OLIVE OIL PROCESSING

Orginating in Asia, the olive is one of the oldest crops known to mankind. It later spread
through all the countries bordering Mediterraean Sea where 98% of the world’s olive trees are
concentrated and over 90% of the world’s olives are produced.

A brief analysis of the chemical composition of a ripe olive follows ( %by weight) ;

Pulp Stone Kernel

Water 50-60 9.3 30.0
Oil 15-30 0.7 27.3
Polyphenols 2-2.5 0.1 0.5-1.0

The effect of irrigation on the quantity of olives harvested

1. The irrigated trees set 33% more fruit than the non-irrigated ones.
2. The individual fruits were 20% heavier and the total crop weight per irrigated
tree was 41% greater than non-irrigated trees.

The effect of irrigation on the quality of olive oil extracted from fruits

1. Both groups of trees produced high quality extra virgin oils.

2. The acidity levels and peroxide values were almost identical.
3. The polyphenols that give the oil it’s distinctive fruity flavor were 16% higher in
the oil produced from the fully irrigated trees. These natural antioxidants also
help protect the oil from oxidation during storage and thus help to extend the
shelf life of the product.

“In short, these studies confirm that irrigation greatly increases the total olive
crop and the yield of oil per hectare, and it can also extend the shelf life of the
oil.”

1. Harvesting the olives :

Harvesting is one of the most important operations in olive growing because of the
repercussions it has on the quantity and quality of the yerar’s crop, on the next yera’s harvest
and on production cost. The ideal harvest time and method come as close as possible to
meeting the following objectives :

• Fruit intended for oil production must have formed the maximum amount of oil,
which sholud be at its best,
• Table olives must be at the stage of ripeness recommended for processing as
black or green olives.
• The tree must receive as little damage as possible.
Olive fruits attain their maximum weight at full coloration. At that point almost all the oil has
formed. However, maximum oil formation should not be confused with maximum oil yield
which is reached later due to dehydration. The olives now begin to drop naturally. Any
substantial delay in harvesting timing will mean a greater proportion of fallen olives, poorer
quality oil, higher harvesting cost and even loss of production the following year since a crop
left on the tree interferes with the acummilation of nutrient reserves and with flower induction
phenomenea.

In many regions the traditional method is hand picking. As a result, yields are low and
harvesting cost rise. Harvesting by beating the olives off the tree with poles considerably
increases the quantity of olives collected per day, although more damage is done on the tree.
However, in modern olive oil technology, mechanical harvesters are used in harvesting the
olive fruits. Mechanical harvesting techniques and equipments are developing rapidly.
However, their bigest problem for mechanical harvesting is the structure of trees. The
majority of trees in the established countries are multi-trunked, having three or four
trunks per tree which makes tree shaking almost impossible.

Let’s take a look at tree shape and pruning for mechanical harvesting. The structure of tree
should be some form of a vase with three main branches. This help with the carrying
of vibrations at harvest time because vibtarions transfer more easily in upwards
direction. This vase shape also helps to let sunlight and air into the tree efficiently.

2. Transporting the olives:

It is important to transport the harvested fruit in such a way as to minimise bruising.

Traditionally, olives have been transported into sacks which could be easily carried and
dumped onto the ground. However, carrying olives in sacks causes major bruising of the fruit
which then leads to problems of heating, rancidity and poor quality oil.

Many modern growers collect their fruit into rigid plastic boxes which are no deeper than
about 30cm.The plactic boxes can be easily stacked on top of one another without
compressing the fruit on lower levels.This minimises bruising problem.

The time between the fruit being taken from the tree and its entering the extraction plant is a
major factor in the determination of olive oil quality. Olives must be processed within 24
hours. However this not always possible.You should aim to have fruit processed within a
maximum of three days from harvest. If this does not look feasible, olives must be kept in a
cool, dark, well aerated place. Greener olives will store longer than more mature black olives.
Fully ripe (black) olives must be processed within 48 hours to obtain high quality olive oil.

