Munich Agreement

For the annual global security meeting held in Munich, Conspiracy. General Hans Oster, deputy head of the
see Munich Conference on Security Policy.
Abwehr, and prominent gures within the German miliThe Munich Agreement was a settlement permitting tary who opposed the regime for its behaviour that was
threatening to bring Germany into a war that they believed it was not ready to ght, discussed overthrowing
Hitler and the Nazi regime through a planned storming
of the Reich Chancellery by forces loyal to the plot.

1 Background
1.1 Demands for Sudeten autonomy

After the summit, the British prime minister Chamberlain returned to Great Britain where he declared that the Munich agreement meant peace for our time

Nazi Germany's annexation of portions of Czechoslovakia along the countrys borders mainly inhabited by
German speakers, for which a new territorial designation
"Sudetenland" was coined. The agreement was negotiated at a conference held in Munich, Germany, among
the major powers of Europe, excluding the Soviet Union
and Czechoslovakia. Today, it is widely regarded as a
failed act of appeasement toward Germany. The agreement was signed in the early hours of 30 September 1938
(but dated 29 September). The purpose of the conference
was to discuss the future of the Sudetenland in the face
of ethnic demands made by Adolf Hitler. The agreement
was signed by Germany, France, the United Kingdom,
and Italy. Sudetenland was of immense strategic importance to Czechoslovakia, as most of its border defenses
were situated there, and many of its banks and heavy industries were located there as well.

Czech districts with an ethnic German population in 1934 of 25%

or more (pink), 50% or more (red), and 75 % or more (dark
red)[1] in 1935

From 1918 to 1938, after the breakup of the AustroHungarian Empire, more than 3 million ethnic Germans
were living in the Czech part of the newly created state
of Czechoslovakia.
Sudeten German pro-Nazi leader Konrad Henlein
founded Sudeten German Party (SdP) that served as
the branch of the Nazi Party for the Sudetenland.[2] By
1935, the SdP was the second largest political party in
Czechoslovakia.[2] Shortly after the anschluss of Austria to Germany, Henlein met with Hitler in Berlin on
28 March 1938, where he was instructed to raise demands unacceptable to the Czechoslovak government led
by president Edvard Bene. On 24 April, the SdP issued
a series of demands upon the government of Czechoslovakia, that were known as the Carlsbad Program. [3]
Among the demands, Henlein demanded autonomy for
Germans living in Czechoslovakia.[2] The Czechoslovakian government responded by saying that it was willing
to provide more minority rights to the German minority
but it refused to grant them autonomy.[2]

Because the state of Czechoslovakia was not invited to the

conference, it considered itself to have been betrayed by
the United Kingdom and France, so Czechs and Slovaks
call the Munich Agreement the Munich Diktat (Czech:
Mnichovsk diktt; Slovak: Mnchovsk diktt). The
phrase "Munich Betrayal" (Czech: Mnichovsk zrada;
Slovak: Mnchovsk zrada) is also used because the military alliance Czechoslovakia had with France and Britain
proved useless. Today the document is typically referred
to simply as the Munich Pact (Mnichovsk dohoda).
In Germany the Sudeten crisis led to the so-called Oster
1

BACKGROUND

not wish to face Germany alone and took its lead from
the British government and its Prime Minister, Neville
Chamberlain. Chamberlain believed that Sudeten German grievances were justied and that Hitlers intentions
were limited. Both Britain and France, therefore, advised Czechoslovakia to concede to Germanys demands.
Bene resisted and on 19 May a partial mobilization was
underway in response to possible German invasion.[4]

Konrad Henlein, leader of the Sudeten German Party (SdP), a

branch of the Nazi Party of Germany in Czechoslovakia.

On 20 May, Hitler presented his Generals with an interim draft for an attack on Czechoslovakia codenamed
Operation Green,[5] whereby he insisted that he would
not smash Czechoslovakia militarily without provocation, a particularly favourable opportunity or adequate political justication.[6] On 28 May, Hitler called
a meeting of his service chiefs where he ordered an acceleration of U-boat construction and brought forward
the construction of his rst two battleships, Bismarck
and Tirpitz, to spring 1940, and demanded that the increase in the repower of the battlecruisers Scharnhorst
and Gneisenau be accelerated .[4] While accepting that
this would be insucient for a full scale naval war with
Britain, Hitler hoped it would be a sucient deterrent.[7]
Ten days later, Hitler signed a secret directive for
war against Czechoslovakia to begin no later than 1
October.[4]
Hitlers adjutant, Fritz Wiedemann, recalled after the war
that he was very shocked by Hitlers new plans to attack
Britain and France 34 years after deal[ing] with the situation in Czechoslovakia.[8] General Ludwig Beck, chief
of the German general sta, noted that Hitlers change of
heart in favour of quick action was due to Czechoslovak
defences still being improvised, which would cease to be
the case 23 years later, and British rearmament not coming into eect until 1941/42.[7] General Alfred Jodl noted
in his diary that the partial Czechoslovak mobilisation of
21 May had led Hitler to issue a new order for Operation
Green on 30 May, and that this was accompanied by a
covering letter from Keitel stating that the plan must be
implemented by 1 October at the very latest.[7]

Edvard Bene, the second President of Czechoslovakia and

leader of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile.

1.2

Sudeten Crisis

See also: Sudetendeutsches Freikorps

As the previous appeasement of Hitler had shown, the
governments of both France and Britain were set on
avoiding war at any cost. The French government did

In the meantime, the British government demanded that

Bene request a mediator. Not wishing to sever his governments ties with Western Europe, Bene reluctantly accepted. The British appointed Lord Runciman, the former Liberal cabinet minister, who arrived in Prague on
3 August with instructions to persuade Bene to agree
to a plan acceptable to the Sudeten Germans.[9] On 20
July, French Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet, told the
Czechoslovak Ambassador in Paris that while France
would declare her support in public to help the Czechoslovak negotiations, it was not prepared to go to war over
the Sudetenland question.[9] During August the German
press was full of stories alleging Czechoslovak atrocities against Sudeten Germans, with the intention of forcing the Western Powers into putting pressure on the
Czechoslovaks to make concessions.[10] Hitler hoped the
Czechoslovaks would refuse and that the Western Powers
would then feel morally justied in leaving the Czechoslo-

1.2

Sudeten Crisis

vaks to their fate.[11] In August, Germany sent 750,000

soldiers along the border of Czechoslovakia ocially as
part of army maneuvers.[2][11] On 4 or 5 September,[9]
Bene submitted the Fourth Plan, granting nearly all
the demands of the Munich Agreement. The Sudeten
Germans were under instruction from Hitler to avoid a
compromise,[11] and after the SdP held demonstrations
that provoked police action in Ostrava on 7 September in which two of their parliamentary deputies were
arrested,[9] the Sudeten Germans used this incident and
false allegations of other atrocities as an excuse to break
o further negotiations.[9][11]
On 12 September, Hitler made a speech at a Nazi
Party rally in Nuremberg on the Sudeten crisis in
which he condemned the actions of the government of
Czechoslovakia.[2] Hitler denounced Czechoslovakia as
being a fraudulent state that was in violation of international laws emphasis of national self-determination,
claiming it was a Czech hegemony where neither the
Germans, the Slovaks, the Hungarians, the Ukrainians,
nor the Poles of the country actually wanted to be in
a union with the Czechs.[12] Hitler accused Czechoslovakias President Edvard Bene of seeking to gradually
exterminate the Sudeten Germans, claiming that since
Czechoslovakias creation over 600,000 Germans were
allegedly intentionally forced out of their homes under the threat of starvation if they did not leave.[13] He
claimed that Bene' government was persecuting Germans along with Hungarians, Poles, and Slovaks, and accused Bene of threatening these nationalities with being
branded traitors if they were not loyal to the country.[12]
He claimed that he, as the head of state of Germany,
would support the right of the self-determination of
fellow Germans in the Sudetenland.[12] He condemned
Bene for his governments recent execution of several German protesters.[12] He accused Bene of being
belligerent and threatening behaviour towards Germany
which, if war broke out, would result in Bene forcing
Sudeten Germans to ght against their will against Germans from Germany.[12] Hitler accused the government
of Czechoslovakia of being a client regime of France,
claiming that the French Minister of Aviation Pierre Cot
had said We need this state as a base from which to drop
bombs with greater ease to destroy Germanys economy
and its industry.[13]
On 13 September, after internal violence and disruption in Czechoslovakia ensued, Chamberlain asked Hitler
for a personal meeting to nd a solution to avert a
war.[14] Chamberlain arrived by plane in Germany on
15 September and then arrived at Hitlers residence in
Berchtesgaden for the meeting.[15] The Sudeten German leader Henlein ew to Germany on the same
day.[14] On that day, Hitler and Chamberlain held discussions in which Hitler insisted that the Sudeten Germans must be allowed to exercise the right of national
self-determination and be able to join Sudetenland with
Germany; Hitler also expressed concern to Chamberlain

