Chapter 1 Overview of Menopause

changes of menopause may be similar to the way her

mother responded, although the evidence to support this
notion is limited.

Introduction

Lifestyle, demographic factors, and attitudes all influence

a womans perception of menopause.6 The menopause
experience is often perceived as merely the cessation
of menses. A woman may view the end of fertility as
liberation from the possibility of pregnancy, or she may
grieve for the children she never had. For women who
have had an unexpected early menopause, either natural
or induced, their experience may be more negative. The
level of menopause-related symptoms will also have an
influence. Some women will have troublesome symptoms,
whereas others may navigate the transition with few or
even no symptoms at all.7,8

enopause is a normal, natural event, defined as

the final menstrual period (FMP). It represents
the permanent cessation of menses resulting from loss
of ovarian follicular function, usually due to aging.
Menopause can occur naturally (spontaneously)
on average around age 51or be induced through a
medical intervention (surgery, chemotherapy, or pelvic
radiation therapy).1,2

Aging is the natural progression of changes in structure

and function that occur with the passage of time in
the absence of known disease. Aging of the female
reproductive system begins at 20 weeks gestation with
regard to follicle atresia and proceeds as a continuum.
It consists of a steady loss of oocytes from atresia or
ovulation, and does not necessarily occur at a constant
rate. Because of the relatively wide age range (40-58 y) for
natural menopause, chronologic age is a poor indicator of
the beginning or the end of the menopause transition.3
Menopause affects every woman (if she is fortunate
enough to survive to middle adulthood). And, as the
large baby-boom generation reaches midlife and
beyond, an unprecedented number of women are now
postmenopausal. An estimated 6,000 US women reach
menopause every day (over 2 million per year). In addition,
more women are living beyond age 65. A womans life
expectancy in the Western world is estimated at 79.7
years. Today, a woman who reaches age 54 can expect to
reach age 84.3. About two thirds of the total US population
is expected to survive to age 85 or longer.4,5
During the transition from the reproductive years
through menopause and beyond, a woman experiences
many physical changes, most of which are normal
consequences of both menopause and aging. Some of
the physical changes observed around menopause may
be signs of illness that develop during midlife, such as
diabetes mellitus. Sometimes, health problems arise
when changing hormone levels and the physical effects
of aging are coupled with an individuals genetic makeup,
certain unhealthy lifestyles, and other stresses of midlife.
Survey research does not verify the concept of a midlife
crisis as universal or even widely present in the general
population. However, women in midlife may fear aging
for a variety of reasons, some of which are universal,
some peculiar to their culture, and the rest reflecting
their personal and family circumstances. Women at
midlife may be reacting to a multitude of changes that are
common at this time of life, such as financial, relationship,
and caregiving burdens, that can elicit fear and anxiety.
All women experience menopause, but each one does so
in a unique way. How a woman responds to the physical

Diverse social and cultural differences can also affect

a womans experience of menopause and her view of
menopause treatments, as well as her overall health and
well-being.7,9
Risk factors, patterns of disease and mortality, access
to health care, economic status, existing medical
therapies, and societal norms related to femininity
and aging all differ across groups of women. There is
very little research on how these differences affect the
experience of menopause. To date, menopause research
has focused mostly on middle-class Caucasian women.
Although different populations are now being studied,
considerable information is needed before many aspects
of menopause are better understood.10
In one study, 80% of women experiencing menopause
reported no decrease in quality of life (QOL), and 75%
of the women denied experiencing any loss in their
attractiveness. Most women (62%) reported positive
attitudes toward menopause itself.11 In another study,
most women viewed menopause as inconsequential,
and suggested that other events of midlife were more
important or stressful.12 A cohort of well-educated,
midlife women described the menopause transition
as a normal developmental event.13 Only about 10%
of peri- and postmenopausal women participating in
community-based studies reported feelings of despair,
irritability, or fatigue during the menopause transition.
The QOL and health status of a generally low-income and
poorly educated population of menopause-aged women
were examined in a cross-sectional study. 8 Women
who were employed and had attained higher levels of
education or income reported better overall health and
fewer menopausal symptoms. There were no significant
differences between ethnic groups with respect to either
menopausal QOL or health status. The surgical intervention of hysterectomy (with bilateral oophorectomy)
did not seem to be a factor in decreasing QOL. Compared

