ELECTIVE- FARMING FOR THE 21ST

CENTURY

While Australian agriculture is composed of many traditional agricultural industries, new or

alternative production methods are emerging as of a result of technological research and
development

The continued success of Australian agriculture in the global economy will rely on continued
innovation at all levels within the industry

INNOVATION,

ETHICS AND CURRENT ISSUES

The issues related to the research and development of technologies include:

Funding sources
In order to develop your innovation in an efficient, sustainable and competitive way, farmers must
find funding sources and opportunities (e.g. producers, processors, industry/researches and
students) to encourage skill-building capabilities that accelerate the adoption of R&D outputs.

This will also promote the sustainability and competitiveness of the technology in the market.

Farmers need funding sources to increase sustainability, profitability, and adoption of innovation

Especially when the company has had no previous successes, there is difficulty in gaining funding
sources, which affects the amount and money put into research and development. This causes
many economic issues for the farmer

Patents
A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state (national government) to an inventor for a
limited period of time in exchange for the public disclosure of an invention

Patents should be obtained for research and development. Specialized varieties of crop plants, pestcontrol chemicals, advanced feed formulations for livestock, vet drugs, and mechanical equipment
(eg crop planters) and harvesters are all examples of inventions that can greatly assist the farmer
to achieve higher product yields and enhanced product quality

They are also examples of technologies whose development may require many years of research
and testing.

The legal right to exclusive ownership, provided by the patent for a finite period of time, ensures
that the individuals and companies who invest heavily in that research and development have an
opportunity to recoup those costs and to provide a return for their investors through subsequent
marketing of the technologies.

Issues can arise when patent-protected components are used to develop a certain innovations, and
the farmer must be required to enter into an agreement specifying terms of use. These terms may
include the inability to save seed for future planting LEGAL ISSUES

Opponents of agricultural biotechnology often claim that patenting of genetic technologies, plant
varieties, and other entities reliant on living things is detrimental to farmers and to the progress of
agricultural innovation.

Patents can also limit the development of new opportunities in agriculture as using patent-protected
components add additional expense and legal problems

Plant breeders rights

These are exclusive commercial rights to a registered variety. The rights are a form of intellectual
property, like patents and copyright, under the Plant Breeders Rights Act 1994.

In relation to propagating material of the registered variety, successful applicants have exclusive
rights to produce/reproduce the material, condition the material for purpose of propagation
(cleaning, sorting etc), offer material for sale, import & export the material

In certain circumstances, if breeder has not reasonable opportunity to exercise the right on the
propagating material, PBR extends to harvested material

Exceptions to the breeder's right are the use of the variety privately and for non-commercial
purposes, for experimental purposes, and for breeding other plant varieties. A variety can be used
for these purposes irrespective of the existence of Plant Breeder's Rights

Plant Breeders Rights causes many social (which can lead to legal issues) e.g. GM crops. Farmers
must register their variety, and if that variety is used by another breeder to develop a new variety,
the farmer has to be acknowledged (most probably receiving a share in profits)

There is also issues for the ownership of intellectual property e.g. genes at work, as many GM crops
have been developed through previous innovations

Animal welfare and legislation

All animals in NSW are protected by the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979, which deals
with the cruel and unconscionable treatment of all animals

In addition, animals used in teaching or research of any kind in NSW, are protected by special
legislation, the Animal Research Act 1985 (NSW). This Act was introduced to ensure that whenever
animals are used for teaching or research, it is justified, humane and considerate of the animal's
needs.

In addition to this legislation, there are codes of practice, guidelines and standard operating
procedures for research and development

The main issues with this is ethical and social. Many people believe by testing animals in research
and development, developing modified breeds, it is inhumane and disrupting natural order. This can
lead to many disputes (which can extend legally too)

These legislations also limit research and development for many innovations

Contract
Research and Development Contracts are negotiated with qualified domestic and foreign
organizations to support basic, applied, or developmental research and to test or evaluate a
product, material, device, or component for use by the research community.

