278253640.

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Breakdown
of Hb

Biliverdin

Bilirubin

Plasma Bilirubin
(insoluble or UNCONJUGATED)
bound to albumin

(CHOLESTATIC) OBSTRUCTIVE JAUNDICE

= CONJUGATED bilirubin

Blood = conjugated hyperbilirubinaemia

Urine [since water sol]

Breakdown
of RBC

Uptake into liver from

plasma

Spleen

Dark urine
Less conjugated bilirubin

Bowel

PRE-HEPATIC JAUNDICE
Excess bilirubin production:

A Haemolysis
B Liver uptake
C Conjugation

Bilirubin conjugated with

gluconuric acid by
hepatocytes
(soluble or CONJUGATED)

= UNCONJUGATED bilirubin

Blood = unconjugated
hyperbilirubinaemia

Not in urine [since water insol]

Excreted in
bile

Causes:
Physiological (neonatal) haemolysis
Dyserythropoeisis
Glyuronyl transferase deficiency
Gilberts Syndrome (2-7% of
population)
Criglar-Najjar Syndrome

HEPATIC JAUNDICE

Portal
Circulation

Conjugated hyperbilirubinaemia may also be caused by hepatic

jaundice disorders though Unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia is
also present.
Causes:
Hepatocyte damage +/- some cholestasis
Viruses
Hep ABC
CMV
EBV
Drugs
OH hepatitis
Cirrhosis
Septicaemia
Leptospirosis
Liver abscess
A1 antitrypsin deficiency
Wilsons disease (Disorder of copper met KF rings)
Budd Chiari syndrome (Hepatic venous obstruction)
Failure to excrete conjugated bilirubin
Dubin Johnson syndrome
Rotor syndrome
Right heart failure
Toxins
GALLSTONES
Def

PP

Cause

Path

S&S
DDx
Tx

Absorbed
into blood

WILL WESTON

Hydrolised by
bacterial flora
in colon

Stercobilogen

Oxidised
Stercobilin
(brown colour)

Excreted in
faeces

BILIRUBIN AND
JAUNDICE
Comp

IVI, NBM
IV Antibiotics
Oral Bile Acids / Bile Salt Therapy
Lithotrypsy / ERCP + Cholecystectomy

Causes:
Choledochal cyst
Ciliary Atresia
MURAL / INTRINSIC
Liver cell transport abnormalities
Cholangitis
Cholangiocarcinoma
Benign stricture
Mirrizi syndrome (GS in cystic duct or GB)
INTRALUMINAL
Infestation
Gallstones
EXTRINSIC
Portal lymphadenopathy
Chronic Pancreatitis
Pancreatic C
Ampullary/ duodenal tumour

Urobilogenwater sol and

colourless

Excreted in urine
(as Urobilin???)

Calculus formed in the gallbladder or biliary passages

AKA- biliary calculus, cholelith
> (2:1), though elderly ratio is equal
USA / Europe / Australia > India / Far East / Africa
Fat, Female, Fair, Forty, Fertile
Sickle cell disease (bilirubin), Cirrhosis, crohn disease,
Diabetes, Pancreatic disease, Hyperparathyroidism, Pregnancy
Most are mixed, but stones are classified into:
CHOLESTEROL- > in developed countries, 80%, radiolucent,
large, Female, Fat, Forty
PIGMENT- irregular, radiolucent, small, haemolysis
Only 10% are radio-opaque
90% asymptomatic
Rest biliary colic / cholecystitis

Pale faeces

WITHIN GALLBLADDER
Biliary Colic- see another card
Cholecystitis- see another card
Mucocele GB
Def: Continuous secretion of mucous + common BD
plug ( infection = Empyema)
Ca secreted into GB lumen = Porcelain GB
WITHIN BILE DUCTS
Obstructive Jaundice
Def: Gallstones cystic duct (stricturing of hepatic
duct = Mirrizzis Syndrome / Pancreatitis )
Tx: ERCP + Cholecystectomy
Cholangitis
Bile duct inflammation
SS: RUQ pain + jaundice + rigors (CHARCOTS Triad)
Tx: Cefuroxime + Metronidiazole
WITHIN GUT
Gallstone Ileus

