'"^ ""^^'
^*^-
256
=27 ohms,
= 24 turns,
V is 2000 volts or F= 2828 sin qt where q = 600 say,
\ = 31. When there is no load r = x on full load
Thus, in a certain 15 00- watt transformer, J?

internal part of r = '067 ohms, ii
N = 460 turns,
effective
a= 360,
r = nearly 7 ohms.
We
R -^^
have called
the transformed resistance of the

/
primary.
It is in this case 27
24
\2
.^^1 or '073 ohms.
If the primary and secondary volumes of copperthad been

equal, no doubt this would have been more nearly identical
with '067, the internal resistance of the secondary.
^r,.
or
'-
the fractional drop in
is
/ from what
it is
at
r* = 7 ohms the fractional drop is

only 1 per cent, in this case. Because of
its smallness we took a fractional increase of the denominator
as the same fractional diminution of the numerator of (4).
no
When
load.
greatest,
and
Consider
at full load
it is
at its greatest, that
2828
integral of F or -^^^ cos
^^^
2828
^^600x460
is,
at no load
-^V
d
600^.
is
the
So that the amplitude
Multiply
to obtain c.
2856
the
this,
a s.
maximum
units,
value of / in Webers, by 10*

and divide by a = 360, and we find
units of induction per sq. cm. in the iron, as the

in this transformer every cycle.
c. G. s.
maximum
61 being
value of
re
^F
that
we had
vfa
>
we have from
(2) the
same
before in (6) of Art. 183.
Returning to (7) of Art. 182. Let us suppose that

184.
there is magnetic leakage and that Vx is really r^ + VO.
If one really goes into the matter it will be seen that this
is what we mean by magnetic leakage.
Then we must
divide by
instead of
/>
-f 2ri.
p + 2n + 21' By
In fact our old answer must be divided by
2r
.
1+
MAGNETIC LEAKAGE.
or neglecting
2?'i
257
as not very important in this connection
our old answer must be divided by
2^
1
6.
-\
This means
P
that the old amplitude of v must be divided by
.
/-1 H
if the
leakage
tan-i
is
or 1 H
^,
nearly,
P"
small, and there
We
We
^
^
is
a lag produced of the amount
must remember that a
is
27r/* if
is
the
frequency.
saw that P, the power given to the lamps, is
inversely proportional to p, so we see that the Aractional
drop due
to
mere resistances
is
2r P
\-
the fractional drop
due to magnetic leakage is la^pF", and the lag due to

magnetic leakage is an angle of afP radians where a is a
constant which depends upon the amount of leakage, and /
is
the frequency.
Only one thing need now be commented upon in

185.
regard to Transformers. If Fis known, it has only to be integrated and divided by
to get I. Multiply by 10^ and divide
by the cross-section of the iron in square centimetres, and we
know how /3, the induction per sq. cm. in the iron, alters with
curve for the
The experimentally obtained /3,
the time.
iron enables us to find for every value of ^ the corresponding
value of H,w[\d
multiplied by the length of the magnetic
y^ x the ampere
turns A.
Hence the law of variation of A is known, and if
there is no secondary current, we have the law of the
primary current in an unloaded transformer or choking
cuTCUit in the iron gives the gaussage, or
This last statement is, however, inaccurate, as one

never has a truly unloaded transformer, even when what is
usually called the secondary, has an infinite resistance.
186. Sir W. Grove's Problem ; the effect of a condenser
in the primary of an induction coil when using alternating
coil.
currents.
ABB,
fig.
E Ed sin nt,
P.
97, is the
resistance
primary with electromotive force

and self-induction L. BA is h
IT
25S
condenser of capacity K, and

-?
qq^q'q^j^
?'
is
a non-inductive resistance
in parallel with the condenser.

the current in the primary, has
amplitude Co, say.

rpjjg
condenser has the
JTI
Kli1j|r
*^"
when r and
K have any finite values*.
for our problem we suppose r=0 or else r=oo

the resistance \^R-\-L6 and the current is EI{R
But
0,
n^-^
When r=oc
the resistance
R + Le+-^^
or
is
or
j^
,
j^
by Art. 167,
Ej
Jo'K'n^
rr.-
\Kn
Now
is greatei'
than (1)
(2)
so that the primary current
capacity greater than o;-g.
current
if
iT =
When
+ Z^),
(1).
^^
resist-
It is quite easy to write out
the value of Cq
r=
G
an
is
if
2KLn^
is
greater than
1,
increased by a condenser of
Again, there
is
maximum
in this case the condenser completely
destroys the self-induction of the primary.
2S
* When both r and K have finite

and A, together form a resistance
the circuit for
C is
jR
+ L^ + -
02 =
~
"
and
C is
tptSO that
+ rKd
(1 + rKd)EQ sin lit
{R + r- LrKii') + {RrK+L) d
1
the lag of
values, the parallel resistances between

rl{l + rKd), and the whole resistance of
(E + r - LrKn^f + (RrK-^LYii^
easily written.
'

ALTERNATORS IN SERIES.
259
Alternators in series. Let their e.:m.f. be ei and

187.
and let C be the current through both. The powers exerted
Now if
are efi and 020.
e.2
ei=E sin (nt+a) and e.2=Esm (nt a),t ei +e.j=2j&cos a
sin?^^.
the self-induction of each machine, r its internal

if 2R is the outside resistance and if Pi and
P2 are the average powers developed in the two machines,
If
is
resistance,
and
^ 2^cosa.
^ = -zTTTi ^
2;^
sin?i^
^tt
+ 2r-f-2P
Ecosa
sm
,-'
nt
V
V(P4-r)2 +
= ilf cos a sin {nt e) say,
Pi = p/^ cos a cos (a + e),
Po = ^Jlfii' cos a cos (a e).
In
tan~^ v,
,
i^
^'^''
+ r/
Hence P2
greater than Pi, and machine 2 is retarded

hence a increases until
whilst machine 1 is accelerated
is
=P2 =
a
and when
this is the case, cos
= 0,
so that
Pi
= 0,
and the machines neutralize each other, producing no

current in the circuit. Alternators cannot therefore be
used in series unless their shafts are fastened together.
188.
parallel
As we very often have to deal with circuits in

we give the following general formula if the electro-
motive forces
^1, ^2
and
vê^
and
e^, fig.
98, are constant,
= - 0.^2 ê-i-c^n
Ci + C2 + C3 =
c^Vi
Given the values of
e^,
( 1 ),
e.2
e._,,
e^
and
7\, i\, r^
(2).
we
easily find
the currents, because

,
= (?i + ?. + ^V(i + i + l)
(3).
Fig. 98.
172

200
Now if the es are not constant,

instead of mere resistances.
we must
use
?'i
+ liO,
&c.,
189. Alternators in Parallel. Let two alternatoi-s, each

of resistance r and self-induction I, and with electromotive
sin (nt a), be coupled
sin (iit + a), and e^ =
forces, ei =
up in parallel to a non-inductive circuit of resistance R.
What average electrical power will each of them create,
and will they tend to synchronism ? If Ci and e.2 were constant or if I were 0, then v = ei CiV = e., cr = (ci + c^) R.
And hence
^^
= 2r^H^+3-^-^
fcH^+S"^^
^'~'2rR-r'
Now
alter r to
The student
4- 16,
will see that
e's
are alternating.
write
bO),
=
(a
e^
-H hO),
62
Then
a^ -h 6W =1, a = cos 2a, 6/1 = sin 2a.
62
where
because the
we may
=61 (a
hi-^)-'Ki^')
Ca in terms of e, except that 6
write out (1) by the rule of Art. 167,
such simplification as this
with a similar expression for

is
made
there
is
negative.
some
Let tan
<f)
If
we
=^
2Rr + r^ Pn^
-
and tan ^^
^
tan
Then
c,
C2
the angles
and + 90^
<^,
yjry,
= if sin (ni -f a <^

= il/ sin (nt a
being
all
R+r aR
Rt,-;+ r-aRd
-}- i|ri),
<j) -{-
s^^
ylr^
= ^
yfr^,
supposed to be between
"
ALTERNATORS IN PARALLEL.
The average powers
P_
M'=
where
are
= ME cos ((f>-^|r.,),
.^^..
11=
oo
tan
we
COS (<l>-ylr^y
see that
In
=
6
^
,
^J' E^.
l^^""^
Po
It'
261
Hence
^
,
tan
it
sin a
,
cos a
P,^ cos(^-^ )
P.
In this case
-v/r,
is
tan vr...
^
COS(/)+>î)
obvious that Pi
is
greater than P2.
The author has not examined the general expression
for p-
with great care, himself, but men who have studied it say
it shows P, to be always greater than Po.
Students
would do well to take values for i\ I,
and a and try for
themselves.
If Pi is always greater, it means that the
leading alternator has more work to do, and it will tend to go
slower, and the lagging one tends to go more quickly, so that
there is a tendency to synchronism and hence alternators
will work in Parallel.
that
190.
Struts.
Consider a strut perfectly prismatic, of
homogeneous material, its own weight neglected, the resultant

force F at each end passing through the centre of each end.
Let ACB, fig. 99, show the centre line of the bent strut. Let
FQ = yhe the deflection at P where OQ = x. Let OA=OB = I.
y is supposed everywhere small in comparison with the length
21 of the strut.
Fy
is
the bending
ture there,
if
moment
at P,
E is Young s modulus
and
for
Fy
is
the curva-
the material and
is
262
the least moment of inertia of the cross section everywhere,

about a line through the centre of area of the secP,
Then
tion.
as in Art. 60 the curvature
bemg - t~*
we have
II--^^
Now
if
(1)
the student tries he will find that, as in

and again shall
cases where we have had

have this equation, (see Art. 119)
the
many
7/
<^)
we
known to
99.
\lm
When
(1) whatever value a may have.
see that y
a, so that the meaning of a is
us it is the deflection of the strut in the
satisfies
a:
= a cos X
middle. The student is instructed to follow carefully

the next step in our argument.
When
A"
/, 2/
= 0.
Hence
FY =
a cos ^ a/
*
Notice that
when we choose
expression to which
we put
a sign to -r^ as will
make
fig.
it
to call
equal
-~
(3).
the curvature of a curve,
is essentially positive,
also positive.
Now
99 be studied as we studied the curve of
-r-^ is
re
it
VTr
negative from
a;
to
a:
= O^
and as y
must use - -^ on the right-hand
if
if
the
we must give such
the slope of the curve of
fig.
6,
is positive
we
shall
so that
find
that
is positive,
side.
be found that the comjilete (see Arts, loi and 159) solution of any
such equation as (1) which may be written
It will
y = ^ ^^^ nx + B sin nx
ia
are arbitrary constants. A and B are chosen to suit the

particular problem which is being solved. In the present case it is evident
that, as ?/ =
when x = l and also when x= - I,
where
A and B
0=iA cos 111 + B sin
111,
= A cos 111 - B sin
7il,
so that
ia 0.
STRENGTH OF STRUTS.
263
can this be true ? Either a = 0, or the cosine

Hence, if hending occurs, so that a has some value,
Now if the cosine of an angle is the
the cosine must he 0.
Now how
is 0.
angle must be ^ or
-^
or
confine our attention to
-^
&c.
It
is
easy to see
why we
*.
Hence the condition that bending occurs
is
the load which will produce bending.

This is called
Euler's law of strength.
The load given by (4) will produce
either very little or very much bending equally well.
It
is
is very easy to extend the theory to struts fixed at both ends

or fixed at one end and hinged at the other.
For equilibrium under exceedingly great bending, the

equation (1)
ture
is
not correct, as -r~
when the curvature

it may be taken
purposes
is
is
great,
not equal to the curva-
but
for all
engineering
as correct.
take it that F given by (4), is the load

break a strut if it breaks by bending.
If / is
the compressive stress which will produce rupture and
A is the area of cross section, the load /J. will break the
strut by direct crushing, and we must take the smaller
of the two answers.
In fact we see that /A is to be
taken for short struts or for struts which are artificially*!"
protected from bending, and (4) is to be taken for long struts.
Now, even when great care is taken, we find that struts are
neither quite straight nor homogeneous, nor is it easy to
Consequently when
load them in the specified manner.
loaded, they deflect with even small loads^ and the}^ break
with loads less than either /A or that given by (4).
191.
which
We may
will
* This gives the least value of W.

The meaning of the other cases is
one or more times between x = and x = l, so that
that y is assumed to be
the strut has points of inflexion.
t This casual remark contains the whole theory of struts such as are used
in the Forth Bridge.
264
Curiously enough, however, when struts of the same section

but of different lengths are tested, their breaking loads
follow, with a rough approximation to accuracy, some rule as
to length.
Let us assume that as F=fA for short struts,
and what is given in (4) for long struts, then the formula
F=
-a
.(5)
may be taken to be true for struts of all lengths, because it is

true both for short and for long ones. For if I is gieat
we may neglect 1 in the denominator, and our (5) is really (4)
again, when / is small, we may regard the denominator as
only 1 and so we have W=fA.
We get in this way an
empirical formula which is found to be fairly right for all
struts.
To put it in its usual form, let I Ak^, k being the
least radius of gyration of the section
its
about a line through
centre of gravity, then
(6),
I-
where a is ^//Ett^ or rather / and a are numbers best

determined from actual experiments on struts.
If F does not act truly at the centre of each end, but at
the distance h from it, our end condition is that y = h when
This will be found to explain why struts not perfectly
break with a load less than what is given in (4).
Students who wish to pursue the subject are referred to
pages 464 and 513 of the Engineer for 1886, where initial
want of straightness of struts is also taken account of
00=^1.
ti-uly loaded,
We
had better confine our

192. Struts with Lateral Loads.
attention to a strut with hinged ends.
If the lateral loads are such
that by themselves and the necessary lateral supporting forces, they
produce a bending moment which we shall call ^ (.r), then (1) Art. 190
becomes
Thus let a strut be uniformly loaded laterally, as by centrifugal force

or its own weight, and then <j> {a:)~^ w' {l x)^ if w' is the lateral load
per unit length.
STRUTS LATERALLY LOADED.
We
where
find
it
slightly
more convenient
the total lateral load
is
to take
265
<f)
(x)
= ^Wl cos ^x
this is not a very different law.
Hence
dh/
Wl
^
(1)-
d^^+m^-^^W'''2i''=^
We find
here that
cos- r
y="-r3
(2).
Observe that when i^=0 this gives the shape of the beam.
The deflexion in the middle is
..
= -i?^
and the greatest bending moment
fi
(3),
is
M = ^yi+iTf/,or
-i--^7(^^--)
(^)-
If TF=0 and if fx has any value whatever, the denominator of (4)

must be 0. Putting it equal to 0, we have Euler's law for the strength
of struts which are so long that they bend before breaking.

value of
be called U, or U=ETii^/4l^y (4) becomes
>^=i^''^T&F
If Euler's
'^)-
If Zc is the greatest distance of a point in the section from the

neutral line on the compressive side, or if I-^Zc=^Z, the least strength
modulus of the section, and A is the area of cross section, and if / is
the maximum compressive stress to which any part of the strut is
subjected,
n
Z'^
Using this expression,
if /3
A-
stands for
load per square inch of section), and
if
-r
(that
is
stands for
-r
Euler's Breaking
(the true break-
ing load per inch of section), then

()
(^-?)(^-f)=:^
This formula
not difficult to remember.
From
it lo
may
be found.
Every point in an iron or steel coupling rod^ of length

moves aljout a radius of r inches. Its section is rectangular,
Example.
26 inches,
is
266
d inches in the plane of the motion and b at right angles to

may take W=lbdrn^'7-62940y in pounds, where 7i = number
We
this.
of revolutions per minute.

Take it as a strut hinged at both ends, for both
directions in which it may break.
For bending in the direction
1st.
force
where/
which there
in
is
no centrifugal
^^^
is
12'
Euler's rule gives
.(7).
48^2
Now we shall take this as the endlong load which will cause the
strut to break in the other way of bending also, so as to have it equally
ready to break both ways.
Bending in the direction in which bending is helped
2nd.
centrifugal force.
Our w of (6) is the above quantity of (7) divided
bdf or taking
by
by
iS'=3xlO",
b^
'?t'=6'17x^xlO.
Taking the proof stress / for the steel used, as 20000 lb. per sq. inch
(remember to keep^ low, because of reversals of stress), and recollecting
the fact that
/ in
this other direction is
Thus
X 108
- 308
we have
6= 1, Z= 30, r= 12,
for example, if
(6)
becoming
62
b'
d^
right for the following speeds.
n from
12
8-4
ai'e
r-s^
)- nH^r-T-d
the following depths
It is well to
(8).
c?
inches,
assume d and calculate
(8).
<^
1-5
I
2-5
0|205 277 327 368 437 545
Exercise.
round bar of steel, 1 inch in diameter, 8 feet long, or
Take i^=1500 lb. Show that an endlong load only
inches.
sufficient of itself to produce a stress of 1910 lb. per sq. in., and a
Z
= 48
bending moment which by itself would only produce a stress of 816 lb.
per sq. inch if both act together, produce a stress of 23190 lb. per
;
sq. inch.
For other interesting examples the student

Philosophical Magazine for March, 1892. t
is
refeiTed
to
The
CHAPTEE
III
ACADEMIC EXERCISES.
we
dealt only with the differentiain Chapter II. with ^ and

sin aw, and unless one is really intending to make a rather
complete study of the Calculus, nothing further is needed.
In Chapter I.
193.
tion and integration of
ic"
and
Our knowledge of those three functions is sufficient for

It will be found,
nearly every practical engineering purpose.
indeed, that many of the examples given in this chapter might
have been given in Chapters I. and II. For the differentiation and integration of functions in general, we should
have preferred to ask students to read the regular treatises,
skipping difficult parts in a first reading and afterwards
returning to these parts when there is the knowledge
which it is necessary to have before one can understand
them. If a student has no tutor to mark these difficult parts
for him, he will find them out for himself by trial.
By means
differentiate
of a few rules it is easy to become able to

any algebraic function of cc, and in spite of our
wish that students should read the regular treatises we are

weak enough to give these rules here. They are mainly used
to enable schoolboys to prepare for examinations and attain
These boys so seldom learn more
facility in differentiation.
of this wonderful subject, and so rapidly lose the facility in
question, because they never have
learnt
really
what -^
means, that we are apt with beginners to discourage
much
practice in differentiation, and so err, possibly, as much as the

If, however, a man sees
older teachers, but in another way.
clearly the object of his work, he ought to try to gain this
The knack is
facility in differentiation and to retain it.
easily learnt, and in working the examples he will, at all
268
events, become more expert in manipulating algebraic and

trigonometric expressions, and such expertness is all-important
to the practical man.
In Chapters I. and II. we thought it very important

that students should graph several illustrations of
y=
y = ae^, y = a sin {hcc + c).

So also they ought to graph any new function which comes
before them. But we would again warn them that it is better
to have graphed a few very thoroughly, than to have a hazy
belief that one has graphed a great number.
The engineer discovers himself and his own powers in
the first problem of any kind that he is allowed to work out
completely by himself. The nature of the problem does not
matter; what does matter is the thoroughness with which
he works it out.
Graph y = tan ax. We assume that the student has
already graphed y = ** sin nx.
cwJ",
If y =f(x), so that when a particular value of on is

194.
chosen, y may be calculated let a new value of x be taken,
x+Bx, this enables us to calculate the corresponding value
ofy,
;
y + By^f(x-{-Bx).
or
Now
subtract and divide by Bx, and
we
By_ f{x-^Bx)--f(x')
Bx~
Bx
find
^^^
We are here indicating, generally, what we must do with

any function, and what we have already done with our famous
three, and we see that our definition of dy/dx is, the
limiting value reached by (1) as Bx is juade smaller and
195.
It is evident from this definition that the differential
coefficient of af(x), is a multiplied by the differential coefficient of fix), and it is easy to show that the differential
sum
is equal to the sum of the

In some of the examples of
we have assumed this without proof
coefficient of
of functions
differential coefficients of each.
Chapter
I.