This links in with funding sources and finding funding opportunities in a way

Farmers need these contractual agreements to increase sustainability, profitability, and adoption of
innovation

Especially when the company has had no previous successes, there is difficulty in gaining such
support, which affects the amount and money put into research and development. This causes
many economic issues for the farmer, and affect the success of their innovation

2) Evaluate a range of new technological developments that may assist agricultural

industries.
SATELLITE TECHNOLOGIES
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
The GPS is made up of a set of satellites orbiting the Earth in precise locations at elevations of
about 17600 km above the Earths surface. To locate your position, you must have a GPS receiver
and be in line-of-sight contact with at least 3 satellites

Your position is determined through triangulation- the intersection of the different spheres

This technology, along with GIS (geographical information systems) made the development and
implementation of precision agriculture or site-specific farming

GPS-based applications in precision farming are being used for farm planning, field mapping, soil
sampling, tractor guidance, crop scouting, variable rate applications and yield mapping.

GPS allows farms to work during low visibility field conditions, such as rain, dust, fog and darkness.

GPS enhances precision agriculture, allowing more precise application and dispersion of pesticides,
herbicides, and fertilisers. This reduces expenses, produces a higher yield and creates a more
environmentally friendly farm.

GPS is more accurate, cost effective, and, user friendly. Its effective for collecting geospatial
information on soil-plant-animal requirements, and, applying site-specific treatments to increase
agricultural production and protect environment.

GPS allows farmers to accurately navigate to specific locations in the field to collect soil samples or
monitor crop conditions. It can be also used in more larger scaled farms to spray and water crops,
and for cultivation tracking and tree clearing.

Overall, in agriculture, GPS systems enhance operations in the farming business through its
accuracy and ease-of-use

Disadvantages: Its benefits in precision agriculture are not significantly great on small farms, can
be expensive for smaller farmers, and in navigation people tend to focus on GPS more than
surroundings (can lead to accidents)

GLOBAL IMAGING SYSTEM

The Global Imaging System for satellite technology provides satellite imagery data at different
spatial, spectral and temporary resolutions for agriculture and crop assessment, crop health,
change detection, environmental analysis, irrigated landscape mapping, yield determination, and
soils analysis

It can be used for vegetation analysis- crop growth from planting through harvest. It makes it easier
(especially for large-scale farms) to locate any problem on the farm (e.g. weed patches, soil
compaction) through the satellite images

In addition to highlighting problematic areas, images will also help monitor the effectiveness of any
corrective actions which may be implemented

Disadvantages: expensive (especially for low-scale farmers),

ineffective for smaller farms as it is easier to do physical inspection,
the images come out pixelated and in colour (requires expertise to
understand and study this) which means extra costs

But, smaller farmers can use low satellite imaging technology to save costs

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGIES
CLIMATE/WEATHER FORECASTING
Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the
atmosphere for a given location at a given time.

Farmers rely on weather forecasts to decide what work to do for a particular day e.g. drying hay is
only feasible in dry weather

For example, if it is forecasted that there will be a prolonged period of dryness, farmers can
implement techniques for crops such as cotton, wheat, and corn crops to receive the water and
moisture they require. Farmers can prepare ahead for any unfortunate environmental conditions

Forecasts predict seasonal, rainfall, temperature outlooks and also the incidence of any natural
disasters (esp. drought)

Weather & climate forecasts assist farmers with natural resource management, and farm planning.

Advantages: new computer technologies are more accurate than old techniques of weather
forecasting (using a barometer), accurate, allows farmers to manage natural resources effectively
and plan activities in the future

Disadvantages: Tedious to regular check for any updates/changes, based on probabilities (not 100%
accurate),

LASER TECHNOLGIES (Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)

Laser technology is being increasingly used in agricultural applications

The adaptation of laser control in land levelling and seedbed preparation has been introduced.
Results show that laser-levelled fields achieve better irrigation and production performance

One such laser-controlled land levelling equipment has four essential elements- 1) the laser emitter,
2) the laser sensor, 3) the electronic and hydraulic control system, and 4) the tractor and grading
implement.

The laser emission drive generates a rotating beam which can be used as the levelling reference

The beam is targeted and received by a light sensor mounted on a mast attached to the land
grading implement.

The precision improves irrigation uniformity and efficiency and as a result the productivity of water
and land.

