MATERIALS AND METHODS

STUDY AREA
3.1. General Profile of Pudukkottai
The modern town of Pudukkottai is now about 200 years old. It originally
consisted of irregular streets and narrow lanes of mud-built thatched houses. Just a
century after its origin, it was almost entirely destroyed by fire. The new town that
was built partly from private funds and partly with the help of a state subsidy of
3,000 pagodas distributed to the poor was well laid out with broad streets. Again, in
course of time deterioration set in; encroachments marred the rectilinear layout. The
municipality was brought into existence in April 1912 under Regulation I of 1912.
Pudukkottai town has an area of 284.06 sq.Km. It lies between the parallels of 9
50 and 1040 North Latitude and between the meridians of 7825 and 7915 East
Longitude .The total population of Pudukkottai in 1901 census was only 20,347.In
1931 census was 28,776; in 1981 it was 70,952; in 1991 it was 76,657 whereas, it
has grown up to 1, 00,723 in 2005.Now these municipality is divided into 42 wards.
This present study is aimed at analysing the detail impact of the Urbanization on
Environment in Pudukkottai (Fig 2.1).
3.1.1. Current State of Environment in Pudukkottai
Pudukkottai stands on a sandy plain, and has tropical maritime, monsoon
type of climate. The temperature is very high throughout the year. The mean
maximum and minimum temperature are 37 C and 30 C respectively in summer.
The mean minimum and maximum temperature in winter are 20.6 C and 21.3 C.
The mean annual rain fall at Pudukkottai is 83.5 cm and mean number of rainy days
are 89 days. The city spreads over an area of 23.26 square kilometres.
3.1.1.1. Topography
Pudukkottai town has got a peculiarity. The town from the centre point leads
to Thanjavur on North, Aranthangi and Pattukkottai on east, Trichy on west and
Karaikudi etc, on the south. The roads and streets are parallel and perpendicular. The
main offices like Government departments, collectors office, and public head
quarters are from within the stones throw away distance from the centre of the
town.

Though there is no specific industry around Pudukkottai except SIPCOT

industrial complex. This cannot be stamped as a main business centre.
3.1.1.2. Climate
The climate of the Pudukkottai naturally resembles closely that of the
surrounding districts of the presidency. It is one of the drier areas in Southern India.
The year may be divided into four distinct seasons. The first period January to
March is relatively dry and cool. In the second, April to May, though more rain is to
be expected, the heat steadily increases. The second half of the year comprises the
two monsoons. Practically, the hot season extends from March to October, with
occasional intervals of rain, while the rainy season properly so-called extends over
October, November and December and sometimes into January. Such cold weather
as the sets in December and lasts till March. The rainfall varies remarkably from
year to year. More rain is generally expected from the North east than from the
South-west monsoon, but statistics show that this expectation is by no means always
realized (ENVIS, 2005).
The Temperature is officially recorded daily only at the observatory at
Pudukkottai Town. For the major portion of the year the mean daily temperature is
generally about its mean annual temperature. The range of temperature during the
course of a day varies very greatly during the different seasons of the year. The
range of daily variations is greatest in April or May and least in November or
December.
The South west monsoon wind, popularly known as the west wind, blows
steadily from the middle of June to August. The northerly breeze of SeptemberOctober shifts to the east when the North east monsoon breaks. In January and
February the wind blows from the east, and from March to June a southerly wind
prevails till it again shifts round to the west with the setting in of the South-west
monsoon.
Work Plan
The present study was carried out to determine the impact of urbanization in
Pudukkottai on its Environment. In order to assess the impact, the following aspects
were studied in detail.