Adolf Hitler greets British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain

on the steps of the Berghof, 15 September 1938

about what he perceived as British threats.[15] Chamberlain responded that he had not issued threats and
in frustration asked Hitler Why did I come over here
to waste my time?".[15] Hitler responded that if Chamberlain was willing to accept the self-determination of
the Sudeten Germans, he would be willing to discuss
the matter.[15] Chamberlain and Hitler held discussions
for three hours, after which the meeting adjourned and
Chamberlain ew back to the UK and met with his cabinet to discuss the issue.[15]
After the meeting, French Prime Minister douard Daladier ew to London on 16 September to meet British
ocials to discuss a course of action.[16] The situation
in Czechoslovakia became more tense that day with the
Czechoslovak government issuing an arrest warrant for
the Sudeten German leader Henlein, who had arrived in
Germany a day earlier to take part in the negotiations.[17]
The French proposals ranged from waging war against
Germany to supporting the Sudetenland being ceded to
Germany.[17] The discussions ended with a rm BritishFrench plan in place.[17] Britain and France demanded
that Czechoslovakia cede to Germany all those territories
where the German population represented over fty percent of the Sudetenlands total population.[17] In exchange
for this concession, Britain and France would guarantee
the independence of Czechoslovakia.[17] The proposed
solution was rejected by both Czechoslovakia and opponents of it in Britain and France.[17]
On 17 September 1938 Hitler ordered the establishment
of Sudetendeutsches Freikorps, a paramilitary organization that took over the structure of Ordnersgruppe, an organization of ethnic-Germans in Czechoslovakia that had
been dissolved by the Czechoslovak authorities the previous day due to its implication in large number of terrorist activities. The organization was sheltered, trained and
equipped by German authorities and conducting cross
border terrorist operations into Czechoslovak territory.
Relying on the Convention for the Denition of Aggression, Czechoslovak president Edvard Bene[18] and
the government-in-exile[19] later regarded 17 Septem-

BACKGROUND

A 1938 terrorist action of Sudetendeutsches Freikorps

Czechoslovak Army soldiers on patrol in the Sudetenland in

September 1938.

General Hans Oster, deputy head of the Abwehr met with other
German military ocers on 20 September 1938 to discuss nal
plans of a plot to overthrow the Nazi regime.

ber 1938 as the beginning of the undeclared GermanCzechoslovak war. This understanding has been assumed
also by the contemporary Czech Constitutional court.[20]
On 18 September, Italys Duce Benito Mussolini made a
speech in Trieste, Italy where he declared If there are
two camps, for and against Prague, let it be known that
Italy has chosen its side, with the clear implication being
that Mussolini supported Germany in the crisis.[15]
On 20 September, German opponents to the Nazi regime
within the military meet to discuss the nal plans of a plot
they had developed to overthrow the Nazi regime. The
meeting was led by General Hans Oster, the deputy head
of the Abwehr (Germanys counter-espionage agency). Protest in Prague against German aggression, 22 September
Other members included Captain Friedrich Wilhelm 1938.
Heinz, and other military ocers leading the planned
coup d'etat met at the meeting.[21]
come with a German band playing God Save the King
On 21 September, Czechoslovakia capitulated to accept and Germans giving Chamberlain owers and gifts.[17]
the demands that were agreed upon by Britain, France, Chamberlain had calculated that fully accepting German
and Germany. The next day, however, Hitler added new annexation of all of the Sudetenland with no reductions
demands, insisting that the claims of ethnic Germans in would force Hitler to accept the agreement.[17] Upon bePoland and Hungary also be satised.
ing told of this, Hitler responded Does this mean that the
On 22 September, Chamberlain, about to board his plane Allies have agreed with Pragues approval to the transto go to Germany for further talks, told the press who fer of the Sudetenland to Germany?", Chamberlain remet him there that My objective is peace in Europe, I sponded Precisely, to which Hitler responded by shaktrust this trip is the way to that peace.[17] Chamberlain ing his head, saying that the Allied oer was insignicant.
arrived in Cologne, where he received a lavish grand wel- He told Chamberlain that he wanted Czechoslovakia to

5
be completely dissolved and its territories redistributed
to Germany, Poland, and Hungary, and told Chamberlain to take it or leave it.[17] Chamberlain was shaken by
this statement.[17] Hitler went on to tell Chamberlain that
since their last visit on the 15th, Czechoslovakias actions,
which Hitler claimed included killings of Germans, had
made the situation unbearable for Germany.[17]

ing The nation of Saint Wenceslas will never be a nation

of slaves.[22]

On 26 September, Chamberlain sent Sir Horace Wilson

to carry a personal letter to Hitler declaring that the Allies wanted a peaceful resolution to the Sudeten crisis.[22]
Later that evening, Hitler gave his reply in a speech at
the Sportpalast in Berlin, in which Hitler gave CzechosloLater in the meeting, a prearranged deception was un- vakia a deadline of 28 September at 2:00pm to cede the
dertaken in order to inuence and put pressure on Cham- Sudetenland to Germany or face war.[22]
berlain: one of Hitlers aides entered the room to inform On 28 September at 10:00am, four hours prior to Hitlers
Hitler of more Germans being killed in Czechoslovakia, deadline and with no agreement to Hitlers demand by
to which Hitler screamed in response I will avenge ev- Czechoslovakia, the British ambassador to Italy, Lord
ery one of them. The Czechs must be destroyed.[17] Perth, called Italys Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano to
The meeting ended with Hitler refusing to make any con- request an urgent meeting.[22] Perth informed Ciano that
cessions to the Allies demands.[17] Later that evening, Chamberlain had instructed him to request that MusHitler grew worried that he had gone too far in pressuring solini enter the negotiations and urge Hitler to delay the
Chamberlain, and telephoned Chamberlains hotel suite, ultimatum.[22] At 11:00am, Ciano met Mussolini and
saying that he would accept annexing only the Sudeten- informed him of Chamberlains proposition; Mussolini
land, with no designs on other territories, provided that agreed with it and responded by telephoning Italys amCzechoslovakia begin the evacuation of the German ma- bassador to Germany and told him Go to the Fuhrer at
jority territories by 26 September at 8:00am. After being once, and tell him that whatever happens, I will be at his
pressed by Chamberlain, Hitler agreed to have the ulti- side, but that I request a twenty-four hour delay before
matum set for 1 October (the same date that Operation hostilities begin. In the meantime, I will study what can
Green was set to begin).[22] Hitler then said to Cham- be done to solve the problem.[23] Hitler received Musberlain that this was one concession that he was willing solinis message while in discussions with the French amto make to the Prime Minister as a gift out of respect bassador. Hitler told the ambassador My good friend,
for the fact that Chamberlain had been willing to back Benito Mussolini, has asked me to delay for twenty-four
down somewhat on his earlier position.[22] Hitler went hours the marching orders of the German army, and I
on to say that upon annexing the Sudetenland, Germany agreed. Of course, this was no concession, as the invawould hold no further territorial claims upon Czechoslosion date was set for 1 October 1938. "[24] Upon speaking
vakia and would enter into a collective agreement to guar- with Chamberlain, Lord Perth gave Chamberlains thanks
antee the borders of Germany and Czechoslovakia.[22]
to Mussolini as well as Chamberlains request that MusA new cabinet, under General Jan Syrov, was installed solini attend a four-power conference of Britain, France,
and on 23 September a decree of general mobilization Germany, and Italy in Munich on 29 September to setwas issued. The Czechoslovak army, modern and pos- tle the Sudeten problem prior to the deadline of 2:00pm.
sessing an excellent system of frontier fortications, was Mussolini agreed.[24] Hitlers only request was to make
prepared to ght. The Soviet Union announced its will- sure that Mussolini be involved in the negotiations at the
ingness to come to Czechoslovakias assistance. Bene, conference.[24] When United States President Franklin D.
however, refused to go to war without the support of the Roosevelt learned the conference had been scheduled, he
Western powers.
telegraphed Chamberlain, Good man.[25]
In the early hours of 24 September, Hitler issued
the Godesberg Memorandum, which demanded that
Czechoslovakia cede the Sudetenland to Germany no
later than 28 September, with plebiscites to be held in
unspecied areas under the supervision of German and
Czechoslovak forces. The memorandum also stated that
if Czechoslovakia did not agree to the German demands
by 2 pm on 28 September, Germany would take the Sudetenland by force. On the same day, Chamberlain returned
to Britain and announced that Hitler demanded the annexation of the Sudetenland without delay.[22] The announcement enraged those in Britain and France who wanted to
confront Hitler once and for all, even if it meant war, and
its supporters gained strength.[22] The Czechoslovakian
Ambassador to the United Kingdom, Jan Masaryk, was
elated upon hearing of the support for Czechoslovakia
from British and French opponents of Hitlers plans, say-