Advantage: laser not affected by earth movement, achieves better irrigation and production
performance from land, very accurate, less work required from farmers to level, enhances seed bed
preparation, seed generation and land levelling

Disadvantage: mostly an unfeasible operation due to high cost of equipment unless a large number
of farms form a co-operative or a govt programme to subsidise the costs and improve farm
production. It is also not needed and worth the expense in many small farms.

COMPUTER RECORD-KEEPING SYSTEMS

In order to support Australias reputation and safety in any agricultural product, it is important that
producers keep good records. E.g. for red meat

Through computer recording systems, this is made easier for the farmers, and it is also a more
organised and efficient way of storing information. These records not only help with the overall
management of the business, but in some cases, are a legal obligation.

With good, ACCURATE records, a farmer is enabled to measure, monitor, benchmark and annually
compare the enterprises performance. It also ensures that productivity and profitability are
maximised, and increases sales as consumers have more confidence in the product.

Computer record-keeping systems enhance business managements and allow farmers to support
any claims made against them.

Advantages: Increases sales, enhances business management, provides more marketing

opportunities (through evidence to gain confidence in product), easy to use, helps farmer keep
organised, helps farmer support claims against them

Disadvantages: Can be tedious to enter details (especially for farmers who are not used to using
computers), the purchase of computer systems are an additional expense

BIOTECHNOLOGIES
Biotechnology is the exploitation of biological processes for industrial and other purposes e.g.
genetic modification and is a term used to cover the use of living things in industry, technology,
medicine, or agriculture

GENITICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

Involves the deliberate modification of an organisms genetic material by moving, introducing or
eliminating specific genes

Genetic engineering involves the manipulation of an organism's genetic material.

It provides the possibility of making rapid genetic gains that would take years with conventional
breeding programs.

It involves four steps:

1. Identification- of DNA segments that code for a particular gene responsible for a desired
feature
2. Isolation- the DNA segment is isolated
3. Cloning- the DNA segment is cloned by introducing it into a host, such as bacteria or yeast.
As the host multiplies, so does the introduced DNA segment

4. Transference- the cloned DNA can then be transferred to other members of the species that
it came from or to another species where it produces the desired effect

E.g. Transgenic cotton (BT COTTON): contains a gene from the bacteria Bacillus thuringenesis that
produces a chemical that kills the Heliothis moth larvae, and another variety has been engineered
to not become damaged by the Round-up chemical used to kill weeds.

The use of biotechnology to produce new varieties of agricultural crops has been adopted widely
throughout the world, and is used to enhance food e.g. fruits, vegetables, broad acre crops. The
most widely grown GM crops are GM canola, soybeans, corn and cotton

Advantages: organisms (plants and animals) can be engineered for certain characteristics which will
improve its productivity and nutritional content etc., increase production (can be used to prevent
diseases etc)

Disadvantages: causes social dispute, research into it is expensive, can be costly, there is a
possibility of undetected mutations

ELECTRONIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS

NLIS (NATIONAL LIVESTOCK IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM)
This system identifies and traces livestock (cattle, sheep, goats)

Cattle, sheep and goats can be traced from property of birth to slaughter for biosecurity, meat
safety, product integrity, and market access

There are two types- a round tag and a square tag. They both contain the same information but
belong to two different firms. The electronic tags record the Property Identification Codes (PIC's) for
all the properties that have the stock during their lifetime.

The central tracking system (i.e. this is the database which is in Canberra) can tell the vendor of
each cow. Ear tagging IS handy but time-consuming.

Advantage- ease of traceability, making access to overseas markets more secure, maintaining
consumer confidence in Australian livestock markets (for products e.g. beef, milk, wool etc),
accurate traceability for disease management, reduction in need for paperwork

Disadvantages- Expensive, easily lost, labour costs, time-consuming, build-up of grime on the tags
(which can obscure barcodes)

Impact on production and marketing:

-

It is becoming increasingly important for beef producers to be able to use carcase

information in order to maintain farm viability, enhance domestic beef demand and sustain
Australias share in international trade.

The importance of meeting market specifications is reflected in the discounts incurred by

carcases that do not comply.