 Air quality with reference to SPM,SO2 , NOx and noise levels

Water quality-surface and ground water
Soil quality
Flora and faunal status
Socio-economic status
Waste water characteristics and
Solid waste characteristics, amount and disposal.
3.2. Air Sampling and Analysis
According to Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981, Air
pollution is defined as the presence of solids, liquids and/or gaseous substances in
the atmosphere, in concentrations which may cause injuries to human beings or
other living organisms or property or environment.
For the sampling of air, high volume air sampler (Model VFC-PM10) was
used (10 meter above and 5 meter away from road) and the particulates were
collected on whatt man GFA glass fibre filters dried in a hot air oven at 105C for
1hr and weighed. The average flow rate was about 1.1 cubic meters.
This study was undertaken to investigate the quality of air in Pudukkottai
town and in sub urban. These selected sites were residential zone, commercial zone,
silence zone and Industrial Zones. To study the quality of air, three common
pollutants were taken into consideration. They were suspended particulate matter,
sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. The study was conducted from June 2005March 2006. Samples were collected from urban and sub urban areas in four
different seasons (Season I -June, July; Season II-September, October; Season IIIDecember, January; Season IV-March, April).The sampling was done for 6 hours
intervals at different stations, samples were taken 3 times in the day, morning,
afternoon and night . Weekly two days sampling was done in a same place of
different zones. Urban and sub-urban sampling stations were selected, which
represent 7 different zones. ( I- Urban residential zone, II-Sub urban residential
zone, e III- Urban commercial zone, IV- Sub urban commercial zone, V-Urban
sensitive zone, VI-Sub urban sensitive zone and VII-Industrial zone).

The sampling procedures are as follows

1. The fibre glass filters were checked for any pin holes. Particulates or other
imperfections. The filter was dried in a hot air oven at 105C for one hour
and the initial weight of the filter was noted (w1).The filter was not folded
and it was carried in a polythene bag to the sampling site.
2. The filter was fixed on the filter holder in position (rough side up), the face
plate was replaced and the nuts were fastened securely. A very thin
application of talcum powder was used on the sponge rubber of the face plate
to prevent it from sticking. The instrument was placed at approximately 10m
above and 5m away from the road.
3. At the beginning and at the end of the sampling period, the flow rates were
noted and the average flow rate was calculated. The closing time was also
noted.
4. For the collection of gas sample, the gas impinger was filled with 30 ml of
the absorbing solution. The impinger was checked to make sure there was no
leakage. The gases were absorbed at the rate of 1 lts/min.
5. After the sampling was completed, the face plate was removed and the filter
was carefully removed from the holder.
6. The impinger was carefully removed. The volume of absorbing reagent was
checked in the tube. It was less due to evaporation of water and it was
compensated by adding distilled water.
7. The filter and the solution in the impinger were taken to the laboratory.
8. The filter was kept in a hot air oven for 2 hours and then cooled. The filter
with sample was weighed (w2).
3.3. Noise Assessment
In order to assess the extent of noise pollution due to vehicular traffic
different zones viz., Silence zone, Residential Zone, Commercial zone, Traffic
signals and Industrial zones were identified in urban and suburban areas of
Pudukkottai. Adequate number of observations were made in all the selected sites by
using the sound level meter (LT Lutron SL-4001) .The data were analysed and the
noise levels were computed. Noise observations were made in all the selected places
during day time, night time and Lmin, Lmax, L10, L50, L90, Leq values were
determined. The selected sites and the number of readings were mainly focused to

improve the sampling technique and to get better representation and in turn reduce
the error involved in sampling technique.
The observations were made during three different occasional days (holiday,
working day and festivals).Day and night studies were done. 6 different zones were
selected: (I- Urban residential zone, II-Sub urban residential zone, III- Urban
commercial zone,

IV- Sub urban commercial zone, V-Urban sensitive zone and

VI-Sub urban sensitive zone).

3.3.1. Selected zones
3.3.1.1. Residential zone: This zone included the residential areas of upper middle
class, middle class and lower middle class people.
3.3.1.2. Commercial zone: Busy streets, bus stops, bazaars etc., fall under
commercial zone in Pudukkottai.
3.3.1.3. Silence zone: Educational institutes, Hospitals, Temples, Courts etc. fall
under the silence zone. Silence zone is defined as the area in and around 100m of
educational institutions, hospitals, parks etc., Use of vehicles horns, loudspeakers
and bursting of crackers etc ., are banned in these zone (Sharma and Kaur,1994).
3.3.1.4. Industrial zone: In Pudukkottai SIPCOT is the only place which represents
the Industrial zone.
3.4. Water Sampling and Analysis
For collection of sample from surface water plastic jug was used. Samples
from the bottom of shallow water were collected by lowering a closed plastic bottle
to the bottom, opening and closing it there by hands and taking out. Parameters
like temperature, pH were immediately recorded. Dissolved oxygen was
immediately fixed by manganous sulphate and alkaline iodide solutions. Other
samples in well labelled and tightly capped containers were brought to the
laboratory in ice-box.