DONT FORGET: http://www.uwgi.org/guidelines/main.htm

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278253640.doc

Fistulae

Def: Gallstone perforates duodenum / stomach

Dx: AXR- air in CBD. Small bowel fluid levels, stone

Virology
Urine

Def: b/w GB + duodenum / stomach

Dx: Abdo XR- air in biliary tree

US

BILIARY COLIC & CHOLECYSTITIS

Def
Main difference = inflammatory component
PP

Cause
Gallstones Common BD
Path

S&S
Biliary Colic:
RUQ sudden onset pain- 2 hrs (<6) + jaundice
Cholecystitis:
Epigastic pain > RUQ (70%/20%)
Radiation: Peritonitis R Scapula
GB mass + N/V + Jaundice
Murphys sign: 2 fingers over GB, inspiration, pain, -ve left side
DDx
Cholecystitis: PUD, Hepatitis, Liver Absess, Pancreatitis, C of Liver /
Bile Ducts / GB, Cholangitis.
Inv
BILIARY COLIC:
AXR
Calc stones in < 20%
AUS
Oral Cystography

Tx

Comp

CHOLECYSTITIS:

WCC
US
Thick GB mass- >3mm, distended GB, pericholecystic
fluid + stones
LFTS
Amylase
Bilirubin
Alk Phos
Biliary Colic:
Opiod (Not morphine as pressure in sphincter of oddi)
Prochlorperazine
Cholecystectomy
Cholecystitis
NBM
NG decompression within 48 hrs
Analgesia
Antibiotics: Cefuroxime and metronidazole
Cholecystectomy
Chronic Cholecystitis: stones chronic inflammation vague
abdominal discomfort + distension

JAUNDICE
Def
Yellow appearance: skin / sclera / mucous membranes
bilirubin detectable at 3mg / dL or 40 micromol/l
PP

Cause
Contacts
A Alcohol
Hx
Anaemia
B Blood Anaemia / Disease
Travel
C Contacts with Jaundice
Had it before
D Drugs
Operations
E ERCP
Drugs
F Foreign travel, FHx
Extra Hepatic Causes
G Gallstones
Sexual Preference
H Hepatitis
Hep C risk if haemophiliac due to many blood transfusions.
Path
See Diagram at beginning
S&S
COURVOISIERS RULE:
Silent jaundice, palpable GB = Not gallstones (may be C)
MURPHYS SIGN:
2 fingers over GB, inspiration, pain, -ve left side = Cholecystitis
HAEMOLYTIC
Eg. Gilberts Syndrome, Dark stools + urine, Pallor- anaemia,
Splenomegaly- activity
HEPATOCELLULAR
Disease of liver parenchymaprevents bilirubin bile
Viruses, Drugs, OH, Toxins, Abscesses, RHF
CHOLESTATIC
Obstruction of bile flow, pale stools + dark urine
MURAL / INTRINSIC: cholangitis, cholangiocarcinoma,
Mirrizzis syndrome
INTRA LUMINAL: Infection, gallstones
EXTRINSIC: Portal lymphadenopathy, Chronic pancreatitis,
Pancreatic C, Ampullary / Duodenal C
DDx
Inv /
FBC
Hb
Dx
U+Es
Complications
Clotting
PT time , Haemolytic / Cholestatic
LFTS
Bilirubin: conj, unconj, urobilogen
ALP: obstructive- from liver collecting ducts
AST / ALT: cell damage- constituents of
hepatocytes

WILL WESTON

TYPE OF
JAUNDICE
Bilirubin
unconjugated
Bilirubin
conjugated
Urinary bilirubin
= dark urine
Urobilogen
= pale stools
Reticulocytes
LFTS
Alkaline
phosphatase
Y-gt transaminase
Transaminases
Lactate
dehydrogenase

EBV / CMV / HAV / HBV / HCV

Bilirubin in prehepatic- since water insoluble
(unconjugated)
Urobilogen absent in obstructive
Bile duct dilation- obstructive jaundice ERCP
If not Liver Bx
HEPATOHEPATOHAEMOBSTCELLULAR
CELLULAR
OLYTIC
RUCTIVE
EARLY
LATE

N/

N/

N/

N/

>2%

N
N

N
N

HEPATITIS
Def
Inflammation of liver necrosis
PP
Cause
VIRUSES: Hepatitis Viruses, EBV, CMV
IATROGENIC / DRUGS: OH, Drugs (e.g. Paracetamol)
BILIARY DISEASE / OBSTRUCTION: Ascending cholangitis,
Cancer, Bud Chiari syndrome: Thrombus Obstruction hep
veins congestion disrupted function.
Path
Vac
Spread
Tx
Incubation