It also allows buyers to compare

ROBOTICS
MILKING MACHINES
Modern robotic milking machines milk the cows without anyone being present.
The machine includes teat cups that contact the cows teats and remove the milk, a claw where
milk pools as it is removed from the four teats, vacuum tubes that provide vacuum to the teat cups,
and, a milk tube that removed milk away from the claw.
Many robotic milking machines today have an automatic take-off device that removes the machine
from the cow when milking is completed. Some even are linked to a computer system that both
regulate the machine and generates data about the cow and its milk as milking is occurring
Advantages: elimination of labour, milk consistency (milking not influenced by different people
milking), increased milking frequency, perceived lower stress environment, herd management (as
data is collected), efficient

Disadvantages: expensive equipment, studies indicate that there is a lower milk quality (after a
somatic cell count), decreased contact between farmer and herd (can result ill cows to be
neglected), can spread contamination (esp mastitis) easily if the equipment isnt sterilised properlyq
SHEARING MACHINES
Machine shears, known as handpieces, have a power-driven toothed blade, known as cutter. It is
driven back and forth over the surface of a comb and the wool is cut from the animal

The motor is in the handpiece

Advantages: quicker, more efficient (more sheep can be sown) and therefore less labour required

Disadvantages: Slightly more expensive, greater chance in cutting/wounding sheep (so shearer
must be careful)

3) Evaluate methods that companies may now use to market technological developments
New technology is adopted by farmers in Australia for many reasons e.g. subsidies (financial
assistance by government etc) and it increases the farms competitive edge in the market

New technology is marketed in a number of ways e.g. field days, rural newspapers and magazines,
industry-based newsletters, web sites, direct marketing, local TV and radio

Impediments (barriers) to the rapid uptake of new technology in agriculture is the level of exposure
(certain marketing strategies do not target ALL audiences), cost, availability of transport, education
and training, conservatism, and changing markets

Two examples:
#1- MLA offers free information updates via email through the form of eNewsletters to advertise
any latest key market news, developments and industry events in the livestock industry. The
advantage of this is that it is free, sent directly to your email (no inconvenience in needing to
purchase), organised method where technological developments are clearly described in the various
articles. The disadvantage however is the need for a computer and the need to regularly check
email. Also, eNewsletters does not JUST market technological developments it also markets other
information (e.g. events), which may cause readers to skim these promotional articles

#2- NLIS in victoria is mainly advertised through the website. It also offers incentives (subsidised
retail price for tags) for those who want to use it, and thus increasing its marketability. Advantage of
this method of marketing is that it is easy to navigate around site, solid evidence about the benefit
of NLIS is provided. The disadvantage however is the need for computer and internet, and the
tediousness in actually getting to the site in comparison to just having a brochure.

4) Explain the reasons for adopting technologies in agriculture

Technological changes in the more biological aspects of farm systems are rapidly adopted by
farmers, especially where such changes can be easily integrated into existing farm management
structures

E.g. improved variety of crops, pasture plants or animal species, or more effective drenches or
fertilisers

The innovators (those adopting the new technologies) are benefited. Biological innovations are less
disruptive than mechanical innovations, as they require little or no reorganisation of the farm

The adoption of mechanical innovations (e.g. new irrigation systems, harvesting equipment,
broadacre farming equipment) does require farm resource reorganisation and so takes time

The initial people to adopt the new mechanical-type technologies are risk takers. They are
innovative people who often contract with dealers to be the first in a region to use a new style of
tractor, harvester or plough.

They undertake high initial establishment and tooling-up costs in the hope that the increased
productivity gained through using the new equipment will not only cover up costs but also provide
an increase in profit

Due to competitive pressure, other farmers will adopt proven technology because of gains in either
time use or profit once the benefits of adopting this new technology can be assessed

Eventually, even the laggards are forced to adopt new proven technology- or else sell up due to
poor profit margins in comparison with surrounding farms

New technology increases the level of product supply onto the market. Consequently, market price
falls, unless demand also can be stimulated

The benefits of adopting new technology are:

-

Increased efficiency results in a lowering of operational cost

Lower selling prices for farm goods in some instances may assist where natural products
compete with synthetic products

Increased production levels can increase potential returns from overseas markets

One disadvantage that CAN occur but doesnt usually is that when production levels increase to
such an extent that product prices fall, and the money saved from acquiring and using the
machinery may be less than the fall in market price.

Recent technologies are always adopted as they increase efficiency in the production process and
save money and time in management.