1.1

Chapter 1 Overview of Menopause continued

with women with an intact uterus, women who
underwent hysterectomy expressed more improvement,
especially in the areas of sexual relationships, spouse or
partner relationships, personal fulfillment, and physical
health. This improvement did not seem to be the result of
menopausal hormone therapy (HT).
Most US postmenopausal women (51%) surveyed in a 1998
NAMS-sponsored Gallup Poll reported being happiest
and most fulfilled between ages 50 and 65 compared with
when they were in their 20s (10%), 30s (17%), or 40s (16%).14
Many women reported improvement in various areas
of their lives since menopause. They reported a sense of
personal fulfillment, an ability to focus on hobbies or
other interests, and improved relationships with their
spouse or partner and with friends. Most (51%) said their
sexual relationships had remained unchanged. Lifestyle
behavioral changes were often initiated during this
midlife period.
Fortunately, menopause is now better understood and
more openly discussed than ever before. Menopause
can be viewed as a sentinel event that presents a unique
opportunity for women, working with their healthcare
providers, to evaluate personal health and improve
health practices. Collaboration between the woman
and her provider, characterized by mutual respect and
trust, is the goal of menopause counseling. Menopause
counseling can facilitate informed decision making and
validate the womans confidence in her decisions, and in
her ability to carry them out or modify them over time.15
Individualized screening and management approaches
are essential components of this collaboration.16,17

Figure 1. Stages of reproductive aging 1

1.2

Accurate information about physiologic changes,

management of menopause symptoms, and reducing
disease risk is essential. Although menopause is perhaps
the most obvious physical event, general knowledge
about the aging process is also needed. Additionally,
psychological support may be required for the many
psychosocial issues women encounter in midlife.
By considering a womans preferences, values, and
concerns, the menopause practitioner will enhance the
womans sense of well-being, not only around menopause
but for the rest of her life.
See Chapter 6 for more about counseling.

Terminology
Clinicians and researchers in the field of menopause
have long recognized the need for universally accepted
menopause terminology as well as a staging system useful
in categorizing the last 10 to 15 years of reproductive
aging. In 2001, the Stages of Reproductive Aging
Workshop (STRAW), sponsored by The North American
Menopause Society (NAMS), the National Institutes of
Health, the American Society for Reproductive Medicine,
and the National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development, addressed nomenclature and a staging
system1 (see Figure 1). (See Chapter 2 for more about
STRAW.)
Prev iously, t he Council of A f f iliated Menopause
Societies (CAMS), an international policy organ of
the International Menopause Society, had developed
sta nda rd i zed def i n it ions for menopause-related

events.18 Although STRAW redefined some terms, other

CAMS terms remain in use.
The reproductive aging continuum created by STRAW
is divided into seven stages: five precede and two
follow the FMP. STRAW points out, however, that not all
healthy women will follow this pattern; some will seesaw
between stages or skip a stage altogether. (See Chapter 2
for detailed menopause terminology.)
See Chapter 2 for more details about menopause & aging.
Menopause. The word menopause implies permanent
cessation of ovulation and menses. As defined by STRAW,
menopause (ie, spontaneous or natural menopause)
is recognized to have occurred after 12 months of
amenorrhea with no obvious pathologic cause. It reflects
a near-complete but natural diminution of ovarian
hormone secretion.1 There is no adequate independent
biological marker for menopause.
Premenopause. The term premenopause is used
ambiguously, usually to mean approaching menopause.
The literal meaning of the word implies the whole time
preceding menopause, that is, the time before the FMP.
CAMS recommends that this term encompass the entire
reproductive period up to the FMP. STRAW does not use
this term, but prefers classifying the reproductive stage
as early, peak, and late (with late being the time when
levels of follicle-stimulating hormone [FSH] increase).
Menopause transition. According to STR AW, the
term menopause transition refers to the span of
time when menstrual cycle and endocrine changes
occur, and is divided into stage 2 (early) through
stage 1 (late). The menopause transition begins
with variation in the length of the menstrual cycle
caused by a rise in levels of monotropic FSH and
ends with the FMP (which is recognized only after
12 consecutive months of amenorrhea). Women
experiencing induced menopause (see below) do not
experience this menopause transition.
Perimenopause. The term perimenopause is somewhat
confusing. According to STR AW, perimenopause is
defined as about or around menopause, beginning
with stage 2 (early transition) and ending 12 months
after the FMP (not with the FMP). NAMS prefers to use
the term interchangeably with menopause transition,
although there is a difference in the STRAW system.
STRAW suggests that perimenopause be used only
with patients or in the lay press; NAMS uses the term for
all audiences. It is a convenient way to refer to the highly
symptomatic years of the transition.1,16
Early menopause. Early menopause is a vague term often
used to describe natural or induced menopause that
occurs well before the average age of natural menopause