Samples were collected from urban and sub urban areas in three different
seasons (Season I Monsoon (June-Sep), Season II-North east Monsoon (Oct-Jan),
Season III-Pre monsoon (Feb-May).
Ground water Samples were collected from urban and sub urban areas in
three different seasons (Season I Monsoon, Season II-North east Monsoon, Season
III-Pre monsoon).Samples were collected from six different zones (I- Urban
residential zone, II-Sub urban residential zone, III- Urban commercial zone, IVSub urban commercial zone, V-Urban sensitive zone, and VI-Sub urban sensitive
zone). In each zone 10 samples were collected. This study was conducted from Jan
2004-Dec 2004.
Water samples were collected and analysed as per standard methods (APHA,
2005). The following parameters were analysed: Turbidity,

Dissolved Oxygen,

Nitrate, Acidity, Alkalinity, Hardness, Electrical Conductivity, Total Solids, Total

suspended solids, Total Dissolved solids,
Magnesium,

Nickel, Fluoride, pH,

Temperature, Iron, Lead,

Nitrite, Chloride,

Calcium,

Biochemical Oxygen

Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Coli form, Plankton.

3.5. Soil Sampling, Analysis and Treatment
Surface soil samples were collected using spade. For collection of soil from
deeper profiles special borer samplers were used, collected samples were put in thick
quality polythene bags and immediately brought to the laboratory. Soil was ground
using mortar and pestle and sieved through a 2mm mesh sized sieve. Soil samples
were collected from urban and sub urban areas in three different seasons (Season I
Monsoon, Season II-North east Monsoon, Season III-Pre monsoon). Random
samples were collected from six different zones (I- Urban residential zone, II-Sub
urban residential zone, III- Urban commercial zone, IV- Sub urban commercial
zone, V-Urban sensitive zone, and VI-Sub urban sensitive zone). In each zone 10
random samples were collected.
3.5.1. Selection and Location of the study area
Pudukkottai urban and suburban areas are predominantly a dry tract in
Pudukkottai district .The district as well as town have more than half the area under
wastelands. Pichathanpatti village is a small village. The people of this village are

mostly agricultural labourers with small and fragmented land holdings, lying fallow.
Agriculture is mostly rain fed and failure of rains would mean socio-economic
suffering. The holdings that are lying as wastelands are not cultivated for various
reasons and if cultivated with crops like groundnut, pulses and fodder maize the
returns are not guaranteed if rains fail. Under these circumstances any creative effort
in wasteland development, economically affordable would supplement income
towards socio economic development. More than that would indeed contribute to
ecological conservation and enrichment of environment.
3.5.1.1. Terrain Evaluation
Terrain Evaluation is used to assess the inherent suitability of lands for the
range of possible uses. It is a process involving analysis, classification and appraisal
of a tract of country with regard to its natural features and configuration. Terrain
evaluation of wasteland is based on classification and subdivision of wastelands on
the basis of selected attribute values and their evaluation for certain pragmatic use.
Certain parameters of the prevailing natural conditions have to be left out because
under certain condition they may be unimportant.
3.5.1.2. Soil profile
To study the soil profile, a 33 pit to a depth where bed rock was dug. The
various horizons that were distinctly visible were demarked by their boundaries. The
texture and structure of the soil in each layer were studied and noted. Lime status
was indicated by effervescence or its absence with diluted HCl. The pH of the soil at
each layer was also noted using colour charts. The horizon depth or layer was noted
in cm. The description of each layer in the profile in a comprehensive manner
constitutes the soil profile.
3.5.1.3. Soil Fertility Studies
Soil fertility studies were carried out by drawing out random samples and
testing the nutrient values (a) Before planting, (b) After first harvest and (c) After
second harvest. The procedures for soil samplings and procedures used for testing
the nutrients are outlined below.