3. Washing the olives

This stage is carried out to remove all foreign materials, both plants and others, collected with
the olives that could damage the machinery or contaminate the product. The quantity of impurities
varies between 5 to 15% according to climatic conditins and collecting method of olives.
The olive washing machines consist of mechanism which stir the fruit in water and devices for
separating one from the other. Stirring is mechanical or the movement is caused by air. Washing water
at a temperature of 30-40°C has also been employed to facilitate the cleaning but hot water is used
when atmospheric temperature is less than 5°C.

Hot water (30-40°C)

Olives

Washed olives
 Foreign materials
4. Crushing

Realising the oil from the plant tissues begins by crushing the olives. As already explained, the
object is to tear the flesh cells to let the oil run out the vacuoles, thus permitting the formation of larger
drops that can then be separated from other phases.
There are two principal types of mill used today ;
• Stone mills (roller mills),
• Metal crushers.

Stone mills : Way back, crushing was done by hand in spherical or conical stone mills. To improve
yields the olives were ground on top by revolving millstones driven by animal power. This system has
also been improved over the years, and millstones were driven by electricity.
Stone mill is made up of the following parts ;
• A granit base block, measuring 1.60-2.00 meters in diameter.
• A metal basin of a stuible width, with a side shutter to allow the paste to be discharged.
• Two or three upright, granit millstones.These are cylindrically-shaped measure 110-140 cm in
diameter and are 30-40 cm width on their travelling edges.
• Scrapers to clean the millstones and the basin.
• Mixing paddles, to push the paste continuously underneath the millstones.
• A blade to expel the paste.
• Moving parts.
Stone mills can handle 300-350 kg of olives and use 5-8kW of power while turning at 12-15
r.p.m.The basic advantage of stone mills is that the olives are groung without ecsessive
mechanical strain, without causing detrimental emulsions and without danger of contamination
from metals, all of which are important to produce high quality oil.
They have other good points too ;
• When preparing the paste, crushing can be adapted to the chracteristics of the olives and the
olives can be shattered to the desired size,
• Larger oil drops are formed,
• The temperature of the paste does not rise.

Metal crushers : Metal crushers, whether they be hammer, cylinder or disc, basically consist of a
metalic body, of varying shapes, which by rotating at high speed throws the olives against a fixed
metal grating.
These types of crushers have chracteristics in common in that operations are continuous, they
have a high hourly capacity and they are not expensive.
They do, however, have disadvantages ;
• Crushing is done quickly and does not ensure that the paste is properly prepared. Moreover,
they produce which it takes longer to break down during beating, and for which higher
temperatures are required.
• They make the temperature of the paste increased.
• The metal parts that rotate at high speed suffer from wear and tear.

5. Malaxation (mixing)

After olive has been crushed, the olive paste has to be mixied, particularly when metal
crushers have been employed. Mixing is of importance in preparing the paste for subsequent
separation of the solid phase from the liquid phases.

The object of this stage is to increase the amount of oil that is released, firstly by helping the
droplets of oil to come together into large drops that can be separated into a continuous liquid phase,
and secondly by breaking up the oil/water emulsion. For example, after crushing only 45% of the
drops have a diameter of more than 30 microns while this percentage rises to 80% after mixing,
with an accompanying large increase in the number of drops with a bigger diameter.

However, mixing the olive paste can sometimes make the paste emulsify more, thus having a
negative effect on oil yields. This happens when the movement is too fats and the temperature and
times are not properly related to the rheological characterisitics of the paste being processed.
 The aims of malaxtation ; • Oil 20-30%
• To break down the cell walls, • Water 50-30%
• To combine smaller oil • Lipoproteins (emulsifier)
droplets,
• To homogenize the olive paste. Problem !!!
EMULSIFICATION

Emulsion formation is prevented by ; Mixing temperature : 20-30°C

• Combining various time-temperature Mixing speed : 20-40 r.p.m.

applications,
• Using processing aids (natural talc Mixing time : 30–60 mn
“hydrated magnesium slicate”, enzymes
“pectolytic enzyme preparations”)

6. Extraction of oil from macerated pulp (olive paste)

The finely ground and malaxated paste of olive fruits is processed in two ways :
1. it is pressed by hydraulic disc or cage presses,
2. is separated by horizontal decanting centrifuges (decanters).