2 Resolution
A deal was reached on 29 September, and at about
1:30 am on 30 September 1938,[26] Adolf Hitler, Neville
Chamberlain, Benito Mussolini and douard Daladier
signed the Munich Agreement. The agreement was ofcially introduced by Mussolini although in fact the socalled Italian plan had been prepared in the German Foreign Oce. It was nearly identical to the Godesberg proposal: the German army was to complete the occupation
of the Sudetenland by 10 October, and an international
commission would decide the future of other disputed areas.
Czechoslovakia was informed by Britain and France that

3 REACTIONS
agreed.

Third Reich

Poland

On 30 September, upon his return to Britain, Chamberlain delivered his infamous "peace for our time" speech
to crowds in London.[27]

Slovakia

3 Reactions

Hungary

Sequence of events following the Munich Agreement:

1. Germany occupies the Sudetenland (October 1938).
2. Poland annexes Zaolzie, an area with a Polish plurality, over
which the two countries had fought a war in 1919 (October
1938).
3. Hungary occupies border areas (southern third of Slovakia
and southern Carpathian Ruthenia) with Hungarian minorities
in accordance with the First Vienna Award (November 1938).
4. On March 15, 1939, during the German invasion of the remaining Czech territories, Hungary annexes Carpathian Ruthenia (which had been autonomous since October 1938).
5. Germany establishes the Protectorate of Bohemia and
Moravia with a puppet government, on March 16, 1939.
6. Meanwhile, during the German invasion of Czech territories,
a pro-Hitler Catholic-fascist government splits o the remaining
territories of Czechoslovakia and declares the Slovak Republic,
an Axis client state.

Czechs expelled from the border looking for new home, October
1938 .

Sudeten Germans cheering the arrival of the German Army into

the Sudetenland in October 1938.

From left to right: Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini, and

Ciano pictured before signing the Munich Agreement, which gave
the Sudetenland to Germany.

it could either resist Nazi Germany alone or submit to

the prescribed annexations. The Czechoslovak government, realizing the hopelessness of ghting the Nazis
alone, reluctantly capitulated (30 September) and agreed
to abide by the agreement. The settlement gave Germany the Sudetenland starting 10 October, and de facto
control over the rest of Czechoslovakia as long as Hitler
promised to go no further. On 30 September after some
rest, Chamberlain went to Hitler and asked him to sign a
peace treaty between the United Kingdom and Germany.
After Hitlers interpreter translated it for him, he happily

Though the British and French were pleased, as were

the Nazi military and German diplomatic leadership,
a British diplomat in Berlin claimed he had been informed by reliable sources that soon after the meeting
with Chamberlain Hitler had furiously said: Gentlemen,
this has been my rst international conference and I can
assure you that it will be my last. The British diplomat
claimed his sources relayed that Hitler viewed Chamberlain as an impertinent busybody who spoke the ridiculous jargon of an outmoded democracy.[28]
Joseph Stalin was also upset by the results of the Munich conference. The Soviets, who had a mutual military
assistance treaty with Czechoslovakia, felt betrayed by
France, who also had a mutual military assistance treaty
with Czechoslovakia. The British and French, however,
mostly used the Soviets as a threat to dangle over the Germans. Stalin concluded that the West had actively col-

3.1

Opinions about the agreement

7
70% of its electrical power and 3.5 million citizens to
Germany as a result of the settlement.[30]
The Sudeten Germans celebrated what they saw as their
liberation. The imminent war, it seemed, had been
avoided.

A Polish cartoon says to Russians that civilized Europe has a better ally and no help from Ivan is required.

Before the Munich Agreement Hitlers determination

to invade Czechoslovakia on 1 October 1938 had provoked a major crisis in the German command structure. The Chief of the General Sta, General Ludwig
Beck, protested in a lengthy series of memos that it would
start a world war that Germany would lose, and urged
Hitler to put o the projected war. Hitler called Becks
arguments against war "kindische Krfteberechnungen"
(childish force calculations). On 4 August 1938, a secret Army meeting was held. Beck read his lengthy report
to the assembled ocers. They all agreed something had
to be done to prevent certain disaster. Beck hoped they
would all resign together but no one resigned except Beck.
However his replacement, General Franz Halder, sympathised with Beck and they both conspired with several
top generals, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris (Chief of German Intelligence), and Graf von Helldorf (Berlins Police Chief) to arrest Hitler the moment he gave the invasion order. However, the plan would only work if Britain
issued a strong warning and a letter to the eect that
they would ght to preserve Czechoslovakia. This would
help to convince the German people that certain defeat
awaited Germany. Agents were therefore sent to England to tell Chamberlain that an attack on Czechoslovakia
was planned, and of their intention to overthrow Hitler if
this occurred. However, the proposal was rejected by the
British Cabinet and no such letter was issued. Accordingly, the proposed removal of Hitler did not go ahead.[31]
On this basis it has been argued that the Munich Agreement kept Hitler in power, although whether it would have
been any more successful than the 1944 plot is doubtful.

Czech refugees expelled from the Sudetenland at the Refugees Ofce October 1938

luded with Hitler to hand over a Central European country to the Nazis, causing concern that they might do the
same to the Soviet Union in the future, allowing the partition of the USSR between the western powers and the
fascist Axis. This belief led the Soviet Union to reorient its foreign policy towards a rapprochement with Ger- Map of the Sudetenland Reichsgau.
many, which eventually led to the signing of the MolotovRibbentrop Pact in 1939.[29]
The Czechoslovaks were greatly dismayed with the Munich settlement. With Sudetenland gone to Germany,
Czecho-Slovakia (as the state was now renamed) lost
its defensible border with Germany and its fortications. Without them its independence became more nominal than real. In fact, Edvard Bene, the President of
Czechoslovakia, had the military print the march orders
for his army and put the press on standby for a declaration
of war. Czechoslovakia also lost 70% of its iron/steel,

3.1 Opinions about the agreement

The British population had expected imminent war and
the statesman-like gesture of Chamberlain was at rst
greeted with acclaim. This generally positive reaction,
however, quickly soured despite royal patronage. Chamberlain was greeted as a hero by the royal family and invited on the balcony at Buckingham Palace before he had
presented the agreement to Parliament. But there was op-

