Gas Discharge To The Atmospheregg

Gas Discharge To The Atmosphere
From A Pressure Source: 1, 2, 6, 7

When gas stored under pressure in a closed vessel is discharged to the atmosphere
through a hole or other opening, the gas velocity through that opening may be choked
(i.e., has attained a maximum) or non-choked. Choked velocity, which is also referred
to as sonic velocity, occurs when the ratio of the absolute source pressure to the
absolute downstream ambient pressure is equal to or greater than [ ( k + 1 ) / 2 ] k / ( k 1)
, where k is the specific heat ratio of the discharged gas. For many gases, k ranges
from about 1.09 to about 1.41, and thus [ ( k + 1 ) / 2 ] k / ( k - 1 ) ranges from 1.7 to about
1.9 ... which means that choked velocity usually occurs when the absolute source
vessel pressure is at least 1.7 to 1.9 times as high as the absolute ambient atmospheric
pressure.
When the gas velocity is choked, the equation for the mass flow rate is:
or this equivalent form:
[ It is important to note that although the gas velocity reaches a maximum and
becomed choked, the mass flow rate is not choked. The mass flow rate can still be
increased if the source pressure is increased. ]
Whenever the ratio of the absolute source pressure to the absolute downstream
ambient pressure is less than [ ( k + 1 ) / 2 ] k / ( k - 1 ), then the gas velocity is non-choked
(i.e., sub-sonic) and the equation for the mass flow rate is:
or this equivalent form:
where:
Q
C
A
gc
k
Rho
P
PA
M
R
T
Z
The above equations calculate the initial instantaneous flow rate for the pressure and
temperature existing in the source vessel when a release first occurs. The initial
instantaneous flow rate from a leak in a pressurized gas system or vessel is much
higher than the average flow rate during the overall release period because the
pressure and flow rate decrease with time as the system or vessel empties. Calculating
the flow rate versus time since the initiation of the leak is much more complicated, but
more accurate. Click HERE to learn how such calculations are performed.
The technical literature can be very confusing because many authors fail to explain
whether they are using the universal gas law constant R which applies to any ideal gas
or whether they are using the gas law constant R s which only applies to a specific
individual gas. The relationship between the two constants is R s = R / (MW).
Notes:
(1) The above equations are for a real gas.
(2) For an ideal gas, Z = 1 and d is the ideal gas density.
(3) lbmol = pound mole
Return to Top
Liquid Discharge From A Pressurized Source Vessel: 1, 2
Initial instantaneous flow through the discharge opening:
(1)
Qi = C A [ ( 2 g d2 H ) + ( 2 g d )( P - PA ) ]1/2
Final flow when the liquid level reaches the bottom of the discharge opening:
(2)
Qf = C A [ ( 2 g d )( P - PA ) ]1/2
Average flow:
(3)
Qavg = ( Qi + Qf ) / 2
where:
Q
C
A
g
d
P
PA
H
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
mass flow rate, lb/s

discharge coefficient (usually about 0.62)
discharge hole area, ft2
gravitational constant of 32.17 ft/s2
source liquid density, lb/ft3
absolute source pressure, lb/ft2
absolute ambient pressure, lb/ft2
height of liquid above bottom of discharge opening, ft
Return to Top
Liquid Discharge From A Non-Pressurized Source Vessel: 1, 2
Initial instantaneous flow through the discharge opening:
(1)
Qi = C A ( 2 g d2 H )1/2
Final flow when the liquid level reaches the bottom of the discharge opening:
(2)
Qf = 0
Average flow:
(3)
Qavg = Qi / 2
where:
Q
C
A
g
d
H
=
=
=
=
=
=
mass flow rate, lb/s

discharge coefficient (usually about 0.62)
discharge hole area, ft2
gravitational constant of 32.17 ft/s2
source liquid density, lb/ft3
height of liquid above bottom of discharge opening, ft
Return to Top
Evaporation From A Non-Boiling Liquid Pool: 2
Three different methods of calculating the rate of evaporation from a non-boiling

liquid pool are presented in this section.
Method developed by the U.S. Air Force: 2
The following equations are for predicting the rate at which liquid evaporates from the
surface of a pool of liquid which is at or near the ambient temperature. The equations
were derived from field tests performed by the U.S. Air Force with pools of liquid
hydrazine.
(1)
E = ( 4.66 x 10-6 ) u0.75 TF M ( PS / PH )
where:
E
u
TA
TF
TP
M
PS
PH
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
evaporation flux, lb/minute/ft2 of pool surface

windspeed, miles/hour
ambient temperature, K
pool liquid temperature correction factor
pool liquid temperature, F
pool liquid molecular weight
pool liquid vapor pressure at ambient temperature, mm Hg
hydrazine vapor pressure at ambient temperature, mm Hg
(2)
If TP < 32 F, then TF = 1.0