A
Oral
Supportive OH
2-6 /52
B
Blood
4-20 /52

Supportive OH
C
Blood
2-26 /52

Interferon
D
Blood
6-9 /52
Interferon
() B
E
Oral
3-8 /52
Prevention

Needle stick injury risk from infected pt: Hep B (30%), Hep C (10%), HIV (0.1%)
Transmission for Hep B: Sexual (10%), Vertical (70%).
HEPATITIS C:
A Range of 6 viruses (1-6). Genotype 1 & 4 > difficult to treat than 2 & 3.
OH + Hep C Exponential inflammation and cirrhosis.
Of those infected with Hep C: 80% retain virus, 20% are clear.
Of those 80% who are infected and retain the virus
80% clear but relapse once off the drugs. 20% Cirrhosis
Risk of Hep C transmission is 6% for both sexual and vertical.
INTERFERON TX:
Interferon Tx is 6/12 for Types 2&3 (12/12 for others + 12/52 response
testing). S/E for 1st 24hrs are bad, then poor for day 2, then fine during
day 3.
Interferon Benefit: B- Acute
Not useful
Interferon Benefit: B- Chronic
40% patients have benefit
Interferon Benefit: C- Acute
Unknown
Interferon Benefit: C- Chronic
20% patients eradicate disease
Interferons are naturally occurring proteins which are released to stimulate
the immune system. Also used for: Hairy cell leukaemia, AIDS-related Kaposi's
sarcoma, Genital warts.
S&S
ACUTE HEPATITIS:
Jaundice- dark urine, light stools
Hepatomegaly
Fatigue, malaise, lethargy
RUQ pain, N/V, Fever / headache
LIVER FAILURE:
Oedema ( albumin) + ascites
Hepatic encephalopathy
Hyperoestrogenaemia
GI bleeding
Bruising (due to circulating coagulation factors)
Hypoglycaemia (due to hepatic gluconeogenesis)
VIRAL HEPATITIS:
May be prodromal flu like symptoms: Fever, Malaise, Arthralgia,
Myalgia
Later due to stretching of liver capsule: Nausea, Anorexia,
Jaundice, Itching, Abdominal pain
Only 1/3 of Hep C Infections S&S
DDx
Cholecystitis, cholelithiasis, cholangitis, biliary cirrhosis, haemolytic
anaemia, pancreatic C
Inv /
Clinical
Hepatic E: 1st sign is affected circadian rhythm.
Dx
Join dots. Construct a star.
AST / ALT
: Liver cell damage (In 1st week may be
Obstructive patten due to swelling.)
ALP / GGT
: Biliary epithelium damage (GGT also with OH)

Bilirubin

DONT FORGET: http://www.uwgi.org/guidelines/main.htm

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Albumin / PT
Virology
Auto Abs
Paracetamol
Bx
US
AXR

Tx

A- AST / ALT/ IgM

B- HbsAg
CDE- Anti HCV / HDV / HEV antibodies
Autoimmune: Autoimmune antibodies
Dilated biliary tree, gallstones, Scarring/ vascular
flow damage of liver / GB

Nutrition
IV fluids
Tx Nausea / Pruritis
Antiviral Tx: B+C A+E
Autoimmune- corticosteroids
Paracetalmol overdose N acetylcysteine
Liver Transplant

DDx
Inv /
Dx

Mx
Comp
CIRRHOSIS
Def

PP

Cause

Irreversible damage to the liver

Commonest
OH
Chronic HBV and HCV infection
Others
Haemochromatosis (Tanned appearance)
Chronic active hepatitis
Sclerosing cholangitis
Budd Chiari syndrome
Wilsons disease (Copper met- blue cornea ring)
A1 antitrypsin deficiency
Drugs: Amiodarone, Methyldopa
Chronic HF
Unknown Cause in 30%- Cryptogenic cirrhosis

Pathology:
Disruption Of
Normal
Sinusoidal
Architecture

Formation of
fibrous scar
tissue by
Stellate cells

Haphazard
regeneration of
hepatocytes in
nodules

Alters Blood
Flow through
Liver

Spenomegaly

Pooling of platelets Thrombocytopenia

Mesenteric
Vein
Congestion

Transudation of fluid into

peritoneal cavity - Ascites

Spontaneous Bacterial
Peritonitis (due to conc
anti bacterial fluid)

S&S

Plasma
Proteins

Varices
Rupture
oesophagus
and rectum
Also caput
medusae due
to umbilicus
shunt

Portosystemic
Shunting

Splenic Vein
congestion

Widespread
metabolic
dysfunction
weight loss and
wasting

Hepatic
Function

Pressure in Portal Vein

(PORTAL
HYPERTENSION)

Accumulation
of bilirubin &
other toxins

Albumin

Hepatic Encephalopathytoxin laden blood

bypasses liver

Clotting
Factors

Coagulo-pathy

Liver has large FUNCTIONAL RESERVE CAPACITY. Extensive

damage may remain clinically undetected (COMPENSATED) until
Decompensated
Hand to Toe: Lemon on sticks
Palmar erythema, Dupuytrens contracture, Clubbing,
Leuconychia
Hair loss
Kaiser rings (blue corneal), Jaundice, Plethoric face, Anaemia