DIFFERENTIATION OF A PRODUCT.
269
We may put the proof in this form

Let y=u + v + w, the sum of three given functions of x.
Let X become os-{- hx,f\et u become
+ Su, v become v-{-Sv,
and w become w -f îv. It results that if becomes y + 5y, then
8y = Bit -^ hv + Biu,
:
ii
ij
By
and
Bw
Bv
Bit
= ^ + ?- + F~
ox
ox
ox
ox
and
5^^
,.
,,
dy du
-r^ = âx ax
m the limit
.
196.
dw
dv
+ ax
t" + -?
ax
Differential Coefficient of
a Product of two Func-
tions.
Let y = uv where u and

becomes x + Bx, let
y-\-By
v are functions of x.
= {ii + Bi()(v + Bv) uv
Subtracting
we
{- ^l
Bv
+v
When x
Bu { Bu
Bv.
find
By
,
Bv
-^^
Bu
By
B^
Bu
ox
ox
Kox
f-Û'^-hv
and
-{
Bu
Bu
ox
Bv>
+ ^'Bv.
We now imagine Bx, and in consequence (for this is

always assumed in our work) Bti^ Bv and By to get smaller
du
and smaller without
be, -r-
ax
Bv
must
Consequently, whatever
limit.
in the limit
become
0,
dy_
dv
da
dx
dx
dx'
-r*-
may
and hence
The student must translate this for himself into ordinary

language.
It is in the same way easy to show, by writyig
uvto as uv X w, that if t/ = uvw then
dy
-rax
Illustrations.
we may
write
it
dw
= wv -7 +
ax
du
+
ax
viv -,-
dv
wit
-J-
"
ax
If y = 10a;'' then, directly,

5^' x 2x^.
y=
^=
lOa^.
But

270
Our new
^=
rule gives
00^ (8^)
20,-^
The student ought
to
(15*'0
= Ô*-" + SOaf =
70af.
manufacture other examples
for
himself.
Differential Coefficient of
197.
Let
= - when u and
?/
v are functions of x.
y + oy=
Then
a Quotient.
Subtract and we find

__
^
"^
w 4- Sw
" v+Bv
hi/ __
Bx"
to.^v
'
v'^+v .Sv
Bu
8x
v'^
u _v .8u
Bv
Bx
+ v .Sv
Letting Bx get smaller and smaller without limit, v Bv

0, and we have
.
becomes
dy
dx
du
dx
dv
dx
v^
Here again the student must translate the rule into

ordinary language, and he must get very well used indeed to
the idea that
it is
du
-v" which comes
ax
first
Denominator into differential coefficient of numeminus numerator into differential coefficient

denominator, divided by denominator squared.
rator^
of-
few illustrations ought to be manufactured.
24a;^
y = -^
ox
By
,i
IS really Sa?^,
our rule,
dy
and -j-
ax
t
.^
)oi^.
^^
^^ = 40^.
Thus
d^^dy
dx
The student
again y =
ouffht to
dz
dz^
'
271
dx'
work a few
^ = 1^~^, and verify
like
y=
-^r-
= 5x~^
or
for himself.
If y is given as a function of z, and ^ is given as a

198.
function of x, then it is easy to express y as a function of oj.
Thus if 2/ = 6 log (az^ 4- g) and ^ = c + c?^ + sin ex, then
2/
= 6 log {a (c-\- dx-\- sin eaj)^ + ^}.
Now under such circumstances, that is, y =/{z) and

2 = F (x), if for X we take x + 5^, and so calculate z + S^, and
with this same z -\-Bz we calculate y + %, then we can say
that our 8y is in consequence of our Bx, and
Bx
^'
8x
Sz
is evidently true because we have taken care that the

two things written as Bz shall be the same thing. On this
supposition, that the two things written as Sz remain the
same however small they become, we see that the rule (1) is
true even when Sx is made smaller and smaller without
limit, and as we suppose that Bz also gets smaller and
This
smaller without limit,
dx"dz
dx
'
^*
This is such an enormously important proposition that

a student ought not to rest satisfied until he sees very
clearly that it is the case.
For we must observe that the
symbol dz cannot stand by itself we know nothing of dz by
itself; we only know of the complete symbols dy/'dz or dzjdx.
;
We
be
are very unwilling to plague a beginner, but it would

matter too easily.
fatal to his progress to pass over this
Therefore he ought to illustrate the law by a few examples.
Thus
-r
'
and
= az^
and z=hx\
As -^ =
Saz^, -y-
= Qabz^x
or Qab^x^.
But by
substitution, y
let ^
y
-T-
if
we
dz
differentiate directly
student ought to manufacture
dx
= 2hx, we
we get the same

many examples
have
= abâf,
answer.
for
himsel
272
An
ingenious student might illustrate (2) by means of three

curves, one connecting z and x, the other connecting z and y
and a third produced by measurements from the other two,
and by means of them show that for any value of x the slope
of the y, X curve is equal to the product of the slopes of the
But in truth the method is too complex to be
other two.
By an extension of our reasoning we see that
instructive.
_ dy dw du dv
dw du dv dx
dy
dx
199.
It is
'
.(3).
'
'
a much easier matter to prove that
dv dx
:t^x-- =
dx dy
by drawing a curve, because
it is
(4),
^ ^
easy to see that
cotangent of the angle of which -~
is
-y-
is
the
the tangent.
Otherwise: if by increasing i by &c we obtain the

increment By of y, and if we take this same By, so foimd, we
ought to be able to find by calculation the very same Bx with
which we started. Hence
Bx
By
On
however small Bx may become,
proviso,
this
true and therefore (4)
To
_.
(5) is
is true.
If a gas engine indicator

easy to find from it by applying
Art. 57, a diagram for h, the rate at which the stuff shows
that it is receiving heat in foot-pounds per unit change of
volume, on the assumption that it is a perfect gas receiving
heat from some furnace. (In truth it is its own furnace;
the heat comes from its own chemical energy.) Just as
200.
diagram
pressure
is
is
illustrate
taken,
dW
-j-
it
(2).
is
the rate at which work
change of volume
so ^
is
-=-
dv
is
done per unit
Observe that h
is
in the
same units as p, and to draw the curve for h it is not necessary

to pay any attention to the scales for either p or v.
They
ILLUSTRATIONS.
273
may be measured as inches on the diagram. We know of

no better exercise to bring home to a student the meaning
a differential coefficient, than to take the indicator
diagram, enlarge it greatly, make out a table of many values
of
of
and
j>
This
is
and
V,
find
approximately
for
each value of
better than by drawing tangents to the curve.
v.
Using
rlTT
these values, and having found the values of A or
-p
at
every place, suppose we want to find the rate per second at

which the stuff is receiving heat. If t represents time,
-rr
,
r-
-77
and hence
it is
only necessary to multiply h
dv
As
dv
-7T is
represented by the velocity of the piston, and as
the motion of the piston is, as a first approximation, simple

harmonic, we describe a semicircle upon the distance on the
diagram which represents the stroke, and the ordinates of the
di)
semicircle
represent
-j-
We
have therefore to multiply
every value of h by the corresponding ordinate of the semicircle, and we obtain, to a scale easily determined, the
diagram which shows at every instant

Havins:
seen that -^^
dx
= -^
dv
-^
-^ and that
dx
= 1^-7-,
we
dy
dx
often treat dx or dy as if it were a real algebraic

quantity, recollecting however that although dy or dx may
appear by itself in an expression, it is usually only for
facility in writing that it so appears
thus the expression
shall
M.dx + N.dy =
may
appear, where
M and N are
this really stands for
Again,
if
y=
ax^,
M+N-^ =
we may
but
(2).
write
dy = 2ax dx
.
P.
(1),
functions of x and y
(3),
18
274
but this only stands
~~
for
= 2ax
(4).
Our main reason for doing it is this, that if we wish to

integrate (3) we have only to write in the symbol /, whereas,
if we wish to integrate (4) we must describe the process in
have
words, and yet the two processes are really the same.
already used dx and dy in this way in Chap. I.
We
Mere mathematical illustrations of Art. 198 may be manuBut satisfying food for thought on the
factured in plenty.
The law is true; it is not
subject, is not so easy to find.
but the student needs to make the law
difficult to prove it
part of his mental machinery, and this needs more than
;
academic
'proof.'
Let us now use these
Let y = log x this statement
201.
X=
Hence
e'^
principles.
-,-
ay
e^ x
and
-fax
=x
is
exactly the
We
same as
used the idea
that the integral of x~^ is logd?, in Chap. I., without proof.

It is the exceptional case of the integration of ".
If the differential coefficient of sin a? is

differential coefficient of sin ax,
202.
known
to
be cos X, find the
y = sin ax
sin
u\iu = ax,
dy
J du
-Y- = cos u and -r
du
dx
^y
-!i
dx
xi
so that
dii
r=
-^
du
du
= cos uxa
dx
= a,
a cos ax.
Find the differential coefficient of 3/ = cos ax, knowing

that the differential coefficient of sin x is cos a?,
dy
= cos ax = Bm.lax +
dy
~l
du
'~^
^^s u
-^\
X a
sin u say,
/
where
7r\
a cos {ax-{--^j
;7-
= ,
asinaa.
.
'
FUNDAMENTAL
Let
203.
2/
_dy
rfa;
dii
a?
'
cos
_\ _
dx
sin
a;
=1
and
The student ought

manner also.
=-
( sin x)
cos X
1
cos** a^
work
to
We
= cot X.
a;
-j^
x+a'
cos'^
(ia?
dii
-,-
Treat this as a quotient, y =
= tan x.
y = loer u, then
or
dy
dy __ cos
205.
275
CASES.
= log(x+a).
Assume x-\-a= ti,
204.
'
this
now have
example in a direct
many methods.
choice of
X
Treat this as a quotient,
y=
^
^
sm X
dy _ sin x ( sin x) cos x (cos x) _
~
sin^ x
câ;
or we might have treated it in this way,
cos
-.
y
ir''
dx
-T-
dx
= u~^
if
ii
Let y
COS^'fl?
cos*
fl?
Then
and
~ = cos
dx
3/
= 6*""^*,
say y =
so that
1
1
sinâ?
cosec^ ic.
= sin
-r-
= 2aa7,
-=^
= cos u,
X 2ax =
^6
e",
dy
^=
cos'â?
say y
du
Let
= taniJ7,
11
= sin aar^,
so that
a?
= i^~- X
tanâ;
206.
1
sin^
c?u
J-
x,
and
it
= aa-^.
2aa7 cos ax^,
and w = a sin a?, so that
e",
~- = eâ cos
t^,
= a cos
or a cos
a?
a?,
e**'^"*
182
CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERS.-
276
207.
y sec x. We may either treat this as a quotient,
or as follows y = (cos ijc)~^ = u~^ if u = cos x.
;
dy dy
du
-Y- == sin a?, j^ = -/
ax du
ax
du
J =
ax
u-^,/(
sm a?)
^
x
'
sin 33
sec X . tan x.
cos'*;??
In Art. 1 1 the equation to the cycloid was given in

208.
terms of an auxiliary angle <!>; x = a<t> a sin (f), y = a a cos (f).
~ any
Here ^^^ J^^^^
dx
dx
Find - and
at
point.
'
d(j)
'
d(j)
d(f>
,,.
,.
= a sm d>(a
=
^'^ a cos 0)
^^
sin</>
^~
'^ = - (^] =
Also
dx \dx)
dx^
(1
cos
^^
<f)
(1
'"a(l-cos</))2'~
If
If
and use
it
useful as
it
-^
(a
- a cos
+ 2/'*=a'*
in terms of
-,-
But
in (2).
?f
for
x^
if
x only we must
a great
many
ifi
+^=
4.?^^=0
a?'^
if
^^
</))
(1),
stands.
In the same way,
Agam,
JLX2
<^)'*
2/'*-
a^
we want
\dx)
^_a
-1
209.
l--cos<^
(Â X ^
dx
d<t>
sin d) (sin 6)
^^cos ^cos
<f))
V"
dx
or
1,
^--^^
dx~
--2-n=l :r ="~2--
a'y'
find
y from
(1)
purposes (2)
is
FUNDAMENTAL
Also
y = i^-î
If
If
Let
u;^ 4- 2/^
if
2/
//
sin 2a;
= i t^^^^ + t^^ ^'

m
if
dx
dy
cos
211.
We
must give
Similarly
if
y = cos~^
Similarly
so that
the angle whose
is
= Vl
a;^.
root,
and our answer may
x,
Vl-x^'
~ = cos^=
213.
= 2a;,
Let y tan~^ x, so that x
dy
to -^ the sign of cos y.
dy
dx
212.
a).
^/l-.a^'
have extracted a square

.
= cos*
^^^*' ^'
In words, y
We
or
-j-
ct^,
y 's/i sin'-^ y
dy
dx
Hence
= a-^ +
2x or
210.
Let y = sin~^ x.
sine is x.
Hence x = sin y,
4.x;,
1^>~
*'
= V^2 + a^ = u^
2V7
= a^j
+ yg sin
- = 4?4-i X
be
CASES.
= tan y,
+ tan^y = 1 +x\
'^
if
2/
= cot"^ x,
then
-f-=
-5
278
It will be seen that (2) and (4) of Arts. 198 and

214.
199 give us power to differentiate any ordinary expression,
and students ought to work many examples. They ought
to verify the list of integrals given at the end of the book.
A student ought to keep by him a very complete list of
integrals.
He cannot hope to remember them all. Sometimes it is advisable to take logarithms of both sides before
differentiating, as in the following case
= x^.
Here logy = ^ log ;r,

1
'
dy
dx
| = .^(l +
log,.).t
In the following examples, letters like x, y, z^ v, w,

215.
&c. are used for the variables letters like a, b, c, m, n, &c.
A student gets too familiar with x
are supposed constant.
and y. Let him occasionally change x into ^ or ^ or v, and
change ?/ also, before beginning to differentiate. Ho ought
to test the answer of every integral by differentiation.
0,
Fundamental
List of
-7- x''
dx
= nx''-\
Cases.
L'" .
dx =
*+!
4-
^(log^) = i,
jl.dx^logx;
d
^r-(sm mx)= m cos mx,
dx
[cos 'tnx
J
d
-J-
dx^
cos mx)=
^
.
.,
dx
(tan ax)
m sm mx
dx =
d
a
-^ (cot ax) = -^
dx^
^voâx
.
.dx
m sin mx, rsm mx ,dx m1 cos nix

J
cosâ./;
,
j cos''
[
,
fr.r
dx
-^-T -
J^mâx
~ tan ax ;
cot
ax
;
'
ADVICE TO STUDENTS.
d
-j-
(sin ^x)
..
dx
.
,
dx
279
= Sin"
1
Many integrals that at first sight look different are really

those given above.
Even the use of \/~ or
instead of
the numerical symbol of power or root, disguises a function
to a beginner.
Thus
^~
1
3
IS
ci\/x
and
its
integral
_,
-X*,
(I
is
1 / x-^+' \
a V- i
or z:r-X\
1/
2a
In some of the following integrals certain substitu216.

tions are suggested. The student must not be discouraged if
he cannot see why these are suggested these suggestions are
the outcome of, perhaps, weeks of mental effort by some
dead and gone mathematician. Indeed, some of them are no
better than this, that we are told the answer and are merely
asked to test if it is right by differentiation.
;
Just here, in learning the knack of differentiation and

student who has a tutor for a few lessons has
a gi'eat advantage over a student who works by himself from
a book. Nevertheless the hardworking student who has no
tutorial help has some advantages what he learns he learns
well and does not forget.
The man who walks through
England has some advantages over the man who only takes
railway journeys. In learning to bicycle, I think that on
the whole, it is better to be held on for the first few days
learning the knack of differentiation and integration is not
unlike learning to bicycle.
integi'ation, the
Exercises and Examples.

1.
i/
= xhgx, ^=l+%^'-
'
280
-^
3.
^^
2^Jx
= losf (tan a?),
'^
4.
dx
'
o.
y=
6.
a;
tan X
sec
^y =
^
^1^.
tto;
6<
sin
eta;
1/1
log(log<.),
6^,
where
^r-
...
(sin
X 4- cos x\
-T-
a;
sin 2a;
du
,
-t-= -
dx
^'
"^
= ^/' + ^'
tan
=-
" (6^ +
^*
We
here use the simplification of Art. 116.

note that by page 235, Q (standing for djdt),
upon sin ht^ multiplies its amplitude by 6"
He now sees that if
of n right angles.
upon
e"*
sin
ht,
it
multiplies by
The student will

operating n times
and gives a lead
operates n times
{it? 4- 6^)"^^
and produces a
lead nc.
Thus
^1 = (a= + I/)
sin (6^
+ 2c)
^^ = (a-^ + 62)^' sin {ht + 3c).
and
8.
9-
10.
i^
fl-e
= ^,
2tan-yj-^^,
2/
= log (6^ + 6-0,
dp
c?i/
:
cZ^
e^
= ^^^, t=t^/^.
= aa^+hx + c,
-^7j^
e"
+ e-^
c?a;
-^^
c),
= 2aa; + &.
EXERCISES.
281
p^cv-''\ ^=-l-37ct;-'^'
12.
dv
13
14.
lav-'\av'''dv^--^v-''\
15.
Haf + bt + c)dt=: ât^ + ^bf +
16.
V^
(^
\x^
c?a;
ct
= a-^
=
/f i/r3.<ê=JJ^ -i.
17.
19
dx
+ g.
dx
"^'
2r^
_,
a;
V
20.
we have
vôT+l;
jy^
dy
=f
4m
and in
Here
dv.
let
+ = 2/
1;
so that dv
= ly^ = ^ (a + v)\
Sa
f
m+
3a^
I
2m
this it is easy to substitute
t i-
a^
/
1 m
for y.
= c?y,
and
282
-T
(a
24
25.
Since
26.
.,
~i-, = ^(-^
zaxx
g^d?
2a
If x-
evidently.
--^-l
x-^ a/
^^
^^
dx
+ 2Ax + B
^^
^^ + a
2a
xa
fix
j
of the form just given.
But
there are no real factors, then the integral
if
^^ ''"'^^''
a^
- ^
^
x^-{-2Ax-\-B
has real factors, then

j
is
= dy,
Let x a y,dx = dy
a?-a?
^.
.dt=^-\/a^- 1\
-7^=r_
+ bx)^
3.
23
Let a + 6^ = y so that h .dx
'-
22.
j a?
= B A^ we
27.
tan X.
may
(2x
+ 2Ax + A^TB^rAi
have
J y^
dx=
^- which
+ a^
is
^"^
if
y=
- tan~* a
a
*'
+^
and
dx. This is our first example

^
cosx
of integrals, where the numerator of a fraction
I
of a great class
is seen to be the differential coefficient of the denominator.
Lot ?/ := cos X, then dy = sin x dx, so that the above integral
.
is
-^
I
or
log y,
or
log (cos
x).
EXAMPLES.
Let/'
28.
and
{oc)
dx
(x) stand for the differential coefficient oif{x),
asked to find
Ave are
283
= dy,
\r7-:
so that the integral
Let f{x) = y, then
becomes
/--=logy=log/(^).
Hence,
if
the numerator of a fraction
is
seen to be the
ential coefficient of the denominator, the
answer
differ-
is
log (denominator).
_^
If 2bx .dx
X dx
Reduce
to a simpler form.
If the
^
OX "T" cx
numerator were 2cx + b, the integral would come under our
rule in Ex. 28.
Now the numerator can be put in the shape
31.
Ct "T"
,^
-(2c^
+
so
we may
2cx
^j a +
The
7x
6)
+h
nh\
dx
bx + cx^^'^'''^V''~2c)j a
^^
write the integral as
latter integral is given in
na
+ m-
+b
+ bx + cx'
Example
f2x .dx
C b.
26.
dx
= vUog(a2 +
_
33.
.7'^)
+ -tan-i-.
sin x .dx
1
X .dx = -,-1 fb-
= -rlog(a + *cos*').
cos
r sin
Ja + b cos i
b J
CI
+6
a;

CALCULUS
284
34
14^
xAogx
ENGINEERS.
Foil
n_+jog^-log^^
xiogx
/'
(I
+ \ogx)dx
a;
log
a;
= log (x log x) log X

= log X 4- log (log ;r) log X
= log (log
When expressions involve a"* and (a + 6^)**,
tuting y = a + bx or y=^ - + b.
Cdx
J x
a;).
try substi-
35.
Thus
*17
f .--^^-.-
<^^'
^^'"^
= -^-Jl_-.
__Jl_lA]
J (a
+ 6^+1 "
+ bx
(f'
+ ba^yda
2m - 1 C
2ma J (a-hh
(a-hbx-y
2^;^ (a
and so we have a formula of reduction.
When
39
rp,,
Thus
40.
Va 4- bx try y^ = a-{- bx.

=
x.dx
2 (2a 6^)
- ..^=_-A_^^ ^s/a + bx.
ob^
Wa + bx
expressions involve
- Vl
4-
log
ic
Try
dx.
Answer
41.
VT~^=^-
Try^
Integration
217.
functions of x,
f (1
=1
-f logo;.
+ log a;)^.
Answer:
i/.
by Parts.
d
dx^
._
^^
uv=
?/
Since, if
dv
du
dx
dx'
u.dv-\-
tan-ê*.
da,
u and
are
EXAMPLES.
or
lu
dv = uv
We may write (1) as

By means
made
V du
(1).
dx=uv
Iv .-j-.doc.
of this formula, the integral
depend upon
to
ju '-r
286
u dv may be
.
v .du.
Thus
42.
so that V
a;+i
=
log
fx
43.
Let
us
it
6"
.dx = - .re"*
a
e**
sin
Let u = sin
^ __
gaa;
But
may be
^_ _
a
dx,
converted, if
e^^
cos
then formula (1) gives us
6a;
COS bx ,dx
dx,
= - e"^ sin 6^
a
aJ
6***
sin
5.
which we have called B,
we take u = cos bx and
cos hx-\- -
ê"*
a^
Call the answer A.
dx.
aJ
e^*
dr = - a?"*
a
= - e^^,
gj^ hx
then formula (1) gives
aJ
bx
e"*
aj
* (a?
6^, v
similarly
guas
loe:
:r
and -t-=^",
dx.
= log a?
=44.
2^
x;--j- = e^^, so that v==-^"';
x.e"^^
Let
Formula (1) gives us
/,
or
rl
to find p**. log a?, c?^.
= - e"*;
bx.dx - e"* cos bx-\-~A,

a
a
.
286
Hence
A = -a
f
A=
e"* sin h.v
Similarly i^
e^""
sin bx
.dx=
** COS
-A]
e"^ cos hx-\-
a \a
"* (a sin
-^
bx dx =
.
,so that
bxb cos bx)

;-y^
^(a cos bx-\-b sin bx)

a-
b"-
By means of Formulae of Reduction we reduce

218.
integrals by successive steps to forms which are known to us.
They are always deduced by the method of integi'ation by
parts.
Thus
I
are"*
dx = - A-6^ - a
aj
x''-'
dx.
to integrate ar*e"*, we make it depend

again using this formula of reduction we make
ââx depend upon arê"*, and so on, till we reduce to xê"^ or t*"*,
If then
upon
we have
xê"^',
whose integral we know.
Thus
L-ê^
(^
o^-^t*
-3
U-ê* dx
= xê^-^\x'e'-2
jxe^
dxl
= (x^-Sx'-^Qx-(j)6\
Some General Exercises.
= sin^ bx, -^âb sin 2bx.
45.
2/
46.
y=^b sin ax^, -~ = bnax^~^ cos ax^.