CONSEQUENCES OF THE MUNICH AGREEMENT

position from the start; Clement Attlee and the Labour

Party opposed the agreement, in alliance with two Conservative MPs, Du Cooper and Vyvyan Adams who had
been seen, up to then as a die hard and reactionary element in the Conservative Party.
In later years, Chamberlain was excoriated for his role
as one of the Men of Munich, in books such as the
1940 Guilty Men. A rare wartime defence of the Munich
Agreement came in 1944 from Viscount Maugham, who
had been Lord Chancellor at the time. Maugham viewed
the decision to establish a Czechoslovak state including
substantial German and Hungarian minorities as a dangerous experiment in the light of previous disputes and
ascribed the Munich Agreement largely to Frances need
to extricate itself from its treaty obligations in the light of
its unpreparedness for war.[32]
douard Daladier believed he saw Hitlers ultimate goals
as a threat. He told the British in a late April 1938 meeting that Hitlers real aim was to eventually secure a domination of the Continent in comparison with which the
ambitions of Napoleon were feeble. He went on to say:
Today it is the turn of Czechoslovakia. Tomorrow it will
be the turn of Poland and Romania. When Germany has
obtained the oil and wheat it needs, she will turn on the
West. Certainly we must multiply our eorts to avoid
war. But that will not be obtained unless Great Britain
and France stick together, intervening in Prague for new
concessions but declaring at the same time that they will
safeguard the independence of Czechoslovakia. If, on the
contrary, the Western Powers capitulate again they will
only precipitate the war they wish to avoid.[33] Perhaps
discouraged by the arguments of the military and civilian members of the French government regarding their
unprepared military and weak nancial situation, as well
as traumatised by Frances bloodbath in the First World
War that he was personally a witness to, Daladier ultimately let Chamberlain have his way. On his return to
Paris, Daladier, who was expecting a hostile crowd, was
acclaimed. According to French author Jean-Paul Sartre
he would then have told his aide, Alexis Lger: "Ah, les
cons!" (Ah, the fools!").[34]

Adolf Hitler drives through the crowd in Cheb, October 1938

4 Consequences of the Munich

agreement
On 5 October, Bene resigned as President of Czechoslovakia, realising that the fall of Czechoslovakia was inevitable. Following the outbreak of World War II, he
formed a Czechoslovak government-in-exile in London.

4.1 Pertaining to
Czechoslovakia
Agreement
American historian William Shirer, in his The Rise and
Fall of the Third Reich (1960), took the view that although
Hitler was not blung about his intention to invade,
Czechoslovakia would have been able to oer signicant resistance. Shirer believed that Britain and France
had sucient air defences to avoid serious bombing of
London and Paris and would have been able to pursue a
rapid and successful war against Germany.[35] He quotes
Churchill as saying the Munich agreement meant that
Britain and France were in a much worse position compared to Hitlers Germany.[30] After Adolf Hitler personally inspected the Czech fortications, he privately
said to Joseph Goebbels, we would have shed a lot of
blood and that it was fortunate that there had been no
ghting.[36]

the territories of
after the Munich

4.1.1 The rst Vienna Award to Hungary

Main article: First Vienna Award
In early November 1938, under the rst Vienna Award,
which was a result of the Munich agreement, Czechoslovakia (and later Slovakia)after it had failed to reach a
compromise with Hungary and Polandwas forced by
Germany and Italy to cede southern Slovakia (one third of
Slovak territory) to Hungary, while Poland gained small
territorial cessions shortly after.
As a result, Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia lost about 38%
of their combined area to Germany, with some 2.8 million German and 513,000-750,000[37][38] Czech inhabitants. Hungary, in turn, received 11,882 km2 (4,588 sq

4.1

Pertaining to the territories of Czechoslovakia after the Munich Agreement

Reich.[42]
Because of their knowledge of the Czech language, many
Sudeten Germans were employed in the administration
of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia as well as
in Nazi organizations (Gestapo, etc.). The most notable
was Karl Hermann Frank: the SS and Police general and
Secretary of State in the Protectorate.

4.1.2 German invasion of the remainder of

Czechoslovakia
Admiral Horthy during the Hungarians triumphant entry into
Koice, November 1938

Main article: German occupation of Czechoslovakia

In 1937, the Wehrmacht had formulated a plan called
Operation Green (Fall Grn) for the invasion of
Czechoslovakia[43] which was implemented as Operation Southeast on 15 March 1939.

On 14 March Slovakia seceded from Czechoslovakia and

became a separate pro-Nazi state. On the following day,
Carpathian Ruthenia proclaimed independence as well,
but after three days was completely occupied by Hungary.
Czechoslovak president Emil Hcha traveled to Berlin
and was left waiting, while orders to invade were already
given. During the meeting with Adolf Hitler, Hcha was
threatened with the bombing of Prague if he refused to
order Czech troops to lay down their arms. This induced
a heart attack, from which he was revived by an injection
For 600 years we have been waiting for you (1335-1938). Eth- from Hitlers doctor. He then agreed to sign the communic Polish band welcoming the annexation of Zaolzie by the Pol- nique accepting the German occupation of the remainish Republic in Karvin, October 1938.
der of Bohemia and Moravia which in its unctuous mendacity was remarkable even for the Nazis.[44] Churchills
mi) in southern Slovakia and southern Ruthenia; accord- prediction was fullled as German armies entered Prague
ing to a 1941 census, about 86.5% of the population in and proceeded to occupy the rest of the country, which
this territory was Hungarian. Slovakia lost 10,390 km2 was transformed into a protectorate of the Reich.
(4,010 sq mi) and 854,218 inhabitants for Hungary (ac- By seizing Bohemia and Moravia the Third Reich gained
cording to a Czechoslovak 1930 census about 59% were all the skilled labour force and heavy industry placed
Hungarians and 31.9% were Slovaks and Czechs[39] ). there as well as all the weapons of the Czechoslovakian
Meanwhile, Poland annexed the town of esk Tn army. At the time of Hitlers later attack on France,
with the surrounding area (some 906 km2 (350 sq mi), roughly 25% of all German weapons came from the prowith 250,000 inhabitants; Poles made up about 36% of tectorate Bhmen und Mhren. The Third Reich also
the population)[40] and two minor border areas in north- gained the whole Czechoslovakian gold treasure, includern Slovakia, more precisely in the regions Spi and ing gold stored in the Bank of England. Of a total 227
Orava. (226 km2 (87 sq mi), 4,280 inhabitants, only tons of gold found after the war in salt mines, only 18.4
0.3% Poles).
tons were returned to Czechoslovakia in 1982, although
Soon after Munich, 115,000 Czechs and 30,000 Germans most of this gold came from Czechoslovakia. Czechosloed to the remaining rump of Czechoslovakia. According vakia was also forced to sell to the Wehrmacht war mato the Institute for Refugee Assistance, the actual count terial for 648 million of pre-war Czechoslovak crowns.
of refugees on 1 March 1939 stood at almost 150,000.[41] This debt was never repaid.
On 4 December 1938, there were elections in Reichsgau
Sudetenland, in which 97.32% of the adult population
voted for NSDAP. About a half million Sudeten Germans
joined the Nazi Party which was 17.34% of the German
population in Sudetenland (the average NSDAP participation in Nazi Germany was 7.85%). This means the
Sudetenland was the most pro-Nazi region in the Third

Germans even took the precaution of sending their troops

over borders as early as the afternoon of 14 March, causing an incident between 13th (Silesian) Czechoslovakian
Battalion and the 8th Infantry Division of the Nazi army
in Mstek. After a while the Germans decided to pull out
as the escalation could endanger peaceful takeover.
Chamberlain[45] claimed the Prague annexation was a

10

QUOTATIONS FROM KEY PARTICIPANTS

completely dierent category, moving beyond the le- monopoly over the Suez Canal because under the Frenchgitimate Versailles grievances.
dominated Suez Canal Company all Italian merchant trafAfrica was forced to pay
Meanwhile, concerns arose in Great Britain that Poland c to its colony of Italian East
[47][48]
tolls
upon
entering
the
canal.
Mussolini hoped that
(now substantially encircled by German possessions)
in
light
of
Italys
role
in
settling
the
Munich Agreement
would become the next target of Nazi expansionism,
that
prevented
the
outbreak
of
war,
that Britain would
which was made apparent by the dispute over the Polish
react
by
putting
pressure
on
France
to
yield to Italys deCorridor and the Free City of Danzig. This resulted in the
[47]
France
refused to accept
mands
to
preserve
the
peace.
signing of an Anglo-Polish military alliance, and the conItalys demands as it was widely suspected that Italys true
sequent refusal of the Polish government to accept German negotiation proposals over the Polish Corridor and intentions were territorial acquisition of Nice, Corsica,
Tunisia, and Djibouti and not the milder ocial demands
the status of Danzig.
put forth.[47] Relations between Italy and France deterioPrime Minister Chamberlain felt betrayed by the Nazi rated with Frances refusal to accept Italys demands.[47]
seizure of Czechoslovakia, realizing his policy of ap- France responded to Italys demands with threatening
peasement towards Hitler had failed, and began to take a naval maneuvers as a warning to Italy.[47] As tensions bemuch harder line against the Nazis. Amongst other things tween Italy and France grew, Hitler made a major speech
he immediately began to mobilize the British Empires on 30 January 1939 in which he promised German milarmed forces to a war footing. France did the same. Italy itary support in the case of an unprovoked war against
saw itself threatened by the British and French eets and Italy.[49]
started its own invasion of Albania in April 1939. Although no immediate action followed, Hitlers invasion
of Poland on 1 September ocially began World War II.

