Five Models of Staff Development

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Five Models of Staff Development

By Dennis Sparks and Susan Loucks-Horsley
Journal of Staff Development, Fall 1989 (Vol. 10, No. 4)
Copyright, National Staff Development Council, 1989. All rights
reserved.
In the early 1970s, a growing concern about the effectiveness of
inservice education resulted in a spate of studies to determine the
attitudes of educators about these programs (Ainsworth. 1976; Brim
& Tollett, 1974; Joyce & Peck, 1977; Zigarmi, Betz, & Jensen, 1977).
The findings indicated nearly unanimous dissatisfaction with current
efforts, but a strong consensus that inservice was critical if school
programs and practices were to be improved (Wood & Kleine, 1987).
During the late 1970s and early 1980s, several major studies and
reviews contributed to our understanding of the characteristics of
effective staff development, focusing not on attitudes, but on actual
practices (Berman & McLaughlin, 1978; Kells, 1980; Lawrence, 1974;
Yarger, Howey, & Joyce, 1980). The resulting list of effective
practices, well known by now, included:
Programs conducted in school settings and linked to
schoolwide efforts;
Teachers participating as helpers to each other and as
planners, with administrators, of inservice activitie;
Emphasis on self instruction, with differentiated
training opportunities;
Teachers in active roles, choosing goals and activities
for themselves;
Emphasis on demonstration, supervised trials, and
feedback; training that is concrete and ongoing over
time; and
Ongoing assistance and support available on request
Staff development came of age in the 1980s. It was the focus of
countless conferences, workshops, articles, books, and research
reports. State legislators and administrators of local school districts
saw staff development as a key aspect of school improvement
efforts. Many school districts initiated extensive staff development
projects to improve student learning. Research on these projects
and craft knowledge generated by staff developers have
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substantially advanced our understanding of effective staff
development practices beyond the overview studies of the early
1980s referred to above.
Introduction
In spite of this recent intense, widespread interest in staff
development, much remains to be learned about the process. This
article organizes what is known about effective staff development
into five models currently being espoused and used by staff
developers. A review of the supporting theory and research on these
models is followed by a description of what is currently known about
the organizational context that is required to support successful
staff development efforts. The conclusion discusses what can be
said with confidence about effective staff development practice and
what remains to be learned. First, however are definitions of the key
terms and a description of the literature that is used throughout the
article.
Definitions
Staff development is defined as those processes that improve the
job-related knowledge, skills, or attitudes of school employees.
While participants in staff development activities may include school
board members, central office administrators, principals, and noncertified staff, this article focuses on staff development for teachers.
In particular, it examines what is known about staff development
that is intended to improve student learning through enhanced
teacher performance.
Two uses of the word "model" have been combined in an effort to
both conceptualize staff development and make this
conceptualization useful to staff developers. First, borrowing from
Ingvarsons (1987) use of the term, a model can be seen as a design
for learning which embodies a set of assumptions about (a) where
knowledge about teaching practice comes from, and (b) how
teachers acquire or extend their knowledge. Models chosen for
discussion differ in their assumptions. Second, adapting Joyce and
Wells (1972) definition of a model of teaching, a staff development
model is a pattern or plan which can be used to guide the design of
a staff development program.
Each staff development model presented below is discussed in
terms of its theoretical and research underpinnings, its critical
attributes (including its underlying assumptions and phases of
activities), and illustrations of its impact on teacher growth and
development. The literature supporting these models is of several
types. First, for each model, the theoretical and research bases that
support its use in improving teacher knowledge, skills, or attitudes
are considered. The question asked was: Why should one believe
that this model should affect teachers classroom behavior? Second,
program descriptions were reviewed in which these models were
applied. The question asked was: What evidence exists that
demonstrates that this model can be implemented by staff
developers in schools and school districts? Third, data about
outcomes was sought. The question asked was: What evidence
indicates that this model actually makes a difference in teacher
performance?
An Overview
This article presents five models of staff development: (a)
individually-guided staff development, (b) observation/assessment,
(c) involvement in a development/improvement process, (d)
training, and (e) inquiry.
Individually-guided staff development refers to a process through
which teachers plan for and pursue activities they believe will
promote their own learning. The observation/assessment model
provides teachers with objective data and feedback regarding their
classroom performance. This process may in itself produce growth
or it can provide information that may be used to select areas for
growth.
Involvement in a development/improvement process engages
teachers in developing curriculum, designing programs, or engaging
in a school improvement process to solve general or particular
problems. The inquiry model requires that teachers identify an area
of instructional interest, collect data, and make changes in their
instruction based on an interpretation of those data. The training
model (which may be synonymous with staff development in the
minds of many educators) involves teachers in acquiring knowledge
or skills through appropriate individual of group instruction.
Next, this article examines the organizational context that is
required to support these models. Our discussion includes
organizational climate, leadership and support, district policies and
systems, and participant involvement.
The final section looks for gaps in the knowledge base of staff
development, identifying areas about which there is still more to
learn and areas that as yet remain unexplored by researchers. The
hope is that this article and the chapter from which it is adapted will
serve as both a signpost for how far we have come in the past 20
years in our understanding of effective staff development practices
and a spring-board for future research in this vital area.
Five Models of Staff Development
1. Individually-Guided Staff Development
Teachers learn many things on their own. They read professional
publications, have discussions with colleagues, and experiment with
new instructional strategies, among other activities. All of these may
occur with or without the existence of a formal staff development
program.
It is possible, however, for staff development programs to actively
promote individually-guided activities. While the actual activities
may vary widely, the key characteristic of the individually-guided
staff development model is that the learning is designed by the
teacher. The teacher determines his or her own goals and selects
the activities that will result in the achievement of those goals.
Perhaps a sense of this model is best represented in an
advertisement for the Great Books Foundation which reads: "At 30,
50, or 70, you are more self-educable than you were at 20. Its time
to join a Great Books reading and discussion group."
Underlying assumptions.
This model assumes that individuals can best judge their own
learning needs and that they are capable of self direction and selfinitiated learning. It also assumes that adults learn most efficiently
when they initiate and plan their learning activities rather than
spending their time in activities that are less relevant than those
they would design. (It is, however, true that when individual
teachers design their own learning there is much "reinventing of the
wheel," which may seem inefficient to some observers.) The model
also holds that individuals will be most motivated when they select
their own learning goals based on their personal assessment of their
needs.
Theoretical and research underpinnings.
According to Lawrences (1974) review of 97 studies of inservice
programs, programs with individualized activities were more likely to
achieve their objectives than were those that provided identical
experiences for all participants. Theory supporting the individuallyguided model can be found in the work of a number of individuals.
Rogers (1969) client-centered therapy and views on education are
based on the premise that human beings will seek growth given the
appropriate conditions. "I have come to feel," Rogers wrote, "that
the only learning which significantly influences behavior is selfdiscovered, self-appropriated learning" (p. 153).
The differences in people and their needs are well represented in
the literature on adult learning theory, adult development, learning
styles, and the change process. Adult learning theorists (Kidd, 1973;
Knowles, 1980) believe that adults become increasingly self-directed
and that their readiness to learn is stimulated by real life tasks and
problems. Stage theorists (Levine, 1989) hold that individuals in
different stages of development have different personal and
professional needs. Consequently, staff development that provides
practical classroom management assistance to a 22-year-old
beginning teacher may be inappropriate for a teaching veteran who
is approaching retirement.
Learning styles researchers (Dunn & Dunn, 1978; Gregorc, 1979)
argue that individuals are different in the ways they perceive and
process information and in the manner in which they most
effectively learn (e.g., alone or with others, by doing as opposed to
hearing about). Research on the Concerns-Based Adoption Model
(CBAM) (Hall & Loucks, 1978) indicates that as individuals learn new
behaviors and change their practice, they experience different types
of concerns that require different types of responses from staff
developers. For instance, when first learning about a new
instructional technique, some teachers with personal concerns
require reassurance that they will not be immediately evaluated on
the use of the strategy, while a teacher with management concerns
wants to know how this technique can be used in the classroom.