WILL WESTON

FBC

Fetor Hepatis- acidic sweet smell breath

Spider naevi, Gynacomastia, Bruising, Muscle wasting
Ascites
Hepatomegaly- nodular liver. Small if advanced
Splenomegaly
Caput medusae: check w finger compression- N flow towards
umbilicus
Hypogonadism
Peripheral oedema (due to protein, renin breakdown)

Hb,
WCC & Platelets (hypersplenism)
U&E
Urea & Creatinin (If U, C = bleeding
somewhere; If U, C = Deep cirrhosis =
Hetatorenal syndrome)

INR
LFTs (may be N
Bilirubin,
if severely
Transaminases
damaged)
Alk Phos- biliary epithelial damage
GGT biliary epithelial damage + OH

Albumin, PT
Glucose
Gluconeogenesis
US
Hepatomegaly / Splenomegaly.
Malignancy. Obstructive Jaundice.
AFP
Marker for Liver C
Bx
Dx
Endoscopy
Oesophageal Varices (Ulcer is still most
common cause of GI bleed even with OV)
Ascitic Tap
WCC>250cm3 = Spont bacterial peritonitis
Protein, M&C, Cytology.
CT:Triple Phase
Normal / Portal / Arterial
CHILDS GRADING OF LIVER DISEASE
Excrete
Produce.
Signs
Grade
Serum
Serum
PT
As
Encep
Operative
Bilirubin
Albumin
c
Mortality
A
Normal
>35 g/L
<4
None
2%
B
20-50 mcmol/L
30-35 g/L
4-6
Mild
10%
C
>50 mcmol/L
<30 g/L
>6
Severe
50%
Mx
GENERAL MEASURES
Nutritional supplements: Thiamine, Vit K.
Protein diet (if encephalopathy), OH
US and a-fetoprotein every 3/12 to screen for hepatocellular C
Relief of symptoms
Antihistamines for pruritis
Oral bile acids to entero hepatic circulation
Regular small meals may compensate for loss of hepatic
storage capacity and may minimise weight .
INR: Fresh frozen plasma
Platelets: Platelet transfusion
Varices: Banding and drugs.
SPECIFIC TX
Interferon A: Improves liver biochemistry; May retard
hepatocellular C in HCV induced cirrhosis
Penicillamine for Wilsons Disease
ASCITES
Bedrest
Fluid restriction
Low salt diet
Spironolactone- dose every 48 hrs (Dont want to empty
intravascular vol too quickly- have to wait for interstitial fluid to
diffuse back in)
Chart daily weight: Aim for weight loss of < kg / day
If response if poor, add frusemide PO.
Check U&E and creatinin regularly
Paracentesis (Removal of large vol of fluid from abdo cavity).
Albumin: But expensive and only has 7 day half life.
SPONTANEOUS BACTERIAL
Tx: Cefuroxime + metronidiazole
Prophylaxis: Ciprofloxacin or Trimoxazole
Comp
Portal Hypertension, Variceal Haemorrhage, Ascites
Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (Caused by translocation of
gram -ve bacteria from intestinal lumen protein rich ascitic
fluid. High mortality especially when liver disease advanced).
Hepatic encephalopathy, Liver Flap (asterixis), Constructional
Apraxia- inability to draw simple shapes, Drowsiness Coma.
Tx with Laxatives to intestinal bacterial load. Dx with EEG (3
spike) due to ammonia from bacteria. Tx Amoxicillin to
bacterial flora.
Hepatorenal syndrome
Hepatocellular carcinoma
WERNICKE'S ENCEPHALOPATHY
DEF: Assoc w OH abuse (+ other thiamine deficiency causes)
PATH Acute capillary haemorrhages, astrocytosis and neuronal
death in upper brainstem and diencephalon Triad of S&S:
S&S:
CONFUSION: Acute confusional state

DONT FORGET: http://www.uwgi.org/guidelines/main.htm

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Prog

OPTHALMOPLEGIA: Nystagmus, Bilateral LR Palsy,

Fixed Pupils, Papilloedema (Rare)
ATAXIA: Broad Based Gait, Cerebellar Signs in limbs,
Vestibular Paralysis, Peripheral Neuropathy (esp legs)
COMP: If Untreated Transition from Reversible Wernickes
Irreversible Korsakoff Psychosis ( Short Term Memory,
Disordered time appreciation, Confabulation.)
INV: Plasma pyruvate, RBC Transketolase.
TX: Thiamine (Urgent:Once amnesia, only 50% improve)
5 year survival = 50%
Poor prognostic indicators
Encephalopathy
Serum Na = <110g/L
Serum albumin = <25g/L
INR

INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE (grey = Crohns only)

ULCERATIVE COLITIS
CROHNS DISEASE
Def
Chronic, relapsing disorder of
Chronic granulomatous
rectum and colon
disease affecting any of gut
PP
>
>
Men
Smoking = risk
Smoking = risk
U.C.
Incidence= >
Incidence= <
Smke
Bimodal Peaks,20-35,50-65
Bimodal Peaks, 20-30,
>
Jews > Caucasians >
>50
African US
Cause

Path

S&S
Bloody, mucus, diarrhoea, +/Bloody, mucus (I=, C =)
tenesmus
Diarrhoea / steatorrhoea
Abdominal pain / crampsI= Pain due to Obstruction
Defecation relieves
Weight since eating = pain
RectumProctitis
Rectal Sparing
Sigmoid...Proctosigmoiditis
I=Ileal Disease = 40%
All.Pancolitis
C= Crohns Colitis = 30%
Both = 30%
Extra
Venous Thrombosis
Appendicitis
Int
Clubbing, Oral Ulcers, Fatty Liver
Clubbing, Oral Ulcers, F Liver
S&S
Arthritis
Pyoderma Gangrenosum
COF
Iritis
Renal Stones
Erythema Nodosum
Gallbladder Stones
PIE
Sclerosing Cholangitis (> with UC)
Sclerosing Cholangitis
SAC
Ankylosing Spondylitis (> UC)
Ank Spondylitis
Cholangio Carcinoma
DDx
Infectious colitis, arthritis, E Coli, Campylobacter, Shigella,
Salmonella, Colorectal C, Malabsorption syndromes
Diverticulitis, Ischemic Colitis
Inv /
FBC, U+Es, CRP, LFTs, Blood Cultures, Serum Fe +B12 Stool MC+C
Dx
AXR
Faecal shadowing, mucosal thickening, colonic
dilation, perforation
Rectal Bx
Inflammation, Ulcers, Crypt abscesses
Barium E
Haustra, granular mucosa, shortened colon,
pseudopolyps,
Colon / SigmoidRectal Sparing, Skip Lesions, Strictures,
oscopy
Coblestoning
LP =UC = Crypt abscesses
RGS STUFF = Crohns D

Rectal sparing
Granulomas

Skip lesions

Strictures

Mucosal
Transmural inflammation

Mucosal
Ulcers
Rosethorn *
Fissures

Fistulas

Lead Piping (haustra loss)

Pseudopolyps

*
Rosethorn ulcers: Deep ulcers which may eventually form fistula
Tx
Prednisolone
+ Prednisolone
Sulphasalazine (work well)
Sulphasalazine (< evidence)
Azathioprine
Azathioprine
NMB, IV fluids, IM vits
NMB, IV fluids, IM vits
Colectomy (if = )
Surgery never curative
Mx
Comp
Toxic megacolon (>UC)
Fistula (>crohns)
Risk of malignancy Abdominal mass (>crohns)
lymphoma, carcinoma (>UC)
Steatorrhoea (>crohns)
Inflammation
Perforation
GASTROINTESTINAL BLEEDING
PP
Most common GI emergency: 50-120 H admission per yr per 100 000
35-50%
Peptic Ulcer (NSAIDs, H Pylori)
10-20%
Gastric Erosion (NSAIDs, OH)
10%
Oesophagitis (Usually with hiatus hernia)
5%
Vascular Malformation
5%
Mallory Weiss tear (Retching)

WILL WESTON

Cause
UGI

Cause
LGI

Path
S&S

DDx
Inv /
Dx

Tx

Tx 2

2-9%
Varices (Liver disease, Portal vein thrombosis)
2%
Cancer of the stomach or oesophagus
0.2%
Aortoduodenal fistula (Aortic graft)
PHARYNX:
Vomiting of swallowed blood from a nasal bleed
OESOPHAGUS:
Oesophagitis due to a hiatus hernia
Oesophageal varices
Mallory-weiss tear
Carcinoma
STOMACH:
Gastritis - alcoholic, drug-induced, biliary, irritant
Gastric ulcer (20%)
Gastric carcinoma
Benign tumours e.g. Leiomyoma
DUODENUM:
Duodenal ulcer (40%)
Duodenitis
COMMON CAUSES:
Angiodysplasia
Diverticular disease
Colonic carcinoma or polyp
Haemorrhoids
Rectal trauma e.g. Biopsy
LESS COMMON:
Anal fissure
Massive upper gastrointestinal bleeding
Inflammatory bowel disease
Ischaemic colitis
Meckel's diverticulum
Hookworm, particularly in the tropics
Infective colitis e.g. Campylobacter
Solitary ulcer of rectum