5 Quotations from key participants

Non-negligible industrial potential and military equipment of the former Czechoslovakia had been eciently
absorbed into the Third Reich.
4.1.3

Strengthening of Wehrmachts armament

Since most of the border defenses laid in the territory seceded as a consequence of the Munich Agreement, remaining part of Czechoslovakia was entirely open to further invasion, despite having relatively large stockpiles of
modern weaponry. In a speech delivered in Reichstag,
Hitler stressed out also the military importance of occupation, noting that by occupying Czechoslovakia, Germany gained 2.175 eld guns and cannons, 469 tanks, German occupation of Prague, 15 March 1939
500 anti-aircraft artillery pieces, 43.000 machine guns,
1.090.000 military ries, 114.000 pistols, about a billion
rounds of ammunition and three millions of anti-aircraft
grenades. This amount of weaponry would be sucient
to arm about half of the then Wehrmacht.[46] Czechoslovak weaponry later played major part in the German conquest of Poland and France, the countries that pressured
the countrys surrender to Germany in 1938.

4.2
4.2.1

Pertaining to international politics

Italian colonial demands from France

In October 1938 in the aftermath of the Munich Agreement, Italy demanded concessions from France to yield
to Italy: a free port at Djibouti, control of the Addis
Ababa-Djibouti railroad, Italian participation in the management of Suez Canal Company, some form of FrenchItalian condominium over Tunisia, and the preservation
of Italian culture in French-held Corsica with no French
assimilation of the people.[47] Italy opposed the French

Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

Germany stated that the incorporation of Austria into the

Reich resulted in borders with Czechoslovakia that were
a great danger to German security, and that this allowed
Germany to be encircled by the Western Powers.[50]
Neville Chamberlain, announced the deal at Heston
Aerodrome as follows:

11
whether he would care to see me for another
talk.I had a very friendly and pleasant talk,
on Spain, (where he too said he had never had
any territorial ambitions) economic relations
with S.E. Europe, and disarmament. I did not
mention colonies, nor did he. At the end I
pulled out the declaration which I had prepared
beforehand and asked if he would sign it. As
the interpreter translated the words into German, Hitler said Yes, I will certainly sign it.
When shall we do it? I said now, and we went
at once to the writing table and put our signatures to the two copies which I had brought with
me.
Winston Churchill, denouncing the Agreement in the
House of Commons, declared:

The daily newspapers carried long columns of the names of the

executed Czechs, 1944

... the settlement of the Czechoslovakian

problem, which has now been achieved is, in
my view, only the prelude to a larger settlement in which all Europe may nd peace. This
morning I had another talk with the German
Chancellor, Herr Hitler, and here is the paper
which bears his name upon it as well as mine.
Some of you, perhaps, have already heard what
it contains but I would just like to read it to
you: ' ... We regard the agreement signed last
night and the Anglo-German Naval Agreement
as symbolic of the desire of our two peoples
never to go to war with one another again.'[51]
Later that day he stood outside 10 Downing Street and
again read from the document and concluded:
My good friends, for the second time in our
history a British Prime Minister has returned
from Germany bringing peace with honour. I
believe it is peace for our time. (Chamberlains reference to Disraeli's return from the
Congress of Berlin in 1878)[51][52]

We have suered a total and unmitigated

defeat ... you will nd that in a period of time
which may be measured by years, but may be
measured by months, Czechoslovakia will be
engulfed in the Nazi rgime. We are in the
presence of a disaster of the rst magnitude
... we have sustained a defeat without a war,
the consequences of which will travel far with
us along our road ... we have passed an awful milestone in our history, when the whole
equilibrium of Europe has been deranged, and
that the terrible words have for the time being
been pronounced against the Western democracies: Thou art weighed in the balance and
found wanting. And do not suppose that this
is the end. This is only the beginning of the
reckoning. This is only the rst sip, the rst
foretaste of a bitter cup which will be proered
to us year by year unless by a supreme recovery of moral health and martial vigour, we arise
again and take our stand for freedom as in the
olden time.
On 3 October 1938, Churchill added:
England has been oered a choice between
war and shame. She has chosen shame, and
will get war.

6 Legal nullication

During the Second World War, British Prime Minister Churchill, who opposed the agreement when it was
Chamberlain in a letter to his sister Hilda, on 2 October signed, became determined that the terms of the agree1938, wrote:
ment would not be upheld after the war and that the Sudeten territories should be returned to postwar CzechosloI asked Hitler about one in the mornvakia. On 5 August 1942, Foreign Minister Anthony
ing while we were waiting for the draftsmen
Eden sent the following note to Jan Masaryk:

12

7
In the light of recent exchanges of view
between our Governments, I think it may be
useful for me to make the following statement about the attitude of His Majestys Government in the United Kingdom as regards
Czecho-Slovakia.
In my letter of the 18th July, 1941, I
informed your Excellency that the King had
decided to accredit an Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary to Dr. Bene as
President of the Czecho-Slovak Republic. I
explained that this decision implied that His
Majestys Government in the United Kingdom
regarded the juridical position of the President
and Government of the Czecho-Slovak Republic as identical with that of the other Allied
heads of States and Governments established in
this country. The status of His Majestys representative has recently been raised to that of
an Ambassador.
The Prime Minister had already stated in a
message broadcast to the Czecho-Slovak people on the 30th September, 1940, the attitude
of His Majestys Government in regard to the
arrangements reached at Munich in 1938. Mr.
Churchill then said that the Munich Agreement had been destroyed by the Germans. This
statement was formally communicated to Dr.
Bene on the 11th November, 1940.
The foregoing statement and formal act
of recognition have guided the policy of His
Majestys Government in regard to CzechoSlovakia, but in order to avoid any possible misunderstanding, I desire to declare on
behalf of His Majestys Government in the
United Kingdom that as Germany has deliberately destroyed the arrangements concerning
Czecho-Slovakia reached in 1938, in which His
Majestys Government in the United Kingdom
participated, His Majestys Government regard
themselves as free from any engagements in
this respect. At the nal settlement of the
Czecho-Slovak frontiers to be reached at the
end of the war they will not be inuenced by
any changes eected in and since 1938.

To which Masaryk replied as follows:

I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your note of the 5th August, 1942,
and I avail myself of this opportunity to convey
to your Excellency, on behalf of the CzechoSlovak Government and of myself, as well as in
the name of the whole Czecho-Slovak people
who are at present suering so terribly under
the Nazi yoke, the expression of our warmest
thanks.
Your Excellencys note emphasises the

LEGACY

fact that the formal act of recognition has

guided the policy of His Majestys Government
in regard to Czecho-Slovakia, but, in order
to avoid any possible misunderstanding, His
Majestys Government now desire to declare
that, as Germany has deliberately destroyed
the arrangements concerning Czecho-Slovakia
reached in 1938, in which His Majestys Government in the United Kingdom participated,
His Majestys Government regard themselves
as free from any engagements in this respect.
At the nal settlement of the Czecho-Slovak
frontiers to be reached at the end of the war,
they will not be inuenced by any changes effected in and since 1938.
My Government accept your Excellencys
note as a practical solution of the questions
and diculties of vital importance for CzechoSlovakia which emerged between our two
countries as the consequence of the Munich
Agreement, maintaining, of course, our political and juridical position with regard to the
Munich Agreement and the events which followed it as expressed in the note of the CzechoSlovak Ministry for Foreign Aairs of the 16th
December, 1941. We consider your important
note of the 5th August, 1942, as a highly significant act of justice towards Czecho-Slovakia,
and we assure you of our real satisfaction and
of our profound gratitude to your great country and nation. Between our two countries the
Munich Agreement can now be considered as
dead.[53]
Following Allied victory and the surrender of the
Third Reich in 1945, the Sudetenland was returned to
Czechoslovakia, while the German speaking majority
was expelled.