3.5.2. Collection of Sample

The surface was scraped away and sampling auger was inserted to plough a
desirable depth, and the sample was collected in sufficient amount. Samples were
taken randomly over a distributed area and placed in a clean bucket or basin (Metal
containers were avoided). The soil samples taken from 15 spots were mixed
thoroughly and only about 1kg was taken after discarding the rest. Discarding was
carried out by quartering. Quartering was done by dividing thoroughly mixed soil
into 4 equal parts and 2 opposite quarters were discarded. The remaining 2 quarters
were to mixed and again divided into 4 equal parts. The opposite quarters were
rejected and remaining 2 quarters were mixed. This process was repeated until about
1kg of soil was left taken to the laboratory in a clean labelled container. Soil samples
were collected and analysed as per standard methods (Trivedy and Goel, 1986). The
following parameters were analysed:
pH, Electrical Conductivity, Total Organic Carbon, Total Organic matter,
Total nitrogen, Total Phosphorus, Total Potassium, Total Sodium, Total Calcium,
Total magnesium.
3.5.3. Soil Treatment
3.5.3.1. Cultivation of Palmarosa
Cultivation of palmarosa was done in 50 cents in a farm belonging to a
private industrial group based at Pudukkottai. The farm has a palmarosa oil
distillation plant. Urban and sub-urban sampling stations were selected.
3.5.3.2. Cultivation study
The acre (50 cent) of land was divided into two equal blocks of 25 cents
each (1cent = 40 sq.m). In one block palmarosa samplings raised from a prior
nursery were planted as such at a spacing of 30cm 30cm (Block I). In the other
block (block II) 50 baskets of Humus (500kg) and 10kg of powdered Neem cake
were added to the soil before planting and saplings were planted as like in other
block. In both the blocks stones were removed manually and 3 ploughings was done
by country plough. The last ploughing was done in such a way to form regular
ridges 30 cm spacing. The quality of oil was estimated by procedures laid out by IS:
526-1986. The yield of oil, the economics of cultivation, the monetary returns of the
grass and oil at current market prices were estimated.

3.5.4. Plant description

Palmarosa (East Indian geranium)
Cymbopogon martini
It is used as a herb in alternative herbal treatments to treat ailments and
problems. It is used to correct production of skin sebum, stimulates cell rejuvenation
and has a hydrating effect on the skin.
3.5.4.1. Botanical Classification
Family

Gramineae.

Genus and species

Cymbopogon martini.

Other names
rosha, as

Andropogon martinii, East Indian geranium,

well as geranium grass.

3.5.4.2. Description of the herb palmarosa
It is not generally cultivated, the herb has long slim stems and flowering
tops, the leaves resemble grass and have a noticeable fragrance. The fresh and dried
grass is used.
3.5.4.3. Properties
It has anti-viral, antiseptic, cytophylactic as well as febrifuge properties.
3.5.4.4. Therapeutic uses
Internal use
o Internally it may be used to aid the digestion and to lower fevers, but
is not commonly used as a herbal compound taken internally.

External use
o

Externally it helps to reduce oiliness of the skin.

Aromatherapy and essential oil use

o

Palmarosa essential oil uplifts and calms the emotions; reduces fever.
It is used as a digestive tonic to stimulate appetite.

On the skin, it has a moisturizing and hydrating effect. It stimulates

cell rejuvenation and encourages the correct production of sebum.

It has antiseptic, antiviral, bactericide, cytophylactic, hydrating and

febrifuge properties.

Sewage water were collected from sewerage system and examined by the
standard APHA (2005) methods. Then it was treated by lemna aquatic plant in a big
cement tank at five days interval the change was recorded up to 25th day. Floating
aquatic treatment systems have been used for a variety of treatment purposed
including secondary treatment, advanced secondary treatment and nutrient removal.
3.6.1. Growth Characteristics
Lemna grows on quiet of sluggishly moving waters of ponds, pools, lakes,
swamps, streams, drainage ditches, canals, bayous and sloughs. Plants reproduce
vegetatively by a process called budding, where new plants grow from within
marginal cavities or pouches along the basal portion of the frond. The daughter
plants may remain attached to the parent plant for a period of time or repeat the
budding process before breaking off. Although rarely seen, duckweed may
occasionally flower and produce seeds. The treated water was utilized for the growth
of buffalo grass. After harvesting, the plant parameters were analysed and compared
with control.
3.6.2. Buffalo Grass: Kansas Wildflowers and Grasses
Buchloe dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm
Perennial
2 - 12 inches tall
Flowers: May June
Sewage Water samples were collected and analysed as per standard methods
(APHA.2005). The following parameters were analysed.
Turbidity,

Dissolved Oxygen,

Electrical Conductivity, Total Solids,

Nitrate, Acidity,

Alkalinity, Hardness,

Total suspended solids, Total Dissolved

solids, Temperature, Iron, Calcium, Magnesium, Fluoride, pH, Nitrite, Chloride,

Sulphate, Phosphorus, Biological Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand,
Nitrate and Potassium.
Treated sewage utilized plant samples were collected and analysed as per
standard methods (Harborne, 2005). The following parameters were analysed.