For example, in GM crops it increases profit, disease resistance, weed control, marketability and
product quality. This thus reduces managerial costs, as well as improves its marketability through
new incentives

5) Adopting a new technological development- NLIS (National Livestock Identification

System)
GENETIC MODIFICATION (GENETIC ENGINEERING) GM CROPS e.g. cotton, canola,
soybean and corn

(Description, Advantages & disadvantages at the top!) If they ask specific- say GM crops
Reasons for the development
The former method of improving an organism- Selective Breeding- is a long and tedious process that
has limits- it is impossible to mix traits from two different species
GM allows the possibility to make rapid genetic gains that would take years with conventional
breeding programs
Enhances production and quality (nutritional content) of crops and thus increases profits
Can eliminate undesired characteristics and, improve and add desirable characteristics
Can combine useful genes from different species and breed new better variety e.g. growth rate
and disease resistance
Reduces cost of production and management
Better resistance to weeds, pests and disease reduce the need for chemicals to be used, thus
reducing costs
Better flavour and nutritional value for crops
Enhance shelf life of crop, making it easier to ship and export opens new markets internationally
Increases yield of crop
Historical development
For several thousand years, farmers have been altering the genetic makeup of the crops they grow
through selective breeding
The pioneer of modern genetics is in the 19 th century- Gregor Mendel, who experimented on peascross-breeding tall ones with short ones. He deduced that there were discrete inherited factors
responsible for the way they turned out

1953- The next stepping stone was when James Watson and Francis Crick cracked the genetic code,
identifying the double helix structure of DNA. Since then, genetic engineering has been a possibility
Transgenic plants were first created in the 1980s by four groups working independently at
Washington University, the Rijksuniversiteit, Monsanto Company and the University of Wisconsin.
In January 1983, the first three groups announced that they had inserted bacterial genes into plants,
and in April that year, the fourth group announced that they had inserted a plant gene from one
species into another species.
In the 1990s, biotechnology moved out of the laboratory and into farms and shops, becoming a
boom in the industry.
In 1990- the first GM food, a yeast, was approved in the UK
In 1992, vegetarian cheese (made out of a GM ingredient) went on sale in the UK
In 1995, the company Calgene commercially released a GM tomato tomato puree
After this, controversy erupted over GM crops with Dr Arpad Pusztai publishing research that GM
potatoes were modified with an insecticide gene poisonous to rats. This lead to many more social
disputes over GM.

The worldwide adoption of GM crops has rapidly increased every year since their commercial
introduction in 1995, including in Australia.

Technological development
Genetically modifying plants involves four basic steps:
i.

Identification- of DNA segments that code for a particular gene responsible for a desired
feature

ii.

Isolation- the DNA segment is isolated

iii.

Cloning- the DNA segment is cloned by introducing it into a host, such as bacteria or yeast.
As the host multiplies, so does the introduced DNA segment

iv.

Transference- the cloned DNA can then be transferred to other members of the species that
it came from or to another species where it produces the desired effect

The techniques and technology for this has developed throughout the years, including: bacterial
carriers, biolistics, calcium phosphate precipitation, electroporation, gene silencing, gene splicing,
viral carriers
BACTERIAL CARRIERS- The bacterium Agrobacterium can infect plants, which makes it a suitable
carrier for delivering DNA. The selected gene is inserted into a plasmid and dropped into a solution
of Agrobacterium. The solution if heated, allowing the plasmid to enter the bacterium, forming a
new gene. This gene is allowed to grow and then inserted into plant cells
BIOLISTICS- The selected DNA is attached to microscopic particles of gold or the metal tungsten.
Like firing a gun, these DNA-laden particles are shot into the target cells using a burst of gas under
pressure. Most plants are GMd through this method
CALCIUM PHOSPHATE PRECIPITATION- The selected DNA is exposed to calcium phosphate. This
mixture creates tiny granules. Target cells respond to these granules by surrounding and ingesting
them (endoocytosis), allowing the granules to release the DNA and deliver it to the host nuclei and
chromosome(s).
ELECTROPORATION- THE prepared target cells are immersed in a special solution with the
selected DNA. A short but intense electric shock is then passed through the solution. The result is
small pores/tears in the cell walls, which allow the new genetic material access to the nuclei. Then,
the cells are placed into another solution and encouraged to repair their breached walls, locking the
donor DNA inside the cell. The selected DNA is incorporated into the host chromosomes to provide
the host with a new gene.