7 Legacy
During the Cold War, Chamberlains agreement at Munich again resurfaced, with prominent anti-communists
arguing that the United States could not reverse his perceived mistakes by appeasing the Soviet Union.[54]
The West German politics of staying neutral in the Arab
Israeli conict following the Munich massacre and the
subsequent hijacking of Lufthansa Flight 615 in 1972,
rather than taking the decided pro-Israel position of earlier governments, led to Israeli comparisons with the Munich Agreement and the Appeasement.[55]
In the 2013 phase of the Syrian crisis, U.S. Secretary of
State John Kerry said on 7 September 2013 this is our
Munich moment in which the West should not remain
silent spectators to slaughter, an invocation to other
countries to support a U.S. led strike against the regime of

9.1

Notes

13

Bashar al-Assad. Ironically, that strike never took place, [15] Santi Corvaja, Robert L. Miller. Hitler & Mussolini: The
Secret Meetings. New York, New York, USA: Enigma
despite Obamas invocation of the red line, chemical
Books, 2008. ISBN 9781929631421. Pp. 71.
attacks, which he asserted Assad had crossed.[56]

See also
Appeasement of Hitler
Neville Chamberlains European Policy
German occupation of Czechoslovakia
Lesson of Munich
Treaty of Prague (1973)
Western betrayal
Sudetenland Medal
Causes of World War II

9
9.1

References
Notes

[1] Statistick lexikon obc v Republice eskoslovensk I. Zem

esk. Prague. 1934.
Statistick lexikon obc v Republice eskoslovensk II. Zem
moravskoslezsk. Prague. 1935.
[2] Eleanor L. Turk. The History of Germany. Westport, Connecticut, USA: Greenwood Press, 1999. ISBN
9780313302749. Pp. 123.
[3] Noakes & Pridham 2010, pp. 100101.
[4] Noakes & Pridham 2010, p. 102.
[5] Noakes & Pridham 2010, p. 101.
[6] Noakes & Pridham 2010, p. 10011002.
[7] Noakes & Pridham 2010, p. 104.
[8] Noakes & Pridham 2010, p. 102-3.
[9] Bell 1986, p. 238.
[10] Noakes & Pridham 2010, p. 201.
[11] Noakes & Pridham 2010, p. 105.

[16] Santi Corvaja, Robert L. Miller. Hitler & Mussolini: The

Secret Meetings. New York, New York, USA: Enigma
Books, 2008. ISBN 9781929631421. Pp. 7172.
[17] Santi Corvaja, Robert L. Miller. Hitler & Mussolini: The
Secret Meetings. New York, New York, USA: Enigma
Books, 2008. ISBN 9781929631421. Pp. 72.
[18] President Bene' declaration made on 16 December 1941
[19] Note of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile dated 22
February 1944
[20] Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic (1997), Ruling No. II. S 307/97 (in Czech), Brno Check date
values in: |accessdate= (help); Stran interpretace kdy
zem vede vlku, obsaen v l. I mluvy o naturalizaci mezi eskoslovenskem a Spojenmi stty, publikovan pod . 169/1929 Sb. za elem zjitn, zda je
splnna podmnka sttnho obanstv dle restitunch pedpis, stavn soud vychz z ji v roce 1933 vypracovan denice agrese Spolenosti nrod, kter byla pevzata
do londnsk mluvy o agresi (CONVENITION DE DEFINITION DE L'AGRESSION), uzaven dne 4. 7. 1933
eskoslovenskem, dle kter nen teba vlku vyhlaovat (l.
II bod 2) a dle kter je teba za tonka povaovat ten stt,
kter prvn poskytne podporu ozbrojenm tlupm, je se
utvo na jeho zem a je vpadnou na zem druhho sttu
(l. II bod 5). V souladu s ntou londnsk vldy ze dne 22.
2. 1944, navazujc na prohlen prezidenta republiky ze
dne 16. 12. 1941 dle 64 odst. 1 bod 3 tehdej stavy, a
v souladu s citovanm l. II bod 5 m stavn soud za to,
e dnem, kdy nastal stav vlky, a to s Nmeckem, je den 17.
9. 1938, nebo tento den na pokyn Hitlera dolo k utvoen
Sudetonmeckho svobodnho sboru (Freikorps) z uprchnuvch vdc Henleinovy strany a nkolik mlo hodin pot
u tito vpadli na eskoslovensk zem ozbrojeni nmeckmi zbranmi.
[21] Nigel Jones. Countdown to Valkyrie: The July Plot to Assassinate Hitler. Pp. 73-74.
[22] Santi Corvaja, Robert L. Miller. Hitler & Mussolini: The
Secret Meetings. New York, New York, USA: Enigma
Books, 2008. ISBN 9781929631421. Pp. 73.
[23] Santi Corvaja, Robert L. Miller. Hitler & Mussolini: The
Secret Meetings. New York, New York, USA: Enigma
Books, 2008. ISBN 9781929631421. Pp. 7374.
[24] Santi Corvaja, Robert L. Miller. Hitler & Mussolini: The
Secret Meetings. New York, New York, USA: Enigma
Books, 2008. ISBN 9781929631421. Pp. 74.

[12] Adolf Hitler, Max Domarus. The Essential Hitler:

Speeches and Commentary. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 2007. ISBN 9780865166271. Pp. 626.

[25] Dallek, Robert (1995). Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945: With a New Afterword.
Oxford University Press. p. 166. ISBN 9780199826667.

[13] Adolf Hitler, Max Domarus. The Essential Hitler:

Speeches and Commentary. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 2007. ISBN 9780865166271. Pp. 627.

[26] Gilbert & Gott 1967, p. 178.

[14] Bell 1986, p. 239.

[28] Sir Ivone Kirkpatrick 1959, p. 135.

[27] http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/peacetime.html

14

[29] Klaus Hildebrand 1991.

9.2 Bibliography

[30] Shirer, William L. 1960.

Books

REFERENCES

[31] Terry Parssinen 2004.

1. Noakes, J.; Pridham, G. (2010) [2001]. Nazism

19191945: Foreign Policy War, and Racial Extermination 2 (2nd ed.). Devon: University of Exeter
Press.

[32] Viscount Maugham 1944.

[33] Shirer, William L. 1969, p. 339340.
[34] Jean-Paul Sartre, Le sursis

2. Noakes, J.; Pridham, G. (2010) [2001]. Nazism

19191945: Foreign Policy War, and Racial Extermination 3 (2nd ed.). Devon: University of Exeter
Press.

[35] Shirer, William L. 1960, p. 520.

[36] See Joseph Goebbels diary, 2 Oct 1938, p. 2.

[37] http://www.bruntal.net/
3. Bell, P. M. H. (1986). The Second World War in
2007072602-k-otazce-vysidleni-obcanu-csr-ze-sudet-tesinska-podkarpatske-rusi-a-slovenske-republiky-v-letech-1938-1939

Europe. Harlow, Essex: Longman.

[38] http://www.bohumildolezal.cz/texty/u074-08.htm
[39] http://www.forumhistoriae.sk/documents/10180/70153/
hetenyi.pdf

4. Gilbert, Martin; Gott, Richard (1967). The Appeasers. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
5. Sir Ivone Kirkpatrick (1959). The Inner Circle.
Macmillan.

[40] Siwek nd.

[41] Forced displacement of Czech population under Nazis in
1938 and 1943, Radio Prague

6. Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the

Third Reich. Pan.

[42] Zimmermann, Volker 1999.