^
dx
47.
48.
y = (a
= (a + 6a;")",
+ 6^')
e'^*,
-^ = nbx^-^m {a + 6a?*)*-^
-^ =
'^(b
ac
+ bcx).
EXERCISES.
49.
y a"^, -^=â^ log
50.
y=\ogaiCy -r-=\
^
^
dx xioga
--
tdv
52.
v=^â^-t\
53.
u=
du
+t
= log (sin
dv
v^
^/a
a.
Sv""
(l_V2)f' dv
287
(1-V2)f
Vg ( V^- Va)
dv _
-7^
= cot x.
57.
2/
58.
= logya-^sJ=-^,.
1
61.
^ = tan"^
a?),
/l
cost
dy
Jl+P-Jl-t"
-TT
dt
^=
dt
tjf-l'
62.
a;
= sec-i^,
63.
3/
= sin (log v)y-r =
"^
cos (log
v).
Ji-ti
CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERS,
288
_l-\-x
^-
dy'^\
2x
ob^
t;), -^ = -^-s"
^ = log (cot
^
^
sin 2v
dv
66.
*=*
67.
5=e'(l-fX^=*(l-3f''-^).
69.
^=
'^-
/^-fd-r
hr-.
Ti-
= Xtan 6 + sec ^,
Zl
If
71.
a?
Zl
If a; =
78.
If
.T>.
74.
T^
If2,=
75.
L"-^ (a
4.
d^x
that
prove 4.1,4.
that
(1
sin
ey
3^ = g
d*y
COS ^
c?^
6~^ cos a?, prove that

-^^
^
^__,
^^^
prove 4.1,
that -j^
^ log ^, prove
72.
2/
(^-1)'^
rf(9~
+ 4?/ = 0.
24
^ = ^-^-^.
4- &a:") ^/ dx.
If ^/5' be a positive integer, expand, multiply,
(1)
and
integrate each term.
Assume a + hx^ y^ and if this fails,

Assume aaj~" +h y^: this also may fail.
(2)
(3)
76.
af^
co^yâ,
2
(3/^
I
(a
+ x)^
so
that
dx.
Let a + x y"^, then
we have
2a3/* 4- ay) c?y,
which
is
dx2y. dy, and
2 {(y* 2ay^-h a^)y^ ,dy, or

easy.
289
EXERCISES.
2x~^ .dx = 2i/ .dy
78.
^^
we have
so that
Try
+ 1 = ^^
a'â?"*
1 rc^^_ 1
find
0)
+B cos w<, prove that cPx +
79.
If
a?
= -4
80.
If
1*
= xy,
81.
Illustrate the fact that
sin nt
^nd we
-j-^
prove that
^^, = ^
-^
^ + ^-^î
=^
i-
ay ax
7-
ax ay
?i2a;
= 0.
Art. 83)
(see
^
in the following cases
= tan~^ -
w=
82.
y=
83.
ic
sin
sin"*
6a;,
= -'cos6^,
{oi^y),
= ba^ log ai/,
e**^
= sin (aa;** + 63/**),
^*
li
-^
a;
sin
y+y
sin
= log (tan ^
a?,
= e*'* sin"*-^ 6a? (a sin hx + m6 cos hx).
^=
(a
+ 6=')~2 e""' cos(6^ -n^) where
tan d = -
84.
2/
^1
= a;^loga?,^-
1.2.3.4
^
19
290
,,..
2 COS 00
d^y
85.
y = log(8m^),J=-^j^.
86.
Uv = Aiof'^y^^ + A^y^^ + &;c.,
where
+ 6i = Oa + 62 = &c. = n,
aj
n dimensions.
V is called a homogeneous function of x and y of
Show that fl7(-7^)+v(-T-)= ^ând V
= V ^* +
87.
-P are
Illustrate this
when =
1;
3/"-
In general if u =/ (1/ 4- a^) + i" (y

any functions whatsoever, prove that
ax),
where
/ and
dhi,_^(Pu
dx^^'' dy''
the differentiation of course being partial.
If v
89.
If 5 = ae--* sin
y8^ satisfies
and n^ in terms of a and

and
g+
= (x^ + f + ^)-i, prove that
88.
/3,
^ + 2/
or find a
j,
and
g=
+ w^s = 0,
^
0.
find
in terms of
/
/
n^,
If
90.
find
y=
** is
a solution of
As an example take
a.
^__2^^-^^ + 2^ =
da?
da^
and
dx^
dx
'
find its solution.
Answer
ae^-\' be~^
+ ce^ + e,
where
a, 6,
c,
e are
any
constants whatsoever.
219.
To
integrate any fraction of the form
Ax"^
ax""
where
?^
+ Bx"^-"- + Cx"^-^ + &c.

+ 6a?^-i + ca;"-2 + &c.
and n are positive
integers.
(1).
PARTIAL FRACTIONS.
291
If
is greater than or equal to n, divide, and we have a
quotient together with a remainder. The quotient is at once
integrable and we have left a fraction of the form (1) in which
Now the factors of the denominator can
is less than n.
always be found and the fraction split up into partial
fractions.
For every
denominator of the shape x
factor of the
assume that we have a

factor of the shape x^
of the shape
them being
x a
-\-
partial
oix-\-
77;
if
fraction
for
assume that we have a
there are
n equal
every
partial
factors each of
assume that we have the corresponding
partial fractions
Thus
which we
a?
a,
example, suppose we have to deal with a fraction
for
shall
X y8,
a?-
calK^^^ and
+ ax + h,
/(^__4_
"
{x
that
F{pii) splits
7)** we
;
Gx^B
up
into factors
write
x-a'^ x-^'^ af + ax-{-b'^ (^-7)"
F(x)
+ 7^^-T^+&c
(2).
Now
multiply by F{x) all across and we can either

we can exercise a certain amount of
mother wit in finding A, B, C, D, E, F, G, &c.
follow certain rules or
Notice that as we have an identity, that is, an equation

is true for any value of x, it is true if we put a; = a or
which
X ^
we
or
a?
=7
find that
Do all these things and

or x'^ + ax-hb0.
we have obtained A, B, E, C and D. To
find G we may have first to differentiate our identity and

then put ^ = 7 and so on. You will have found it more
difficult to understand this description than to actually carry
out the process.
Having
tion
is
split
our given fraction into partials the integra-
easy.
192
292
a?
^^
Q1
^^
_______
B
_|
Gx-\-D
= ZX^^ -f I) + 5 (^ - 1) (^=^ + 1) + {Cx -{-D)(x- If.

Let dr^+l = 0, and we have with not much difficulty
= 1, and we have ^ = J. To find B,
(7= - J. i) = 0. Put
make x = 0, and we find B=^. Hence we have to inte-
Hence
x''
a?
grate
and the answer
-|
When
11
11
2(07-1)2
2^-1
2l+af'
is
-^ + ilog(-l)-Jlog(^= +
there are r equal quadratic factors,
l).
we assume the
partials
(x'
+ cuc + ^y
+ axi-^y-^'^
{x'
how all the constants are deterseldom, however, have complicated cases in our
practical work.
It is not difficult to see
We
mined.
Integrate
92.
assume
it
^-^^-^
or
-^^^^-^^^;
to be equal to
X "â;+3"â;-2'
x^-\-x-l^M{x-\-^){x-'2,)-^Nx (a;- 2)+
so that
As
3 and find N, put

that the given fraction splits
put ^ =
Qx
xl
up
3a7+3
into
2a;-2'
is
Jloga?-i-ilog(a^
P^ {x^- 3).
put x = and find M,

and find P. Thus we find
this is true for all values of x,
+ 3) + ilog(^-2).
EXERCISES.
=
94.
+
5^2
-6
15a;
- 1) + 41
J tan-1^4- i
32
^243
find
log(H-a^')- i log(l
4-^).
+9
+ l"^(a;-3)2 ^--3'
=
^
8, A = - 5, ^3== 17
^3-5a;24-3^
a;
is
-81og(^4-l)+-^ + l71og(a;~3).
^^^-
log {x
^-^^
and we
(a;
- 2).
1^-7^3-6'^
//û.^^1
95
log
298
/^ + i- 3 = ^
l"g
(^'
+ 3) + i log i^ - !)
\,

294
r (2a;
107
j(a;
5)
3)(a;
108.
dx __
+ i>
= -7=tan^
^+1
+ l)'^^^''^^+3*
2(a;
7=.
a;+4
Maxima and Minima. If we draw any curve

220.
with maxima and minima points, and also draw the curve
showing the value of -~ in the
where y
1
^vnere
is
maximum,
is
J
mmimum, ^V
t =^ and
-f-
any practical example we can
/x
find
we
curve,
and -~
first
d^y
-^^
is
notice that
negative; whereas,
is
:
positive,
T<.
it
in
no easier way of discrimi-
nating, Ave use this way.
Notice, however, that what is here called a maximum,

means that y has gradually increased to that value
and begins to diminish, y may have many maximum and
value,
: .
'
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.
minimum
values, the curve
nor a
^^
and ~- =
a 3c
minimum
Find the
so that there is neither a
y ceasing
value,
See M,
ning" to increase again.

1.
Notice that -^
wavy.
beinsr
(Py
may be
295
to increase
and then begin-
fig. 6.
maximum and minimum
values of
Answer
2.
maximum
Find the createst value of .
t-tt-^
Answer
+ hy
{a
3.
Prove that a sec 6-\-h cosec ^
is
J.
^ and
minimum when
tan 6
4.
When
is
5.
When
is x'^
= V5
a
{a
xy^
maximum ?
a
maximum
Answer
or
minimum ?
ma
Answer x =
m+n
.
6.
Given
the
angle
(7
A + sin^ 5 is a maximum
mum when A=B.
sin^
of
and
triangle,
cos'^
x = ^.
maximum.
prove that
a mini-
A + cos^ J5 is
7.
y = asmx-\-h cos x. What are the maximum and
tninimum values of y ?
Answer maximum is y = \/aFTb^, minimum is - Va^ + .
:
8.
Find the
least value of
a ton
+ bcot
6.
Answer
9.
Find the
maximum and minimum

^^^ + 2^ + 11
i2
4-
4^
2 âh.
values of
+ 10
Answer 2 a maximum and f a minimum.

Students ought to plot the function as a curve on squared
:
paper.
296
10.
maximum and minimum

a^-x + 1
Find the
x^
values of
+ os-l'
Answer
11.
Answer
What
ztr
a;- 10
a minimum.
x=A
gives a
value of c will
maximum, a;= 16 a minimum.
make
v a
maximum
if
?;
= - logo?
Answer
13.
If^ =
1.
Find the values of x which make y =

^
maximum and
12.
maximum,
yt^Nah
-^
^^
gives a
mmimum
= e.
value
1 A
14.
- cos ^^
15.
sin"
What
^
u
value of
-IT
c will
16.
When
is
tan'^
a?
ft
_
9
19.
find
=q
minimum
Answer:
, ?
tan**
(a
^^
+ ^v
its
The
x.
if
a;
i.
a;)
is
a;
maximum when
2a;) =
n-\-m
tan
a.
= 3 a maximum,
= 3 a minimum.
Given the vertical angle of a triangle and
when
20.
v a
value to
tan (a
make
maximum
4^ 15a^4- 12a; 1 a maximum or minimum

= J a maximum
= 2 a minimum.
Answer
17.
(ives a
3
base
is
its area,
a minimum.
characteristic of a series
^=Tâ
Dynamo
is
W.
MAXIMA AND MINIMA.
297
is a number proportional to the angular velocity of

the armature, and a and s depend upon the size of the iron,
number of turns &c.,
is the E.M.F. of the armature in volts
and (7 the current in amperes. If r is the internal resistance
of the machine in ohms and i^ is an outside resistance,
the current
where a
^'=4^
(2),
and the power given out by the machine
is
P:=OR
What
value of
Here
R will
and
(2)
make
(1) give
P a maximum
--^ -^ =
1+5(7=-^,
So that
(3).
r-\-R'
(7.
C=if-^-lV
s \r -\-R
J
'-7(;:fji-')'.-<"'S-.
we have
{-^ - iT + 2i2 {-^- \\ {- ,ô,.! =
Rejecting
r-\-R
r-15
(r
a are given.
with curves.
^ 1 =
because
it
gives (7=0,
0-
we have
r and
7^ and from this R may
^ be found if
Take a = l'2, 5 = 0'03, r = *05 and illustrate
+ Ry
>
21.
man is at sea 4 miles distant from the nearest
point of a straight shore, and he wishes to get to a place 10
miles distant from this nearest point, the road lying along
the shore. He can row and walk. Find at what point he
ought to land, to get to this place in the minimum time, if he
rows at 3 miles per hour and walks at 4 miles per hour.
Assume that he can equally well leave his boat at one place
as at another.
298
Fig. 100, ^C=4, CT=10

Let him land
CD = X. Then AD = Vl6+a-^ and D^ = 10 .
at
where
a;.
Hence the
total
time in hours
-.
or
This is a minimum when ^^(16 +^)~*=J, or J^'=16+a;*,

= 4*535 miles.
a;
of a certain kind of incandescent

probable life I in hours, was found experimentally
to approximate on the average to
The candle power c
22.
lamp X
its
Iq
]^Qll-89700764et>
where v is the potential difference in volts. The watts

expended per candle power were found to be
tt;
3-7
+ 108 O07-07667W
The
price of a lamp being 2^., the lamps being lighted

560 hours per year, and one electrical horse-power (or
746 watts) costing 2 for this year of 560 hours, find the
most economical v for these lamps, so that the total cost in
lamps and power may be a minimum.
for
J- lamps are needed per

.
per year
is
then
56
-y-
in pounds,
year, each costing
and
means
pounds per candle
Cost
this is for c candles, so that

.
cost per year in
01.
is
56
y-
Now
1 per year
746
^ watts, so that the cost per year per
_x
56
This added to
746
,,
watts.
gives total cost in watts.
candle
is
INDETERMINATE FORMS.
We
have
and
Ic
R y 74fi
-x\j
<j\j /^
lu
as functions of
-|^Q_ii.697+o 07545W
Hence
v.
g-^
299
_I_
]^Q8 007 07667V
It
is to
be made a minimum.
Answer
i;
101*15
volts.
221.
Sometimes when a particular value is given to ^ a
function takes an indeterminate form.
Thus for example
in Art. 43, the area of the curve y=mx~^^ between the ordinates
/* mx~^^ dx was
.
Now when
may
this
,= 1 the area becomes
TYl
(6^~"^
^ (1
a}~^).
1) or ^,
and
obviously have any value whatsoever.
In any such
fix)
case, say 4r/'J

{X)
>
'^^
fipd
and
F {a) = 0, we
proceed as follows. We take a value of x very near to a and

find the limiting value of our expression as x is made nearer
and nearer to a in value. Thus \q\} x a-\- hx.
Now
that
as hx
f{x + hx)
in this
is
is
made
smaller and smaller
more and more nearly f{x)
we put x=a, f{x)
quently our fraction*
The
+ hx
or f(ci) disappears,
is
it
evident
dfix)^
If
and conse-
becomes more and more nearly
rule then adopted is this

Differentiate the numerator
oidy and call it a new numerator; differentiate the denominator only and call it a new denominator; now insert the
critical value of x, and we obtain the critical value of our
fraction.
The process may need repetition.
Example
loP"
1.
Find the value of
X ~~'
when x = l,
CALCULUS FOR EiNGINEERS.
300
First try,
and we see that we have
Now
0/0.
follow the
1
oc
above
rule,
and we have - and inserting
in this
a;
= 1 we
get
1 as our answer.
rmd
2.
First try
Now
^
a?
= c,
try ^,
Find
and we get
,
_^
Now repeating
3.
Answer
Try the example referred
what
is
a^"") = A.
the value of
Answer: -.
n
when x = 0.
(6^~"
0/0.
when x=l.
^-
5.
^j
c.
and again we get
Find
is
0/0.
4.
curve
a?
our process we get r
scl
a?"
r when
^,
b,
m 171
of a
a are constants,
Writing
1?
j-
The area
to above.
If m,
when n =
log
it
as
numerator and denominator with regard

and we have, since
differentiate both
to n,
A(5i-)=6^-.log6x(-l),
6^~" log b
7)1
and
if
we
insert
n=
-- a^~" log a
,
1 in this,
we get
m (log b log a)
m log -
or
CL
which
is
indeed the answer we should have obtained
instead of taking our integral
a;~"
dx
p~^ dx
.
if
as following the rule
7l-\-l + c,
GLOSSARY.
we had remembered
301
that in this special case

]a;~^
dxlogiv.
I'
222 J Glossary and Exercises.
A straight line which gets closer and

x ov y gets greater and greater without
Asymptote.
to a curve
sls
Thus y = - Jx^
^
Now
a Hyperbola.
a^ is
as
closer
limit.
x gets greater
- is less and less important, the equation

X
T
approaches more and more y=- x, which is the asymptote.
a
and
greater, so that
The
test for
an asymptote
for points further
that -^ has a limiting value
is
and further from the
cept of a tangent on the axis of
Point of Osculation.
Cusp.
inter-
^^
A point where -^^ changes
Point of Inflection.
more equal values of
and the
dx
y -^ has a limiting
oiy.y x -j-, has a limit-
x,
value, or the intercept on the axis

ing value.
origin,
sign.
point where there are two or
Where two branches of a curve meet at a common
tangent.
An
Coi^Jugate Point.
isolated point, the coordinates
of which satisfy the equation to the curve.
Point
d' AiTet.
curve suddenly stops.
point at which a single* branch of a

Example, the origin in y = a? log x.
The Companion to the Cycloid.
The Epitrochoid.
x={a + h) cos
y = (a
-f-
6) sin
x-a{\ -cos
<^
(/>),
- m6 cos f ^ +
1
m6 sin
T-
-f
</>,
(f>,
302
where
h is the radius of the rolling circle, a is the radius of

the fixed circle, and mb = distance of tracing point along
Make m=l, and this is
radius from centre of rolling circle.
the Epicycloid.
^ = (a fe)cos<^+m6cos
The H3rpotrochoid.
^-1 J<^,
y= (rt 6)sin<^ ??i6sin(7- 1

Make
and we have the Hypocycloid.

and obtain a Hypocycloid in the form
a;* + y* = ai
Take a = 26, and obtain the Hypocycloid which
??i
Take a
]</).
1,
= 46,
is
straight line.
In obtaining the Cycloid, Art. 11,
anywhere on a radius of the

duced and obtain a? = a (1
the tracing point be
m cos <^),
= a (<^ + m sin <^).
< 1, we have a prolate or a curtate Cycloid.

The Lemniscata (a^ + y^y= a^ (jx^ ^y^) becomes in polar
If wi
>
let
rolling circle or the radius pro-
1,
or
= a* cos 26,
coordinates r*
and taking successively ^ =

graph the curve easily.
0,
= '1,
&c.,
we
calculate r
The Spiral of Archimedes, r = ad.

The Logarithmic or Equiangular Spiral, r =
The Logarithmic Curve. y=a\ogba)-{- c.
The Conchoid a^ = (a + xy ( - x') becomes
The
The
The
The
The
r = a + 6 sec 6.
= a^/{2a x) becomes r =
Cardioide. r = a (1 cos 0).
CiBBoid
y^
Hyperbolic
Spiral.
a2.
Trisectrix.
= a (2 cos ^ +
y=^
ae*^
2a tan 6 sin
.
d.
r6=a.
I.ituusis?^2^ =
r
and
1).
^, show that there are points of

X
inflexion where a? is and a VS; the axis of x is an asymptote
on both sides there are points of maxima where x = a and
a the curve cuts the axis of ac at 45.
1.
In the curve
~i~
303
EXAMPLES.
In
2.
aj^y
where x =
y=
b,
If y^x =
3.
,
= 36^?^ a^ show that there is a point of inflexion
4a'^
inflexion
when oo=
(2a a?), show that there are two points of
3a
-zr-
^ 2a
y=^-j=-.
V3
a^) = ^,
show that the equations

asymptotes are y=^-\-x and y=- w.
If
4.
a?
{x^
The curve a^ y^ a^ cuts the
5.
at
2/^
=a
where there
Show
6.
that y
is
axis of
to
the
at right angles
a point of inflexion.
= a^xjiah + ^)
has three points of in-
flexion.
Prove again the statements of Exercise
7.
and work the exercises

8.
2,
Art. 99,
there.
Find the subtangent and subnormal to the curve y =
Answer
9.
subtangent - subnormal
,
ae^^^.
Find the subnormal and subtangent to the catenary.
=!{-
Answer
c
= -J6<'
subnormal
"l
=c
subtangent
10.
e***
Find the subtangent of the curve

x^
Hence
Saycc + y* = 0,
ây-j^
^
ax
dx
y^
Subtangent at point
x,
is
y-^ = y ^
(ty
ocr
cty
304
11.
In the curve
asymptote.
Here
by
As x
division.
and smaller and
2/^
i/^
a?^
find the equation to the
\=ia^
greater and greater,
is
-\
1-
---
+ &c. j
&c. get smaller
in the limit (see Art. 3)
3/=^(l+^).
y={x^-a\
So we have a pair
of asymptotes
y=
x-\-a,
y=x
a.
Again, the straight line x = a,a> line parallel to the axis of

y, is also an asymptote, y becoming greater and greater as
X gets nearer and nearer to a in value.
12.
Find the tangent to y*
Hence
13.
+ a^ = a*.
at the point x^, y^ the tangent
In the curve
3/
2 = (a? 1) Va; 2,
At what angle does the curve cut the
^ = a/^\
is
axis
where
is
-^ =
This is infinity where x 2 and then 3/ = 2 that

tangent at (2, 2) is at right angles to the axis of x.
is,
Where y=0/\t
14.
will
In the curve
tangent on the axis of
be found that
y^
3/,
Sy^
ax^ \- a?
that
is,
=3
and
-t-
y cc-^.
+ Sx\
the
= 2.
find the intercept
find
-^ = 2ax
a?
x?
by the
X
JSXAMPLES
bo tnat we want y x
AND
EXERCISES.
305
or -^
^r
The length
15.
the curve
Here
be
3 \a +xj
and
r-
3i/2
this will be found to
%f
'
of the subnormal at x, y, is 20^^,
what
is
2/-,
2a V.
^y^ = â^x* or
Hence
y = ax^
dx
The subtangent
equation to the curve, a parabola.
the
is
is
^^^2f^^3>or2^,oria;.
Show
16.
is
that the length of the normal to the catenary^
- y\
Show that
17.
y^
x^-\- 2hx^y =
has the two asymptotes
y^x-ândy=-x--^.
18.
Show that
y^==2ax x^,
2
IT
ellipse y^
19.
are
dx
2/
-J-
and
^\^ x^)
2X4.1.
= Azax
they
ax
What
=a
or
respectively,
2ax-x'
are
Find the tangent to the
Answer
20.
the subtangent and subnormal to the
j ^^^^^y l
a?
2a
-x)x^-
curve has a constant subtangent
a^ =
^
dy
a -^ or
,
x= a log y + c
to the
,b\
-- (a x\
and
cissoid y*
{(3a
and
cii'cle
or
ax\,
y=
^?
Ce^y
the logarithmic curve.