Taken together, these theorists and researchers recognize that the
circumstances most suitable for one persons professional
development may be quite different from those that promote
another individuals growth. Consequently, individually-guided staff
development allows teachers to find answers to self-selected
professional problems using their preferred modes of learning.
Phases of activity
Individually-guided staff development consists of several phases: (a)
the identification of a need or interest, (b) the development of a
plan to meet the need or interest, (c) the learning activity(ies), and
(d) assessment of whether the learning meets the identified need or
interest. These phases might be undertaken informally and almost
unconsciously, or they may be part of a formal, structured process.
Each phase is explained in greater detail below.
With the identification of a need or interest, the teacher considers
what he or she needs to learn. This assessment may be done
formally (e.g., the completion of a needs assessment process of as a
result of evaluation by a supervisor) or occur more spontaneously
(e.g., a conversation with a colleague or reflection upon an
instructional problem). The need or interest may be remedial (e.g.,
"Ive really come to dislike my work because of the classroom
management problems Im having") or growth-oriented (e.g., "Im
intrigued by recent research on the brain and want to better
understand its implications for student learning").
Having identified the need or interest, the teacher selects a learning
objective and chooses activities that will lead to accomplishing this
objective. Activities may include workshop attendance, reading,
visits to another classroom or school, or initiation of a seminar or
similar learning program.
The learning activity may be single session (e.g., attendance at a
workshop on new approaches to reading in the content areas) or
occur over time (e.g., examination of the research on retaining
students in grade). Based on the individuals preferred mode of
learning, it may be done alone (e.g., reading or writing), with others
(e.g., a seminar that considers ways of boosting the self-esteem of
high school students), or as a combination of these activities.
When assessing formal individually-guided processes the teacher
may be asked to make a brief written report to the funding source or
an oral report to colleagues. In other instances the teacher may
simply be aware that he or she now better understands something.
It is not uncommon that as a result of this assessment phase the
teacher may realize how much more there is to be learned on the
topic or be led to a newly emerging need or interest.
Illustrations and outcomes.
Individually-guided staff development may take many forms. It may
be as simple as a teacher reading a journal article on a topic of
interest. Other forms of individually-guided staff development are
more complex. For instance, teachers may design and carry out
special professional projects supported by incentive grants such as a
competitive "teacher excellence fund" promoted by Boyer(1983) or
"mini-grants" described by Mosher (1981). Their projects may
involve research, curriculum development, or other learning
activities. While evidence of outcomes for such programs is not
substantial, there are indications that they can empower teachers to
address their own problems, create a sense of professionalism, and
provide intellectual stimulation (Loucks-Horsley, Harding, Arbuckle,
Dubea, Murray, & Williams, 1987). This strategy proved effective in
New York City and Houston, where teachers were supported to
develop and disseminate their own exemplary programs through
Impact II grants. They reported changes in their classroom practices,
as well as increases in student attendance, discipline, and
motivation (Mann, 1984-85).
Teacher evaluation and supervision can be a source of data for
individually guided staff development. McGreal (1983) advocates
that goal setting be the principal activity of teacher evaluation.
Supervisors would assist in the establishment of those goals based
on the motivation and ability of the teacher. The type of goals, the
activities teachers engage in to meet the goals, and the amount of
assistance provided by supervisors would differ from teacher to
teacher based upon developmental level, interests, concerns, and
instructional problems.
Similarly, Glatthorns (1984) "differentiated supervision" calls for
"self-directed development" as one form of assistance to teachers.
Self-directed development is a goal-based approach to professional
improvement in which teachers have access to a variety of
resources for meeting their collaboratively identified needs.
Research on teacher centers also demonstrates the value of
individually guided staff development. Hering and Howey (1982)
summarized research conducted on 15 teacher centers sponsored
by the Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and
Development from 1978 to 1982. They concluded that, "the most
important contribution of teachers centers is their emphasis on
working with individual teachers over time" (p. 2). Such a focus on
individual teachers is absent from many traditional staff
development programs, which teacher centers appear to
complement quite effectively.
Hering and Howey (1982) reported that mini-grants of up to $750
provided by the St. Louis Metropolitan Teacher Center were used to
fund a variety of classroom-oriented projects. Interviews with
participants found that teachers made extensive use of the ideas
and products they developed. Some of these projects eventually
affected not only an individual classroom, but a school or the entire
district. Regarding this project, Hering and Howey concluded:
As would be expected, teachers who were given money
and support reported high levels of satisfaction and a
sense of accomplishment. Also not surprisingly, they
developed projects anchored in the realities of the
classroom and responsive to the needs and interests of
their students. Perhaps most important, however, is the
strong suggestion that they can, indeed, influence
change and innovation in other classrooms, as well as
their own, through projects they design at minimal
costs. (p. 6)
Hering and Howey (1982) also report the findings for a study done
on individualized services provided at the Northwest Staff
Development Center in Livonia, Michigan. Even though these
awards rarely exceeded $50, 78 percent of the recipients reported
that they had considerable control over their own learning and
professional development. Almost 85 percent of the recipients
thought that these services made a substantive difference in their
classrooms. In summarizing the value of individualized services, the
researchers wrote, "Individual teacher needs and concerns have to
be attended to, as well as schoolwide collective ones, or enthusiasm
for the collective approach will quickly wane" (p. 6)
While there are many illustrations of an individualized approach to
staff development in the literature and many more in practice,
research on its impact on teaching is largely perceptual and selfreport. Perhaps as more resources are directed to supporting this
strategyparticularly in the form of incentive grants to teachers
more will be learned about its contribution to teacher, as well as
student, growth.
The circumstances most suitable for one persons professional
development may be quite different from those that promote
another individuals growth. Consequently, individually-guided staff
development allows teachers to find answers to self-selected
professional problems using their preferred modes of learning.
2. Observation/Assessment
"Feedback is the breakfast of champions" is the theme of Blanchard
and Johnsons (1982) popular management book, The One Minute
Manager. Yet many teachers receive little or no feedback on their
classroom performance. In fact, in some school districts teachers
may be observed by a supervisor as little as once every 3 years, and
that observation/feedback cycle may be perfunctory in nature.
While observation/assessment can be a powerful staff development
model, in the minds of many teachers it is associated with
evaluation. Because this process often has not been perceived as
helpful (Wise & Darling-Hammond, 1985), teachers frequently have
difficulty understanding the value of this staff development model.
However, once they have had an opportunity to learn about the
many forms this model can take (for instance, peer coaching and
clinical supervision, as well as teacher evaluation), it may become
more widely practiced.
One assumption underlying this model, according to Loucks-Horsley
and her associates (1987), is that "Reflection and analysis are
central means of professional growth" (p. 61). Observation and
assessment of instruction provide the teacher with data that can be
reflected upon and analyzed for the purpose of improving student
learning.
A second assumption is that reflection by an individual on his or her
own practice can be enhanced by anothers observations. Since
teaching is an isolated profession, typically taking place in the
presence of no other adults, teachers are not able to benefit from
the observations of others. Having "another set of eyes" gives a
teacher a different view of how he or she is performing with
students.
Another assumption is that observation and assessment of
classroom teaching can benefit both involved parties the teacher
being observed and the observer. The teacher benefits by anothers
view of his or her behavior and by receiving helpful feedback from a
colleague. The observer benefits by watching a colleague, preparing
the feedback, and discussing the common experience.
A final assumption is that when teachers see positive results from
their efforts to change, they are more apt to continue to engage in
improvement. Because this model may involve multiple
observations and conferences spread over time, it can help teachers
see that change is possible. As they apply new strategies, they can
see changes both in their own and their students behavior. In some
instances, measurable improvements in student learning will also be
observed.