Dry weight, Fresh weight, Total chlorophyll, Phenol content, Free sugar,
Leaf length.
3.7. Solid Waste Assessment and Management
Solid waste management is an obligatory function of urban local bodies
(ULBs) in India. However this service is poorly performed and that resulted in
problems of health, sanitation and environmental degradation with over 3.6% annual
growth in urban population and the rapid pace of urbanization. The situation is
becoming more critical with the passage of time. It is estimated that every human
being release 500-1000g of Solid waste per day.
3.7.1. Solid Waste
The samples of refuse from each of the sampling points were collected. The
15 composite samples thus obtained were brought to the lab, where they were
physically sorted out and analysed to determine their physical composition. The
samples were collected from urban and sub urban areas in 6 different zones ( IUrban residential zone, II-Sub urban residential zone, III- Urban commercial zone,
IV- Sub urban commercial zone, V-Urban sensitive zone and VI-Sub urban sensitive
zone)during working day, holiday and festival days. This study was conducted from
June2005-March 2006.
3.7.1. Composting
One of the problems of solid waste disposal is its safe disposal .Although
there are many ways of solid waste disposal only few are safe. Composting is one of
the best ways of managing the solid waste. Composting is a process by which
organic waste are converted into organic manure by means of biological activity
under controlled conditions. Composting also provides stable humus like product,
which act as soil conditioners.
Composting is the biological decomposition of the organic constituent of
waste under controlled condition.
Biological process
Organic solid ---------------------- Humus
Presence of air
(Usage as soil condition)

3.7.2. Process description of Composting

1. Preparation of the solid waste.
2. Decomposition of the solid waste.
3. Product preparation and utilised in the field.
3.7.3. Nutrient contents of Sugar industry effluent
One cubic meter of primary treated effluent (sugar industry) contains 1.5Kg
N, 0.25Kg phosphate and 10Kg potash and 15Kg of digested organic matter. The
nutrients can be effectively trapped and used for sustainable agriculture purpose.
3.7.4. Preparation of Bio-compost
Composting of organic waste may be carried out in two different methods
viz aerobic and anaerobic composting. The sugar industry effluent from Aranthangi
Sugar Mill) is being converted into fine compost by aerobic method.
3.7.5. Site Selection for Composting Plant
The Sufficient area was selected for composting. Organic wastes were
collected from Municipal dump yard. This study attempted to use new sugar
industry effluent instead of water as a moistening material. Solid waste from
Pudukkottai municipality was taken as a raw material and effluent from Pudukkottai
sugar industry was used as moistening agent. Pleurotus species are inoculated for
degradation of lignocellulosic substances present in the solid waste and Bacillus
species was inoculated for solubilizing phosphate. Finally the Lemna sp was
introduced (it is screened after waste water treatment). It contains more nutrients.

3.7.5.1. Windrow Method

Procedure
The waste was allowed to dry for one week under sunlight. Phospho bacteria
species was added and mixed to the raw material, which gives first bed. Similarly
another bed was made with the help of Azotobacter species and which was added
above the first bed. The bed was made with the phosphobacteria and which was
added above the second bed. The beds gave the 1.5mts of height before the addition
of inoculum; sugar industry effluent was added to each bed and filled.

Urea,

Gypsum and Rock Phosphate were added in the ratio of 5:4 after several days of

addition of inoculum. The temperature was observed everyday and raised gradually
up to 65oc in 15 days period .The waste were constantly filled and moisture content
was maintained by spraying. The sugar industry effluent was added twice a week.
Composting of the materials was completed in 45-60 days.
Regarding solid waste it was treated, and the bio-compost was utilized for
the same plant growth which was used in soil treatment and their growth
comparisons were studied.
3.8. Biodiversity
An attempt to obtain a fairly comprehensive picture of biological resources
of Pudukkottai, the study was made on diversity of Plants, Birds, Insects, Reptiles,
Amphibians, Mammals and Invertebrates.
3.8.1. Flora
The plant species diversity estimates were divided into five components. The
Herb layer estimation was carried out in a total of 8 quadrates on four different sites
(east, west, north and south) and one centre transect for trees estimation. The
localities of quadrates and transect were plotted in the Pudukkottai map. Samples
were collected from urban and sub urban areas in four different seasons (Season I June, July; Season II-September, October; Season III-December, January; Season
IV-March, April). The study of flora involved intensive sample survey of vegetation
in the urban and suburban location applying standard methods (Greig-smith 1983,
Caustan 1988).