21.
P.
Show
that a? y^-\- ax^ =
has the asymptote
20
306
Show
22.
axis of
that a curve
is
convex or concave
X as y and - have the same or opposite
to the
See
signs.
Art. 60.
The circle which passes through a point in a curve,

223.
which has the same slope there as the curve, and which has
also the same rate of change of slope, is said to be the
curvature
If the centre of a circle has
there.
circle
of
a and
h for its co-ordinates,
and
if
the radius
is r, it is
easy
to see that its equation is
(a;-a)
+ (i/-6) =
Differentiating (1) (and dividing

ferentiating we have
a.-a
by
(1).
2)
and again
+ (y-6)J=0
for -~
and q
for
j^ we
y-^ =
using this in (2)
have from
dif-
(2),
i+(,_,)g+(|J =
and
writing
?-
(3).
(3)
(4);
we have
X'-a=^^p
(5).
Now p and q and x and y at any point of the curve being

known, we know that these are the same for the circle of
curvature there, and so a and h can be found and also r. If
the subject of evolutes were of any interest to engineers, this
would be the place to speak of finding an equation connecting
a and 6, for this would be the equation of the evolute of the
curve.
The curve itself would then be called the involute to
the evolute. Any practical man can work out this matter
for himself.
It is of more interest to find r the radius of
curvature. Inserting (4) and (5) in (1) we find the curvature
1
^_
(6)
'
CURVATURE.
307
better way of putting the matter

turns through the angle Bd in the length
is defined as the limiting value of
hd
this:
is
dO
(^)-
B^'^^'r^dS
Now
= -~ = p,
tan
say, so that 6
dd
_
~
ds
Show
1.
to
iz;
= 100.
ds
.(8>
to a curve is
Show
practically 1
is
Find the curvature where x
Answer
4a'3 ISar^
ar*
+ ^r = 1,
is
36.
x=â,y = Ooi
Find the radius of curvature where

4aa;.
Answer
7'
a;
= a^be^"^,
= 0, r =
-j
a;
= 0,
of the
2a.
Find the radius of curvature of y
Answer
0.
find the curvature
that the radius of curvature at
parabola, y^ =
where
The equation
In the curve y
the ellipse
5.
'
that the denominator of - in (8)
at the origin.
4.
f^
1
1 -i-p-
- 1500a;2 + 30000^ - 3000000y = 0.
ic^
3.
Hence
j^.
\-f.-%i[Htr\'
Exercises.
2.
tan~^
dx"
H-~
;r
^
= ViT^^=-.'^
= -.^.
^
dw
dp dx dp
Now
from
curve
and curvature
Bs,
= ci&e^,
r=
(1
= 6e"^.
+ a^h-6^^)^
-'^
,,
so that
a-'o
6.
Find the radius of curvature of y = a sin
Answer
curvature
.,,,
6a?)5
= + a262cos2
j-.
Where
ab^ sin
ox
where 6a; = - ? =
r,
ao^
2
(l
is
^^
bx.
.
= 0, r=QC,
202
or
308
Find the radius of curvature of the catenary
7.
Answer
-.
r=.^
Show
8.
At the vertex where
{x
4m) = 7nx {x
at one of the points where y = 0,
Find the equation of the

4m'^ a^, where x=0,
11.
(a'
The radius of curvature

In the
e-x"^)^ -^
12.
ah,
ellipse
= c, r = c.
circle of
at the other, ^r-
curvature of the
of Sa^y
= x^, is =
?'
show that the radius
where e^=\
= 0.
3/
of curvature is
being the eccentricity.
Find the radius of curvature oi xy
= a.
Answer:
13.
1/
Sm),
-^ and
is
curve y* =
10.
= 0,
that the radius of curvature of

7/^
9.
a;
(a;^ 4- 2/")* -i-
2a.
Find the radius of curvature of the hyperbola
Answer: (eV
a^)^
-r-
ab,
where
e-
= l-\
a^
In the catenary the radius of curvature

14.
opposite to the length of the normal.
is
Find the radius of curvature of the

dx
equation to which is y -7- = Ja^ y^.
tractrix, the
15.
224.
Let
f(x,y,a)
equal and
(1)
be the equation to a family of curves, a being a constant for

each curve, but called a variable parameter for the family,
ENVELOPES.
as
it
is
different
by taking
members
different values for a that one obtains

Thus
of the famil}^
+ Ba) =
f(a;,y,a
is
the next
smaller.
309
(2)
member of the family as Ba is made smaller and

(2) may be written (see (1) Art. 21)
Now
/(^,2/,a)+Sa.^/(^,2/,a)
(3),
and the point of intersection of (2)f and (1) is obtainable by

solving them as simultaneous equations in oo and y; or again,
if we eliminate a from (1) and
^J(^.y,a) =
(4).
obtain a relation which must hold for the values of x and

of the points of ultimate intersection of the curves formed
by varying a continuously this is said to be the equation of
the envelope of the family of curves (1) and it can be
proved that it is touched by every curve of the family.
we
y,
Example.
If
by taking various values of a
m
^
we have
f(x,
y,
a family of straight lines, find the envelope.

is represented by
a)
ow?
and
differentiating with regard to
- ==
or
X
this
a"
a we have
or a^ =
,
or
a parabola.
(4)*,
m
_
in(l)*we have
y ^mx
y2
\/nix
= 0,
Here
(1)*,
+ ^-^^ =
Using
in
= 0,
or y^
= 4>mx,
310
Example. In Ex. 3, Art. 24, if projectiles are all sent out

with the same velocity F, at different angular elevations a,
their paths form the family of curves,
2/
or
where a stands
Fsin a
\9
^^F^cosâ'
Fcosa
y xa-^ma^{a^'\-\) = 0,
tan a and is a variable parameter, and
for
Differentiating with regard to a,
x-\- 2maâ =
or
,/
=+-
,4fm^x^
is
2mx
+ 1 )..
the equation to the envelope, or

-y
==
rtiOi^ -f
4>m
This
is
the equation to a parabola whose vertex
above the
is
or
F-
225."^
poii^t of projection.
Polar Co-ordinates.
P in
position of a point
.r
If instead of giving the
and y co-ordinates, we give it in

terms of the distance OP called
r, the radius vector, and the angle
QOP
(fig.
101) called
(9,
what we used to call x

and what we used to
upon as a little
SP' is Sr, PP' or
r cos
call
is
the equations of some

curves, such as spirals, become
simpler.
If the co-ordinates of
P' are r + Sr and 6 + hO, then
in the limit PSP' may be looked
right-angled triangle in which PS = r BO,
r sin
îg- 101-
so that
is
6,
8.9
= Jr'(8dy + (8ry
dd
'
\de)
so that
POLAR CO-ORDINATES.
311
Also the elementary area POP' is in the limit ^r"^ .hd, and
the area enclosed between a radius vector at ^j and another
at ^2
is
is
r"^
dO, so that if
'
can be stated in terms of 6
?'
it
easy to find the area of the sector. Also the angle </>
and ?' is evidently such that
between the tangent at

dO
tan
cj)
= PS/P'S
with curves
astronomy.
If r
is
a***
or,
tan
This method of dealing
<f).
students
interesting to
who
are
studying
(the equiangular spiral)
ha^^ log a,
so that tan
-r-
<^
is
and
so,
a constant
?' -7-;
or
that
?'-f-
is
-^
1/6 log
a,
the curve everywhere
makes the same angle with the radius vector.

Let ^ = rcos 6 so that x is always the projection
of the
radius vector on a line, x a^^ cos 6. Now imagine the radius
vector to rotate with uniform angular velocity of ^ radians
per second starting with ^ =
when ^ = 0, so that 6 qt,
then X
= a~^9^ cos qt.
Thus we
jection
see that if simple harmonic motion is the proof uniform angular motion in a circle; damped
simple harmonic motion
is
angular motion in an equiangular

Ex.
the projection of uniform

spiral. See Note, Art. 112.
Find the area of the curve r = a (1
1.
the curve and note that the whole area
Ex.2.
Ex.
3.
vectores.
is
+ cos 0). Draw

r^
dO, or îral
Find the area of ?^= a (cos 2^+ sin 2^). Answer: Tral
Find the area between the conchoid and two radii
Answer
b^ (tan e^ - tan d^) + 2ab log (tan (7r/4 - iâ)
-f-
tan (7r/4
- ^6,)},
Exercises. 1. Find the area of the surface gener226.

ated by the revolution of the catenary (Art. 38) round the
axis of y.
Prove that the equation to the cycloid, the vertex

2.
being the origin, is
x=:a(0 + sinO)
if (fig.
102)
= a{l- cos
PB = x, PA= y, OCQ = 6,
6),
312
Show that when the cycloid revolves about OF it generates

(0_.2
~9
Q\
q)
>
and when
it
revolves about
OX
it
EF
it
-)V
y.^^
o
Fig. 102.
generates the volume ttW

generates the volume birâ^.
If
it
revolves about
Find the length of the curve ây^ 4a^.
3.
Answer, .
/J^
+f
<te
= fa j(l + ^^ -
Find the length of the curve
4.
Answer
Answer
= 2ax x^.
= a vers~^ x/a.
Find the length of the
5.
y^
cycloid.
See Art.
= 8a (1 cos ^(f>) = 8a 4 V4a^
Find the length of the parabola

parabola y
6.
47.
2ay.
^4iax,
from the
vertex.
Answer
= Nax -^ x^ -{ a log ^x + Va + X
Va
Show
7.
cycloid
8.
using
is
that the whole area of the companion to the

twice that of the generating circle.
Find the area of r =
he^l'^
between the
^2
r2
^r^
d6.
0,
Answer:
-r{r.^
r^).
radii
and
ra,
EXERCISES.
SltS
y
9.
Show
that in the logarithmic curve x ae'^,

5
= clog
10.
Show
Show
= 4a sm ^
Show that
The
= 4 Va^ ây
+f
r^ = 1
a-
2a.
+ 2/* = a*,
= ^ciSx^.
x"
ellipse,
ê*/*,
2a'
\l
that in the curve x^

s
14.
revolves about the axis of x.
0^
Prove that the area of the surface generated
e^=l
where
15.
Show
using
in the cycloid,
and consequently
Show
C^.
= rVl + c2+(7.
ds
13.
= a (1 + cos ^),
that in the curve r =

5
12.
a?-^
a-^
that in the curve r
11.
+ Vc^ +
+ Vc^ +
is
-.
x^
that the whole area of the curve, -^
1/^
+ fi = 1
IS fTrao.
16.
Find the area of the loop of the curve,
Answer
2a=^
-7 j
y=xtJ 33-
314
+ Va^
17.
Find the whole area of y = a;
18.
Find the area of a loop of the curve
Answer:
Answer
19.
Find the area of the
{jc\
Tral
r^-
= a^ coa 20.
Jal
ellipse
r;:
that
is,
find
four times the value of the integral

6
/,
20.
Find the area of the cycloid in terms of the angle
<p
(Art. 11).
Answer
(f>
and
</)
a^ (|</) 2 sin
+ J sin 2<f)) and if the limits are
= 27r we have the whole area equal to 3 times
</>
that of the rolling
is
circle.
227.
moves
in
body of weight
acted upon by gi-avity,
a medium in which the resistance = a?^", where
the velocity and a and n are constants.
9 dt
What
is
the velocity
when
be this terminal velocity,

dt
acceleration ceases? Let

= W, or our a = Wvr\
av^^
^di^
so that
Thus
let
n=
2,
log ^-^^
t=^
v
2g ^
Vi
or
at
v=^Vi tann -V.
= dx
^rr
dt
Vi
EXAMPLES.
If a;
is
315
the depth fallen through,
X
228.
Our
old
Vi^.
losf
Qt
cosh ^-
Example of
Art. 24.
A point moves so that it has no acceleration horizontally

and its acceleration downward is ^ a constant. Let y be
measured upwards and x horizontally, then
d'x
"'
dt^
ff-
dt'
dx
dt~
--C,
dx
dy
dt
'~di
It'' dx
'
'
dx
d^y
d'y
dt'~^'^dx''
= c2
~dt
d^
.-9
d^~
dhj
Hence
dy
dx
y-^-lS'^^ + o.c+h...
which
is
a parabola.
Compare
(I),
Art. 24.
If Ave take y when .r=0, 6=0.

Also we see that a is the
tangent of the angle which the path makes with the horizontal at d? = and c is the constant horizontal velocity. If a
projectile has the initial velocity
with the upward inclination a, then c = Fcos a, and tan a = a, so that (1) becomes
gx^
y= ^ TF^
229.
1.
iv
;;
oc
tan
a.
Exercises on Fourier.
A periodic function of x has

to
f-
a?
=c
where
c is
the value /(^) = mx, from

the period, suddenly becoming
316
and increasing
mc
to
in the
same way
in the
next period.
27r
Here, see Art. 133, 7
is
mju
cto -\- ttj
+
tto
ttg
sin
qx +
sin sqx
^1 cos qx + &e.
+ hg cos sqx + &c.
^mc,
is
=-
Gg
mx
sin sqx
dx,
hg=-
cJ
mx
cos sqx
dx.
c J
Answer
7}hC
mx = ^mc
(sin
Expand
2.
qx
+i sin 2qx + J sin Sqx -f i sin iiqx -f&c.).
in a series of sines
a?
and
also in a series of
cosines.
Answer x = 2
:
(sin
ii"
J^
sin 2a;
+ J sin 3a; &c.)
from
tt
to tt;
also
a*
= (sin ^ sin Sx -f ^ sin

a?
5x
&c.)
from
to
TT
TT
and
''^"
=9
TT
3.
Prove t
(<ôs A'
= sin x
-\-
4-^ cos 3.r -i-^ cos 5a;
1 sin
3./;
Show
5.
Integrate each of the above expansions.
1.
+ &c.).
+ i sin 5a^ + &c.
4.
230.
^
2
that
The
radius of gyration of a sphere about a

a, prove that
diameter being k and the radius
Here, since a;'

3/^
circular slice of radius
= a",
and the moment of inertia of a

y and thickness hx about its centre, is
|y.Sa;.
Taylor's theorem.
The moment
of inertia
iriny'^
317
is
.da)Xi/'=l irmy^ dx
.
= m^Tra*,
Jo
Jo
and the mass
m^TraK
is
In a paraboloid of height h and radius of base
2.
the axis,
About the diameter of the base
about
^ (a^ 4- h^).
h,
vertex parallel to the base, k^ =
About a
k^=^^h\
k^
about a line through the

^h\
In a triangle of height
3.
a,
P = Ja^.
through centre of triangle parallel to base
line
Taylor^ s Theorem.
231.
If a function of + h, be differentiated with regard to ic,

h being supposed constant, we get the same answer as if we
differentiate with regard to h, x being supposed constant.
This is evident. Call the function f{u) where u = x-\-h.
Then
-y-
f(u)
^
dx-^
y- fiu) x ^-
dir
^^
dx
'
-j-
as
fCu)
^ ^
du-^
-y- is 1,
dx
and
this is
the same as ifrfi}^) because
Assume that f(x-\-h)

ascending powers of h.
may be expanded
in a series of
f(x + h) = Xo + XJi + X,h'^+XJi'-^&c

where Xq, X^, X^
do not contain
Sac.
^^!i^tA) = o
(1),
+ X,+ 2Z^ + 3X3/1^+ &c
(2),
an,
f<^)=i^+^\h + ^.h'
+ &c
ax
dx
dx
As
(2)
dx
and (3) are identical
_dXo
^'"
dx
Z.=
'
'
ldX,_ 1
"1.2
^"^2
dX^
S dx
d'Xo
dx'
rf;^;
d'Xo
1.2,2
dx"
'
'
(3).
318
h
A.lso if
-r-^f(^)
f (X
in (1)
^y f'{^)y
we
<ihen
find that
Xo =f(x).
Taylors Theorem
+ h) = f (X) + hf (x) +
If
we
indicate
is
i" (x)
^'
1.2.3 r'(x) + &c
(4).
After having differentiated f{x) twice, if we substitute

for x,
if we imagine
let us call the result /" (0)
substituted for
;
in (4)
we have
/W=/(O) + A/(0) + j^/"(0)

1.2.3
/"(0) + &c
(5).
Observe that we have no longer anything to do with the

quantity which we call x. We may if we please use any
other letter than h in (5) let us use the new letter x, and
(5) becomes
;
+ ^/(0) + j^/'(0)
/(^)=/(0)
1.2.-3 r'(0)
which
is
called
+ &c
(6);
Maclaurin's Theorem.
The proof here given of Taylor's theorem is incomplete,

as we have used an infinite series without proving it convergent.
More exact proofs will be found in the regular
treatises.
Note that if x is time and s =f(t) means distance
of a body from some invariable plane in space then if at the
present time, which we shall call to, we know s and the
;
velocity
and the acceleration and
-5-,
&c.; that
is,
if
we know
all the circumstances of the motion absolutely correctly at

the present time, then we can predict where the body will be
at any future time, and we can say where the body was at
any past time. It is a very far-reaching theorem and gives
food for
much
speculation.
TAYLOR AXD MACLAURIN.

on
Exercises
232.
powers of
Expand
1.
iu
(^4-/^)'^
h.
Here f{x)
and hence
= x^,
is
f {x) = nx''-\ f {x) = n {n - V^x'^'S &c,
= X'' + n/t^"-i + ^^ Y
{x 4- A)"
This
Taylor.
319
~
-^
fe"-2
the Binomial Theorem, which
+ &c.
an example of
is
Taylor.
ExjDand log
2.
Here
(.r
/(..)
+ h)
in powers of
= log (..),
A.
=1
/(.;)
/'(4 = -*-=,/"(.) = + 2*-',

and hence log (a; + A) = log ^ + A
^
If
we put
a;
= 1 ,we
Show
sin (x
(a?
-^
-3
A X
/i^
-^ -5
&c;
Qj
+ A-| + ^-&c.
that
+ h) = smx-\- h cos ^ y sin =^s cos a} + &c.

os
Show
4.
cos
A/^
have the useful formula
log(l+A) =
8.
that
+ A) = cosa; Asini
6.
What do
233.
powers of
jrcos^+ ^^ sina? + &c.
3 and 4 become when ^
Exercises
on
Maclaurin.
Expand
x,
^ sin X,
=
/(^) cos^,
/'(^) = -sina;,
= -cos^,
/X^) = sin^j,
-/(0)
fix)
/(0)=1.
r{0)=-l,
/v(0)=0,
/'(0)=1.
&c.
/>io
sin
a;
= 0,
/'(0)=0,
/
Hence
1.
=
i^*
-r^
/^>5
|3
/j,-7
-c
\7_
+ &c.
sin
in
320

.2
2.
Similarly cos ^ =
'r^
or + &;c.
77
-I-
\A
77,
E.
]i
Calculate from the above series the values of the sine and
cosine of any angle, say 0*2 radians, and compare with what
is given in books of mathematical tables.
Expand
3.
Another method
tan~^ w.
is
The differential coefficient oHair^xisr,

division this
is
Integrating
tsin-â;
We
a;^
this,
a;*
a.* -{-
x*
= x- J^ + â* -
4.
Expand tan (1
5.
Show
and
234.
cos
Qy
and by actual
&c.
x)
-f
a;'
+ J^ - &c.
= 0, tan~* ic = 0.
when
directly
a?
by Maclaurin.
that
1 +0;
Show
6.
term by term, we find
do not add a constant because
a*=
adopted.
loga+
that tan
a;
1^
(logay +
^ (log ay+ &c
= a? + 7r4-T^ + &c.
6
15
Expand e'^, compare with the expansions

and show that
e-**
cos
(9
of sin Q
= cos i sin 6,
=J
+ e-'^),
(e^'^
sin^ = -i(e^'^-e-^).
Evidently (cos Q
which
is
i sin ^)" = cos nd +
sin nB^
Demoivre's Theorem.
In solving cubic equations when there are three real
we
by
roots,
find it necessary to extract the roots of unreal quantities

Demoivre. To find the gth root of a hi where a and
h are given numerically.
First write
+ ln = r (cos
-\-i
sin 0)
= a,
Then r cos
sin.
= b,
Va*
321
b^,
tan 6
= ^-
Cal-
culate r and 6 therefore.

- /
Now the qth
roots are, r^
cos - ^
+ 1 sin - ^
\
J
r9 jcos
(27r
r^ ]cos - (47r
We
(9)
sin
(27r
+ 0)]
+ ^) + t sin - (4>7r + ^)
[ (Sec.
easily see that there are only q, qth. roots.
Find the three cube roots of
Exercise.
Write
8 (cos 0-\-i sin
it
0),
8 (cos 27r
8.
+ i sin 27r),
8 (cos 47r + { sin 47r) and proceed as directed.

235.
The expansion
of e^^
is
1+he + ^h'0' + j-|-Â3<9 + &c.
Now
let
6 stand for the operation

h
f(w +h)e^^f(ai) or
Theorem.
;
-7-
and we see that
^f{x), symbolically represents Taylor's
An
equation which connects x, y and the differWe

is called a Differential Equation.
have already solved some of these equations.
236.
ential coefficients
The order is that of the highest differential coefficient.

The degree is the power of the highest differential coefficient.
A differential equation is said to be linear, when it
would be of the
first
degree,
if
y (the dependent
variable),
and
the differential coefficients, were regarded as unknown

quantities.
It will be found that if several solutions of a
linear equation are obtained, their sum is also a solution.
all
Given any equation connecting x and y, containing

constants; by differentiating one or more times we obtain
sufficient equations to enable" us to eliminate the constants.
P.
21
322
Thus we produce a
differential equation. Its primitive

evidently contains n arbitrary constants if the equation is of
the nth. order.
Exercise.
Eliminate a and b from
yâx^+bx
Hence
(1)
(1),
becomes
(2>-
^'i^-^4x^^y-'
If
we
solve (2)
we
find
y = Aa^
+ Bx,
where
and
are
any arbitrary constants.

237. In the solution of DifiPerential Equations we begin
with equations of the First Order and the First Degree.
These are
all
M^-N-^ 0,
and y. We usually write
M. dx + N.dy=0.
of the type
are functions of x
where
and
this in the
shape
Examples.
1.
(a
+ x) (b + y) dx -i-dy=0
or (a
+ x) dx
-\-
dy
0.
Integrating we have the general solution
a^
where
is
i;z;2
4-log(6
2/)
(7,
an arbitrary constant.
It is to be noticed here, as in any case when we can

separate the variables^ the solution is easy.
Thus
if /(^)
F{y).dx-^^ {x) .'f{y).dy = Oy^Q have

f{x).dx ^{y).dy
<^(.')
and
F{y)
this can be at once integrated.
-"'
ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE.
FIRST
323
{l+x)i/.dx-\-(l -y)x.dy={),
\ogx + x + \ogy-y=G,
log
we have
Integrating,
This
may be put
xy
G+y x.
sin"^
+ sin~^ y c.
of the two sides of the equation
X
'^^
"^
(^
Vl-y2 ^ y Vl_^ =
iTv
^^^^"^^^
Answer
5.
^5") = ^.
sin
^ cos y
.
cô;
(2/
^y^
cos
a?
(7.
^ j^^s _ |^ ^_ ^^
sin
{f
xy'')dx
\-
-^ {cc"
_j_
= 0.
(ii/
cos
y = c cos
ij?.
- yo(P')dy =^.
Answer
loff
= c +^
-^. + a/t-^=^-
Answer:
^y
y
^'
constant.
(1+^)
f (1+2/^)
^
a f = c^.
\
Answer:
7.
sines
+ 2/') dy = (x + ^) (^^.
Answer:
ay
l-y^
6.
Thus taking the

we have
in other shapes.
VlT^^ + VIT? == C.
Sometimes we guess and find a substitution

238.
which answers our purpose. Thus to solve
dy _y^ x
dx
Ixy
dx
we
try
Nxv, and
we
find
log a?
Solve
(y
x)
'
\-dv=^0, leading to
+ = c.
Vr+^ ^ =
?i (
+ 7/2)1
212
324
are homogêneous functions of ic

and
If
239.
and y of the same degree assume y = vx and the equation
:
reduces to the form of Art. 237.
Example
ydx + (2 ^fxy
1.
a;) dy 0.
Assume y vx,
dy==v.dx-{-x.dv,
x)(v.dx + x. dv) = 0,
VS - x") dv = 0,
(2^^) dx +
vx.dx-^ {2x
s/v
(2.X-2
2dx
2 Vti
X
2 log
.r
4-
-1
\v
V^J
+ 2v-* =
+ v~* =
Let y
vx and we
x^
y^ +
find the
Remember
although they
Solve
answer
log((;^-yi)(.^-y)i)-=0.
Answer:
4.
0,
(?,
Answer: y = C
c is
2 log^;
log XV
where
a^
^'^.Ay ^-A^.
'
that two answers may really be the same

to be altogether different.
may seem
(x^
+ Sxy"") dx + (y^ -f 3^y) dy = 0.