Theoretical and research support for the observation/assessment
model can be found in the literature on teacher evaluation, clinical
supervision, and peer coaching. Each of these approaches is based
on the premise that teaching can be objectively observed and
analyzed and that improvement can result from feedback on that
performance.
McGreals (1982) work on teacher evaluation suggests a key role for
classroom observation, but expresses a major concern about
reliability of observations. The author points to two primary ways to
increase the reliability of classroom observations. The first is to
narrow the range of what is looked for by having a system that takes
a narrowed focus on teaching (for instance, an observation system
based on the Madeline Hunter approach to instruction), or by using
an observation guide or focusing instrument. The second way is to
use a pre-conference to increase the kind and amount of information
the observer has prior to the observation. Glatthorn(1984)
recommends that clinical supervisors (or coaches) alternate
unfocused observations with focused observations. In unfocused
observation the observer usually takes verbatim notes on all
significant behavior. These data are used to identify some strengths
and potential problems that are discussed in a problem-solving
feedback conference. A focus is then determined for the next
observation during which the observer gathers data related to the
identified problem.
Glickman (1986) suggests that the type of feedback provided
teachers should be based on their cognitive levels. Teachers with a
"low abstract" cognitive style should receive directive conferences
(problem identification and solution come primarily form the coach
or supervisor) "moderate-abstract teachers should receive
collaborative conferences (an exchange of perceptions about
problems and a negotiated solution); and "high- abstract" teachers
should receive a nondirective approach (the coach or supervisor
helps the teacher clarify problems and choose a course of action).
Peer coaching is a form of the observation/assessment model that
promotes transfer of learning to the classroom (Joyce & Showers,
1982). In peer observation, teachers visit one anothers classrooms,
gather objective data about student performance or teacher
behavior, and give feedback in a follow-up conference. According to
Joyce and Showers (1983):
Relatively few persons, having mastered a new teaching
skill, will then transfer that skill into their active
repertoire. In fact, few will use it at all. Continuous
practice, feedback, and the companionship of coaches is
essential to enable even highly motivated persons to
bring additions to their repertoire under effective
control. (p. 4)
Joyce (Brandt, 1987) says that up to 30 trials may be required to
bring a new teaching strategy under "executive control." Similarly,
Shalaway (1985) found that 10 to 15 coaching sessions may be
necessary for teachers to use what they have learned in their
classrooms.
Phases of activity.
The observation/assessment modelwhether implemented through
evaluation, clinical supervision, or peer coachingusually includes a
pre-observation conference, observation, analysis of data, postobservation conference, and (in some instances) an analysis of the
observation/assessment process (Loucks-Horsley et al.,1987). in the
pre-observation conference, a focus for the observation is
determined, observation methods selected, and any special
problems noted.
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During the observation, data are collected using the processes
agreed upon in the pre-observation conference. The observation
may be focused on the students or on the teacher, and can be
global in nature or narrowly focused. Patterns found during
instruction may become evident. Hunter (1982) recommends three
points of analysis: (a) behaviors that contribute to learning, (b)
behaviors that interfere with learning, and (c) behaviors that neither
contribute nor interfere, but use time and energy that could be
better spent.
In the post-observation conference both the teacher and observer
reflect on the lesson and the observer shares the data collected.
Strengths are typically acknowledged and areas for improvement
suggested (by either the teacher or observer, depending upon the
goals established in the pre-observation conference). An analysis of
the supervisory (or coaching) process itself, while not necessarily a
part of all forms of this model, provides participants with an
opportunity to reflect on the value of the observation/assessment
process and to discuss modifications that might be made in future
cycles.
Acheson and Gall (1980) report a number of studies in which the
clinical supervision model has been accepted by teachers when they
and their supervisors are taught systematic observation techniques.
They further note that this process is viewed as productive by
teachers when the supervisor uses "indirect" behaviors (e.g.,
accepting feelings and ideas, giving praise and encouragement,
asking questions). While the authors report that trained supervisors
helped teachers make improvements in a number of instructional
behaviors, they were unable to find any studies that demonstrated
student effects.
The most intensive and extensive studies of the impact of
observational/assessment on learning comes from the work of
Showers and Joyce. Discussed in more detail in the training section,
these authors and their associates have found that powerful
improvements have been made to student learning when the
training of teachers in effective instructional practices is followed by
observations and coaching in their classrooms (Joyce & Showers,
1988).
The research, then, provides reason to believe that teacher
behaviors can be positively influenced by the use of an
observation/assessment model of staff development.
In a study that contrasted different sources of coaching, Sparks
(1986) contrasted a workshop-only approach with peer coaching
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and with consultant coaching. Her findings indicated that peer
coaching was most powerful in improving classroom performance.
The research, then, provides reason to believe that teacher
behaviors can be positively influenced by the use of an
observation/assessment model of staff development. It still remains
to be learned, however, whether this model must be combined with
particular kinds of training if student learning is to be enhanced.
3. Involvement in a Development/Improvement Process
Teachers are sometimes asked to develop or adapt curriculum,
design programs, or engage in systematic school improvement
processes that have as their goal the improvement of classroom
instruction and/or curriculum. Typically these projects are initiated to
solve a problem. Their successful completion may require that
teachers acquire specific knowledge or skills (e.g., curriculum
planning, research on effective teaching, group problem-solving
strategies). This learning could be acquired through reading,
discussion, observation, training, and/or trial and error. In other
instances, the process of developing a product itself may cause
significant learnings (e.g., through experiential learning), some of
which may have been difficult or impossible to predict in advance.
This model focuses on the combination of learnings that result from
the involvement of teachers in such development/improvement
processes.
One assumption on which this model is based is that adults learn
most effectively when they have a need to know or a problem to
solve (Knowles, 1980). Serving on a school improvement committee
may require that teachers read the research on effective teaching
and that they learn new group and interpersonal skills. Curriculum
development may demand new content knowledge of teachers. In
each instance, teachers learning is driven by the demands of
problem solving.
Another assumption of this model is that people working closest to
the job best understand what is required to improve their
performance. Their teaching experiences guide teachers as they
frame problems and develop solutions. Given appropriate
opportunities, teachers can effectively bring their unique
perspectives to the tasks of improving teaching and their schools.
A final assumption is that teachers acquire important knowledge or
skills through their involvement in school improvement or
curriculum development processes. Such involvement may cause
alterations in attitudes or the acquisition of skills as individuals or
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groups work toward the solution of a common problem. For instance,
teachers may become more aware of the perspectives of others,
more appreciative of individual differences, more skilled in group
leadership, and better able to solve problems. While the learnings
may be unpredictable in advance, they are often regarded as
important by teachers.
Teachers acquire important knowledge or skills through their
involvement in school improvement or curriculum development
processes, Such involvement may cause alterations in attitudes or
the acquisition of skills as individuals or groups work toward the
solution of a common problem.
We have chosen to represent curriculum development and school
improvement as types of staff development; involvement in these
processes nurtures teachers growth. Others see staff development
(perhaps viewed more narrowly as training) as a key component of
effective curriculum development and implementation. As Joyce and
Showers (1988) write, "It has been well established that curriculum
implementation is demanding of staff development essentially,
without strong staff development programs that are appropriately
designed a very low level of implementation occurs" (p. 44).
Whichever perspective one has, staff development and the
improvement of schools and curriculum go hand in hand. Glickman
(1986), who argues that the aim of staff development should be to
improve teachers ability to think, views curriculum development as
a key aspect of this process. He believes that the intellectual
engagement required in curriculum development demands that
teachers not only know their content, but that they must also
acquire curriculum planning skills. He recommends that curriculum
development be conducted in heterogeneous groups composed of
teachers of low, medium, and high abstract reasoning abilities.