GENE SILENCING- One method of silencing a particular gene is to attach a second copy of the
gene the wrong way around. This technique is used to prevent plants like peanuts and wheat from
producing the proteins (allergens) commonly responsible for human allergies. Another approach is
to insert foreign DNA within a gene to inactivate it.
GENE SPLICING (THE PLASMID METHOD) - Bacteria contain restriction enzymes that form the
bacteriums immune system. The restriction enzymes attack the foreign DNA by cutting it into
precise sections and preventing it from being inserted into the bacteriums chromosome. Different
bacteria produce different restriction enzymes that cut any DNA at different places, making the DNA
sticky in some cases, which means they can be pasted directly onto the target organisms
prepared DNA.
VIRAL CARRIERS (THE VECTOR METHOD)- A virus that will invade the target cells but not cause
damage or death is chosen. The selected DNA is added to the genetic makeup of the virus and then
the virus is allowed to infect the target. As the virus invades cells and replicates, the selected DNA
is added to the target cells.
Impact of technological development- economic, environmental, social, legal and managerial factors
Black=positive impacts, orange= negative impacts
ECONOMIC

Many supporters of genetically engineered crops claim they lower pesticide usage and have
brought higher yields and profitability to many farmers, including those in developing
nations.

For example, a 2010 study by US scientists, found that the economic benefit of BT corn to
farmers in five mid-west states was $6.9 billion over the previous 14 years

The cost into research and developing successful variety is quite high, but once developed
profits are huge. If using an already developed variety, Plant Breeder Right fees must be
paid.

ENVIRONMENTAL
-

Reduces/removes the need for chemicals, insecticides and herbicides to be sprayed through
the development of pest, disease and weed resistant varieties

Reduces pesticide application and reduces soil erosion from tiling

Conservation of soil, water and energy through development of fast-growing varieties

More efficient processing and better natural waste management

Unintended transfer of transgenes through cross-pollination unknown effects on other

organisms (e.g., soil microbes)

Loss of flora and fauna biodiversity

SOCIAL AND ETHICAL

-

Raises controversy- GM violates the natural organisms intrinsic values and is an unnatural
method. Some religious members even believe that this plays with God as were tampering
with nature by mixing genes among species.

There are some objections to consuming animal genes in plants and vise versa

New advances in technologies may be skewed to interests of rich countries

Increases food security for growing populations

LEGAL
-

Access and intellectual property Domination of world food production by a few companies
and increasing dependence on industrialized nations by developing countries

Biopiracy, or foreign exploitation of natural resources

Labelling is not mandatory in some countries (e.g. USA), leading to many legal disputes. GM
crops are often mixed with non GM crops, without notification in such countries

Genetically Modified Crops Act 2004- all conditions and regulations a crop must be
genetically modified in, in Australia. The GM Crops Act has provision to ensure proper
accountability where there are risks to markets, and ensures producers are liable to any
damage/sickness etc.

Several Australian States have placed bans on planting GM food crops, beginning in 2003.
However in late 2007, NSW and VIC lifted their bans, and WA lifted theirs in 2008. SA and
TAS still have a ban.

SAFETY
-

Potential human health impacts, including allergens, transfer of antibiotic resistance

markers, unknown effects

VERY SAFE IN AUSTRALIA- In Australia, foods or ingredients that have been genetically
modified (GM foods) must be subjected to a pre-market safety assessment by the
government food regulator Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ). Apart from
certain exemptions, GM foods offered for sale must have their GM status identified on the
food label

MANAGERIAL FACTORS
-

Reduces cost of production and management by improving plant varieties

*Note* The ease of the operation is made easier by farmers saving several seeds for each batch, so
new seeds do not have to be genetically engineered every time

RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY AND PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH

6) Analyse a research study of the development and/or implementation of ONE recent

agricultural technology in terms of design of the study, methodology, collection of data,
presentation of data, analysis of data and conclusions and recommendations
The basic elements of scientific research is necessary for the adequate study and analysis of a piece
of research: a literary review (not necessary but useful), a clear objective/aim, appropriate
experimental design, data collection, data analysis, data presentation, AND, conclusion, discussion
and recommendations