Answer
^-^
4- 6.r'y^
+ y*=C.
HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS.
5.
3^24.(^^4.^)^ = 0.
Solve
Answer
6.
325
y cos ^
Solve [x
Zxy
+ x" + 2^^ ^ q^ (2y + xf.
4-
cos - .dy
c?^'
a;
=0.
Answer
x=
ce
_x
x)dy-\-y. dx = 0. Answer
7.
(y/
8.
j;c?2/
9.
x-\-y~ ^%j.
y-dx ^x^ 4- y^
Answer
cZ.:^
= 0.
(./;
QjX
1y = ce K
Answer
- y ) e^ " ^ =
x^
= c^ + 2cy.
(7.
Of the form {ax + by-{-c) dx + (a'i^- + b'y + c') (/y = 0.

Assume x =
+ a, y = v + y^, and choose a and /3 so
240.
that the constant terms disappear.
Thus
and dy =
if (3^'
dv,
2y
+ 4>) dx -{ (2x - y -^l)dy ==0
(Sw-{-S^ji-2v-2^-\-4>)dw
Now
choose a and
a.sdx^dw
/9
+ (2w-\-2oL-v~^ + l)dv = 0.
so that
3a- 2^ + 4 = and 2a-/34-l =

-a4-2 = 0, or a = 2, /3=5.
or
',
we have
0,
Therefore the substitution ought to be x=tu-^2, y = v-\-b,

and the equation becomes a homogeneous one.
Exercise.
(3y
dx -^ {1y - Sx + 3) dy=^0.
^
Answer (y x + 1)^ (y + x ly c.
1 x -{ 1)
'n.'-
r,
Exercise.
dy
-f
ax
2x y-\-l
+ ^zy ^x1^ = 0.
Answer
x^
xy-{-y'^-\-x y=c.
Exact Differential Equations are those which

241.
have been derived by the differentiation of a function of x
and y, not being afterwards multiplied or divided by any
function of x and y.
Consult Art. 83.
.326
Mdx 4- Ndy =
.dM\
is
an exact
(dN\,
differential equation if
,,
df{x,y)
the primitive being /(^, y)=c.

(x"
is
It will
'-Safy)dx-\-(y^-
a-')
d.,
,^
be found that
dy
= 0,
an exact differential equation.
Then
x'-Sx^y=^
^-^'^f''^\
OjCO
Integrating therefore, as if y were constant, and adding

an unknown function of y, instead of a constant,
f{x,y)
Differentiating as
if /c
= la^-x^y^Y.
were constant, and equating to Ny
we have
dV =
-J-
Hence
where c is any
y^
^x"
and hence Y=^y^ +
c.
- afy + ^y^ + c = 0,
arbitrary constant.
242.
Any equation
dx-\.dy =
may be made
exact by multiplying by some function of x called an Integrating Factor.
See Art. 83.
For the finding of such
factors, students are referred to the standard works on
.
differential equations.
243.
Linear equations of the
first order.
These are of the type
W'
s+^y=
where
P and Q are
The general
functions of
solution
is
x.
this.
Let IP.câ* be called X,
then
y=e^{/e^.Q.dx+cJ
where
is
(2),
C
LINEAR EQUATIONS.
327
No proof of this need be given, other than that if the

vakie .of y is tried, it will be found to satisfy the equation.
Here is the trial
:
same as ye^
(2) is the
e^Qdx-\-
J XT
Diiferentiating, and recollecting that -y
dy
e^
dx
ov -~-
+ Py
(3).
= P, (3) becomes
+ ye^P=e^Q
(4),
Q, the original equation.
To obtain the answer (2) from (1), multiply (1) by e^ and

we get (4) integi-ate (4) and we have (3) divide by e^ and
we have (2).
;
We
have, before, put (1) in the form
+ P)y=Q
(e
yîe + PrQ.
or
and now we see the general meaning of the inverse operation

(d
+ P)-\
{d
In
fact if
P.dwhe
+ P)-i Q means,
X,
called
e^^
|| e=^
dx + c|
.(5).
Thus if Q is 0, (0 + P)-i = Ce-^. Again, if

is a con= Ce~"^, where C is an
stant a, and if Q is 0, then (6 + a)~^
arbitrary constant.
had this in Art. 168.
We
Again,
if
is
{6
also a constant, say n,
4-
a)-'
= e""^ I
He'*^
{!
dx
-[-
+-
a-*
(6),
ft
where
is
Again,
if
See Art. 169. "
Q = e^^,
((9
+ a)-'
e^
e-^'-^
| j
'+^)
"^
.
dx
{ g\
1
.(7).
328
It is easy to
li
(6
h sin (ex
Ce-^ +
Example.
244.
at the time t be F,
being
equation
h,y
= (G-i-a;) ~"*
+ e),
+ a)-' h sin {ex -\-e) =
show that when a =
e-*
**
sin fco;
In an
and let
sin {ex
+ e) dx + C
.
+ e - tan-^ -^
circuit let the
electric
(8).
voltage
be the current, the resistance

and the self-induction L. We have the well-known
(7
X^,
F=ie(7 +
^^^G=\rV.
dt
L
L
or
Now
and hence
C=6
--t
^
(1
f-t
]j j^^
Of this we may have many
)
.
cZ^ 4-
constant -4
(1).
cases.
1st.
Let F at time 0, suddenly change from having been
a constant Fj, to another constant V^. Put F=F2 therefore
in the above answer, and we have
0=r^'UF,e^ + 4|
-it
V
To determine
we know
= ^ when^=0;
that
there-
in!
V = ^^
V 4- ^
fore -^^
1
li
so that
VV
A = -
K
and hence
c=Yi-Y^Î-^r^'
(2)
329
ELECTRICAL EXAMPLE.
Thus
if
Fi was
--t\
K/
^=^(1--^^)
0,
showing how a current
Again
if
F2
when a
rises
(3)>
circuit is closed.
V -^t
^=:^^^
is 0,
showing how a current
^^)'
when an
falls
electromotive force
is
destroyed.
Students ought to plot these values of
Take as an example, F^=100
L = -01
with time.
ohm,
Henry.
Again take Vi= 100

2nd.
Let
V at
a=e
This becomes
C = Ae
where
JL,
-^t
^
tan
The constant
upon the
^r ^^
.smqt.dt-\-A
.
-f sin qt
q cos qt
"
~
M
= ^.-^=^
VoLql(R'
thus
sin (qt -e).. .(5),
Ae ^
when ^ =
of the evanescent term
initial conditions
A=
qt,
-t
le^
itfR
Art. 169.
suddenly become
^(F
V
^ ~
Compare
volts in (4).
time
Vq sin
or
volts in (3), i2
if (7
depends
0,
sing,
+ Df).
Students ought to plot curves of several examples, taking

other initial conditions.
330
Example. A body of mass M, moving with velocity

which exerts a resistance to its motion, of the
amount fv, is acted upon by a force whose amount is F at
the time t. The equation is
245.
V,
in a fluid
M%+fv = F.
Notice that this
exactly the electrical case,
is
if
M stands
Z,/for R, F for Volts V, v for C; and we have exactly the

same solutions if we take it that F is constant, or that F
for
alters
from one constant value Fi to another
F..,
or that
follows a law like Fo sin qt
This analogy might be made much use of by lecturers on

A mechanical model to illustrate how electric
currents are created or destroyed could easily be made.
electricity.
The solutions of Linear Differential Equations with

constant coefficients have such practical uses in engineering
calculations that we took up the subject and gave many
examples in Chap. II. Possibly the student may do well
now to read Art. 151 over again at this place.
246.
^ = ay-^x +
Example,
dy
a
X
OC
I- X
Observe that
Hence
\,
dx=X= a loff^
e-'*^^'^'"
= x'"',
e^^^K'^
a-.
= x^.
= x^\ L"" ( 1 + -\
= x^ ||(^- + x-^-^) dx-^c\,
"
the answer, where
is
dx
-\-
c\
LUBRICATION OF JOURNAL.
331
There being continuous lubricating liquid between the surfaces

and EF as of a brass and a journal.
OC=/iQ the nearest distance between them.
At the distance ^, measured along the arc
OAj let the thickness be h. Anywhere in.
the normal line there, representing the
247.
AB
thickness, let there be a point in the liquid

at the distance y from the journal, and
let the velocity of the liquid there be 2t.
Then
if
be the pressure
it
can be shown
541
'^-
(^)'
is the coefficient of viscosity of the

lubricant, and Wq the linear velocity of
the journal, and ic is the velocity of the
liquid at any place; we have no space for
if
/u,
leading to
dx^
'
d4
dx
then
This
(t>
is
h^
.(2).
duo
dp _
dx 0,
Let
Let
the reasoning from (1)
GÛq dh
dh dp
h dx dx
3
d'^p
Fig. 103.
3 dh
h dx ^
'
of the shape (1) Art. 243,
is
X= JP
=h
-A3
dx=
ff
QjiUq
dh
h^
dx
\l
6/iWg ^^^
A3
/^
dx''
h in terms of x being
dx=3\ogh, e^=h\
given.
Hence
dx + &}.-<^=-|= A-'(6;.A +
= ^?+f3.
The solution depends upon the law of variation of A. The real case
most simply approximated to by h = hQ + ax^: using this we find
p = C'
GixUq
~2h
C'-C
If students were to spend a few weeks on this example they might
be induced to consult the original paper by Prof. 0. Reynolds in the
Phil. Trans, vol. 177, in which he first explained to engineers the theory
of lubrication, t
Numerical Exercise.
fi
= 2-l6,
Let
OB 2-59, OA = 11 -09 centimetres.

a- -0000082, W(, = 80cm. per second.
Aoor 0C=0-001135,
332
Calculate
Now
C and C\ assuming jo =
at
B and
at A.
calculate the pressure for various values of
squared paper.
total friction
The
x and graph
square cm. being /ij- at
friction per
on
it
y=0, the
F will be found to be
11
between the limits
The
and B.
total load
on the bearing
is
\p.dx
^
/
between the limits, if AB covers only a small part of the journal, and
may be calculated easily in any case.
The bearing is supposed to be infinitely long at right angles to the
pai)er in fig. 103, but forces are reckoned i)er cm. of length.
248.
Example.
Solve
Writing this in the form (^ - 4^ + 3)
Now
(e^
4^
7/
= 2e^,
+ 3)- = i (^-^^ -
^ :^ i)
Indeed we need not have been so careful about the J as

it
is
obvious that the general solution is the sum of the

3)~^ and (^ 1)~^ each multiplied by an arbitrary
two (^
constant.
Anyhow,
and
this
by
(7) Art.
y=
^__^_^,
243
is
y=(C^+a')^-hG.je\
or
249.
Equations like
as before, are functions of
^
oo
4-
Py =
Qy", where
and
Q,
only.
Divide all across by y* and substitute z = y^~'\ and the

equation becomes linear.
Example.
(1
w"^) -^
cci/
= ax\f.
Substituting z
= y~^ we
S38
find
dz
xz
dx
\x^
ax
\-x'^'
Answer
2/-1
(1
_ ^)*{_ a(l -j;2)-^ +
Exercise.
0}
= - a + OVr^T^^.
-^V =y^ log
^~j
iz*.
Answer - =
:
Oa;
+ los:^
a?.
2/
250
This
is
C^Y-ay = 0.
Given
1.
an equation of the
Solve for -^ and
dx
dt/
we
first
find
order and second degree.
two
results,
-^
ai/
= 0,
so that log
-^
a^
= 0,
so that log y
Hence the
4-
solution
(log y
yaxA^ = 0,
+ ax A2 = 0.
is
- ax - A,) (log y + ax-A^)= 0.
It will be found that each value of y only involves one

arbitrary constant, although two are shown in the equation.
2.
This
is
Given
+ (^^Y = ^,
an equation of the
Hence
and
first
order and third degree.
2 = (.^-l)*,
y
= |(.r-l)HG
334
This
+ 12 =
(^y_7^
\dxj
ax
Given
3.
is
an equation of the
0.
order and second degree.
first
(2-*)g-)=^
(3/
- 4^ + Ci) (y -
Clairaut's equation
251.
is
S.'Zr
+ Co) = 0.
of the
first
order and of any
degree
y^xp-Vf{p)
where
is
-^ and f{p)
is
(1),
any function of
Differentiate with regard to x,
and we
find
^îMt='
<^)-
^=
So, either
^+
(3)
^fiP) = 0....
(4)
will satisfy the equation.
1=0., =0.
Substituting this in (1)
we have
y = CX+f{c)
(5),
which is the complete solution.

Eliminating^ now between (1) and (4) we obtain another
solution which contains no arbitrary constant.
Much may
be said about this Singular Solution as it is called. It is
the result of eliminating c from the family of curves (5), and
See Art. 224.
is, therefore, their Envelope.
Example of
Clairaut's equation.
m
We
have the general solution (5)
...
cxA
a family
HIGHER ORDER THAN

of straight lines the
their c.
members
of which differ in the values of
= Jmx
or y^ = 4ma;, a parabola
Hence y 2
to be the envelope of the family in Art. 224.
This curve
252.
member
which we found
the original equation, because in any
satisfies
infinitesimal length, the values of x, y

for it as for a
385
FIRST.
and -^ are the same
of the family of straight lines.
If a differential equation
is
of the form
can be at once solved by successive integration.

have had many examples of this in our work already.
it
We
Equations of the form -^^=f{y); multiply by 2

cix
dx
and integrate and we have
253.
Extracting the square root, the equation
may
be solved,
as the variables are separated.
Thus
g = ay
let
Proceeding as above,
y
Integrating
we
-=^dx.
find
x=^^\og{ay
+ JaY-^C}-\-C'
(1).
336
If this equation (1)
put in the shape
is
= ay-\- Ja^ + C,
cê^'' - âyce*"^ = C,
ce'^^
it
becomes
la
?/=^6^ + ê-^
or
(2),
which looks different from (1) but is really the same. (2) is
what we obtain at once if we solve according to the rule for
linear equations, Art. 159.
Solve -7^= a -s~, an equation of the third order
254.
and
first
degree.
g=
Let,
= 6e*
^
?,
theng = a5,
so that
t^ = -
"^
+ G,
a?
are arbitrary constants.

Ae"^ Coo+ C\ where A, 0,
This also might have been solved by the rule for linear
or y
==
\-
equations, Art. 159.
255.
Solv(
a. dp
^^=:dx
SO that
or
Squaring,
-=log {p+ V2+
(7e<-jp
we
find
p=
^Ce**
= Vp2 + l.
--
1
-^
^r^
e "
1
20
dti
d.
~dx
1)
+C",
337
EXERCISES.
Integrating this
we have
X
where
G and
c are arbitrary constants.
General Exercises on Differential Equations.
256.
(1)
{a?
+ y-) dx + Ja^^^ .dy = 0.

x
Answer
X
dy
^^ dx^l-\-x^'^
a-
2x(l+x')'
1
.
Answer
+ JU^']
1
l-fVl+^^'l
,,
_ + ycOS*--^.
Answer
Answer
(6)
X
+ tan"^ ^y = c.
/^\
(3)
sm"^ a
J+2^y
(2y -x'^-c) (log
^
^V + ?^
y dx
(6)
^ ^
(7)
x-^ + y = y^logx.
(8)
y = 2x^- + y^
(9)
Solve (l
(a;
= sin i 1 + Ce"
+ y - 1) + ^ - c} = 0.
y=
Answer
(Ce^^'
y'
+ â {2x^ + l)}"*.
= 2c^ + c\
\dxj
1st, after
C^Y
Answer: y ==
.
Answer
{ex
y^
+ log x + 1)-\
= 2c^ + c\
5)c^^-2|c^y=.0.
the manner of the Exercise of Art. 241.
2nd, as a homogeneous equation.
Answer:
P
^^"'^.
= 2a^y.
Answer
i/
af
y"==cx,
22
338
'-
Solve
(10)
f-
-^
c?y
after the
Art. 241.
+ 2/)2 ^ = a\
(12)
(a;
(13)
xy (1
4- a??/2)
y = {x-[-\y
Answer
^=
Answer
(y
a;
Answer
(ao
yi =
(19)
(1
Answer:
sin (^
x^)-f-
3/
- 6).
Answer
cot
Change the independent

a?
-^
= 0,
if
a;
= sin
f,
C).
c.
a;
aio;
3/
|j
xy = axy\ Answer
= Cîe'^^ + e^ Jf Og-^j cos
a?) -~
1)^
+ a log c) = 0.
(?/
= (ai + dj^)
a?
Answer
(1^)
= 2 - 2/^ + ce-^J/'.
a log c)
[^ {x
y-a tan-^ ^^ =
Answer
1.
Answer
(1
of
Answer
(21)
manner
Answer x^ y^ = cif.
a;
aoa?''
e-^'
+ a^) e~^.
/-^rTvj
= (a? + 1)" (e* + c).

- ^-^ I =
-
<^
+ c.
= c Jl a^ - a.
fOg
+ ^jsinajl
variable from
a;
to
and solve the equation.
in
ELLIPTIC INTEGRALS.
Also
(22)
{a- +x'')-j^^-\-2x
in
-^
339
= 0,
ii
x=a tan
solve the equation.
*""*
'-
d's
-dt=
Prove as
3.
d^y
dx^
and
and
'
^-
t,
S=-/'.
dH
[dt
fdHV\
fdty
= -\ds-d^-^W)\^\ds)i^
ax
_
~
= -^
dt
/
I
tt, so
we have
also
dt
fdx (Py
_ d'x
[dt df
dt^
dy\
'
dt)
^ /dxV
'
\dt)
'
find the equivalent expression for -^^
4.
If
X=
show that b,sx^ x-^-~-t:

dt
dt
dx
e*
this equals
-^
dt
a^^^Jl-^^^-fl-l]^
Also
^^^"^
"^
da?~ dP
dt~\dt
dt'
a^^-(l-2\(^-l]^
and
^"""^
"^da--\dt
V\dt
Change the independent
5.
-^--\-x^
in x^ ;r
+ ^' dx
;/
dx^2
+ ^^^y = ^>
^Jdt'
variable from x to
t if
x=
*,
^^^ ^^^^^ *^ equation.
258. If we try to find by the method of Art. 47 the length of the arc
of an elhpse, we encounter the second class Elliptic Integral which is
Its value
called
It may be evaluated in an infinite series.
(k, x).
and x and tabulated in Mathematihas been calculated for values of
cal tables.
When
the angle through which a pendulum swings is not small, and

try to find the periodic time, we encounter the first class Elliptic
Integral which is called
(k, x). It can be shown that the integral of
any algebraic expression involving the square root of a polynomial of
the third or fourth degree may be made to depend on one or more of
the three integrals
we
222
340
re
i""
7r(w, h.
_ z.2.2
/i
rx
do
6)=\
;o(l+7ism2^) \Jl-k^Hm^6'
k, which
n, which
is
always positiA e and
any real number, is

The change from the x form
tution,
:r
or - and
is
= sin 6. When
less than 1, is called the tnodulus.

called the parameter.
to the 6 form is effected by the substithe limits of

and
are 1 and
in the x case,
in the B case, the integrals are called complete,
K and E merely
and the letters
and
by the name A^.
If u = F{k, x) = F{ky B\ then in dealing with fimctions which have
the same k if we use the names
\/\
^2sin2^
are used for them.
called the amplitude
is
is called
^ = amw,
x=Bnu
(in
x^=cmi
(or
Vl -^
Vl - k^x^=dnu
(or
Vl - k'^^^ is the delta of the amplitude of u),
*^l
it is
words,
is
is
the sine of the amplitude of
w),
the cosine of the amplitude of
u),
found that
sn^w-f cn2?< =
l,
am { u)= am
Also
.,
Also
dn'û+k^.Bnû=l, -=-(amw)=dnw, &c.
sn {uv) =
and similar
Yx-==
relations for en
Expressions for sn
ti,
&c.
sn w. en V. dn v + cni/. snv.dn
(tc
r,
-M
,
{uv) and dn {uv).
+ v)+sn(u- v),
&c. follow.
Also for
sn2u, cn2w, dn2u.

as complete a set of formulae connecting these
connect the Trigonometrical functions, and there are
Legendre
series by means of which tables of them may be calculated.
published tables of the first and second class integrals, and as they have
known relations with those of the third class, special values of these
and of the various elliptic functions may be worked out. If complete
tables of them existed, it is possible that these functions might be
So that there
is
elliptic functions, as
familiar to practical men.
To return to our dififerentiation of IHinctions

259.
of two or more variables.
HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION.

1.
If u
and hence
z'^
7/^ -\-
du
^=
(Si/^
zy and ^
= sin
and y
a;
+ ^) e* + (2^ + y) cos
341
= e^,
If this
a;.
is
expressed
in terms of x we have the same answer that we should

have had, if we had substituted for y and z in terms of x in
u originally, and differentiated directly.
all
2.
nnd
-Y
If
u=
a/
V
v^
w-
where v and
are functions of
?,
ax
3.
If sin (xy)
4.
If
%i
5.
If
\i
= ma?,
sin~^ -
find
-^
where z and y are functions of
x, find
da?*
= tan~^ - show that

,
du,
^-^^
y
260.
Exercise.
Try
if
-^
f + 2^
the equation
dx^~Kdt
has a solution like v = e*^ sin (qt + yx), and
and make it fit the case in which v=0
We leave out
v = asm qt where x = 0.
if so, find
when x =
C) &c.
dv
= "* sin (qt + yx) + e*^ 7 cos (qt + ^cij),
= aê*^ sin (g^ + yx) + a7*^ cos (qt +
7.<c)
+ a7e** cos (qt + yx) 6**7^ sin (qt + 70;).

Also
dv
-^
= ge*^ cos (qt + 7^),
oo
y,
and
the brackets of
'dv""
-7-
a and
342
SO that to satisfy (1) for all values of
a"-rf=:0
or
ay + ay
and
As -
is
not zero, a
2a=
=+7
a=
and
oc
y,
_2
only,
= ^, a=
K
Hence we have
v= A e"'* sin (qt -f cue) -f iê"** sin (qt ax)

where
and
B are
any constants, and ol= /u -x or
a/
Trn
Now if = when x= oc obviousl}^ A=0.