Pressing : The oldest and still the most widespread method of extracting the oil from olives is to force it out by
pressure. The presses in most common use are of hydraulic presses. In this method ;
• The macerated pulp is spread over a number of discs by paste dosifier,
• The discs are displaced on the head of the hydraulic ram,
• The pressure is built up slowly to not higher than about 400 bar,
• The mixture olive oil and vegetable water is removed,
• Press residues (olive pomace) are then mixed with hot water and pressed a second
time. If no hot water is added to the paste the resulting oil can be called “cold press
oil”.
• Liquid phase (oil + water) goes to centrifugal separator and olive oil is separated
from water phase.

The height of press : 2.15 m. Modern presses : 35-40cm diameter piston

The number of disc : 145 350-450 kg/cm2 pressure
Capacity : 20.000.kg/day

Pressing has the following advantages ;

• Limited investment is needed,
• Simple, reliable machinery is used,
• Little electrical power is required and energy consumption is low,
• The pomace is low in moisture,
• Only a small amount of vegetable water is produced and it contains little oil.

However, it also has negative points ;

• The machinery cumbersome,
• Labor intensive when compared with continuous flow system,
• Pressing mats are very difficult to keep hygienically clean,
• Paste and oil overly exposed to air during processing.
Centrifugation : In centrifuge process macerated pulp is diluted by water and pumped into the decanter which
separates the solid phase (olive pomace) from the liquid phase (olive oil + vegetable water). The decanter
consists of a cylindrical-conical bowl, inside which is a compact, similarly shaped component with a helical
ridge. A slight difference between the speeds at which the inner screw gyrates (which is faster) throws the
pomace to one end of the centrifuge, while the oil and water are pushed to the other. The oily must that is
obtained ( oil with little water and water with little oil) is then finally separated in upright automatically-
unloading centrifuges.Rotating speed of decanter is about 3.000-4.000 r.p.m.

Some of the advantages are that ;

• The machinery is not cumbersome,
• The process is continuous and automated,
• Limited labor is needed,
• Most hygienic system avaible.

But, it also has some disadvantages such as ;

• Relatively expensive for large scale equipment,
• It consumes hot water,
• The pomace has a high moisture content,
• A considerable water, with an average oil content, is produced,
• Energy requirement is higher than traditional method.

2 Phase Continuous Olive Oil Plant

Washed olives

Crushing machine Water

Olive oil

Separator

Malaxing machine Decanter Vegetable water

Wet olive pomace

3 Phase Continuous Olive Oil Plant

Washed olives

Crushing machine Water

Olive oil

Separator

Malaxing machine Decanter Vegetable water

Olive pomace Vegetable water + trace oil

Olive oil

Vegetable water
Classification of olive oil according to Türk Gıda Kodeksi ;

• Extra virgin olive oil (Naturel sızma zeytinyağı) (FFA: 1.0% oleic acid)
• Naturel olive oil (Naturel birinci zeytinyağı) (FFA: 2.0% oleic acid)
• Ordinary virgin olive oil (Naturel ci zeytinyağı) (FFA: 3.3% oleic acid)
• Refined olive oil (Rafine zeytinyağı) (FFA: 0.3% oleic acid)
• Riviera olive oil (Riviera zeytinyağı) (FFA: 1.5% oleic acid)

Factors affecting oil quality

There are many factors which directly affect the quality of olive oil ;

• Acidification (FFA content of olive oil)

¾ Variety, climate and degree of ripeness of the fruit.

¾ Quality of olive fruits.
¾ System of harvesting.
¾ Storage of the fruit.
¾ System of oil extraction.
¾ Storage of oil.

• Rancidity

¾ Variety, climate and degree of ripeness of the fruit.

¾ Quality of olive fruits. (antioxidant content)
¾ Storage of the fruit. (antioxidant content)
¾ Storage of oil. (light, material of container, temperature, presence of
impurities or metallic traces)

• Organoleptic

¾ Variety, climate and degree of ripeness of the fruit.

¾ Quality of olive fruits.
¾ Storage of the fruit.
¾ Storage of oil.