Accord- according to Glickman, the complexity of the curriculum
development task should be matched to the abstract reasoning
ability of the majority of teachers in the group.
Glatthorn (1987) describes three ways in which teachers can modify
a districts curriculum guide. They may operationalize the districts
curriculum guide by taking its lists of objectives and recommended
teaching methods and turning them into a set of usable instructional
guides. Or they may adapt the guide to students special needs
(e.g., remediation, learning style differences, etc.). Finally, teachers
may enhance the guide by developing optional enrichment units.
Glatthorn recommends that these activities be done in groups,
believing that, in doing so, teachers will become more cohesive and
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will share ideas about teaching and learning in general, as well as
on the development task at hand.
The involvement of teachers in school improvement processes,
while similar in its assumptions and process to curriculum
development, finds its research and theory base in other sources.
General approaches to school improvement come from the literature
on change and innovation. For example, Loucks-Horsley and Hergert
(1985) describe seven action steps in a school improvement process
that are based in research on implementation of new practices in
schools (Crandall & Loucks, 1983; Hall & Loucks, 1978; Louis &
Rosenblum, 1981). The research on effective schools underpins
other approaches to school improvement (Cohen, 1981). Finally, an
approach to school improvement through staff development
developed by Wood and his associates was derived from an analysis
of effective staff development practices as represented in the
research and in reports from educational practitioners (Thompson,
1982; Wood, 1989). The result is a five-stage RPTIM model
(Readiness, Planning, Training, Implementation, and Maintenance)
used widely in designing and implementing staff development
efforts (Wood, Thompson, & Russell, 1981). As a result of
involvement in such improvement efforts, schools (and the teachers
within them) may develop new curriculum, change reporting
procedures to parents, enhance communication within the faculty,
and improve instruction, among many other topics.
Phases of activity.
This model begins with die identification of a problem or need by an
individual, a group of teachers (e.g., a grade-level team or a
secondary department), a school faculty, or a district administrator.
The need may be identified informally through discussion or a
growing sense of dissatisfaction, through a more formal process
such as brainstorming or the use of a standardized instrument (such
as a school improvement survey or needs assessment), or through
examination of student achievement or program evaluation data.
After a need has been identified, a response is formulated. This
response may be determined informally or formally. In some cases,
the necessary action may become immediately evident (e.g., the
need for new lunchroom rules). At other times, teachers may need
to brainstorm or search out alternatives, weigh them against a set of
predetermined criteria, develop an action plan, and determine
evaluation procedures. This process may take several sessions to
complete and require consultation with a larger group (e.g., the
schoolwide staff development committee may receive feedback on
the tentative plan from the entire faculty).
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Typically, it becomes evident during this phase that specific
knowledge or skills may be required to implement the plan. For
instance, the faculty may decide that it wants to study several
discipline systems before implementing the new lunchroom
management system. The improvement of students higher-order
thinking may involve the selection of new textbooks, requiring that
committee members better understand which features to look for in
a textbook to support this goal. The development or selection of a
new elementary science curriculum may require study of the latest
research on science teaching and the examination of other curricula.
At this point the plan is implemented or the product developed. This
process may take several days, several months, or several years. As
a final step, the success of the program is assessed. If teachers are
not satisfied with the results, they may return to an earlier phase
(e.g., acquisition of knowledge or skills) and repeat the process.
While teachers have long been involved in curriculum slum
development, little research on the impact of these experiences on
their professional development has been conducted. The research
that has been done has assessed the impact of such involvement on
areas other than professional development (for example, job
satisfaction, costs, and commitment to the organization) (Kimpston
& Rogers, 1987). Similarly, although the engagement of teachers in
school improvement processes has increased in the last few years,
little research has been conducted on the effects of that
involvement on their professional development. There are, however
numerous examples that illustrate the various ways schools and
districts have enhanced teacher growth by engaging them in the
development/improvement process.
In the past few years, many state education agencies have
supported implementation of state-initiated reforms through the
encouragement (and sometimes mandating) of school improvement
processes. For example, the Franklin County (Ohio) Department of
Education used a staff development process to assist five school
districts to meet mandated state goals (Scholl & McQueen, 1985).
Teachers and administrators from the districts learned about the
state requirements and developed goals and planning strategies for
their districts. A major product of the program was a manual that
included a synthesis of information and worksheets that could be
used to guide small group activities in the five districts.
School districts have also initiated programs which involved
teachers in improvement planning. In the Hammond (Indiana) Public
Schools, decision making is school based (Casner-Lotto, 1988).
School improvement committees (each composed of 15-20
15
members, including teachers, administrators, parents, students, and
community members) received training in consensus building,
brainstorming, creative problem solving, and group dynamics. After
this training, each committee develops a "vision of excellence" for
its school. As a result, schools have initiated projects in
individualized learning, peer evaluation, cross-grade-level reading,
and teacher coaching/mentoring.
Sparks, Nowakowski. Hall, Alec, and Imrick (1985) reported on two
elementary school improvement projects that led to large gains on
state reading tests. The first schools staff decided to review the
reading curriculum and to investigate alternative instructional
approaches. Teachers task-analyzed the six lowest-scoring
objectives on the state test, studied effective instructional
techniques, and participated in self- selected professional growth
activities. In I2 years the number of students who scored above the
average rose from 72 percent to 100 percent. In the second school,
teachers adopted a new reading series, revised the kindergarten
program, and created a booklet that included practice test items
and effective instructional practices for improving student
achievement. The percentage of students achieving the reading
objectives increased almost 20 percent in three years.
The Jefferson County (Colorado) School District has long involved
teachers in curriculum development and adaptation (Jefferson
County Public Schools, 1974). A cyclical process of needs
assessment curriculum objective statements, curriculum writing,
pilot testing and evaluation and district-wide implementation has
been used on a regular basis in the major intent areas. Teachers
involved in writing and pilot test teams hone their skills as
curriculum planners and developers and as masters of the new
techniques that are incorporated into the curriculum (these have
included such strategies as cooperative learning and individualized
instruction). They also often take on the role of teacher trainers for
the district-wide implementation that follows pilot and field tests
(Loucks & Pratt, 1979).
E.J. Wilson High School in Spencerport (New York) is one of many
across the country that has implemented elements of effective
schools through a systematic school improvement process. Teachers
in the school participate with building administrators on a Building
Planning - committee which spearheads the achievement of "ideal
practices" within the school through a seven-step process that
engages the entire faculty in assessment, planning, implementation,
and evaluation. As a result, the school climate and student
achievement have improved, as have the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes of the teachers involved. This schools outcome is
representative of other schools that have implemented similar
improvement processes (Kyle, 1985).
16
These state, school, and district-level efforts illustrate the wide
variety of ways in which this model of staff development is being
used. While the research and evaluation evidence regarding the
impact of these processes on teacher knowledge and skills is not
substantial, research does support many of the ingredients
contained within these processes. These include commitment to the
process by school and building administrators, which includes giving
authority and resources to the team to pursue and then implement
its agenda; development of knowledge and skills on the part of the
teacher participants; adequate, quality time to meet, reflect, and
develop; adequate resources to purchase materials, visit other sites,
hire consultants to contribute to informed decision making;
leadership that provides a vision, direction and guidance, but allows
for significant decision making on the part of the teacher
participants; and integration of the effort into other improvement
efforts and into other structures that influence teaching and learning
in the school (Loucks-Horsley et al., 1987). When these factors are
present, a limited amount of research data and a great deal of selfreport data indicate clearly that the desired outcomes of staff
development are achieved.
4. Training.
In the minds of many educators, training is synonymous with staff
development. Most teachers are accustomed to attending workshoptype sessions in which the presenter is the expert who establishes
the content and flow of activities. Typically the training session is
conducted with a clear set of objectives or learner outcomes. These
outcomes frequently include awareness or knowledge (e.g.,
participants will be able to explain the five principles of cooperative
learning) and skill development (e.g., participants will demonstrate
the appropriate use of open-ended questions in a class discussion).