^ = 27r/2.
= a sin qt where x=0, obviously B = a.
if
i;
Hence the answer

V
is
ae
Let a point
261.
If
"
sin (27r?^^
be
.'??
moving
in
.(2).
a curved path
^PQ; let^P = a^,j5P = y,

Cm
*ir
(ill
-^ and -~ being the velocities in the directions
-j~
and -7^ being the accelerations
and OY.
Let OP=r,
BOP
6,x = r cos ^,
ation or velocity of
in any
direction is to be obtained just
as we resolve forces. Thus the
Y
velocity in the direction r is
?/
in
OX and
the directions
= r sin ^.
OY^
OX
The
acceler-
t\
Jcos^4-Jsin^...(l),
and
PT which
in the direction
at right angles to
velocity is
is
r,
the
o\
+ ^!cos^
-tin^
dt
dt
Pig^ 104
(2).
343
POLAR CO-ORDINATES.
Now
r and
diiferentiating
since
0,
and
a;
= cos
dx
y, as
and
dr
functions of the variables
-^ J
?*
sin 6,
^ dO
,.-,.
^^^'
5=*'=^^-'-^'^rfi
^dO
dy dr
^
,^.
Solving (3) and (4) for j- and r
dr
(^^
From
(1)
and
in the direction
find
dx
dt
dt
OP
we
^
dy
^
= dx
;i- cos ^ +-^ sm d
dt
dt
dO
(2)
-j- ,
we
a
dy
(o),
,_.
dt
the velocity
dt
the velocity in the
see therefore that
de
and that r -^
is
-j- is
PT. Some readers may think this obvious.

if we resolve the x and y accelerations in the
direction of OP and PT, as we did the velocities, and if we
again differentiate (3) and (4) with regard to t, we find
direction
Now
d^x
Acceleration in direction
Acceleration in direction
d^y
OP = -i- cos ^ + -i^ sin
PT
d^x
sin ^
. .
.(7),
d^y
-j^ cos ^...(8).
And
S={-'"}-*-('Sf-S) '"<'>.
S=(S-(S)l"-(4JS-S)~-
And
hence, the acceleration in the direction r
is
(and
this is not very obvious without our proof),
dt'
'\dt)
(iiX
344
and the acceleration
^dtdt^"^
r^ -J- is
PT is
in the direction
usually called
A.
dt^''
rdtK
^^^^-
dt)
It is evidently twice the area per
second swept over by the radius vector, and (12)
is
- -^
If the force causing motion is a central Force,

262.
an attraction in the direction PO, which ia a function of
r per unit mass of P, say /(r) or mf{r) on the mass m at
;
P; then
(12)
is 0,
or r^ -^-
= constant,
or
h constant.
Hence
under the influence of a central force, the radius vector

sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
Equating mf{r) to the mass multiplied by the acceleration in the direction PO we have
/<')"-!?
But
r"^
-^
=h
a.
As r
constant.
is
">
a function of 6
dt
_dr dd _dr h
di~dd'di~der^'
^\^h _ h (dA^^)h
dr
7^\dd)]r''
df'~\d6'7''
and we can use these values

If
we use -
in (13) to eliminate
for r, (13) simplifies into
f(r)=h2u2(^+u)
If f(r)
the
?ith
t.
= a?'~"
or a^*",
power of the
(14).
an attraction varying inversely as
distance,
-^ +
^^
Multiplying by 2 -^ and integrating,
'^^~^
I^
^w"~^
say.
we have
(sr -?!
<->
CENTRAL FORCE.
Thus
the law be
let
f{r) ar~^ or
ait^
that
(14) becomes
(Pu
Let
The
lu
h,
it
solution of this
may be
the inverse
square;
then
iL
-m;
and
of
345
is,
=^
cos (^
+ B),
written
i,= l
= ^{H-ecos(^-a)l
(IG).
This is known as the polar equation to a conic section,

the focus being the pole. The nature of the conic section
depends upon the initial conditions.
(15) enables us, when given the shape of path, to
Thus if a
find the law of central force which produces it.
particle describes an ellipse under an attraction always
directed towards the centre, it will be found that the force of
attraction is proportional to distance. It is easier when given
this law to find the path.
For if the force is proportional
to PO, the X component of it is proportional to oo, and the y
component to y. If the accelerations in these directions are
written down, we find that simple harmonic motions of the
same period are executed in these two directions and the
composition of such motions is well known to give an
If the law of attraction is the inverse cube
elliptic path.
or f{r)
If
If
= (7?'~^ = au^,
(14) becomes
^-l =
l-~ = ^2
a-,
-j^-
^6*
?^
r^
^^
+ 56-*^
= Asm0 + Bcos0e,
fi-
giving curiously different answers according to the initial

conditions of the motion.
346
If a? = r cos 0,y = r sin

263.
of x, r must be a function of ^ if
it is also a function of r and 6.
;
Express
r and
-7-
and
-^ j
y is a function
any function of x and y,
6,
so that if
i*
is
in terms of the polar co-ordinates
6.
^^^'
\drJ~\dx)dJi^^\d^)d^
6 being supposed constant, and
fdu\
fdu\ dx
/dic\
dy
^^^'
\de)~\Tx)de^\d^jlde
r being supposed constant.
dx
au
Now
if
is
constant
-M. if
is
constant
= r cos ^,
-7- if
is
constant
= cos ^,
is
constant
= sin
-77;
if
ar
Treating
and
(-7-
finding them,
and
sin
0,
^.
(2) as unkno\vn,
= ...g).Jeos..(|)
Notice that in
[-, ],
the bracket means that y
(4).
is
be constant in the differentiation.

In
-7- j
and
we have
(|)
to
(-7-) in (1)
?-
it is
^ that
is
supposed to be constant.
supposed
r,
^,
In (o) or (4) treat
<^
347
CO-ORDINATES.
i-l or
-,
as
it
is
treated,
and
find
However carefully
one works, mistakes are
Ti^
*^
dy^
likely to occur, and this practice is excellent as one must
think very carefully at every step. Prove that
î
and
da^
d^
d^'^dy2"dr^
di^
"^^r
r
d2u
d2u
du
1 d2u
dr'*"?d9^'
dr
.(5).
Sometimes instead of x, y and z, we use r, 6, (f)

264.
co-ordinates for a point in space. Imagine that from the
(Fig. 105), we have OZ the axis of the
centre of the earth
being
a line at right angles to OZ, the plane
earth,
a line at right angles to the other
through Greenwich
is defined by x its distance
The position of a point
two.
ZOX
OX
OF
from the plane ZOY, y its distance from the plane ZOX, z its
distance from the equatorial plane YOX.
Let r be OP the
distance of the point from 0.
Let <^ be the west longitude
or the angle between the planes POZ and XOZ\ or if Q be
the foot of the perpendicular from P upoii XOY^ the angle
QOX is <^. Let Q be the co-latitude or the angle POZ.
Then it is easy for anyone who has done practical geometry
to see that, drawing the lines in the figure, QfiO is a
348
= x,
y, also
and
is a right angle,
cos </>, y = r sin 6 .sincf), z = r cos 6.
If u is a
given function of x, y and z, it can be expressed in terms of
r, 6 and ^, by making substitutions.
It is an excellent
exercise to prove
OR
right angle
a;
QR
PQO
= rsm6.
du
-ydx
= sin ^^ cos
.
du
dy
du
du
;t^ dr
</>
cos 6
H
du
cos
sin
^ cZm
-ja
<f)
do
cos 6 ,sin<f> du
^ dr
dz
cZ?^
sin ^
dr
cos
dd
ci
c??^
^n6 -ji
sm
d<f>
du
<f>
sm
d<f>
du
dO'
It will be noticed that we easily slip into the habit of

leaving out the brackets indicating partial differentiation.
The average student

he
will not have the patience, possibly

not be able to work sufficiently accurately, to prove
may
that
d2u
33?
d^
d2u_d2u
+ dy2 * dF "
l^d^
"*"
dp"
r2 d(92
d2u
2du
cotg du
^r2sin2^'d^ + 7d?"^"J2-d9
This relation
is
of very great practical importance.
265.
The foundation of
understanding the equation
much
practical
work
consists in
dû__ldu
dx^'^df'^'d?~'K~dt
dû
where
is
time.
dhc
For example, we must solve
Conduction Problems
if
is
and u is electric or magnetic

in Hydrodynamics.
(1)
is
^'
Heat
du
(1) in
temperature, or in case
;t-
potential, or velocity potential,
usually written
^^-4S
(^>-
ZONAL HARMONICS.
We
and
see then in (A) the form that V"u takes, in terms of r,

co-ordinates.
</>
We
that
349
know
if
is,
if u is symmetrical about the axis of z,

independent of </>, the above expression
that
is
becomes
dhi
_,
2 da
1 d-ii
cot 6
du
^'''=d;^-^?w^-^rd^+-^d0
,^.
<^>-
Students are asked to work out every step of the

266.
following long example with great care. The more time
This example contains all the essential
taken, the better.
part of the theory of Zonal Spherical Harmonics^ so
very useful in Practical Problems in Heat, Magnetism,
When to is
Electricity, Hydrodynamics and Gravitation.
independent of </> we sometimes write (2) in the form
du
K id
du\
^du
'hMei^-'U
dr
u being a function of time t, r and 6,

better see if it is correct according to (3).
^^>'
The student had
dxi
If
-^ = 0, show that the equation becomes

dû
- du
ndu dû
,._
+ 2r^^ + cot^^^ + ^, =
^
Try
if
there
is
,^.
(2).
RP
a solution of the form u =

where
is
is a function of 6 only, and show
a function of r only, and

that we have
T^d^R
,AdP
2rdR
d'P
R^^^Rd^=-''''^^p~de-pd
,^,
(^^-
Now the left-hand side contains only r and no 0, the

right-hand side contains only 6 and no r. Consequently each
Let this constant be called C
of them must be a constant.
and we have
drR
dr'
ldR_RG_
+r
dr
r^
~"
%^.oie%^PG =
^^^'
(5).
360
There is no restriction as to the value of 0, and it must

be the same in (4) and (5), and then the product of the two
answers is a value of u which will satisfy (2). The solutions
of many linear Partial Differential Equations are obtained
There are numberless
in the form of a product in this way.
other solutions but we can make good practical use of these.
We
have then reduced our solution of the Partial DifferEquation (1), to the solution of a pair of ordinary
differential equations (4) and (5). Now a solution of (4) may
be found by trial to be r*", and when this is the case we have
a method (see Art. 268) of proving the general solution to be
ential
= ^r + 5r-(+i'
ii
where
G is m (m +
answer.
Using
(6),
1); anyhow (6) will

this way of writing
be found by
trial to
in (5) and letting
an equation called Legendre's
= fjb, we find that we have

Equation, an ordinary linear equation of the 2nd order
cos
We
now
find
positive integer,
it
convenient to restrict m. Let

be a
if there is a solution of (7) in the
and try
form
P = 1 + Aj/M + A^^ + A^^ + &c.

Calling
it
P^
(/it)
or P,^ (0), the answers are foimd to be
= 1, if m is put 0,
Pi (0) = ^, if m
Pg (0) = 3^2 _ ^, if ^ is put 2, Ps (6) = f/! - f
P, (0) = ^fi* - ^fi^ + 3, if m is put 4.
Pq
(0)
is
/x,
put
if
1,
m is
put
3,
it a good exercise to work out these

have worked out tables of values of Po, Pi,
to ^=180.
See
P2, &c., to F7 for every degree from ^ =
the Proceedings of the Physical Society, London, Nov. 14,
1890, where clear instructions are given as to the use of
Zonal Harmonics in solving practical problems.
student will find
to Pg.
We
My pupils
see then that
(Ar- + j^,)p(<))
(8)
BESSEL FUNCTION.
is
a solution of
this
Find u
(1).
practical
to satisfy (1)
and
351
problem usually consists
in
also to satisfy certain limit-
ing conditions. In a great number of cases terms like (8)

have only to be added together to give the complete solution
wanted.
In the present book I think that it would be unwise to do

in this subject than to set the above very beautiful
exercise as an example of easy differentiation.
more
The
(8) is usually called
the
mth
degree^
Harmonic of the
Solid
P^ (6) is called
mth degree.
Zonal Harmonic of
the Surface Zonal
In many axial problems, u is a function only of

267.
time and of r the distance of a point from an axis, and we
require solutions of (1) which in this case becomes
du
dû
dr^
r dr
^\
du
k di
Let us, as before, look for a solution in the form
BT
u=
(2),
where i? is a function of r only and

(1) becomes
J' is
a function of
only.
rpd^_^lrpdE^lj^dT
Dividing by
dr
dr^
dt'
RT
Rdr'^r Rdr~ kT dt~

where
/^^ is
^"^ ^^^'
a constant.
Jim
Then -m = -
/cfi^dt
or log
T= k/jlH +
c,
or
T=Ge-'^f^'i
where
G is an
We
arbitrary constant.
d'R
IdR
,^
(3),
must now
^
^+-r;^+^^^=^
Let r
=-
and
(4)
solve
,,,
(^)-
becomes
1 dR
^
+
+^= ^
xdJ
dF
d2R
,^^
(^>-
352
Assume now
we
find that
that there
a solution of (5) of the shape
is
A = G = E= G=0
x^
X^
and in
fact that
x^
x^
This is an important series first used by Fourier, although

has Bessels name. It is called the Zeroth Bessel and
the symbol Jo (*") is used for it. Tables are published which
enable us for any value of x to find Jo(x). Thus then
= Jo {^r) is a solution of (4), and hence
it
u=Ge-'^|'''J,{^lr)
(7)
is a solution of (1). Any solution of (1) needed in a practical

problem is usually built up of the sum of terms like (7), where
different values of
and different values of G are selected to
iju
suit the given conditions.
268.
when
In the linear differential equation
P and Q are functions
solution^ say y=^v,

Substitute y
we can
of x, if
we know
a particular
find the general solution.
= vii, and we
get
"d^+îd-. + ^Vd^-"'
Calling
-p=
u\ (2) becomes
U
or
log u'
+ log v^+ P .dx = constant.

I
(2).
LINEAR EQUATIONS.
Let
F .dx = X
then
u'
or
-^
ax
S53
= A ~ e-^,
v^
u^B + Al^ê-'^.dx
Thus we
(3).
lind the general solution
= Bv-\- Av ~^ .dx
.(4),
A and B are arbitrary constants. Even if the

right-hand side is not zero, the above substitution will
enable the solution to be found, if v is a solution when the
right-hand side is 0.
where
Easy Example.
One
-r^
dx^
+ a^x =
Find the general
Here
P=
Hence
=
-
ax
f
I
dx
-i,
cosâx
- tan ax,
2a;
We
= B cos ax+G sin ax.
find
^ - m (m +
by
trial
1)
y = 0,
that y
the general solution
Exercise.
We
= a^y,
find
by
trial
= x^"'
is
a solution of
see Art. 266.
Show that
P.
ax
as the general solution
Exercise.
d^v
-T^
cos
^+
= cos ax.
jP.dx^X^ 0.
J cos^
ic*
?/
"^
= B cos ax + A
and as
we have
is
solution.
so that
solution of
is
y=Ax^-^
that y e^^
show that the general solution
is
X;^^.
is
a solution of
= Ae^^ + i?e~^*.
23
CALCULUS
S54
t'OR I:NGINEERS.
We saw that u P^n{t^) is a solution of

E.rercise.
Legcndre's equation Art. 2GG, prove that xl =APin(fi)-\-BQmi^)
is the general solution, where
Q,W=P,(^)/^j-^^Qm(H') or Qui(0)
is called
Wl"
Zonal Harmonic
the Surface
of the second kind.

Exercise.
We
equation
Bessel
AJq {x) -f BKq {x)y
Kq (x)
is
saw that Jo(x) was a solution of the

show that the general solution is
where
(5),
called the Zeroth Bessel of the second kind.
Conduction of Heat.
If material supposed to
be homogeneous has a plane face AB,
If at the point P which is at the distance X from AB, the temperature is v,
and we imagine the temperature the same
269.
the same plane as

is, we are only considering flow of heat at right angles
dv
to the plane AB), and if t- is the rate of
at
all
points
rise of
then
Fig. 106.
temperature per centimetre at P,

A; -7-
is
the amount of heat flowing
per second through a square centimetre of

area like PQ, in the direction of increasrpj^-g -g
-^g ^
^^^ definition of k, the
conductivity.
in
-4^ (that
parallel to
We shall imagine k constant.
the heat that flows per second per square centimetre,

when the temperature gradient is 1. Let us imagine PQ
exactly a square centimetre in area.
Now what is the flow
is
across TS, or
which
is
is
what
is
the value of
x + hx from the plane
a function of x\
call
it
ABl
f{x)
for
dv
A;
-j-
dx
at the
new
place,
dv
Observe that k-j-
a moment, then the
HEAT CONDUCTIVITY.
355
space PQTS receives heat f(x) per second, and gives out
heat f(x + Bx) per second.
Now
f(x-\- Bw)
-f{x) = Bx i^^
These expressions are of course absolutely true only

is supposed to be smaller and smaller without limit.
when Bx
We
is
have then come to the conclusion that Bx-j- f(x)
PQTS every
being added to the space
Bx^ri
ax \
f^'
second
this is
+k.Bx-j.
1-] or
ax J
oar
But the volume is 1 x Bx^ and if w is the weight per cubic

centimetre, and if s is the specific heat or the heat required
to raise unit weight one degree in temperature, then if t is
time in seconds,
dv
W .ox .S-Ti
5j
dt
measures the rate per second at which
also
receives heat.
tc,
ox.
d'^v
-j--
dv
at
dH
ws
dv
d^^T-dt
This
is
it.
It is
space
^
W.OX.S.-Tly
da?
problems.
the
Hence
/,v
^^)-
fundamental equation in conduction of heat

Weeks of study would not be thrown away upon
in exactly this same way that we arrive at the
the
fundamental equations in Electricity and Hydrodynamics.

If flow were not confined to one direction wê should have
is often called the diffusivity

the equation
(1) of Art. 265.
^
ws
for heat of a material, and is indicated by the Greek letter
K', wsis, the capacity for heat of unit volume of the material.
Let us write (1) as

dh^ __ 1
dx^'Kdi
/.^K
^"^'
232
356
270. It will be found that there are innumerable solutions

of this equation, but there is only one that suits a particular
problem. Let us imagine the average temperature everywhere to be (it is of no consequence what zero of temperature is taken, as only differences enter into our calculations),
and that
a sin 27r;i^, or a sin ^'^
(3),
F=
is
the law according to which the temperature changes at
the skin where
a;
is
w or
^ means
the
number
of com-
Now we have carefully

plete periodic changes per second.
examined the cycle of temperature of steam in the clearance
space of a steam-cylinder, and it follows sufficiently closely
a simple harmonic law for us to take this as a basis of
Take any periodic law one pleases, it consists
calculation.
of terms like this, and any complicated case is easily studied.
Considering the great complexity of the phenomena occurring
in a steam-cylinder, we think that this idea of simple
harmonic variation at the surface of the metal, is a good
enough hypothesis for our guidance. Now we take it that
although the range of temperature of the actual skin of the
metal is much less than that of the steam, it is probably
roughly proportional to it, so we take a to be proportional
to the range of temperature of the steam.
We are not
now considering the water in the cylinder, on the skin and
in pockets, as requiring itself to be heated and cooled this
heating and cooling occurs with enormous rapidity, and the
less there is of such water the better, so it ought to be
;
drained away rapidly. But besides this function of the

water, the layer on the skin acts as creating in the actual
metal, a range of temperature which approaches that in the
steam itself, keeping a large. Our n means the number of
revolutions of t lie engine per second.
suit this problem we find the value of v everywhere
at all times to be what is given in (2) of Art. 260,
To
and
This
is
one plane
= ae "V^sin (2',mt-x^^'j
(4).
the answer for an infinite mass of material with

It is approximately true in the wall of a thick
face.
PENETRATION OF HEAT
357
cylinder, if the outside is at temperature 0.

is
If the outside
and the thickness of the metal
at temperature v
is
1)'
we have only
add a term y ^
to
to
the
expression
(4).
This shows the effect of a steam-jacket as far as mere conThe steam-jacket diminishes the
ductivity is concerned.
Taking (4) as it stands, the result ought
value of a also.
At any point at the depth x
to be very carefully studied.
there is a simple harmonic rise and fall of temperature every
revolution of the engine but the range gets less and less as
the depth is greater and greater. Note also that the changes
This is exactly the sort of
lag more as we go deeper.
thing observed in the buried thermometers at Craigleith
Quarry, Edinburgh. The changes in temperature were 1st
we give the
of 24 hours period, 2nd of 1 year period
yearly periodic changes, the average results of eighteen
;
years* observations.
Depth in
Yearly range
feet
below surface
of temperature
Fahrenheit
3 feet
6 feet
12 feet
24
feet
Time
of highest
temperature
16138
August 14
12-296
8-432
3-672
Sept. 17
Nov. 7
26
Observations at 24 feet below the surface at Calton Hill,