3.8.1.1 Sample survey

To examine the trees and shrubs quadrates of 2525m and for herbs 22m
were laid. In each of the larger quadrates species and their number were noted. In the
sample quadrants the shrubs were also enlisted and enumerated, examined and the
average was computed. In the smaller quadrates the shrubs were also enlisted and
enumerated. At each location 8 quadrants were examined and the average was
computed. In the smaller quadrate (22m) herbs were enlisted and enumerated.
Specimens of the plants whose identity couldnt be confirmed in the field were

collected and preserved following standard methods (Santapau, 1955) and identified
subsequently using regional and district floras.
3.8.2. Fauna assessment
The animal life of an area is dependent upon the vegetation and there are
countless relationships between the species composing an animal community. Fauna
assessment involves more problems than flora assessment by virtue of the greater
variety of animal types, their mobility and behaviour. Faunal assessment provides a
basis for determining relative abundance and evaluating commons or rarity of each
species encountered. In the study area, the animal survey was conducted in all the
sampling sites along with the plants.
The study of fauna involved intensive sample survey along Pudukkottai and
its suburban areas. To assess the animals, the area was covered intensively on foot.
Both direct and indirect observation methods were used to survey the fauna. Visual
encounter (search) method was employed to record vertebrate species. Additionally
survey of relevant literature was also done to consolidate the list of vertebrate fauna
distributed in the area (Smith 1933-43).
3.8.2.1. Insects
In the urban and sub urban places seven zones were selected for study of
insects (I- Urban residential zone, II-Sub urban residential zone, III- Urban
commercial zone, IV- Sub urban commercial zone, V-Urban sensitive zone VI-Sub
urban sensitive zone and VII-Industrial zone) during the year of 2005.
(1)

Sweep net method

Insect nets designed to collect sweep samples from vegetation were used in

systematically sweeping the ground level vegetation. Roughly a square plot was
chosen where 20 steps of walk on each side were made to collect insects by net. The
insects were collected and transferred to a plastic container containing cotton dipped
in ethyl acetate and is properly labelled; the insects were preserved in alcohol till
sorting.
(2)

Pitfall trap
Tree pitfall traps were placed in each locality. The trap consisted of plastic

cup, which was buried at ground level and collected after 3 days time. The pitfall
trap was used to collect ground dwelling insects.

(3)

Shake method
A sheet of size 5m 3m was spread under the thick shrub or small trees. The

shrub was shaken or beaten vigorously for 10 minutes. Insects were collected from
the sheet and preserved in alcohol till sorting.
(4)

Light trap
A portable light operating on batteries was placed in the white sheet spread

in the middle of the plot for1 hour at night in each locality. Insects were removed
from the spread sheet and preserved in alcohol till identification.
(5)

All out search method:

This method was used only to collect butterflies. The butterflies were

collected between 10-11am. Within the allotted time an attempt was made to collect
representative individuals of as many species as possible.
The sampling was done in seven different zones of urban and sub urban
areas. The insects were preserved either as dry specimen if large or in alcohol if
small. The specimen collected from each locality was being preserved separately.
All the collections were being carefully labelled. The number of species were
counted and not the number of the individual species.
3.8.2.2. Birds
Samplings for birds were done by walking along fixed predetermined path.
While walking along a path, a range of 10 meters on either side of the observer was
the zone of actual counting. Thus the entire path was covered without any overlap.
Birds were identified based on sightings, calls and overhead flight. For flying birds
to avoid including those far above, the criterion used was to include the birds flying
at a height at which even a small bird may be recognized without the aid of field
glasses. Thus the samplings were done in urban and sub urban areas for 2 hours in
the morning for four seasons (Season I -June, July; Season II-September, October;
Season III-December, January; Season IV-March, April)in seven different zones ( IUrban residential zone, II-Sub urban residential zone, III- Urban commercial zone,
IV- Sub urban commercial zone, V-Urban sensitive zone, VI-Sub urban sensitive
zone and VII-Industrial zone).