If TP > 32 F, then TF = 1.0 + 0.00133 ( TP - 32)2
(3)
PH = 760 exp[ 65.3319 - (7245.2 / TA ) - (8.22 ln TA ) + (6.1557 x 10-3) TA ]
Notes: The function "ln x" is the natural logarithm (base e) of x, and the function
"exp x" is the value of the constant e (approximately 2.7183) raised to the power x.
Method developed by U.S. EPA: 5, 6
were developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( U.S. EPA ).
(1)
( 0.284 ) u 0.78 M 0.667A P

E =
RT
where:
E = evaporation rate, lb / minute
u
M
A
P
T
R
=
=
=
=
=
=
windspeed just above the pool liquid surface, m / second

molecular weight of the pool liquid
surface area of the pool liquid, ft 2
vapor pressure of the pool liquid at the pool temperature, mm Hg
pool liquid temperature, K
the Universal Gas Law constant = 82.05 ( atm cm 3 ) / ( gmol K )
The U.S. EPA also defined the pool depth as 0.033 ft ( i.e., 1 cm ) so that the surface
area of the pool liquid could be calculated as:
(2)
A = ( cubic feet of pool liquid ) / ( 0.033 ft )
All of the units in the above Equation (1) and Equation (2) are a mixture of metric
usage and United States usage. However, they are the units developed by the U.S.
EPA and thus they were retained here.
Note: gmol = gram mole.
Method developed by Stiver and Mackay: 3
were developed by Warren Stiver and Dennis Mackay of the Chemical Engineering
Department at the University of Toronto.
(1) E = k P M / ( R TA )
(2) k = 0.00293 u
where:
E
k
TA
M
P
R
u
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
evaporation flux, ( lb / s ) / ft 2 of pool surface

mass transfer coefficient, ft / s
ambient temperature, R
pool liquid molecular weight
pool liquid vapor pressure at ambient temperature, mm Hg
the Universal Gas Law constant = 555 ( mm Hg ft 3 ) / ( lbmol R )
windspeed just above the liquid surface, miles / hour
Note: lbmol = pound mole
Return to Top
Evaporation From A Boiling Pool Of Cold Liquid: 2
The following equation is for predicting the rate at which liquid evaporates from the
surface of a pool of cold liquid (i.e., liquid temperature of about zero degrees
Centigrade or less).
(1)
E = ( 0.018967 ) ( 0.5322 - 0.001035 B ) ( M ) e - (0.0043 B)
where:
E
B
M
e
=
=
=
=
evaporation flux, lb/minute/ft2 of pool surface

atmospheric boiling point of pool liquid, F
molecular weight of pool liquid
2.7183
Return to Top
Discharge Of Flashing Saturated Liquid: 2, 3
(1) Q = 9.582 D2 P [ ln ( P / 14.696 ) ] ( TB / T ) ( T / Cp )1/2 ( T - TB ) - 1
where:
Q
D
P
T
TB
Cp
=
=
=
=
=
=
initial instantaneous mass flow, lb/minute

discharge hole diameter, in
absolute source pressure, lb/in2
source liquid temperature, R
atmospheric boiling point of source liquid, R
source liquid specific heat, Btu/lb/R
Notes: ln = natural logarithm (base e); in = inch; = = 460 +

Return to Top
Discharge of Flashing Sub-Cooled Liquid: 3
(1)
Calculate the single-phase flow component (QS) for the source liquid by using the
same equation as for a liquid discharge from a pressurized source, except substitute
(2)
(3)
the source pressure minus the source liquid vapor pressure for the source pressure.
Calculate the flashing flow component (QF) by using the same equation as for a
flashing saturated liquid.
QTOTAL = ( QS + QF ) 1/2
where:
Q = initial instantaneous mass flow, lb/minute
Return to Top
Adiabatic Flash of a Liquified Gas Release Into Atmosphere:
Liquified gases such as ammonia or chlorine are often stored in cylinders or vessels at
ambient temperatures and pressures well above atmospheric pressure. When such a
liquified gas is released into the ambient atmosphere, the resultant reduction of
pressure causes some of the liquified gas to vaporize immediately. This is known as
"adiabatic flashing" and the following equation, derived from a simple heat balance, is
used to predict how much of the liquified gas is vaporized.
(1) X = 100 ( HsL - HaL ) / ( HaV - HaL )
where:
X
HsL
HaV
HaL
=
=
=
=
weight percent vaporized