Joyce and Showers (1988) cite changes in attitudes, transfer of
training, and "executive control" (the appropriate and consistent use
of new strategies in the classroom) as additional outcomes. It is the
trainers role to select activities (e.g., lecture, demonstration, roleplaying, simulation, micro-teaching) that will aid teachers in
achieving the desired outcomes.
Whatever the anticipated outcomes, the improvement of teachers
thinking is an important goal. According to Showers, Joyce, and
Bennett (1987):
. . . the purpose of providing training in any practice is
not simply to generate the external visible teaching
"moves" that bring that practice to bear in the
instructional setting but to generate the conditions that
enable the practice to be selected and used
appropriately and integratively. . . . a major, perhaps the
17
major, dimension of teaching skill is cognitive in nature.
(pp. 85-86)
An assumption that undergirds the training model of staff
development is that there are behaviors and techniques that are
worthy of replication by teachers in the classroom. This assumption
can certainly be supported by the large number of research-based
effective teaching practices that have been identified and verified in
the past 20 years (Sparks. 1983).
Another assumption underlying this model is that teachers can
change their behaviors and learn to replicate behaviors in their
classroom that were not previously in their repertoire. As Joyce and
Showers (1983) point out, training is a powerful process for
enhancing knowledge and skills. "It is plain from the research on
training," they say, "that teachers can be wonderful learners. They
can master just about any kind of teaching strategy or implement
almost any technique as long as adequate training is provided" (p.
2).
Because of a high participant-to-trainer ratio, training is usually a
cost-efficient means for teachers to acquire knowledge or skills.
Many instructional skills require that teachers view a demonstration
of their use to fully understand their implementation. Likewise,
certain instructional techniques require for their classroom
implementation that teachers have an opportunity to practice them
with feedback from a skilled observer. Training may be the most
efficient means for large numbers of teachers to view these
demonstrations and to receive feedback as they practice.
The theoretical and research underpinnings for the training model
come from several sources, but the most recent and intensive
research has been conducted by Joyce and Showers (1988). They
have determined that, depending upon the desired outcomes,
training might include exploration of theory, demonstration or
modeling of a skill, practice of the skill under simulated conditions,
feedback about performance, and coaching in the workplace. Their
research indicates that this combination of components is necessary
if the outcome is skill development.
In addition to those components identified by Joyce and Showers,
Sparks (1983) cites the importance of discussion and peer
observation as training activities. She notes that discussion is useful
18
both when new concepts or techniques are presented and as a
problem-solving tool after teachers have had an opportunity to try
out new strategies in their classrooms. Training sessions that are
spaced 1 or more weeks apart so that content can be "chunked" for
improved comprehension and so that teachers have opportunities
for classroom practice and peer coaching are shown to be more
effective than "one-shot" training (Loucks-Horsley et al., 1987;
Sparks. 1983).
Sparks (1983), Wu (1987), and Wood and Kleine (1987) point out the
value of teachers as trainers of their peers. Sparks indicates that
teachers may learn as much from their peers as from "expert"
trainers. She also argues that school districts can afford the type of
small-group training that she recommends when peers are used
rather than more expensive external consultants. In reviewing the
research, Wood and Kleine found that teachers preferred their peers
as trainers. Wus review of the research also confirmed this, finding
that when their peers are trainers, teachers feel more comfortable
exchanging ideas, play a more active role in workshops, and report
that they receive more practical suggestions. There is, however,
evidence that indicates that expert trainers who have the critical
qualities teachers value in their peers (e.g., a clear understanding of
how a new practice works with real students in real classroom
settings) can also be highly effective (Crandall, 1983).
Phases of activities.
According to Joyce and Showers (1988), "Someone has to decide
what will be the substance of the training, who will provide training,
when and where the training will be held and for what duration" (p.
69). While training content, objectives, and schedules are often
determined by administrators or by the trainer, Wood, McQuarrie,
and Thompsons (1982) research-based model advocates involving
participants in planning training programs. Participants serve on
planning teams which assess needs (using appropriate sources of
data), explore various research-based approaches, select content,
determine goals and objectives, schedule training sessions, and
monitor implementation of the program.
Joyce and Showers (1988) point out that there are specific "learningto-learn attitudes and skills that teachers possess of can develop
that aid the training process. They cite persistence,
acknowledgment of the transfer problem (the need for considerable
practice of new skills in the classroom), teaching new behaviors to
students, meeting the cognitive demands of innovations (developing
a "deep understanding" of new practices), the productive use of
peers, and flexibility. The authors list several conditions of training
sessions that foster these aptitudes and behaviors: adequate
training, opportunities for collegial problem solving, norms that
19
encourage experimentation, and organizational structures that
support learning. Sparks (1983) review of staff development
research suggests that a diagnostic process (such as detailed
profiles of teaching behaviors based upon classroom observations)
may be an important first step in the training process.
After training, in-classroom assistance in the form of peer
observation and coaching is critical to the transfer of more complex
teaching skills (Joyce & Showers, 1988). The process of data
gathering and analysis that accompanies most forms of peer
observation is valuable to the observer as well as the observed
teacher (Brandt, 1987; Sparks, 1986). A more thorough discussion of
this topic can be found in the observation/assessment model
described earlier in this article.
The power of training to alter teachers knowledge, attitudes, and
instructional skills is well established. Its impact on teachers,
however, depends upon its objectives and the quality of the training
program. Joyce and Showers (1988) have determined that when all
training components are present (theory, demonstration, practice,
feedback, and coaching), an effect size of 2.71 exists for knowledgelevel objectives, 1.25 for skill- level objectives, and 1.68 for transfer
of training to the classroom. (The effect size describes the
magnitude of gains from any given change in educational practice;
the higher the effect size, the greater the magnitude of gain. For
instance, an effect size of 1.0 indicates that the average teacher in
the experimental group outperformed 84% of the teachers in the
control group.) "We have concluded from these data," Joyce and
Showers(1988) report, "that teachers can acquire new knowledge
and skill and use it in their instructional practice when provided with
adequate opportunities to learn" (p. 72). Coaching and peer
observation research cited earlier in the observation/assessment
model also supports the efficacy of training.
Wade (1985) found in her meta-analysis of inservice teacher
education research that training affected participants learning by
an effect size of 90 and their behavior by 60. An effect size of .37
was found for the impact of teacher training on student behavior.
Wade also concluded that training groups composed of both
elementary and secondary teachers achieved higher effect sizes
than did those enrolling only elementary or only secondary
teachers.
Gage (1984) traces the evolution of research on teaching from
observational and descriptive studies to correlational studies to nine
experiments that were designed to alter instructional practices. "The
main conclusion of this body of research," Gage wrote, "is that, in
20
eight out of the nine cases, inservice education was fairly effective
not with all teachers and not with all teaching practices but effective
enough to change teachers and improve student achievement, or
attitudes, or behavior" (p. 92).
Numerous specific illustrations of training programs are available
that have demonstrated impact on teacher behavior and/or student
learning. For instance, studies indicate that teachers who have been
taught cooperative learning strategies for their classrooms have
students who have higher achievement, display higher reasoning
and greater critical thinking, have more positive attitudes toward
the subject area, and like their fellow students better (Johnson,
Johnson, Holubec, & Roy, 1984).
Good and Grouws (1987) describe a mathematics staff development
program for elementary teachers. In this I0-session program
teachers learned more about mathematics content and about
instructional and management issues. As a result of the training, the
researchers found changes in teachers classroom practice and
improved mathematics presentations. Student mathematics
performance was also improved.