(age 51) before age 41 for example. Early menopause

encompasses premature menopause. See Chapter 3 for
more about premature menopause & primary ovarian
insufficiency.
Primary ovarian insufficiency. Although the term
premature ovarian failure has been used to describe
ovarian insufficiency leading to amenorrhea in women
younger than age 40, some authorities prefer the term
primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) because the condition
is not always complete or permanent ovarian failure.19 It
may be transient when caused by autoimmune disease
or chemotherapy; however, permanent loss of ovarian
function is often the eventual outcome. 20 (See Chapter 3
for more about premature menopause & primary ovarian
insufficiency.)
Premature menopause. Premature menopause should be
defined as any menopause that occurs at an age younger
than 2 SD below the mean estimated age for the reference
population. CAMS states that age 40 is frequently used as
an arbitrary cutoff point below which menopause is said
to be premature.21
Premature natural menopause refers to an early
menopause that was not induced. Several studies,
including SWAN, indicate that the percentage of US
women experiencing premature natural menopause is
approximately 1%. 22 Applying this 1% estimate to the
projected number of US women ages 15 to 44 in 2010
(~49 million), 23 approximately 490,000 US women will
experience premature natural menopause.
See Chapter 3 for more about premature menopause &
primary ovarian insufficiency.
Postmenopause. Postmenopause refers to the years after
the FMP resulting from natural (spontaneous) or
premature menopause. Nearly 40 million US women
are past the average age of natural menopause (51 y).
Although the US Census Bureau year 2000 report does not
provide the exact number of women over age 51, it does
report numbers for women age 55 and older, who can all
be assumed to be postmenopausal. An estimated 75% of
women ages 50 to 55 are assumed to be postmenopausal.
These estimates include women who may have had
induced or premature natural menopause earlier in life.
Among women ages 40 to 45, an estimated 5% have
experienced natural menopause, based primarily on
data from the Study of Womens Health Across the Nation
(SWAN). 22 For naturally postmenopausal women in the
next oldest category (ages 45-55), a rough estimate is 25%.
For a 1-year estimate of the number of women experiencing
natural menopause during 2002, the number of women
ages 50 to 55 was divided by 5 (approximately one fifth of
the group ages 50-55 turned age 51 in 2000).

1.3

Chapter 1 Overview of Menopause continued

Induced menopause. According to CAMS, the term
induced menopause is defined as the cessation of
menstruation that follows either surgical removal of both
ovaries (bilateral oophorectomy, with or without
hysterectomy) or iatrogenic ablation of ovarian function
(eg, by chemotherapy or pelvic radiation therapy).
Bilateral oophorectomy is the most common cause of
induced menopause. (See Chapter 3 for more about
premature menopause & primary ovarian insuffiency.)
Annual numbers for hysterectomy came from the
2006 National Hospital Discharge Survey;24,25 bilateral
oophorectomy data for women ages 15 to 44 and 45 to
64 were also available. In order to isolate statistics for
women under 50 with surgical menopause, the data for
women ages 15 to 44 were added to a quarter of the data
for women ages 45 to 64 to provide an estimate of 197,750
women who experienced surgical menopause in 2006.
See Chapter 3 for more about premature menopause &
primary ovarian insuffiency.
Climacteric. STRAW suggests that the term climacteric
be used interchangeably with perimenopause. However,
CAMS defines climacteric as the age-related transition
in women from the reproductive to the nonreproductive
state. It is a process rather than a specific point in
time. According to CAMS, the climacteric for women is
sometimes, but not necessarily always, associated with
symptomatology. When symptoms occur, they may be
termed the climacteric syndrome.1,18
STRAW has suggested that the term climacteric not
be used in scientific papers. Global consensus on this
terminology has not been achieved.

Demographics
Exact figures on the number of postmenopausal women
and the number reaching menopause each year are not
known.
United States. In 2000, there were an estimated 45.6
million postmenopausal women in the United States.
About 40 million of them were older than age 51, the
average age of natural menopause in the Western world.
By the year 2020, the number of US women older than age
51 is expected to be more than 50 million.5
Canada. Canadian statistics also demonstrate an
increase in life expectancy for midlife women. 26 In 1922,
a 50-year-old woman lived until age 75 on average. Today,
a woman the same age can expect to live until her mid80s. Thus, Canadian women are living at least one third
of their lives after menopause. By 2026, it is estimated
that almost one quarter (22%) of the Canadian population
will be composed of women older than age 50.

1.4

Worldwide. In 1998, there were more than 477 million

postmenopausal women in the world, and approximately
9% were expected to live to age 80. By 2025, the number of
postmenopausal women is expected to rise to 1.1 billion.
Life expectancy for women worldwide was 65 years in
1998 (79 y in more developed countries). This is expected
to rise to 72 years worldwide by 2025 (82 y in developed
countries).
Contributed by: JoAnn E. Manson, MD, DrPH

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1.5