3.8.2.3. Vertebrate species

Visual encounter methods, Pellet and track method were used to identifying
other vertebrates.
3.8.2.3.1. Point Survey Method: Observation was made in each site for 15 minutes
duration.
3.8.2.3.2. Roadside Counts: The observer travelled by motor vehicles from site to
site, all sightings were recorded (this was done both day and night).
3.8.2.3.3. Pellet and track counts: All Possible animal tracks and pellets were
identified and recorded (Southwood, 1978).
3.8.2.4. Reptiles
Reptiles were recorded based on sightings and previous records. The number
of species were counted and not the number of the individual species.
3.8.2.5. Aquatic Biological environment
Water samples were collected from lentic and lotic water system of the
study area and Plankton was identified and listed.
3.8.2.5.1. Planktons
Planktons particularly phytoplankton have been used as indicators of water
quality. The species assemblage of phytoplankton and zooplankton also may be
useful in assessing water quality. Sampling locations, depths and frequency have
been determined, field sampling were prepared (Phytoplankton 0.5 to 1lit;
Zooplankton 0.5 to 5 lit), sample containers were labelled. In the field record note
book temperature, time, turbidity, salinity also were recorded.
3.9 Socio-Economic Study
In general, socioeconomic factors that can be considered in the assessment of
environmental impact range from social impact such as population growth, density,
aesthetics, standards of living, congestion, incompatibility with surrounding
community, increase in recreational recruitments, and conflict in lifestyles.(The
Sunday Observer,1987).

3.9.1 Questionnaire
In order to obtain the reaction of general public regarding socio-economic
status of Pudukkottai, a questionnaire was prepared and was got answered by people
from 11 sampling sites (urban and sub urban area). It included different age groups
of both sexes, belonging to different social strata and of different walks of life
pursuing different profession for their livelihood.

Questioner:1
SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF PUDUKKOTTAI
1.NAME OF THE PLACE

2.LOCATION

3.NAME OF THE PERSON :

4.GENDER

: MALE FEMALE

5.LIST OF FAMILY MEMBERS

NAME

AGE GROUP

SEX

INCOME

EDUCATION
STATUS

6.SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER:

BOREWELL
HAND PUMP
CORPORATION WATER
SURFACE WATER
7.TYPE OF HOUSE:
OWN

-HUT

RENT

-HOW MUCH-

NEAREST MAINPLACE

-RAILWAY STATION

8.ELECTRICITY AVAILABILITY
YES
NO

INDIVIDUAL CEMENT HOUSE FLAT

BUS STAND MARKET

9.OCCUPATION
DAILYWAGE
PRIVATE
GOVT
UNEMPLOYEE
10.STATE OF WATER SUPPLY
REGULAR
IRREGULAR
11.AMOUNT OF WATER SUPPLY
SUFFICIENT
IN-SUFFICIENT
12.MODE OF WATER STORAGE:
OPEN CONTAINER
CLOSED CONTAINER
13.BATHROOM &TOILET FACILITY:
YES

-PRIVATE

PUBLIC

ROADSIDE

NO
14.SOLIDWASTE COLLECTION METHOD:
BIN-YES

NO

VEHICLE
15.SOLID WASTE COLLECTED FREQUENCY DAYS:
DAILY
TWO DAYS ONCE
WEEKLY ONCE
OTHERS
16.SOLIDWASTE DISPOSAL METHOD
OPEN DUMPING
OTHER METHODS-

17.DISPOSAL OF WASTE WATER(DRAINAGE FACILITY)

YES

-OPEN

CLOSED

NO

-WATER LOGGING

-YES

NO

18.VEHICLE FACILITY
BUS

AUTO

TWO WHEELER

19.LAND
OWN

-YIELD

LEASE
20.LIVESTOCKS
OWN

-BENEFITS

21.HOME APPLIANCES
TV
MIXY
GRINDER
WASHING MACHINE
GAS STOVE
OTHERS
22.DISEASE
WATER BORN
AIR BORN
OTHERS 23.RECREATIONAL AREA
CINEMA
PARK
OTHERS
24.QUALITY OF WATER SUPPLY
GOOD

BAD

25.EDUCATION STATUS OF CHILDREN

DISTANCE CROSSED-

FOUR WHEELER