Kerman (1979) reports a three-year study in which several hundred
K-12 teachers were trained to improve their interactions with low
achieving students. The five-session training program included peer
observation in the month interval between each session. The
researchers found that low achieving students in experimental class
made significant academic gains over their counterparts in control
groups.
Rauth (1986) describes an American Federation of Teachers training
program that brought research on teaching to its members. Teacher
Research Linkers (TRLs) first determine which aspects of the
research will be most valuable in their teaching. Between sessions
they carry out implementation plans in their own classrooms. TRLs
are then taught how to effectively share this research with their
colleagues. A study of this program indicated that teachers made
significant changes in their practice and that, in addition, their
morale and collegiality increased dramatically.
Robbins and Wolfe (1987) discuss a four-year staff development
project designed to increase elementary students engaged time
and achievement. Evaluation of the training program documented
steady improvement for three years in teachers instructional skills,
student engaged time, and student achievement in reading and
math. While scores in all these areas dropped in the projects fourth
and final year, Robbins and Wolfe argue that this decline was due to
insufficient coaching and peer observation during that year.
21
As the preceding discussion indicates, there is a much more
substantial research literature on training than on the models
presented earlier. Under the appropriate conditions, training has the
potential for significantly changing teachers beliefs, knowledge,
behavior, and the performance of their students.
5. Inquiry
Teacher inquiry can take different forms. A high school teacher
wonders if an alteration in her lesson plan from her first period class
will produce improved student understanding in second period. A
brief written quiz given at the end of the class indicates that it did. A
group of teachers gathers weekly after school for an hour or two at
the teacher center to examine the research on ability grouping.
Their findings will be shared with the districts curriculum council.
Several elementary teachers study basic classroom research
techniques, formulate research questions, gather and analyze data,
and use their findings to improve instruction in their classrooms.
Teacher inquiry may be a solitary activity, be done in small groups,
or be conducted by a school faculty. Its process may be formal or
informal. It may occur in a classroom, at a teacher center, or result
from a university class. In this section teacher inquiry is explored as
a staff development model.
One of the important tenets of the inquiry approach is that research
is an important activity in which teachers should be engaged,
although they rarely participate in it other than as "subjects."
Inquiry reflects a basic belief in teachers ability to formulate valid
questions about their own practice and to pursue objective answers
to those questions. Loucks-Horsley and her associates (1987) list
three assumptions about a teacher inquiry approach to staff
development:
Teachers are intelligent, inquiring individuals with
legitimate expertise and important experience.
Teachers are inclined to search for data to answer
pressing questions and to reflect on the data to
formulate solutions.
Teachers will develop new understandings as they
formulate their own questions and collect their own data
to answer them.
The overarching assumption of the model is that:
22
"the most effective avenue for professional development
is cooperative study by teachers themselves into
problems and issues arising from their attempts to make
their practice consistent with their educational values. . .
. [The approach] aims to give greater control over what
is to count as valid educational knowledge to teachers.''
(Ingvarson. I987, pp. 15.17)
The call for inquiry-oriented teachers is not new. Dewey (1933)
wrote of the need for teachers to take "reflective action." Zeichner
(1983) cites more than 30 years of advocacy for "teachers as action
researchers," "teacher scholars," "teacher innovators," "selfmonitoring teachers," and "teachers as participant observers."
More recently, various forms of inquiry have been advocated by a
number of theorists and researchers. Tikunoff and Wards (1983)
model of interactive research and development promotes teacher
inquiry into the questions they are asking through close work with
researchers (who help with methodology) and staff developers (who
help them create ways of sharing their results with others).
Lieberman (1986) reports on a similar process in which teachers
serving on collaborative teams pursued answers to schoolwide
rather than classroom problems. Watts (1985) discusses the role of
collaborative research, classroom action research, and teacher
support groups in encouraging teacher inquiry. Simmons and Sparks
(1985) describe the use of action research to help teachers better
relate research on teaching to their unique classrooms.
Glickman (1986) advocates action research in the form of quality
circles, problem-solving groups, and school improvement projects as
means to develop teacher thought. Cross (1987) proposes
classroom research to help teachers evaluate the effectiveness of
their own teaching. Glatthorn (1987) discusses action research by
teams of teachers as a peer-centered option for promoting
professional growth. Loucks-Horsley and her colleagues (1987)
discuss teachers-as-researchers as a form of teacher development
that helps narrow the gap between research and practice. Sparks
and Simmons (1989) propose inquiry-oriented staff development as
a means to enhance teachers decision-making abilities.
Gable and Rogers (1987) "take the terror out of research" by
describing ways in which it can be used as a staff development tool.
They discuss both qualitative and quantitative methodology,
providing specific strategies that teachers can use in their
classrooms. They conclude by saying " . . the desire to and ability to
do research is an essential attribute of the professional teacher of
the '80s" (p. 695).
23
Phases of activity.
While the inquiry model of staff development can take many forms,
these forms have a number of elements in common. First,
individuals or a group of teachers identify a problem of interest.
Next, they explore ways of collecting data that may range from
examining existing theoretical and research literature to gathering
original classroom or school data. These data are then analyzed and
interpreted by an individual or the group. Finally, changes are made,
and new data are gathered and analyzed to determine the effects of
the intervention.
This process can be adapted to the unique needs of a particular
approach to inquiry. For instance, Hovda and Kyle (1984) provide a
10-step process for action research that progresses from identifying
interested participants, through sharing several study ideas, to
discussing findings, to considering having the study published or
presented.
Glatthorn (1987) describes a four-step process for action research.
Collaborative research teams (a) identify a problem, (b) decide upon
specific research questions to be investigated and methodology to
be used, (c) carry out the research design, and (d) use the research
to design an intervention to be implemented in the school.
Watts (1985) describes "reflective conversations" in which teachers
carefully observe and thoughtfully consider a particular child or
practice. Using a standard procedure, the group shares
observations, reviews previous records and information, summarizes
their findings, and makes recommendations. As a final step, the
group reviews the process to assess how well it went, looks for gaps,
and identifies ideas to repeat in future conversations.
Organizational support and/or technical assistance may be required
throughout the phases of an inquiry activity. Organizational support
may take the form of structures such as teacher centers or study
groups, or of resources such as released time or materials. Technical
assistance may involve training in research methodologies, datagathering techniques, and other processes that aid teachers in
making sense of their experiences.
The forms inquiry as a staff development model may take are
limited only by the imagination. Simmons and Sparks (1985)
describe a "Master of Arts in Classroom Teaching" degree designed
to help teachers meet their individually identified improvement
goals. Teachers in this program learn about educational research,
identify and analyze classroom problems, pursue topics of
24
professional interest, and improve their overall teaching ability. The
authors report evidence of change in participant knowledge (e.g.,
concerning effective teaching-learning), thinking (e.g., enhanced
problem-solving skills, increased cognitive complexity), and patterns
of communication and collegiality.
Watts (1985) presents a number of ways in which teachers act as
researchers. She discussed collaborative research in teacher centers
funded by the Teachers Center Exchange (then located at the Far
West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development) that
was conducted in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Fourteen projects
were funded in which teachers collaborated with researchers on
topics of interest to the individual teachers center. Watts also
described ethnographic studies of classrooms conducted
collaboratively by teachers and researchers. In addition, she
provided examples of classroom action research and teachers study
groups as forms of inquiry. Watts concluded that these three
approaches share several outcomes. First, as a result of learning
more about research, teachers make more informed decisions about
when and how to apply the research findings of others. Second,
teachers experience more supportive and collegial relationships.
And third, teaching improves as teachers learn more about it by
becoming better able to look beyond the immediate, the individual,
and the concrete.
The effects of the teacher inquiry model of staff development may
reach beyond the classroom to the school. An example of
schoolwide impact comes from the report of a high school team
convened to reflect on a lack of communication and support
between teachers and administrators (Lie- Berman & Miller, 1984).