[43] Herzstein, Robert Edwin 1980, p. 184.
[44] Noakes, J. and Pridham, G. (eds) (2010) [2001] Nazism
1919-1945, Vol 3, Foreign Policy, War and Racial Extermination, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, p.119
[45] McDonough, 2002, p.73
[46] Motl, Stanislav (2007), Kam zmizel zlat poklad republiky
(2nd ed.), Prague: Rybka publishers
[47] H. James Burgwyn. Italian Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period, 1918-1940. Westport, Connecticut, USA:
Praeger Publishers, 1997. p182-183.
[48] "French Army breaks a one-day strike and stands on guard
against a land-hungry Italy", LIFE, 19 Dec 1938. pp. 23.
[49] H. James Burgwyn. Italian Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period, 1918-1940. Westport, Connecticut, USA:
Praeger Publishers, 1997. p185.
[50] Reinhard Mller 1943, p. 116-130.
[51] The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations
[52] Neville Chamberlain.
2008-09-23.

UK government.

Retrieved

[53] League of Nations Treaty Series, p. 378380.

[54] Peace in Our Time: The Spirit of Munich Lives On, by
Michael Johns, Policy Review magazine, Summer 1987
[55] Deutsche Feigheit (PDF). Der Spiegel (in German). 11
November 1972. Retrieved 16 July 2013.

7. Shirer, William L. (1969). The Collapse of the Third

Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France in 1940.
De Capo Press.
8. Klaus Hildebrand (1991). Das Dritte Reich. (in
German). Mnchen: Oldenbourg Grundriss der
Geschichte. S.36
9. Terry Parssinen (2004). The Oster Conspiracy of
1938: The Unknown Story of the Military Plot to Kill
Hitler. Pimlico Press. ISBN 1-84413-307-9.
10. Viscoumt Maugham (1944). The Truth about the
Munich Crisis. William Heinemann Ltd.
11. Zimmerman, Volker (1999). Die Sudetendeutschen
im NS-Staat. Politik und Stimmung der Bevlkerung
im Reichsgau Sudetenland (19381945) (in German). Essen. ISBN 3-88474-770-3.
12. Reinhard Mller (1943). Deutschland (in German).
Mnchen and Berlin:: Sechster Teil, R. Oldenbourg
Verlag.
13. Herzstein, Robert Edwin (1980). The Nazis. World
War II series. New York: Time-Life Books.
14. McDonough, F. (2002). Hitler, Chamberlain and
Appeasement. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Web

1. Siwek, Tadeusz (n.d.). Statystyczni i niestatysty[56] http://www.washingtonpost.com/

czni Polacy w Republice Czeskiej (in Polish).
blogs/fact-checker/wp/2013/09/06/
president-obama-and-the-red-line-on-syrias-chemical-weapons/Wsplnota Polska.

15
Other
1. League of Nations Treaty Series 204.
Journals
1. Dray, W. H. (1978). Concepts of Causation in A.
J. P. Taylors Account of the Origins of the Second
World War 17 (2). History and Theory.

9.3

Other sources

Madeleine Albright with Bill Woodward, Prague

Winter: A personal Story of Remembrance and War,
19371948, Harper, 2012
Peter Bugge, Czech Democracy 19181938.
Paragon or Parody?, in Bohemia, Vol 47, no. 1
2006/2007
Cole, Robert A. Appeasing Hitler: The Munich
Crisis of 1938: A Teaching and Learning Resource, New England Journal of History (2010)
66#2 pp 130.
David Faber, Munich, 1938: Appeasement and
World War II (2009) excerpt and text search
Daniel E Miller, Forging Political Compromise:
Antonn vehla and the Czechoslovak Republican
Party, 19181933, University or Pittsburgh Press,
1999
Andrea Orzo, Battle for the Castne: Myth of
Czechoslovakia in Europe, 19141948, Oxford University Press, 2009

10

External links

The Munich Agreement Text of the Munich

Agreement on-line
The Munich Agreement in contemporary radio news
broadcasts Actual radio news broadcasts documenting evolution of the crisis
The Munich Agreement Original reports from The
Times
British Pathe newsreel (includes Chamberlains
speech at Heston aerodrome) (Adobe Flash)
Peace: And the Crisis Begins from a broadcast by
Dorothy Thompson, 1 October 1938
Post-blogging the Sudeten Crisis A day by day
summary of the crisis
Text of the 1942 exchange of notes nullifying the
Munich agreement

Photocopy of The Munich Agreement from Politisches Archiv des Auswrtigen Amts in Berlin (text in
German) and from The National Archives in London (map).
Map of Europe during Munich Agreement at omniatlas
Dr. Quigley explains how Nazi Germany seized a
stronger Czechoslovakia

16

11

11
11.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Munich Agreement Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich_Agreement?oldid=675231637 Contributors: Mav, Bryan Derksen,

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theory, Wikimol, PFHLai, Cubelodyte, Necrothesp, Vasile, Allissonn, Beardless, Salvadors, Lumidek, Irpen, Picapica, Now3d, Lacrimosus,
Esperant, Millisits, Wareldian, Bruzie, Twinxor, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Pavel Vozenilek, Ratonyi~enwiki, Bender235, Yasis, Shanes,
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Ground Zero, RexNL, Nicmila, Volunteer Marek, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Tommyt, A.S. Brown, Reo On, John Quincy Adding
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Hux, Melchoir, Ominae, Delldot, Onda, Timeshifter, Kintetsubualo, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Yopie, Gilliam, Quidam65, Underneath-itAll, Keegan, Iskander32, Jprg1966, Xx236, Nataraja87, Makif2074~enwiki, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, GoodDay, Javalenok, Can't
sleep, clown will eat me, Rhollenton, Dave Rave, Cplakidas, Jaro.p~enwiki, Greenshed, Victor V V, CharonX, Sidious1701, Kalathalan,
Tankred, Will Beback, SashatoBot, Chaldean, Esrever, Acebrock, Teneri, Tazmaniacs, Airminded, Edwy, IronGargoyle, Yuri Gouveia
Ribeiro~enwiki, Bluewind, Fisel, Illythr, Ziggyrunner08, Tedman1973, Neddyseagoon, Dl2000, D64, Keith-264, Yarp, RudyB, Iridescent,
Shanem201, Fitzwilliam, Rubisco~enwiki, Richard75, Sabik, Eluchil404, Tawkerbot2, Filelakeshoe, Chris55, Flambelle, Triage, SivArt,
Pseudo-Richard, Misswiki89, Karenjc, Hemlock Martinis, AndrewHowse, Themightyquill, TheRegicider, Cydebot, FrankDynan, Gogo
Dodo, R-41, Odie5533, 79spirit, Englishnerd, ObjectivityAlways, Omicronpersei8, Robert.Allen, Unknown entity, Thijs!bot, Robsinden,
Mkenact, Keraunos, Commonlaw504, Staberinde, Mikethemessiah, Electron9, Mbburch, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, AmericanPatriot29, Smith2006, DarthShrine, DuncanHill, Skomorokh, Ericoides, Panarjedde, Magioladitis, Albmont, Freefry, Nick Cooper,
Thedreamdied, Coughinink, Cpl Syx, Vltava, Cloudz679, Bardhylius, BaomoVW, MartinBot, 5618, Lahaun, Dapi89, Kateshortforbob,
CommonsDelinker, Yuval a, J.delanoy, Rotek, Grim Revenant, Tlawrence85, TomyDuby, Yar, Jn25b, DadaNeem, Honzula, Lebob, Jevansen, Ja 62, M. Frederick, Beezhive, Leightonmowbray, Idioma-bot, Hugo999, Sam Blacketer, Treos, VolkovBot, Rwestera, TXiKiBoT, Mowsbury, Steven J. Anderson, Sintaku, Nazgul02, ^demonBot2, Mkpumphrey, Rjm at sleepers, DesmondRavenstone, RiverStyx23, Baltiron, Andy Dingley, Enviroboy, Truthanado, Pjoef, Imperfection, Jomfan, EmxBot, Hughey, SieBot, Tresiden, Sakkura,
Winchelsea, Careyman, Flyer22, Cuvette, Yerpo, Phil Bridger, Invitamia, Hello71, Lightmouse, Hobartimus, La Parka Your Car, Seedbot, Quest4history, Morstar, Squirrel06, ClueBot, RobertLunaIII, The Thing That Should Not Be, Fadesga, Black&White, Xeno malleus,
Kucera~enwiki, Piledhigheranddeeper, Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Asmaybe, Gtstricky, Estirabot, Dudeski17, Cunikm, Arguepower22,
Kate Phaye, Versus22, SoxBot III, Longmemory, Conrad4ever, Mjancuska, XLinkBot, Tuxlie, Fastily, Ernst-Gnther Baade, Robveget,
Darth Catherine, Nemoniac, WikHead, HerkusMonte, Rividian, Moisesencyclopedia, WikiDao, Good Olfactory, PeterWD, Johnkatz1972,
Gggh, CalumH93, Addbot, Kristinamwood, Davrosuk, Fieldday-sunday, OOooMileyooOO, Morning277, Favonian, Hamnoctori, Tourvel,
Tide rolls, Bartledan, Tommyv580, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Ben Pisarski, Rsquire3, Evans1982, XrysD, PMLawrence, Chuckp15,
KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fasdsopa, Archon 2488, Rubinbot, Adeliine, JackieBot, Kingpin13, Mann
jess, Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, Oceanoceanoc, Potonik, FreeRangeFrog, Xqbot, TomB123, The sock that should not be,
Tagryn, Tiller54, GrouchoBot, Sydneytw, Pavlor, Von.grzanka, AlphaRed3, Shadowjams, Drmissio, Dougofborg, Frozenevolution, StoneProphet, FrescoBot, Ryryrules100, Tobby72, Breasts of life, G6350, Jonathansuh, Grandiose, SpacemanSpi, Zafartahirov, Moonraker,
Mellios1, RedBot, MastiBot, PB0305, Salvidrim!, Yunshui, Breconborn, Lotje, Brian the Editor, Deagle AP, EmausBot, Mamalala, John of
Reading, Grottenolm42, Gfoley4, T700, Bernard Teo, GoingBatty, Oakcroft, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, MrTvolaCZ, Solomonfromnland, Josve05a, rico Jnior Wouters, Sswitzer, The Nut, Lucerna-iuris, A930913, Cimmerian praetor, Cymru.lass, Rthompson54,
Sfdyoung, DASHBotAV, Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Chiyoko46, Bpolania, Kasirbot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Breckham101, Gob Lofa,
Stas-Adolf, Arionstone, Marcocapelle, Benzband, BattyBot, Ganpati23, Majesty of Knowledge, AutomaticStrikeout, Dexbot, Irondome,
Mogism, Morfusmax, Tony Mach, Ekips39, Sczchech, Adnan Farooq Chatha, Tigran khalatyan, Isaac Mayne, FoxyOrange, Avenight,
Newropean, PussBroad, C super2, Quenhitran, Notthebestusername, Hamzaz27, Monkbot, Marcosoldfox, Ciaratoon156, Biblioworm,
Julius the Siezer, Theanon12321, Anonymous5152, KasparBot, Booklover19a and Anonymous: 551