UPPER Bleed:
Haematemesis (May be bleeding down to Lig of
Trietzeconnects R Diaphragm to Coeliac Trunk,
Holding the DJ flexure in position)
Black coffee grounds when less severe
Melena (Bacterial degeneration). UGI bleeding,
although RHS colonic & small bowel lesions can
occasionally be responsible
Maroon Jejunum Caecum
LOWER Bleed:
Red with clots when from Colon / Rectum
Massive rectal bleeding usually from distal colon,
rectum or from a major bleeding site higher in GI.
Syncope, Oliguria (volume depletion hypotension)
Anaemia symptoms: HR, BP, Pallor, Sweating,
Postural drop.
Evidence of liver disease
FBC
U&Es

PT
LFTs
Image
Image
LGI

Anaemic
Renal F
Also: Urea due liver metabolism of blood by liver.
Urea : Creatinine Ratio
If suggestion of liver disease or anticoagulated pts

UGIEndoscopy: ID cause in >90%.

Sigmoidoscopy: 10% of lower G.I. bleeds occur within
reach of a sigmoidoscope. If -ve
Colonoscopy: ASAP with emergency prep of gut by
administration of 500 ml 10% mannitol, 10 mg
metoclopramide and plenty of water. If -veconsider:
Technetium scintiscan: Good at localising lesion.
Subsequent Mx would include arteriography +/or Sx
Mesenteric angiography: Sensitive test if bleeding
brisk: > 1-2 ml/min
ASSESS USING THE ROCKALL SCORE
Inform Surgeons of admission.
O2
Protect airway + NBM
Cannula: Large bore in to Antecubital fossae
Grouping, X-match, Hg, U&Es, PT, LFT's.
IVI (1-2 litres of colloid) + O- blood
(INR + Correct clotting: Vit K, platelet concentrate)
CVP line
Catheterise and monitor urine output
Nil by mouth until endoscopy
H2-antagonist, e.g. ranitidine 300 mg at night
OGD Endoscopy for Dx
Surgery Thermal ablation / colectomy
Specific Tx of Causes

DONT FORGET: http://www.uwgi.org/guidelines/main.htm

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Prog

BLEEDING PEPTIC ULCER

Bleeding often stops spontaneously (in 80-90% of cases)
Endoscopy:
Injection sclerotherapy, e.g. with adrenaline
Other techniques: Heater probe and laser.
MALLORY-WEISS SYNDROME
Wait for the bleeding to stop spontaneously
If bleeding continues then options include:
Oversewing at bleeding point
Sengstaken-Blakemore tube (Balloon Tamponade).
EROSIVE GASTRITIS
If bleeding continues, may require Sx (partial gastric resection)
If gastritis related to NSAIDs / aspirin / OH then bleeding usually
stops quickly. Stop aspirin / NSAID and initiate PPI.
OESOPHAGEAL VARICESTx in the following order
Endoscopy: Band ligation (tie a rubber band around) then
sclerotherapy (injection to close off vessels)
Vasoactive Drugs Vasopressin (ADH), Terlipressin, Octreotide
(Somatostatin Analogue).
If Endoscopic & Drug Tx Fail Balloon Tamponade
(Sengstacken Blakemore Tube)
Radiological - Transjugular Intrahepatic Porto-Systemic Shunt
(TIPPS)
Sx: Oesophageal transection
LOWER GI BLEEDS:
Take a supportive 'wait-and-see' stance
Surgical colectomy or hemicolectomy
Colonoscopic electrocoagulation of bleeding spots
Find Rockall Score for prognosis of UGI Bleeds. Takes into
accountAge, Shock, Comorbidity, Endoscopy Dx,
UGI: 20% require surgery. 10% mortality from such events. 25%
will rebleed after admission and of these, a third will die. Poor
prognostic factors include old age, shock at presentation,
varices and rebleeding.
LGI: ~ 10% die. 75% of those presenting to H will stabilise with
only resuscitative measures, e.g. blood transfusion.

GASTROINTESTINAL PERFORATION
Def
Stomach contents peritoneal cavity ( peritionitis)
PP
Frequency: Duodenal > Gastric
Cause
NSAIDS often cause
Path