Note that there is a substantial overlap between this kind of "schoolbased" inquiry and some of the school improvement processes
discussed earlier in the model described as involvement in a
development/ improvement process.
Organizational Context
Teacher development in school districts does not take place in a
vacuum. Its success is influenced in many ways by the districts
organizational context (McLaughlin & Marsh, 1978; Sparks, 1983).
Key organizational factors include school and district climate,
leadership attitudes and behaviors, district policies and systems,
and the involvement of participants.
While staff development fosters the professional growth of
individuals, organizational development addresses the
organizations responsibility to define and meet changing self
improvement goals (Dillon-Peterson,1981). Consequently, effective
25
organizations have the capacity to continually renew themselves
and solve problems. Within this context, individuals can grow.
In earlier sections of this article, five models of staff development
were discussed that have solid foundations in research and/or
practice, and are being used in increasingly robust forms throughout
the country today. While each model requires somewhat different
organizational supports to make it successful, it is also true that
research points to a common set of attributes of the organizational
context without which staff development can have only limited
success (Loucks-Horsley et al.,1987). In organizations where staff
development is most successful:
Staff members have a common, coherent set of goals
and objectives that they have helped formulate,
reflecting high expectations of themselves and their
students.
Administrators exercise strong leadership by
promoting a "norm of collegiality, " minimizing status
differences between themselves and their staff
members, promoting informal communication, and
reducing their own need to use formal controls to
achieve coordination.
Administrators and teachers place a high priority on
staff development and continuous improvement.
Administrators and teachers make use of a variety of
formal and informal processes for monitoring progress
toward goals, using them to identify obstacles to such
progress and ways of overcoming these obstacles,
rather than using them to make summary judgments
regarding the "competence" of particular staff members
(Conley & Bacharach, 1987).
Knowledge, expertise, and resources, including time,
are drawn on appropriately, yet liberally, to initiate and
support the pursuit of staff development goals.
This section briefly highlights the research that supports these
organizational attributes.
Organizational Climate
Little (1982) found that effective schools are characterized by norms
of collegiality and experimentation. Simply put, teachers are more
likely to persist in using new behaviors when they feel the support of
colleagues and when they believe that professional risk taking (and
26
its occasional failures) are encouraged. Fullan (1982) reports that
the degree of change is strongly related to the extent to which
teachers interact with each other and provide technical help to one
another. "Teachers need to participate in skill-training workshops,"
Fullan writes, "but they also need to have one-to-one and group
opportunities to receive and give help, and more simply to converse
about the meaning of change" (p. 121).
Joyce and Showers (1983) point out that "in a loose and
disorganized social climate without clear goals, reticent teachers
may actually subvert elements of the training process not only for
themselves but also for others" (p 31). While teacher commitment is
desirable, it need not necessarily be present initially for the program
to be successful. Miles (1983) found that teacher/administrator
harmony was critical to the success of improvement efforts, but that
it could develop over the course of an improvement effort. Initially,
working relationships between teachers and administrators had to
be clear and supportive enough so that most participants could
"suspend disbelief," believing that the demands of change would be
dealt with together (Crandall, 1983). In their study of school
improvement efforts that relied heavily on staff development for
their success, both Miles and Crandall found that in projects where a
mandated strategy caused some initial disharmony between
teachers and administrators, the climate changed as the new
programs positive impact on students became clear. When a new
program was selected carefully and teachers received good training
and support, most who were initially skeptical soon agreed with and
were committed to the effort. Showers, Joyce, and Bennett (1987)
support the position that, at least initially, teachers ability to use a
new practice in a competent way may be more important than
commitment.
Few would disagree with the importance of a school and district
climate that encourages experimentation and supports teachers to
take risks, i.e, establishes readiness for change (Wood, Thompson, &
Russell, 1981). Yet a supportive context consists of more than "good
feelings." The quality of the recommended practices is also critical.
Research conducted by Guskey (1986) and Loucks and Zacchei
(1983) indicates that the new practices developed or chosen by or
for teachers need to be effective ones effective by virtue of
evaluation results offered by the developer or by careful testing by
the teachers who have developed them. These researchers found
that only when teachers see that a new program or practice
enhances the learning of their students will their beliefs and
attitudes change in a significant way.
Leadership and Support
27
According to the Rand Change Agent Study (McLaughlin & Marsh,
1978) active support by principals and district administrators is
critical to the success of any change effort. According to McLaughlin
and Marsh (1978):
The Rand research sets the role of the principal as instructional
leader in the context of strengthening the school improvement
process through team building and problem solving in a "projectlike" context. It suggests that principals need to give clear messages
that teachers may take responsibility for their own professional
growth. (p. 92)
Stallings and Mohlman (1981) determined that teachers improved
most in staff development programs where the principal supported
them and was clear and consistent in communicating school
policies. Likewise, Fielding and Schalock (1985) report a study in
which principals involvement in teachers staff development
produced longer-term changes than when principals were not
involved.
In their discussion of factors that affect the application of
innovations, Loucks and Zacchei (1983) wrote:
". . . administrators in successful improvement sites take
their leadership roles seriously and provide the direction
needed to engage teachers in the new practices" (p.
30).
According to Huberman (1983), teachers successful use of new
skills often occurs when administrators exert strong and continuous
pressure for implementation. He argues that: ". . . administrators,
both at the central office and building levels, have to go to center
stage and stay there if school improvement efforts are to succeed"
(p. 27). While administrator presence is important, administrators
must also act as gate-keepers of change so that "innovation
overload" can be avoided (Anderson & Odden, 1986).
While much research points to administrators as being key leaders
in staff development and change, it is also true that others can take
on leadership and support roles and may in fact be better placed
to do so. Research on school improvement indicates that a team
approach can help orchestrate leadership and support "functions"
which can be shared by administrators (building and district level),
district coordinators or staff developers, teachers, and external
trainers and consultants (Loucks-Horsley & Hergert. 1985). For
example, Cox (1983) reports that while principals seem to play an
important role in clarifying expectations and goals and stabilizing
the school organization, central office coordinators, who often know
more about a specific practice, can effectively coach teachers in
28
their attempts to change their classroom behavior. Coordinated
leadership can also help avoid situations such as a schools
textbooks and curriculum nor matching the instructional models
teachers are being taught to use (Fielding & Schalock, 1985).
District Policies and Systems
Staff development activities occur within the context of a districts
staff development program. According to Ellis (1988), a
comprehensive staff development program includes a philosophy,
goals, allocation of resources, and coordination. The philosophy
spells out beliefs that guide the program. District, school, and
individual goals (and their accompanying action plans) provide
direction to staff development efforts. Resources need to be
allocated at the district, school, and individual levels so that these
goals have a reasonable chance of being achieved. Staff
development programs need to be coordinated by individuals who
have an assigned responsibility for this area. Ellis also supports the
use of a district-level staff development committee to aid in
coordination of programs.
The selection, incorporation, or combination of the models of staff
development described in this article are the responsibility of the
districts staff development structure. Decisions about their use
need to match the intended outcomes if they are to be effective
(Levine & Broude, 1989), but these decisions are also influenced by
state and/or community initiatives aimed at the improvement of
schools and/or teaching (Anderson & Odden, 1986).
Participant Involvement
Research clearly indicates that involving participants in key
decisions about staff development is necessary for a program to
have its greatest impact. According to Lieberman and Miller (1986),
a supportive context for staff development requires both a "topdown" and "bottom-up" approach.
The top-down component sets a general direction for the district or
school and communicates expectations regarding performance. The
bottom-up processes involve teachers in establishing goals and
designing appropriate staff development activities.
The establishment of common goals is important to the success of
staff development efforts (Ward & Tikunoff, 1981). Odden and
Andersons (1986) research indicates that a clearly defined process
of data collection, shared diagnosis, and identification of solutions to
problems must be employed during the planning phase.