Edinburgh, showed highest temperature on January 6th.
Now
let
us from (4) find the rate at which heat
flowing through a square centimetre; that

for
any instant
dv
dx
calling
a/
aae~*^ sin {2irnt
where x = 0, that
is,
ax)
is,
calculate
is
kj
a.
aae~'^^ cos {27rnt ax),
at the skin, it
becomes when multiplied
358
hy k; lk
= + kaa {sin 27mt + cos 27mt]
-J-]
= kaa V2 sin (2'Trnt + ^]
by Art. 116.
This is + for half a revolution when heat is flowing into

the metal, and it is for the other half revolution when heat
Let us find how much flows
is flowing out of the metal.
in it will be equal to the amount flowing out. It is really
the same as
;
kaa V2
sin 27rnt
dt
= kaa^/2
= \/
That
is, it is
the speed and
IT
Jo
is
where t
2kws
nir
inversely proportional to the square root of

proportional to the range of temperature.
We have here a certain simple exact mathematical result

students must see in what way it can be applied in an
engineering problem when the phenomena are very compliWe may take it as furnishing us with a roughly
cated.
correct notion of what happens.
That is, we may take it
that the latent heat lost by steam in one operation is less
with steam jacketing, and with drying of the skin is proportional to the range of temperature of the steam, to the
surface exposed at cut off, and inversely proportional to the
square root of the speed. Probably what would diminish it
more than anything else, would be the admixture with the
steam of some air, or an injection of flaming gas, or some
vapour less readily condensed than steam. When we use
many terms of a Fourier development instead of merely
one, we are led to the result that the heat lost in a steam
cylinder in one stroke is
;
{0,-0,){h
^ÂI>Jn,
6^ is the initial temperature and 6^ the back pressure

temperature, r the ratio of cut ofi", n the number of revoluthe area of the piston h and c constants
tions per minute,
where
LIST OF INTEGRALS.
359
whose values depend upon the type of engine and the

arrangements as to drainage and jacketing.
convenient to keep by them
most important that they
for their own use, but we have always
Students will find
271.
a good
list
of integrals.
it
It is
such a list
found that it gets mislaid unless bound up in some book of
reference.
We therefore print such a list here. Repetition
collect
was unavoidable.
Fundamental cases
1.
Ix"',dx =
J
2.
4.
- .dx=
5.
log
la^.dcc
J
/cos mo)
m+1
X.
a*.
-,
log a
.dx= sin mx.
J
6.
sin mx .dx =
/si
cot
7.
x'"+\
x.dx =
m cos mx.
log (sin x).
tan X
8.
.dx= -
log (cos x),
tan X sec x.dx
9.
= sec x.
10.
x.dx tan x.
/,cosec^ X .dx
,
12.
sec^
dx
I cos^ ax
= cot x.
= -1 tan ax.
.
360
13.
-^z
smâx
f dx
J
1 ^
14.
10.
a'^
ar"
dx
V a^
cot ax.
= sin~* ^-
li
+ x^
X
a
dx
â?-a?
=-sec'
a
_
SGC~~
cosh ax .dx
- sinh ax.
a
From
we have used
17 to 23
X
~
a
zzi
IX
17*.
Hyperbolic sines,
the symbols (called
cosines &c.
Binhx=i (c* - e-*), and cosech x

cosha' = i(c*+6~*),8echa:=
^^
'
^
x=
tanh
= sinh x,
+
i = e^-1
sinh
= sinh"^
Also
if
It is
easy to prove that
2/
a:
sinh (a
-iiT,
^^
coth
a;
tanhx'
l'
e'^
coah
^,
a;
cosha:
/.
+ h) = sinh a cosh h + cosh a

= cosh a cosh h + sinh a
cosh (a + &)
sinh
sinh
h,
t,
= sinh a cosh & - cosh a sinh

= cosh a cosh t - sinh a sinh t,
sinh 2a = 2 sinh a cosh a,
cosh 2a = cosh^ a + sinh^ a = 2 cosh'^ a - 1
= 2sinh2a + l.
sinh {a-b)
cosh (a -
Z>,
?^)
If
t2= -
we assume that
1,
r^ " I
we
cos -
+ 1 sin -
1^
^=-
r^=a'^+h^, and tan
i as we call it, submits to algebraic rules and

&c. we can write a + bi as r (cos 6 + i sin ^), where
aJ -1, or
t^= -t, 1*^1,
=1
.
It is
easy to extract the
and by adding on
27r to 6
7tth
root of a
as
many times
+z
tan"' -
get n, 7ith roots.
We also find that
= cos a + i sin a,
= cos a - 1 sm a.
+ i sin ^) = r e**,
c**
ia
e
If z
= a + bi-r (cos
log 2
= log r + id =
ii
log {a^ +
b"^)
as
+ bi:
we
being
please,
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS.
18.
ax.dx = - cosh ax,
sinh
19.
sech^
ax .dx
= - tanh ax.
a
20.
cosech^
ax.dx =
21.
22.
361
coth ax.
--M^ = sinh-^ - = log [x + V^M^^K

-^^ = cosh-^ - = log {x + ^/^^~^'l
f,^,==ltanh-f=llog a-\-x
x- a
za
a
a X
23.
J a^
This
in
it,
is
indeterminate because tan~i -
may have any number
of times 2ir
and indeed the indeterminateness might have been expected as
'"=1.
Evidently cosh a;= cos ix,

sinh
x= -i sin ix.
sinh
is
usually pronounced shin,
tanh
is
usually pronounced tank.
Prove that if if = sinh~ia; or a; = |(e" - e~), only positive values of u being

taken, then e" = x + ^/l + x^, and therefore u = sinh"^ x = log {x + >^1 + x"^).
Similarly cosh-ix = log {x+
Jx- -
1),
tanh-ia; = ^log^|,
sech-ia:
cosech-i
a;
= logQ+yi-l),
= log (^ +
^^^ + 1)
Now compare
/
-7==5= 8in"â;,
aJi-x^
dx
f
-
.-
^1+x^
= cosh-â; = log {x +
j-j^,= tan
i.r.
= sinh-i = log (a; + Vl+^).

rr
^Jx"^
1).
j--,= tanh-a:=ilog ^~^.
..
362
CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERS,

dx
^
1
= -i-
24
25.
f^^ =
,x[
dx
\/^Ta*
27.
rfa?
a;
log
ver-.^, f-
dx
,x
- _...
SIQ"
i
= ia; VaM^ + ia' log {a; -f ViTa}.
28.
Var'
- a^
da?
Ja; v/^t^
_ ^2 _ |^2 i^g
[_^
_^
\/.x"2
- a^}.
29.
Na?-
30.
31.
32.
a?
sia?
-a?
0.
= -1 cos~* a,
a + V ' 0^
a^
= \/anr^-a
=
rfa;
Va;^
x.dx
x.dx
36.
l*a;\/a2-a;2.(Za;
a?^
rfa;
= J ^{Tc^y.
= -iV(a2-a^).
rfa?
i(a;
V^To^
+ Vo^T^
f a?
V2aa;
- a^ - a cos"^ -
a?
35.
33
x\/aâ?
- sin"^
sm~^ - or
|-\/aM^.d'a;
37.
=-
,j^-=îog
f
J
c?a;
^'^^
-
+ l)V^-l
sJ2ax-a^ + ^sin-*^^
^^
2
a
2
fx-\
Va; + X*

LIST OK INTEGRALS.
40.
A /
1
V
,
^1-
dx =
sin"^
x s/\ a?.
\sJ"'-^^'dx=^J{xâ){x^h)
4-
42.
363
a;"^-i
(a
+ 6a;")9
(a
6) log {sjx 4- a +
-s/a;
6).
câ?.
If ^/g' be a positive integer, expand, multiply and

1st.
integrate each term.
Assume a + hx^ y^, and if this fails,

Assume ax~'^ ^-h y^. This also may
2nd.
3rd.
fail
to give
an easy answer.
43.
sin~^
I
44.
45.
X .dx x sin~^ x-{- Jl x"^.
(log
X log x.dx=
xe*^"^
dx = -
a?
6*
( ic
1^).
46.
a?"6^
câ;
Observe this
first
aj'ê"^
a;-i6*
câ--.
a]
example of a formula of reduction to
reduce n by successive steps.

^^'
j^'^^~"^^r:n.^l^7;^^ja;--^'^''
^
48.
log
a?
(â?
= - ^'^ log
dx.
1 r e"^
6**^
a;
49.
rJ^=jiogl!^=loglcot(^-f)l.
^ 1 - sm
^
^
V4
2/J
j cos
a;
a;
1.
r^
364
7T
51-
_ cos aa;
e<^
o4.
sin** a?
c?a?
^^
=
e*''^
dx
J sin**
x~
cos
"* sin"
ax
Go^
sin"~^
a sin
\-
a;
+w
n
cos
(w
71
a?
1) sin**"*
x.dx=
~-
a^
+ n^
a;
ri.
7a;
sm ?ja;
-o
f
I
cos
7?ia7
cos 7ix
cos
-^
59.
r
I
sin
mx
dx.
.^^,^^^^
?i='
ax =
dx =:la;
cos(m+?i)a;
-^
- sin
(??i
+ n)^
cos(7tin)x
-^^
2 (m
n)f-
2na;.
4fn
61.
,
.
n cos a?)
z
sin- na?
'
''
60.
^r-^
??a;
__
sin"-^
sin(m + 7i)a?
= sin
(7?t w)
^ + n)
2(m-n)
2(m
sin (?/i ?i) a;
sin(m + w)a?
âa? = -^)
2(m-n)f- H 2(m + ?i)
aa;
58.
1 f
sin x
x (a
^
sin
2
dx
f
1 j sin""*-^ x
sin**~^
a2
-K,*
aa;)
n(n-l)
57*.
6.
c-
^^
a<
a cos cw;)
r-
6^*
56.
6,
fi
a^ ^
(c
rfa;
(c sin aa?
a>
/,
/j;
53.
if
^
^
Jb a tan ^ V^ +
sm ax .ax=
e*'*
it
log
Jb^ -
^^
Jba tan ^ + Jb+a
o2.
r *^^
cos^
?ia;
* In integrating
following formulae
.dx
sin 2wa; +
Jo;.
any of these products 57
2 sin vix
sin
to 61
we must
nx = cos (m -n) x- cos (w + 7j) a;.
= cos (m-w)a: + cos (m + n) x.

wx cos jja: = sin (m + n) a: + sin (m - n)
cos 2x = 2 cos^ ;ia; - 1 = 1 - 2 siu^ nx.
2 cos wa; cos

2 sin
7/a;
a;,
recollect the
FORMULAE OF REDUCTION.
m and n are supposed
In the following examples 62 to 67,

to be unequal integers.
rrr
62.
2n-
Tir
63.
or
or
365
sin
1710)
COS
??!
nx .dx=
sin
0.
27r
COS iix
dx =
0.
Jo
64.
nx,dx = -
sin^
Jo
dx = ^
cos^ nx.
if
/j
Jo
-^
is
an
integer
2jr
65.
si]
sin
mx
cos nx.
dx=
sin
?7ZA'
cos nx.
dx=0
sin
771^
Jo
66.
if
7?i
is
even.
Jo
67.
cos
nx .dx
'-/ sin"*
68.
^r.
69.
r
I
17V
Jo
ic
a;
cos"*
cos
x ,dx =
sin a;
ttic
if vi
?r
sin"*+i
odd.
is
a;
m+1
cos'"-^"a;
m+1
of cos x or sin x may be integrated,

in the form (1 sin'â^)"'cos x or
(1 cos^ xj^ sin a?, and if we develope we have terms of the
above shapes. Similarly sin^ x cos^ x may be integrated
when either p or q is an odd integer.
Hence any odd power
because
we may
write
it
= x^ cos x-^-mi x^"'~^ cos x
70.
a?"*
sin x.dx
71.
ic*"
co^ x.dx = x"^ sin x
H-^
* 2,
_-,
fcosx
J
74.
fsina;
dx =
y
a;"*
[tan** x.dx
sin
cos
a;
m-la;"*-^
= (^^^y~' ^
x'^~^ sin
:,
a;
fcosx
a;
-;
Tsina;,
x^-' dx
.
c?a7.
c?a;.
dx.
m-lja;^"~^
|'(tan
366
75.
A'"
Sin-l
X.dx =
-r
ja-\-bx+ cx^
V4ac - 6"
4ac
2cx
+6
X = a + bx + cx^
If
^^
'^-
Q^
01
^^'
^^
83.
84.
2cx-{-h
fcâ;
tdx _ 2cx
JX^r^'
fdx
if
it
5'
4ac
6^,
4<ac
...
4ac
then
2c fdx
("da;
q'jX-
[dx
[dx
a^
ic^
J^ = 2-J''Sx-Tajx'
fdx
^(
c\ fdx
f__^__ = 2sin-A/^.
V b-a
N{x-a){b-x)
f_=iL==_=-Asin-.y^pp
V
+ 6a
V6^
bx){oL-px)
c^^
= sec^
Jx\lx''-a''
r
ob.
1
3c\
[iX'-'^qX)'^
,.==^
- 6^
+ h- ^J - Aiac
2ca; + 6 + Vt" - 4ac
bx+2a
1
l-^-a?
rig?
j_
> 6^
v 4ac
+b(
dx
Js/{a
85.
and
,-
2cx
log
Vft^
tan-i
n+lj
71+1
77.
:r
\^/
vv_+^^
a
<
,,
o-'.
'
'
LIST OF INTEGRALS.
367
dx
87.
^ \/a-\-hx-\- caf
= -p log f c^ +
89.
dx
f
J
Na-\-hx
+ 2ca?)
+ bx + ex""
(^
v 4ac
+ 6^
2pc-gh
J^
V^ 4- hx + c2
2c
so integrated.
90.
Any integral
P, Q, ii and
rationalized
91.
a+bx-\-
and
^cx-b
-1
Vc
ig^ may be altered to

2c y/a
and
ca?
+ Vc (a^bx + cx'^yj
T^r^^> where
are rational integral functions of
integral of the form
4iac is
b^
U is
4>ac is positive
^ = -L.
positive and c positive
Vc"VF _
can be
,_ dx, where
by the substitution
When
x,
= v^.
can be rationalized, (1) when
c negative,
(2)
by the substitution oi ax-\-b
Any
cx^,
of the form
by
2y
\/62-4ac~l~2/'*
(3)
When
6-
4ac
is
negative and a positive by
VcVF _ 1 +y
~
A/4ac-62
If ?7
92
= a 4- 6a; 4f
ca;^,
'
1-2/'
4c
= 4ac , S =
cZa;_^ 2(2ca;_j-6)
[_dx__
JU^s/U
2(2cx-{b)\/ U
(2n-l)qU''
2S(n-l)
"^
dx
2n-l JU^-i^'
368
^.
r,
nr
(2ca;+6)\/|7
ra;rfa;
+ 6)VF/..
(2c^
/-
J^ _
W^
"^
s/a
1
dx
f
J
-2\fU
.,
if
'JU
d^
x-Û~~
[dx
2ja)
+ 2a \
\x V 6^ - 4ac/
V- a
3\
dx
[dx
bx
.
= 0.
..
dx
2aj^VF"
The solutions of many Physical Problems are given

272.
in terms of certain well-known definite integrals some of
which have been tabulated. The study of these is beyond
the scope of this book.
I say a few words about
The
Gamma Function which is defined as
By
parts,
e~^
e-^.x^'-Kdx^Tin)
a"
,dx=- e'^x^ +n\e-^. a;"-^
Putting these between limits
e~^x'^
And
vanishes
when x =
therefore
e-^x'^
and
,dx
a;
it
is
(1).
dx.
easy to prove that
=x
= nj
e~^ x^~^ .dx

.
..
.(2).
THE GAMMA FUNCTION.
Hence
so that if n
= n r(w)
(3),
an integer
is
r(n +
Notice that
whereas
(?i4-l)
369
F (ii)
is
l)
= 1.2.3.4,
n=\n
&c.
(4).
when n
has a meaning only
j/i
a function of any value of
is
an integer,
n.
Tables of the values of F (n) have been calculated,

not here describe how. The proof that
we need
ra) = V^
as given in
most books,
is
(5),
very pretty.
us through (3) to write out r(f) or
The
F( f),
result enables
&;c.
very great number of useful definite integrals can be

evaluated in terms of the Gamma Function.
V
Thus
IT
1.
[' sin
.-./i
4.
a;e-*
Jo
1.
e,dd=j
dx =
sinP
fsi
(1
a-<'*+^)
2a
d.dO
^-lJ
2a Vy
i/'->
cos*^
T(m)V(n)
''"+' (fo
F (?i +
).
^^'
- y)""-' dy = r
e cos9 e,d0
r (m) - 2r
(I)
(I
+ m)
=
2r (+? +
!)
24
370
APPENDIX.
The following notes are intended to be rccod in connection with the
The exact
text on the page whose number appears before the note.
position on the page is indicated by a t.
Page
3.
The ordinary
propositions
in
Geometry ought to be
The best sign of the health of our race

illustrated by actual drawing.
is shown in this, that for two generations the average British boy has
been taught Euclid the mind destroying, and he has not deteriorated.
Euclid's proofs are seemingly logical; advanced students know that
Even if they were logical the Euclidian
this is only in appearance.
Philosophy ought only to be taught to men who have been Senior
Wranglei-s.
95 per cent, of the schoolboys, whose lives it makes
miserable, arc as little capable of taking an interest in abstract reasoning as the other five per cent, are of original thought.
Page
43.
described in
Page
than
48.
There
my
is
much more
accurate method for finding
book on the Steam Engine.
This rule
is
not to be used for values of
.r
greater
16.
Page 63. In Art. 39 I have given the flue investigations as usually

given, but prefer the following method, for I have for some time liad
reason to believe that in a tube of section A, X)erimeter P, if irib. of
gases flow per second, the loss of heat per second per unit area of tube
is proportional to
vejt,
the absolute temperature of the gases and v the velocity of the

Now v oc Wt-Â^ so that the loss of heat per second is progases.
if t is
portional to
weiA,
Proceeding as before
-w,de=cwe.dsiA,
or
-A^=G.dS,
or
-A\oge-\-c=CS,
where c and
G are constants. As
c=^logî,
Whole
before, this leads to
>^=^log|.
>S'=7j log ^-, so that the efficiency
becomes
E^\-e-^^l^.
A
APPENDIX.
Now if
it ia
or l/m where
that
a tube of perimeter
is
known
371
F and length
as the hydraulic
^,
JS/A
mean depth
becomes PII
of the flue, so
This makes the efl&ciency to be independent of the quantity of stuff

flowing, and within reasonable limits I believe that this is true on the
assumption of extremely good circulation on the water side. This
notion, and experiments illustrating it, were pubhshed in 1874 by
Prof. Osborne Eeynolds before the Manchester Philosophical Society.
Mr Stanton has recently {Phil. Trans. 1897) published experiments
which show that we have in this a principle which ought to lead to
remarkable reductions in the weights of boilers and surface condensers;
using extremely rapid circulation and fine tubes.
Page 95. It ought not to be necessary to say here that the

compressive stress at any point in the section of a beam such as
ACAC,
fig.
47, is -jz, if z is
the distance (say
JB)
of a point
on the
compression side of the neutral line A A from the neutral line. The
neutral line passes through the centre of the section. If z is negative
the stress is a tensile stress. The greatest stresses occur where z is
greatest.
Beams of uniform strength are those in which the same
greatest stress occurs in every section.
Page 111. Mr George Wilson (Proc. Royal Soc., 1897) describes a

method of solving the most general problems in continuous beams
which is simpler than any other. Let there be supports at ^, ^, C, Dj E.
(1) Imagine no supports except A and E, and find the deflections at
B, C and D. Now assume only an upward load of any amount at B,
and find the upward deflections at B, (7, and D. Do the same for C
and B. These answers enable us to calculate the required upward
loads at J5, C and B which will just bring these points to their proper
levels.
Page
Page
139.
For beginners
146.
In
all
end of Chap.
this is the
I.
cases then,
dll=l'.dt + t(^\dv
(23*).
and V in terms
Exercise 1. By means of (23) express K, I, Z,
of k and write out the most general form of equation (3) in terms of k.
Show that among many other interesting statements we have what
Maxwell calls the four Thermodynamical relations,
U/
\dpJt'
Exercise
Area
2.
WJp
\dp)i'
Prove that in
fig.
\dt)
\dv)t'
\d(t>),
[dvU
55,
ABCB=AE. AF, =A U. AJ==AO.AM=AQ. AB,
and show that these are the above four
relations.
242
APPENDIX.
372
Exercise
Show by using
3.
(23)
with
and
(7), (8), (11)
(14) that for
any substance
and that
becomes
(20)
d^
(dk\
k =1-0 -{-t j(
so that
j dv,
I'q ls a function of temperature only.

Dividing dR=K.dt+L.('
Bividing
.dt+L.dp by t and stating that
differential, show that we are led to
where
dH=K
it is
a complete
K=K,-tj
where Kq
Page
same as
a function of temperature only.
is
152.
Another way
is
merely to recognize
(8) as
being the
bH=^k.ht + l.bv,
for
t(~\, and when
a pound of stuff of volume
s^
receives
at constant temperature (or bt = 0) in increasing to the

2 (so that dv = 2-i) we have, since dpjdt is independent of v,
bH=L
volume
8Zr=Z = + i.^.(52-i).
Page
linear
188.
Sine functions of the time related to one another by
operators such as a-{-h6-\-c^-\-etc. + e6~^+fB~^-\-Qic.^ where
means
-y-
are represented by and dealt with as vectors in the
manner
here described. Eepresenting an electromotive force and a current in

Dr Sumpner has shown
this way, the scalar product means Power.
{Proc. Roy. Soc, May 1897) that in many important practical problems
more complicated kinds of periodic functions may be dealt with by the
Vector Method.
Page
190.
The symbol tan~i means
"
an angle whose tangent
is."
Page 195. To understand how we develope a given function in a

Fourier Series, it is necessary to notice some of the results of Art. 109,
very important for other reasons indeed, I may say, all-important to
;
electrical engineers.
Page 195. Article 126 should be considered as displaced so as

come immediately before Art. 141, p. 210.
Page
202.
The problem
of Art. 125
is
here continued.
to
APPENDIX.
Page
208.
such terms as
373
is informed that 2 means "the sum of all

be written out, writing 1 for s, 2 for 5, 3 for 5, and
The beginner
may
so on."
Page
209.
See Ex. 23,
p. 184.
Page 213. The student ought

as an exercise.
Page
213.
Page Ml.
a^sj2.
to alter
from v to
(7
or to
in (9)
See Art. 152.
Remember
that the
effective
value of as.\n{nt-\-e)
Page
254.
Here again a student needs a numerical Example.
Page
256.
After copper read " and their insulations."
Page
259.
Then
e-^-\-e.^=E [sin {nt
is
+ a) + sin (nt a)] = 2i7 cos a sin w^.