S&S
Pain
Sudden severe pain
Distribution following content spread over peritoneum
Initial in upper adbo then generalised
Shoulder tip pain due to irritation of diaphragm
Shallow respiration
Limitation of diaphragm movement
Shock
Board like rigidity of abdomen
DDx
Inv /
CXR
Air below diaphragm (50% cases)
Dx
If not, water soluble contrast will confirm leakage
Tx
Resuscitation
Surgical Tx
Mx
Avoid NSAIDs
Comp
Peritonitis
Mortality 25%
PEPTIC ULCER DISEASE
Def
Ulcer in wall of stomach or duodenum resulting from digestive
action of gastric juice on mucous membrane when latter is
rendered susceptible to its action
Ulcer: Local defect or excavation, of surface of an organ or
tissue, produced by sloughing of inflammatory necrotic tissue.
PP
10% of adults
> (Duodenal = 4:1, Gastric = 2:1)
DUODENAL
GASTRIC
4 x > common
Elderly
Young
70% H Pylori, 30% NSAIDS
90% H Pylori
90%: lesser curve
50%: ant wall, dist to
pyloric Junction
Cause

Path
H Pylori: Produces ammonia from urea = pH for survival
NSAIDS, Steroids
Smoking ( healing)
Blood Group O, Neurosurgery, Z/E syndrome
S&S
Pain: burning epigastric / RUQ
Gastric: worse with food
Duo: better with food and worse 2-3 hrs post food.
Bleeding: Haematemesis, Melaena
Perforation: Rebound tenderness, severe pain
Vomiting

WILL WESTON

DDx
Inv /
Dx

Tx

Mx

Comp

Gastritis, Gasric C, Oesophageal / Gastric varices, Oesophageal C,

Pancreatitis, Pancreatic C, Cholecystitis, Gasteroenteritis
Double contrast barium meal
Endo+ Bx if ulcer (since some=C)
Endoscopy and Bx
Breath Test
Urease
[Gastrin]
Z/E
Microbiology
Gold S for H Pylori but slow
Histamine H2 Receptor Antagonists- Cimetidine
H+K+ ATPase (PPI)- Lansoprazole
Antacids / Alginates (SE= constipation)
Colloidal Bismuth compounds (protect mucosa) Stop smoking / bad food / NSAIDS / OH
H Pylori: PPI + 2 Abs
(Lansoprazole + Amoxicillin + Erythromycin 1/52).
Have Lanzoprazpole in A&E and H Pylori will vanish!
Perforation

DIARRHOEA
Def
Passing of excess volume of stool
Usually accompanied by: Frequency of defecation, Liquidity
May contain > fat when caused by malabsorption
Normal stool volume = 200-300ml/day
Cause
Dysmotility
motility transit time
()
Eg. Hyperthyroidism, Autonomic neuropathy w Dm,
DOSI
Addisons ( stress hormones)
Osmotic
Unabsorbed osmotic solutes H20 absorption
Eg. Lactase deficiency, Disaccharide deficiency,
Pancreatitis, Bile salt malabsorption (Crohns, ileal
resection, bacterial overgrowth
Secretary
Diffuse mucosal disease absorption << secretion
E.g. Cholera: Stim Cl- lumen (Na + H2O follow).
E. Coli, Neurohormones (VIP-oma, Gastrin-oma,
Serotonin)
Disruption of mucosa:
Infection
Infection: Viral, Salmonella, Shigella, Giardia
Ischaemia
Ischaemia
Inflammation
Inflammation: Eg. IBD, Vasculitis, Cancer, OH, ABx,
Propanalol
Hist
Travel, Dietary, Sexual Hx
Clostridium Difficile is common 2/7 1/12 after broad spec ABx
S&S
ACUTE: Gasteroenteritis
CHRONIC: IBS
BLOODY: Campylobacter, Shigella, Crohns / UC, Isc colitis
FRESH BLOOD: Haemorrhoids, Diverticulitis, Colon C
MUCUS: IBS, Colonic Adenocarcinoma
PUS: IBD, Diverticulitis
SMALL BOWEL: RIF / periumbilical pain not relieved by
defecation, steatorrhoea
LARGE BOWEL: Watery stool, +/- blood / mucus, pelvic pain
relieved by defecation, tenesmus, urgency
NON GI CAUSE: Drugs, medication
DDx
See above
Inv /
FBC, MCV, U&Es, ESR, CRP, TFTs, Igs
Dx
Faecal Fat, Stool M+C, Barium E, Sigmoidoscopy.
Tx
Tx cause
Oral Rehydration (if bad saline + K+ + IVI)
Antibiotics unless infective diarrhoea
Codeine: slows transit time
Specifics:
Antibiotics
Dysentery
5ASAs
IBD
Enzyme supplements
Pancreatic Disease
Somatostatin
Secretary diarrhoea caused by hormone
secreting tumours
CONSTIPATION
Def
May be self perpetuating (H2O withdrawn at distal intestine)
N = 3/day 1 every 3 days
Tenesmus: Sense of incomplete evacuation
Cause
CONGENITAL
Hirschsprungs - myenteric nerves absent from distal colon
C
chronic obstruction massively dilated, faeces filled proximal
O
colon (MEGACOLON)
N
Imperforate Anus, (Pyloric Stenosis, Duodenal Atresia)
S
OBSTRUCTION
T
Painful local lesions urge to defecate: E.g. prolapsed
I
haemorrhoids, anal fissures.
P
Local obstruction pain / difficulty in defecation: E.g. Tumour
A
Stricture: IBD, Diverticulitis, Ischaemia.
T
NEUROLOGICAL
E
Damage to brain/ spinal cord can lead to chronic constipation /
incontinence: E.g. Multiple Sclerosis, Peripheral Neuropathy
STRESS
Intestinal motility may be due to sympathetic autonomic
nerve activity. People who are severely injured or otherwise
unwell may be constipated for a few days
THYROID