Collaboration, from initial planning through implementation and
institutionalization, is a key process in determining these goals and
29
in influencing lasting change (Lambert, 1984; McLaughlin & Marsh,
1978; Wood, Thompson, & Russell, 1981).
Lortie (1986) argues that when teachers perceive that they can
participate in important school-level decisions, the relationship
between the extra efforts required by school improvement and the
benefits of these efforts becomes clearer. Following this argument,
he recommends that schools be given relatively little detailed
supervision, but be monitored instead for results based on explicit
criteria.
Others report that, when teachers cannot be involved in initial
decisions regarding staff development (e.g., when it is mandated by
state legislation or when it supports the use of district-wide
curriculum), their involvement in decisions about the "hows" and
"whens" of implementation can be important to success.
Furthermore, teachers involvement in developing curriculum and as
trainers for staff development programs can contribute in important
ways to the success of an effort (Loucks & Pratt, 1979).
Odden and Anderson (1986) capture the reciprocal relationship
between organization and individual development in this discussion
of their research:
When instructional strategies, which aim to improve the
skills of individuals, were successful, they had significant
effects on schools as organizations. When school
strategies, which aim to improve schools as
organizations, were successful, they had significant
impacts on individuals. (p. 585)
Staff development both influences and is influenced by the
organizational context in which it takes place. The impact of the
staff development models that have been discussed depends not
only upon their individual or blended use, but upon the features of
the organization in which they are used.
The importance of paying attention to the context of staff
development is underscored by Fullan (1982). He responds to
educators who say that they cannot provide the elements required
to support change (e.g., supportive principals, a two- or three-year
time period for implementation):
Well dont expect much implementation to occur . . . I
say this not because I am a cynic but because it is
wrong to let hopes blind us to the actual obstacles to
change. If these obstacles are ignored, the experience
with implementation can be harmful to the adults and
30
children directly involved more harmful than if nothing
had been done. (p.103)
Conclusion
Staff development is a relatively young "science" within education.
In many ways the current knowledge base in staff development is
similar to what was known about teaching in the early 1970s. During
the 1970s and early 1980s research on teaching advanced from
descriptive to correlational to experimental (Gage, 1984). With the
exception of research on training, much of the staff development
literature is theoretical and descriptive rather than experimental.
The remaining two sections describe what can be said with some
confidence about the research base for the staff development
models and what remains to be learned.
What Can Be Said with Confidence
Staff development possesses a useful "craft knowledge" that guides
the field. This craft knowledge includes ways to organize, structure,
and deliver staff development programs (Caldwell, 1989). It has
been disseminated in the past decade through publications such as
the Journal of Staff Development, Educational Leadership, and Phi
Delta Kappan, and through thousands of presentations at workshops
and conventions. As a result, in the past 20 years hundreds of staff
development programs have been established in urban, suburban,
and rural school districts throughout the United States and Canada.
This craft knowledge serves another useful purpose: It can guide
researchers in asking far better questions than they could have
asked a decade ago.
Of the five models discussed in this article, the research on training
is the most robust. It is the most widely used form of staff
development and the most thoroughly investigated. As a result, it is
possible to say with some confidence which training elements are
required to promote the attainment of specific outcomes. Likewise,
research on coaching has demonstrated the importance of inclassroom assistance to teachers (by an "expert" or by a peer) for
the transfer of training to the classroom.
The consensus of "expert opinion" is that school improvement is a
systemic process (Fullan, 1982). This ecological approach recognizes
that changes in one part of a system influence the other parts.
Consequently, staff development both influences and is influenced
by the organizational context in which it takes place. The impact of
the staff development models that have been discussed depends
31
not only upon their individual or blended use, but upon the features
of the organization in which they are used.
While this appears to relate to the "art" of making staff development
work (i.e, the judgment with which one combines and juggles the
various organizational interactions), there is also much "science"
that can be drawn from when it comes to the organizational
supports necessary for effective staff development. Study after
study confirms the necessity of:
Schools possessing norms that support collegiality and
experimentation;
District and building administrators who work with
staff to clarify goals and expectations, and actively
commit to and support teachers efforts to change their
practice;
Efforts that are strongly focused on changes in
curricular, instructional, and classroom management
practices with improved student learning as the goal;
and
Adequate, appropriate staff development experiences
with follow-up assistance that continues long enough for
new behaviors to be incorporated into ongoing practice.
Interestingly enough, it appears that these factors apply to a wide
variety of school improvement and staff development efforts. While
there are little hard research data on some of the models discussed
above (see next section), most if not all of these factors will
certainly persist as being important, regardless of what is learned
about other models.
What We Need to Learn More About
While the work of staff developers during the past decade has been
grounded in theory and research from various disciplines (e.g., adult
learning, organization development, training), the scientific base of
their own practice (with the exception of training and coaching) is
quite thin. Unfortunately, the systematic study of some of the
models discussed earlier is difficult because their use is not
widespread or because they have been implemented only recently
as part of comprehensive staff development programs. Listed below
are areas for further study.
1. We need research to determine the potency of the models
described above (with the exception of training). We need to
learn which models are most effective for which outcomes with
32
which teachers. For instance, we might ask: How effective is
individually-guided staff development for knowledge level outcomes
for self-directed experienced teachers? Or: How effective is an
inquiry approach in helping beginning teachers learn their craft?
2. We need a better understanding of the impact on student
learning of the four non-training staff development models.
Do non-training models alter teacher knowledge or skills in a way
that improves student learning?
3. We need to know more about the impact on teachers of
blending the models described above in a comprehensive staff
development program. How are teachers attitudes, knowledge, and
skills altered when they choose among and blend various models as
the means of reaching one or more "growth" goals? For instance,
what would be the result if a teacher blended individually-guided
staff development (e.g.. reading research on tracking),
observation/assessment (e.g., peer observation), and training (e.g.,
in cooperative learning) as means to alter classroom practices that
are viewed as disadvantageous to a sub-group of students?
4. We need a systemic view of comprehensive staff
development at the district level. Most districts provide a
variety of staff development opportunities to teachers. Some
purposely support individual, school-based, and district-based
activities. We need descriptive studies of what these programs look
like, both from the overall, coordination point of view, and from the
individual teacher point of view. We need to know: How are goals set
and coordinated? How are resources allocated? How equitable are
opportunities for individual teachers? How do different contextual
factors (e.g., resources, state mandates) influence success?
5. We need to understand more about the relative costs of
different staff development models and combinations of the
models. Moore and Hyde (1978, 1979, 1981) have conducted some
useful analyses of how many school district resources actually go for
staff development purposes. But more micro-analyses would be
useful to understand the cost-effectiveness of relatively laborintensive models (e.g., coaching) versus those that rely only on the
activity of a single teacher (e.g., individually-guided staff
development).
6. Finally, we need to look at staff development as it
contributes to teacher professionalism and teacher
leadership. Many believe that teacher professionalism and
leadership must characterize our education system in the future if
that system is to survive. Yet there are as many different definitions
of the terms as there are ideas of how to implement them. One role
of staff development research is to help identify and clarify the
33
various meanings given to these concepts. We then need
descriptive studies of staff developments contributions to these
efforts, with special attention to how these efforts influence the
conduct of staff development.
It is possible that future research may contradict current craft
knowledge (this, for example, has occurred with the learning that
attitude change does not always have to precede behavior change),
or, as is likely, future research will support current practice. Many
questions about effective staff development remain unanswered.
The need is great for well-designed, long-term studies of school
improvement efforts that are based on staff development. The field
of staff development seeks a solid base that moves beyond
description and advocacy to a better understanding of those factors
that support and improve classroom practice.
Reference Notes
1. This article was adapted from "Models of Staff Development," in
W. Robert Houston (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teacher
Education. New York: Macmillan, 1990.
2. References and footnote annotations for this article are available
upon request.
34

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