source liquid enthalpy at source temperature and pressure, Btu/lb
flashed vapor enthalpy at atmos. boiling point and pressure, Btu/lb
residual liquid enthalpy at atmos. boiling point and pressure, Btu/lb
If the enthalpy data required for the above equation is unavailable, then the following
equation may be used.
(1) X = 100 [ Cp ( Ts - Tb ) ] / H
where:
X
Cp
Ts
Tb
H
=
=
=
=
=
weight percent vaporized

source liquid specific heat, Btu/lb/F
source liquid temperature, F
source liquid atmos. boiling point, F
source liquid heat of vaporization at atmos. boiling point, Btu/lb
Note: atmos. = atmospheric

Return to Top
References: 2, 3
(1)
"Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill Co., 1984
(2) "Handbook of Chemical Hazard Analysis Procedures", Federal Emergency Management

Agency, U.S. Dept. of Transportation, and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1989 provides
references to (2a), (2b) and (2c) below
(2a) Clewell, H.J., "A Simple Method For Estimating the Source Strength Of Spills Of Toxic
Liquids", Energy Systems Laboratory, ESL-TR-83-03, 1983 (Available at Air Force Weather
Technical Library, Asheville, North Carolina)
(2b) Ille, G. and Springer, C., "The Evaporation And Dispersion Of Hydrazine Propellants From
Ground Spills", Civil and Environmental Engineering Development Office, CEEDO 712-78-30,
1978 (Available at Air Force Weather Technical Library, Asheville, North Carolina)
(2c) Kahler, J.P., Curry, R.C. and Kandler, R.A., "Calculating Toxic Corridors", Air Force
Weather Service, AWS TR-80/003, 1980 (Available at Air Force Weather Technical Library,
Asheville, North Carolina)
(3) Stiver, W. and Mackay, D., "A Spill Hazard Ranking System For Chemicals", Environment
Canada First Technical Spills Seminar, Toronto, Canada, 1993
(4) Fauske, Hans K., "Flashing Flows: Some Guidelines For Emergency Releases",
Plant/Operations Progress, July 1985
(5) "Technical Guidance For Hazards Analysis", U.S, EPA and U.S. FEMA, December 1987
[ Equation (7), Section G-2, Appendix G. Available at
http://yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/ceppoweb.nsf/vwResourcesByFilename/tech.pdf/$File/tech.pdf ]
(6) "Risk Management Program Guidance For Offsite Consequence Analysis", U.S. EPA
publication EPA-550-B-99-009, April 1999. [ Equation (D-1), Section D.2.3, Appendix D.
Available at http://yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/ceppoweb.nsf/vwResourcesByFilename/oca-all.PDF/
$File/oca-all.PDF ]
(7) "Methods For The Calculation Of Physical Effects Due To Releases Of Hazardous
Substances (Liquids and Gases)", CPR 14E, Third Edition Second Revised Print, The
Netherlands Organization Of Applied Scientific Research, The Hague, 2005. [ Equations (2.22)
and (2.25) on page 2.68. ]
By: Milton Beychok, Guest Author, [email protected]

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Gas Discharge To The Atmosphere

From A Pressure Source: 1, 2, 6, 7

or this equivalent form:

or this equivalent form:

mass flow rate, lb/s

mass flow rate, lb/s

Three different methods of calculating the rate of evaporation from a non-boiling

E = ( 4.66 x 10-6 ) u0.75 TF M ( PS / PH )

evaporation flux, lb/minute/ft2 of pool surface

If TP < 32 F, then TF = 1.0

PH = 760 exp[ 65.3319 - (7245.2 / TA ) - (8.22 ln TA ) + (6.1557 x 10-3) TA ]

( 0.284 ) u 0.78 M 0.667A P

E = evaporation rate, lb / minute

windspeed just above the pool liquid surface, m / second

A = ( cubic feet of pool liquid ) / ( 0.033 ft )

evaporation flux, ( lb / s ) / ft 2 of pool surface

E = ( 0.018967 ) ( 0.5322 - 0.001035 B ) ( M ) e - (0.0043 B)

evaporation flux, lb/minute/ft2 of pool surface

initial instantaneous mass flow, lb/minute

Notes: ln = natural logarithm (base e); in = inch; = = 460 +

Q = initial instantaneous mass flow, lb/minute

weight percent vaporized

weight percent vaporized

Note: atmos. = atmospheric

"Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill Co., 1984

(2) "Handbook of Chemical Hazard Analysis Procedures", Federal Emergency Management

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