CASE STUDY- QUANTIFYING FODDER QUALITY ASSESSMENTS USING MACHINE VISION

CLEAR OBJECTIVE/AIM
Areas that needed to be explored and formulated were identified with a CLEAR objective

The project aimed to deliver a low-cost bench prototype system to automatically measure the
following characteristics from fodder samples: stem width, colour and, leaf to stem ratio. It
aimed to find an objective may to measure fodder quality (instead of using an assessor)

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Fodder crops cover a wide range of crop and pasture species that are grown, harvested and
processed to facilitate both on-farm use and domestic and export trade
The subjective nature of classifying fodder quality characteristics leads to confusion in the market
place and reduces the competitiveness of the Australian industry
Disputes between buyers and sellers over the quality of hay traded frequently occur. The AFIA
(Australian fodder industry association) fodder grading meeting in 2005 recommended their support
for funding a project to assess the potential for using image analysis technology for quantifying a
range of hay characteristics including overall colour, leaf:stem ration etc.
Such technology would improve the accuracy with which fodder crops could be characterised and
graded
This project leans more towards development than research. It will draw heavily on other research
experience concerning palatability and nutritional content and any other microspectral analysis. It is
concerned with the exploitation of any such knowledge into the design of an instrument.

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

Treatments
Manual assessment of stem width, colour and leaf:stem ratio for fodder crops vs. objective
assessment (through image analysis technology) of fodder crops for stem width, colour and
leaf:stem ratio

Control
The control treatments were the manually tested fodder crops to which the objective machinetested ones were compared to

Standardisation
All the fodder crops had received same treatment- water, nutrition oil, sunlight

The same prototype was used to test each one for each grading characteristic to prevent any
difference in prototype affecting results

Replication
58 samples of lucerne and oaten hay were used

This improves the accuracy of results through the use of the mean and reduces chance of
experimental error

Randomisation
There was no need for random selection as all samples were tested by each prototype, and the
order of testing did not matter

Evaluation of experimental design

Pretty good experimental design! Use of appropriate experimental procedure and equipment to
satisfy aim. There were no factors that affected the results other than the two treatments.

METHODOLOGIES OF STUDY (how they collect data, how they analyse data etc)
The potential of detecting micro-spectral differences between samples, using a precision
spectrophotometer, was investigated
This gave readings of the reflectance of each sample all the way from the ultra-violet 2.5nm, deep
into the infrared
Wherever differences in spectra could be discerns, it would be possible to use a monochrome
camera with appropriate colour filters to perceive the same effect, provided the difference lay in a
band that could be detected by the camera
Using a spectral analysis device (ASD) 58 samples of lucerne and oat hays reflectance under solar
radiation was recorded.
The camera would have the added advantage of inspecting small image
features, rather than taking a measure of colour of the whole image
Image analysis software was applied to determine features such as leaf-tostem ratio and stem width.
This automatic process if much more exhaustive (comprehensive) than
manual management, in which only a few samples would be taken out and
measured
A hardware system has been devised and assembled to perform the
relevant measurements by machine vision. The system comprises of a laptop attached to a webcam
and lightproof sampling enclosure:
Using machine vision software platform developed at NCEA, a custom application was developed for
this project, which can process saved images or streaming videos
STEM WIDTH- Each sub-sample was made independent of colour and lightning effects, and we use a
histogram of all stem widths as it is a better reflection of the characteristics of that sample. An
algorithm has been created to accumulate this data. Calibration of this algorithm was performed
using a set of templates

COLOUR- (no more manual processed) Testing box with average chromaticity in each of the red,
green and blue channels is used to objectively grade samples. Image is displayed as white dots
overlaid onto image. The colour triangle is used to determine colour using a variety of derived
formulas
STEM TO LEAF RATIO- Uses algorithm to identify bright areas in image as stem, check texture of
areas and determine length of stem or leaf by the edges of each brought ear using s-psi graphs.
Areas bound by straight edges= stem, and all others are leaf
DATA COLLECTION, PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
What data was collected?