{See Art. 109.)
Page 266. All other statements about this subject that I have seen
are of infantine simplicity, but utterly wrong.
Page
269.
Insert "
Page
278.
In the same manner show that
and
in consequence."
if
y=^ ^=*ioga.
Page
281.
See the eighth fundamental case, Art. 215.
Page
299.
See
(1)
Note to Art.
21.
Page
301.
Article 225 should be considered as displaced so as to
precede Art. 222.
Page
305.
See Ex.
Page
309.
Or
Page
310.
Art. 225 should be read before Art. 222.
Page
331.
8,
Art. 99.
(3).
have taken an approximate law
for
h and so greatly
shortened the work.
Page 359. Viscosity. All the fluid in one plane layer moves with
the velocity v\ the fluid in a parallel plane layer at the distance bx
moves with the velocity v-\-bv in the same direction; the tangential
force per unit area necessary to maintain the
where
/x
is
motion
is
/*
^ or
/*
^-
the viscosity.
Example 1. A circular tube is filled with fluid, the velocity v at

any point whose distance from the axis is r being parallel to the axis.
Consider the equilibrium of the stuff contained between the cylindi-ic
spaces of radii r and r+5r of unit length parallel to the axis. The
APPENDIX.
374
tangential force on the inner surface

surface
^TTfi -J-
it
(i'-f)
a force - 2wr
the
what
is
5^1
stuflF is 27rr
volume
becomes when
this
dr if
6r
measured
is
m if
-^
time
if ^ is
d / dv\
dr \ dr)
to
r-\-hr
or
and
if
m is
The mass
the mass per unit
and hence, equating
of
force to
27r/x8r,
dp _r.m dv
fi
dx~
'
fi
dt
Let -^ be constant; say that we have a change of
2.
P in the
pressure
changed
r is
parallel to the axis.
dr is very small
mass X acceleration and dividing by
Example
and on the outer
,~
the difference of j^ressure between the ends gives us
its acceleration is
is 2wrfi.
length
so that
t^ =
Let a state of steady flow
have been reached so that -f=Oy then
dr\ dry
If r
-7-
dr
be called u and
du 4- 2ar dr = 0,
.
or
if i'/û
'^
fi
rj^ + ar^=^c,
'
dr
u + ar^ = constant
dv-\-
be called 2a. then -^ + 2ar = 0, so that

c.
or
^ + ar=-
(1),
{ar-i^dr=0,
c
vi-jâr'
Evidently as there
c
must be
0.
is
(2).
no tangential force where r=0,
-f-
thei-e,
Hence
v
(2)
+ ^-, = C
Now v=0 where r^r^,

becomes v=â {r^^-r^).
The volume
+ âr^ = C
of fluid per second passing

27r
(2).
the outer radius of the
any section
fluid,
and hence
is
rv .dr=^ - aro* = nrQ*P/8lfx.
This enables us to calculate the viscosity of a fluid passing through a

cylindrical tube if we know the rate of flow for a given difference of
pressure.
INDEX.
The References are
Academic
exercises,
Chap.
Basin, water in, 130
iii.
Beams, 48
Acceleration, 24, 30, 188, 220

Adiabatic law, 92, 148, 167
Advance, 186
Air in furnaces, 65
Air turbine, 128
Alternating current formulae, 183
189, 209, 239
Alternator, 178
Alternators in parallel
5,
series,
259
Approximate calculations, 2
of, 170
Archimedes, spiral of, 302
Arc, length
Area, centre of, 85

of catenary, 171
of
of
of
of
of
curves, 69
parabola, 71
ring,
80
sine curve, 197

surfaces of revolution, 75, 78
Asymptote, 301
Atmospheric pressure, 166
Attraction, 87, 344
Average value of product of
functions, 185
Ayrton, 53, 199
Ballistic effects, 181
fixed at the ends,
100108
of uniform strength, 102
shear stress in, 115

standard cases, 97 99
Beats in music, 194
Belt, slipping of, 165
Bending, 94121
and
Amplitude, 172
Analogies in beam problems, 108
in mechanical and electrical systems, 213
Angle between two straight lines, 16
Angular displacement, 33
Angular vibrations, 212
Apparent power, 209
to pages.
in struts, 262
Bessels, 205, 352, 354
Bifilar suspension,
Boiler, heating surface, 63

Bramwell's valve gear, 193
Bridge, suspension, 61
Calton HUl, 357

Cardioide, 302
Capacity of condensers, 162, 236, 240
Carnot cycle, 145, 152
Carnot's function, 145
Catenary, 62, 170
Central force, 344
Centre of gravity, 73, 85
Centrifugal force, 123
Centrifugal pump, 131
Chain, hanging, 61
Change of state, 150
of variable, 339
Characteristic of dynamo, 296
Circle, 10
moment of inertia of, 82
Circuitation in electricity, 134
Cissoid, 302
Cisterns, maximum volume of, 49
sine
179
Binomial Theorem, 34
INDEX.
376
The References are
differential,
Compound
vibrations, 10, 211,
Definite integral, 68
Deflection of beams, 96, 118
143145, 153
interest law, 161, 164
Demoivre, 320
Development, Fourier, 202
in cosines, 207
Differential coefficient, 21, 28, 268

complete, 143, 153
Concavity, 306
Conchoid, 302
Condensation in steam cylinders,

54, 153, 358
Condenser, electric, 162, 212, 236
annulling self-induction,
247
with induction coil, 257
Conductivity of heat, 341, 354
Conductors, network of, 237
Cone, 73, 78
Conjugate point, 301
Connecting rod, 191
Constraint, 179
Continuous beams, 111
Convexity, 306
Cooling, Newton's law of, 163
Co-ordinate geometry, 6
Co-ordinates, r, 0, <p, 347
polar, 310, 342

Cosines, development in, 207
Cos-la;, 277
Cot-la;, 277
equation, 220-225
equations, general exercises on, 337
equations, partial, 341,
346351
partial, 139
Differentiation of function of
df>'
dx
Craigleith quarry, 367
^( = ^.^,155.271
dx dz dx
Crank, 173
Crank and connecting
e<^,
200202
electric, 33, 168, 189,
10
e<" sin bx, 10, 285
239
Curvature, 96, 120, 169, 306

of beams, 96121
of struts, 262
Curves, 43
area of, 69
lengths of, 77, 312
Cusp, 301
Cycloid, 12, 276, 302, 312
dy
rod, 12, 191
Curl, 134
e'^cosbx, 286
Earth, attraction
companion
301
Cylinder, heat conduction in sides of
steam-engine, 356
moment
to,
of inertia of, 82,
85
Cylinders, strength of thick, 88
Cylindric body rotating, 90
of,
87
Earthquake recorder, 215
Economy
'
more
than one variable, 340

of product, 269
of quotient, 270
Diffusivity for heat, 355
Discharge of condenser, 156
Displacement, angular, 33
Distributive law, 231
Drop in transformers, 255, 257
Dynamics of a particle, 344
Dynamo, series, 296
Cot X, 275
Coupling rod, 265
Current, effective,
225
228
Complete
pages.
to
Damped
Clairaut's equation, 334

Clearance in gas engines, 150
in pumps, 131
Commutative law, 231
Companion to cycloid, 301
Eddy
in electric conductors, 65,
5759
lamps, 294
hydraulic mains, 58
currents, 209
Effective current, 200202

Efficiency of gas-engine, 150
of heat-engine, 41
of heating surface, 64
Elasticity, 93, 141
Electric alternator, 178
circuit, 33, 168, 178, 189,
208, 212, 236, 239, 247
INDEX.
377
The References are
240245
Ruhmkorf
Electric condenser, 162, 236,
and
coil,
257
shunt,
as
243,
246
economy
current,
in,
55,
5759
efifective, 200202
illustration, alternating cur-
rents, 199
lamps, economy in, 294

make and break curve, 201,
205
power meter, 209
time constant of coil, 60, 160
traction, 59
transformer, 33, 249, 253
vibrations, 156, 212, 213, 225
voltage, effective, 202, 247
voltaic cells, 51, 52
Electricity, partial differential equations in, 349
problems in, 33, 51, 52,
55,
5759,
60,
134
136, 156, 157, 162, 168,
178,182186,189,195,
202,205,208210,212,
225, 236, 239261

gelf-induction in, 135
Electrodynamometer, 200
Electromagnetic theory, fundamental
laws of, 134
Electromotive force, 134
in
moving
coil,
178
Ellipse, 8, 10, 11, 83, 158, 276
Ellipsoid of revolution, 76
Elliptic functions, 339
integrals, 339
Empirical formulae, 17
Energy, intrinsic, 143
kinetic, 31, 180
of moving body, 156
potential, 180
stored in compressed spring,
33
Engineer, 1
Entropy, 143, 152
Envelopes, 309
Epicycloid, 302
Epitrochoid, 301
Equality of forces, 217
pages.
partial
341,
differential,
346351
solving, 51
Equiangular
conductor, 168
to
Equations, differential, 220225
spiral,
186
Euler's law for struts, 265

Evanescent term, 169, 190, 208, 240
Exact differential equation, 339
Exercises, 38
general, on
differential
equations, 33/
on integration
and
differen-
tiation,
279
maxima and minima, 295

on curves, 169, 311
on integration of sin x and
cos^, 182
on Maclaurin, 319
Expansion of functions, 317
320
of gas, 17
Experiments, 7
Explosions, 48
Exponential and trigonometrical formulae, 177, 185, 190,
222, 320
theorem, 161
e, 161
Factor, integrating, 328

Factorial fractions, 235
Factorials and gamma function, 369
Falling body, 21, 30
Feedwater missing in steam cylinder,
358
Ferranti effect, 247
Field, magnetic, about straight wire,
134
rotating, 195, 251
Flow, maximum, of gas, 128
gas, 54
of
hypothetical, 133
167
Fluid
motion, 125
pressure, 121
whirhng, 123
work done by, 66
Flywheel, 84
stopped by
167
Force, central, 344
due to 27
pressure of
121
124
of
liquid,
friction,
friction,
jet,
fluids,
lines of,
INDEX.
378
T/te References are to pages.
Force of blow, 26
General rule for operators, 237

Girders, continuous, 111
of gravity, 87
unit
of,
26
Forces on moving bodies, 180

Forms, indeterminate, 299
Formulae of reduction, 284, 286
Graph
Fourier development, 208

exercises on, 315
proof, 183, 184, 197, 201

rule, 202, 204
theorem, 195
Fractions, partial, 291
Frequency, 186
Friction at pivot, 94
167
168
fluid,
solid,
shear stress in, 117

Glossary, 301, 302
Gordon's rule for struts, 264
Gradient, temperature, 354
exercises, 8
10
Graphical Fourier development, 204
work in beams, 108
Gravity, 87
motion of centre of, 230
Groves' problem, 257
Guldinus' theorems, 80
Guns, 90
Hammer, 26
Frustrum of cone, 78
Fuel on voyage, 49
Hanging chain, 61
Harmonic functions,
Function, 8
average value of sine, 185
Harmonics, zonal, 205, 354
Bessel, 352
elliptic,
hyperbolic, 172, 360

of more than one variable,
137, 341
Fundamental
integrals,
278
on electricity, 134
rules
Furnaces, air
7,
339
gamma, 369
65
in,
26
Gamma
functions, 235, 369
Gas, 38
elasticity of,
94
engine, 91
flow
diagram, heat in, 272

formulae, 17, 91, 147,
150, 272
of,
55, 127
perfect, 136,
150
work done by,

Gauge notches, 133
Gaussage, 134
Gear, valve, 193
General case of two
66, 72
coils,
249
279
differential
tions,
224
347352
equations, 138
experiments at Edinburgh, 357

latent, 41, 43
lost in steam cylinders, 356
reception in gas-engine, 272
specific, 93, 141
Heating surface, 63
Hedgehog transformer, 244
Henrici, Professor, 205
Henry, 136
Hertz, 215
Horse-power and steam, 41
Hydraulic jet, 26
press, strength of, 89
transmission of power, 58
Hydraulics, 133
Hyperbola, 10, 11
Hyperbolic functions, 360
spiral, 302
Hypocycloid, 277, 302
Hypotrochoid, 302
Hysteresis, 209, 255
Idle current in transformers, 243

Imaginaries, 185
Incandescent lamp, economy in, 298

Independent variables, change of, 338
more
than
271
for
spherical, 349
Heat conductivity, 354
equations, 341,
exercises in differential equations, 337

in
differentiation
and integration,
rule,
172, 186
equa-
one, 56, 136,
154
INDEX.
379
Ttie References are to payes.
Law
Indeterminate forms, 299, 300

multipliers, 158
Index law, 231
Indicator diagram, 53, 67
gas-engine, 91,
vibration, 215
Induction, 136
and condenser, 257

in transformers, 256
mutual, 249
33, 60
and capacity, 240

Inertia, moment
81
of cylinder,
85
of
83
of flywheel, 84
of rectangle, 86
of rod, 84
27*2
coil
self-,
self-,
of,
81,
ellipse,
Illustrations of meaning of differentiation, 37, 40, 42, 162, 176, 177

Inflexion, point of, 20, 301
Instruments, measuring, 179

Integral, definite, 68
double, 68
69
surface, 69
Integrals,
339
359369
line,
elliptic,
list of,
Integrating factor, 144, 327

Integration, 23, 35
parts, 285
exercises on, 183
of fractions, 282
Isothermal expansion, 92
Joule's equivalent, 43
Journal, lubrication of, 231
Kelvin, 161
Kinetic energy, 31
Labour-saving rule, 237

Lag, 209
Latent heat, 15, 42
Lateral loads, struts with, 264
Lamp, incandescent, 298
adiabatic, 148
commutative, 231
of flow of heat, Peclet's, 63
of cooling, Newton's, 163
compound
distributive,
interest,
161
231
of Entropy, 148, 152

Euler's, for struts, 265
of expansion of steam, 17
of falling bodies, 21
Index, 231
of loss of heat in steam cylin-
356
der,
of ^ and t, 18
of Thermodynamics,
first,
142
second, 146
of vibratory systems, 225 230
Lead in branch electric circuit, 247
Leakage of condenser, 162
Legendre's equation, 350
Lemniscata, 302
Length of arc, 170
of curve, 77, 312

Level surface, 124
Limit, meaning of, 22
Line integral, 69, 134
Linear equations, 220, 326, 353
Link motions, 14, 193
Liquid, flow of, 130
List of Integrals, 359369

Lituus, 302
Loci, 11
Logarithmic curve, 10, 302
decrement, 11
by
Interest law, compound, 161

Intersection of two straight lines, 16
Intrinsic energy, 143
Law,
function, 40
302
Logarithms, 2, 161
Log a;, 274
Lubrication of journal
spiral,
Maclaurin, 319
Magnet suspended, 179
Magnetic field about straight wire,
134, 195
rotating, 195, 251
force, 134
leakage, drop due to, 257
Make and break curve, 201, 205
Mass, 26
energy of moving, 157
of body, variable, 76
vibrating at end of spring, 156
Maxima and minima, 20
exercises on,
46, 47, 60,
294
INDEX.
380
The References are
Maximum
current from voltaic
flow of air, 128

parcel by post, 53
volume of cistern, 49
cells,
62
pages.
Percussion, point
Perfect gas, 38
of,
123
thermodynamics 147
steam-engine, 41
Periodic functions, 194, 203
motions in two directions,
196
time, 186
of,
power from dynamo, 297

Measuring instruments, 179
Merchant and squared paper, 6
Meter, electric power, 209
Minimum, 20
Modulus, 340
Moment of inertia, 80
Momentum, 26
Motion, 30, 157
to
Pendulum, 179
angular, 33, 212

of fluids, 125
of translation, 344
in resisting medium, 314
Multipliers, indeterminate, 158
Mutual induction, 250
Perpendicular
16
lines,
equations
to,
Pivot, friction at, 94

Point, conjugate, 301
d'arr^t,
301
of inflection, 301
of osculation, 301
moving in curved path, 342
Polar expressions, 342
Pound, unit of force, 26
Poundal, 26
^n(^).350
Natural vibrations, 225, 220

Negative and positive slope, I'J
Network of conductors, 237
Newton's law of cooling, 163
Normals, 15, 43, 169
Notches, gauge, 133
Numerical calculations, 2
Positive and negative slope, 19

Potential energy, 32
Octave, 192
Ohm's law, 33
modified, 136, 168, 189,
208, 236
Operation, symbols of, 231

Orifice, flow of gas through, 54
Oscillation, 123, 156, 190, 210, 211,
22530
Otto cycle, 149
Parabola, 8, 11, 27, 31, 61, 71
Paraboloid of revolution, 74
Parallel motion, 13
alternators in, 261
Parameter, 340
347352
differentiation, 39, 137, 155,
269, 341
fractions, 224, 234, 291, 294
Particle,
dynamics
of,
344
of,
270
Radial valve gears, 14, 193

Badian, 9
Radius of curvature, 169, 306
of gyration, 82
Radius vector, 342
Rate of reception of heat, 92
Ratio of spcific heats, 93, 139, 141
Ratios, trigonometrical, 182
Reduction, formulae of, 284, 286
Recorder, earthquake, 215
Rectangle, moment of inertia of, 86
Resistance, electric, 33
341,
Parts, integration by, 284

Peclet's law of flow of heat, 63
Quotient, differentiation
variable, 308
Partial differential equations,
Power, apparent, 209

electric, 208
transmission of, 58
meter, electric, 209
true, 209
Press, hydraulic, 90
Pressure, 136, 273
atmospheric, 166
fluid, 121
Primary, transformed resistance of,
254
Product, differentiation of, 155, 269
Projectile, 310, 315
Pulley, slipping of belt on, 165
Pump rod, 164
381
INDEX.
The References are
Resistance, leakage, 163
operational, 236
Besistances in parallel, 245
Resisting medium, motion in, 314
Resonance, 215
Resultant of any periodic functions,
197
Revolution, surfaces of, 78
volume
of solids of, 75
Rigid body, 61
to
pages.
Spherical Harmonics, 205, 349, 354

Spin, 132
Spiral flow of water, 130
hyperboUc, 302
Archimedes
of
equi-
(or
angular), 302
line,
173
logarithmic, 302, 311

Spring with mass, vibrating, 156
Springs, 21, 32, 53
which bend, 119

Square root of mean square, 200, 202
Squared paper, 6, 7
State, change of, 150
Steady point, 219
Steam, 41
work per pound of, 53
-engines, 41
motion of, 217

Ring, volume and area of, 80
Rod, moment of inertia of, 85
Roots of equations, 224, 321
Rotating field, 195, 251
Rotation in fluids, 132
Ruhmkorff coil, 257
Rule, 4
r and d co-ordinates, 342
r, df <t> co-ordinates, 347
-engine indicator, vibrations

of,
215
piston,
motion
of,
191
Stiffness of beams, 48
Straight line, 14
Strains in rotating cylinder, 90
Secant x, 276
Secohm, 136
Self-induction,
annulled
by
con-
denser, 247
of parallel wires,
135
Series, alternators in, 257
development in, 207
dynamo, 296
Shape of beams, 109
Shear stress in beams, 115
Shearing force in beams, 108
Simple harmonic motion, 173
Sina;, 9, 161,
damped, 311
274
Sine curve, area of, 173

functions, 172
Sines, curve of, 9, 173
development in, 207
Singular solution, 334
SHpping of belt, 165
Slope of curve, 15, 19, 70
Solution of forced vibration equations, 214
of linear differential equations, 229
Sound, 94
Specific heat, 139
heats, ratio of, 93, 141
volume of steam, 42
Speed, 21
Stream
lines, 126
Strength of beams, 48
of thick cylinders, 88
of thin cyhnders, 91
Struts, 261
with
loads, 264
lateral
Subnormal,
44, 169
Substitution, 279
Subtangent, 44, 169, 305
Successive integration, 335
Sum, differentiation of a, 268
Surface heating, 63
integral, 69
of revolution, 75, 78
124
Suspension, 179
bridge, 61
level,
Swinging bodies, 179, 182

Symbols of operation, 233
simplification
of,
237
Synchronism, 215
Table of Fundamental Forms, 278
Tangents, 43, 158, 169
Tana;, 275
Tan-la:, 277
Taylor's theorem, 317
Temperature, 136
INDEX.
882
The Refererwes are
in rocks,
<feo.
357
Terminal velocity, 314

Theorem, Binomial, 34
Theorem of three moments, 111
Vibration, 156, 190, 210, 212, 216,

225, 230, 238
(electrical), 156, 212, 213
indicator, 217, 219
Guldinus', 80
Demoivre's, 320
Maclaurin's, 318
Taylor's, 317
Thermodynamics, 42, 138, 153

Thomson, Professor James, 133
Three moments, 111
Time constant
of coil, 60, 160

diagram, 153
Torque, 33
Torsion, 179
Traction, electric, 59
Transformer, 33
Transformers, 252, 257
condenser shunt, 243
idle current of, 243
Triangle of forces, 61
Trigonometry, 2
Exponential
and
Trigonometric
Functions, 177, 185, 222, 234
Trigonometric Formulae, 182
Trisectrix, 302
Tuning-forks, 230
Turbine, air, 128
Two circuits, 249
t,
Uniform strength in beams, 102, 103

Uniformly accelerated motion, 29
CAMBRIDGE
of indicator, 215
Volcanoes, 172
Voltage in moving coil, 178
Voltaic cells, 51, 52
Volume of cone, 74
Tides, 194
Unreal quantities,
320
to pages.
Valve gears, 14, 193

Variables, independent, 57, 136, 341
Variable mass of body, 76
parameter, 308
Velocity, 21, 30, 188
Temperature, absolate, 145

gradient, 354
of ellipsoid of revolution, 76
of paraboloid of revolution,
74
of ring, 80
of solid of revolution, 76
Voyage, fuel consumed on, 49
Water
in steam cylinder, 358

Watt's parallel motion, 13
Wedmore, 205
Weight, 26
Whirhng fluid, 123
Willans, 54
Work, 3132
x-K-
e*,
in angular displacement, 35
per pound of steam, 31, 53
done by expanding
fluid, 66,
72
gases, 149
285
6160
3, 177, 185, 222,
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Calculus

CALCULUS FOE ENGINEEES,

CALCULUS FOE ENGINEEES

WH. SCH., ASSOC. MEMB. INST. C.E.,

lAll Rights reserved,]

2008 witftfanding from

knew only the most elementary

Theorem, or the definition of the sine of an angle. In July

Mr Norman Endacott, has corrected

the manuscript and proofs.

the exercises in the third chapter twice over.

with his kind of knowledge of mathematics has a

educational institution in lectures and in tutorial, laboratory,

the Finsbury Technical College,

tending to the same

an engineer such a perfect acquaintance with

his mental tools that he actually uses these tools in his

Professor Willis has been kind

the proofs and I therefore

doubly sure that no important

mistake has been made anywhere.

An experienced friend thinks that I

might with advantage

have given many more illustrations of the use of squared

instructions he will furnish

much better for himself Again I might

numerical work such as the exercises on the Bull Engine

and on Beams and Arches which are to be found in my book

and surely there must be some limit to spoon

The Compound Interest Law and the Harmonic

General Differentiation and Integration

CALCULUS FOE ENGINEERS.

has usually no time for a general mathe-

mores the pity and those young engineers

who have had such a training do not always

matics helpful in their profession. Such men will, I hope,

My reader is supposed to have an elementary know2.

CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERS.

the elementary facts about Bending Moment in beams, Work

ever good a mathematician a student thinks himself to be,

+ ^)' = 1 + 7ia + m^,

a and /S are small, and see for himself when a = '01 or

sin 35, -rv^

the answers are those given in the

Learn how we calculate the other sides of the

when we know one

side and one of the acute

Also try with the book of tables

where A and B are any two angles you choose to take.

= sin (a + y8) + sin (a /8)

binations or of the theory of equations, of Geometrical Conies

and the best service done by

CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERS.

elementary calculus work is in inducing students to again

he has a perfect knowledge of an

but he has not yet learnt the symbol used by us,

has the idea, but he does not express his

idea in this form.

I started to write this book I thought to put