11.2

Images

File:Bekanntmachung_cz.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Bekanntmachung_cz.jpg License: Public

domain Contributors: http://www.druhasvetovavalka.nazory.cz/images/mrtvi11.jpg Original artist: Unknown
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0008,_Sudetenland,_Besuch_Wilhelm_Frick_(cropped_Konrad_Henlein).jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0008%2C_Sudetenland%2C_Besuch_Wilhelm_
Frick_%28cropped_Konrad_Henlein%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors:
Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-0008,_Sudetenland,_Besuch_Wilhelm_Frick.jpg
0008,_Sudetenland,_Besuch_Wilhelm_Frick.jpg: Unknown

Original

artist:

Bundesarchiv_Bild_121-

File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_137-004055,_Eger,_Besuch_Adolf_Hitlers.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/

c/c0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_137-004055%2C_Eger%2C_Besuch_Adolf_Hitlers.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image
was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The
German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization
of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-033-20,_Anschluss_sudetendeutscher_Gebiete.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/9/98/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1976-033-20%2C_Anschluss_sudetendeutscher_Gebiete.jpg License: CC BY-SA

11.2

Images

17

3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part
of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or
positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2004-0007,_Hans_Oster.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/
Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2004-0007%2C_Hans_Oster.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to
Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal
Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals
as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H12478,_Obersalzberg,_Mnchener_Abkommen,_Vorbereitung.jpg
Source:
https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H12478%2C_Obersalzberg%2C_M%C3%BCnchener_
Abkommen%2C_Vorbereitung.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the
German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic
representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image
Archive. Original artist: Unknown
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R69173,_Mnchener_Abkommen,_Staatschefs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/9/9c/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R69173%2C_M%C3%BCnchener_Abkommen%2C_Staatschefs.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part
of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or
positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
File:Chamberlain_returns_from_Munich_with_Anglo-German_Agreement.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/c/c3/Chamberlain_returns_from_Munich_with_Anglo-German_Agreement.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: http:
//www.bbc.co.uk/archive/ww2outbreak/7907.shtml Original artist: Richard Dimbleby / Neville Chamberlain
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Czech_refugees_from_the_Sudetenland_3.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Czech_refugees_
from_the_Sudetenland_3.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Czech archiv Original artist: Unknown
File:Demonstrace_ped_Rudolfnem_22._9._1938.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Demonstrace_
p%C5%99ed_Rudolf%C3%ADnem_22._9._1938.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Mnichov 1938 Original artist: Unknown
File:Edvard_Bene.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Edvard_Bene%C5%A1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital
ID fsa.8e00866.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: Unknown. Transfer; United States. Oce of War Information. Overseas Picture Division. Washington Division; 1944.
File:Flag_of_Czechoslovakia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Flag_of_Czechoslovakia.svg License:
Public domain Contributors:
-x-'s le
-x-'s code
Zirlands codes of colors
Original artist:
(of code): SVG version by cs:-x-.
File:Koice_11._november_1938.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Ko%C5%A1ice_11._november_
1938.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ladislav Luppa
File:Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_Czechoslovakia_(1918-1938_and_1945-1961).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/1/1f/Lesser_coat_of_arms_of_Czechoslovakia_%281918-1938_and_1945-1961%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shazz
File:MunichAgreement.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/MunichAgreement.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph D 2239 from the collections of the Imperial War Museums. Original artist: Ministry of Information
ocial photographer
File:Mnchner_abkommen5_en.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/M%C3%BCnchner_
abkommen5_en.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: File:Mnchner abkommen5+.svg Original artist: Jaro.p
File:Protectorate_Of_Bohemia_and_Moravia.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Protectorate_Of_
Bohemia_and_Moravia.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: XrysD
File:Sudetendeutsche.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Sudetendeutsche.png License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work, Statistick lexikon obc v Republice eskoslovensk I. Zem esk (Praha, 1934), Statistick lexikon obc
v Republice eskoslovensk II. Zem moravskoslezsk (Praha, 1935) Original artist: Fext
File:Sudetenland_Reichsgau_1944.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Sudetenland_Reichsgau_
1944.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: XrysD
File:Teroristick_akce_sudetonmeckho_Freikorpsu.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/
Teroristick%C3%A1_akce_sudeton%C4%9Bmeck%C3%A9ho_Freikorpsu.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Cesta k dekretm
a odsunu Nmc Original artist: Unknown
File:The_German_occupation_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/The_
German_occupation_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Rozumt djinm Original artist: Unknown
File:Zaolzie_karwina_1938.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Zaolzie_karwina_1938.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Ksinica Cieszyska Original artist: Unknown

18

11

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:ei_vyhnan_z_pohrani_hledaj_nov_domov.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/%C4%

8Ce%C5%A1i_vyhnan%C3%AD_z_pohrani%C4%8D%C3%AD_hledaj%C3%AD_nov%C3%BD_domov.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Cesta k dekretm a odsunu Nmc Original artist: Unknown
File:s._vojci_v_Krsn_Lp.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/%C4%8Cs._voj%C3%A1ci_v_
Kr%C3%A1sn%C3%A9_L%C3%ADp%C4%9B.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Mnichov 1938 Original artist: Unknown
File:____.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/%D0%9F%D0%
BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%
98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83_%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
. 2 2008 reports that cartoon appeared in Mucha, 1938, 43. Po
ostatnich wydarzeniach Original artist: S. Rydygier

11.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0