The Results collected for each Sample # were:

- Colour score (/5 Lucerne, /60 Oaten)
(for each sample- red, green and blue
colour score to give final raw colour
result)
-

Average Stem diameter (mm)

Min stem diameter (mm)

Max stem diameter (mm)

Leaf: Stem ratio

Stem %

Leaf %

- These are the variables for the experiment

- How was data collected? Method mentioned above.
- How was data presented?
COLOUR- Table for raw results (has raw colour, red & green & blue colour score, and
chromaticity)

STEM WIDTH- Table for raw results (file, median, skew, max, average weight), and
also histogram for 10 samples (line graphs)

STEM TO LEAF RATIO- Table for raw results (with file, stem:leaf ratio, and avg, std
deviation and std error measured at end

Manual results and Automatic results were compared using tables to highlight the
inaccuracies in subjective grading of fodder

Also, histogram with automatic average stem width vs. manual stem width and
automatic stem vs manual stem:leaf ratio was graphed. This highlighted the
accuracy of the progeny for objective measurements rather than using a subjective
assessor.

- How was data analysed?

The full process was undertaken with single sub-samples for 10 each of lucerne and
oaten hays randomly selected from the hay provided by the UA project

Data was analysed for looking for differences between treatment groups- manual and
automatic- and proving the accuracy for using objective methods (image analysis
technology) instead of subjective methods (assessor)

The difference was significant- which emphasises the importance of developing such
technology and implementing it in the agricultural field

It is proven through the statistical measurements from stem width managements

that it is more reliable for classification systems
-

Could the fata collection, presentation and analysis have been improved in
any way?
It would have been even more easier to understand if more context was provided to
make graph meaningful

- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The project has demonstrated the feasibility of machine vision technology for the
measurement of fodder characteristics
The prototype developed is a full functional system which can provide and record the
information as fast as the human operator can load samples
Objective measurement of colour will be most beneficial to the follow-on project to
determine rules for a grading system
This colour may also be correlated with the Balco TrueGrade grading system for oaten
hay
Delivering a histogram of stem widths, rather than a single numerical average,
provides valuable additional information for the odder grading process
The histogram is built by identifying every edge component in the image
The stem to lead ratio is identified using a combination of colour and shape
information

- Implications (Effects) for relevant stakeholders

At the right price and with the right user-friendliness, the instrument will have
appeal for growers, traders and consumers. This will also have appeal for the
manufacturers of such an instrument

The availability of an objective assessment should go far to quell any disagreement

between parties

It is, of course, necessary for policymakers to determine how the quoted grades
should be related to the features that can be measured

- Recommendations
Field testing must be performed, to ensure that the laboratory results can truly
extend to practical use

Further research is needed in relation to palatability. The flavour of the sample might
be affected by small amounts of a contaminant that would not influence to overall
colour. With a system based on imaging, it is possible, though by no means certain,
that specks of such material could be perceived.

It is predicted that expert classification advice will be required to determine a

conversion scale from the automatically measures physical characteristics to a
grading scheme.

- LEGAL, ETHICAL AND WELFARE ISSUES INVOLVED IN THIS RESEARCH

Proper research methodology was carried out

Safe and appropriate methodology used

-

7) Explain the need for research in the development of agricultural

technologies
Organisations involved in research are the CSIRO, government, universities, private
companies, and meat and livestock australia
Advances in agricultural technology offer great potential to increase farm productivity.
It allows better & higher quality products/organisms to be created, give a farm a
competitive edge, reduce managerial costs to control the negative factors (that can
be removed), and can improve farm efficiency.
For example, MLA researches on a range of topics such as grazing management,
meat quality, genetics for improved efficiency to enhance its competitiveness and
sustainability and to develop a competitive advantage for the industry.
Example 2- CSIRO researches into genetically engineering different crop varieties to
combine desires characteristics (fast growth, high eating quality) and eliminate
undesired characteristics (forming disease and weed resistance for example)
The research the development of agricultural technologies can also be undertaken to
improve current technologies reduce the cost of the technology, improve
sustainability (reducing detrimental effects on environment) improve efficiencies
All in all, research for the development in technology is vital in:
- Improving efficiency of farm less human labour required
- Lowering costs and increasing yield for crops
- Creating a better organism with all the desired characteristics improves
marketability and sale of product
- Create a competitive edge for the farm
- Enhance sustainability and marketability for the product of the technology
-