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S&S

DDx
Inv /
Dx

Tx

Hypothyroidism
IONS
Ca ( intestinal motility), K
PILLS
Opiates, Antidepressants, Others with anticholinergic effects
Oral iron supplements, Antacids- aluminium containing
Stimulant Laxatives: Prolonged use of Senna Depletes
enteric neurons Colonic atonia
5HT antagonists- that have been used for diarrhoea in IBS.
ABDOMINAL SX
Paralytic Ileus from abdominal surgery
TOO LITTLE WATER
Dehydration
EXCESS FIBRE (and of course, too little)
Fibre: when water volume
Fibre: when water volume defecation
frequency + harder
FASTING reflex colonic activity + stool volume
decline in defecation frequency
Dietary Hx, Weight loss
Look for Associated S&S: Rectal Bleeding, Abdominal
Distension, Bowel Sounds. Most important Examination is
PR: If Stool ++: More Likely to be functional
PR: If Stool +/-: Less Likely to be functional i.e. obstruction
Barium / Colonoscopy
See above
Investigate when a new symptoms in > 40s.
Bloods
FBC, U &Es, ESR, LFTS, TFTs, Ca, K
Barium E
> useful than colonoscopy as IDs neoplasia
and megacolon)
Sigmoidoscopy
Mucus
Tx Cause.
Fibre diet, Fluids (unless obstruction / megacolon)
Laxatives in following order:
Bulk Laxatives- FyBogel,
Osmotic Laxatives- lactulOse, MOvicol
Stool Softeners- Arachis oil
Stimulant Laxatives- Senna, (Picolax: Used for bowel prep)

CORTEX, THALAMUS &

HYPOTHALAMUS
Meningitis
Inter-cranial pressure, migraine
Disgusting sites
Strong emotions

D2
Motion sickness &
diseases of INNER EAR
Ach

CHEMORECEPTOR
TRIGGER ZONE in floor of 4th
ventricle lies outside BBB.

H1

Vestibulo cochlear
Nerve
VOMITING CENTRE
(Dorsal part of Medulla
Oblongata)

5HT

Vagal &
Splanchnic Nerves
GI TRACT & OTHER VISCERA

VOMITING

Distension
Infection
Inflammation
DDx

VOMITING (& NAUSEA)

Def
NAUSEA:
Dysporic desire to vomit
Often acconmpanies by distaste for food and appetite.
Although often precedes vomiting, either may occur in isolation.
RETCHING:
Rhythmic reverse peristaltic activity of stomach & oesophagus
Accompanied by contraction of abdominal muscles.
During retching, oesophagus dilates and may accumulate
vomitus that is subsequently expelled.
VOMITING:
Forceful expulsion of food out of mouth
Usually accompanied by
Salivation, Sweating, HR
Vomiting different from passive regurgitation (stomach contents
and partly digested food reflux mouth).
Path
MUSCULAR COORDINATION
Relaxation of Gastro-oesophageal sphincter
Reverse peristalsis of stomach and oesophagus (and ileum)
Contraction of abdominal muscles and diaphragm
Intra abdominal and intra thoracic pressure
*Epiglottis shuts off larynx
*Larynx drawn forward and up by muscles in jaw and neck.
*Soft palate drawn up closing nasoparynx.
*In unconscious / inebriated individuals, these protective
mechanisms are disrupted and vomitus may be aspirated.

Tx

Comp

WILL WESTON

CHEMICAL STIMULI
(Blood borne)
Morphine
Digoxin
HCG in pregnancy
Systemic illness- diabetic
ketoacidosis, uraemia.

GATROINTESTINAL
Gastroenteritis: Short lived. Assoc with fever.
Food poisoning: Infective, irritative and toxic agents.
GI Obstruction.
METABOLIC
Uraemia, e.g. secondary to renal failure
Hypercalcaemia
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Addisonian crisis
NEUROLOGICAL
Raised intracranial pressure, Head injury
Meningitis, Encephalitis
Vestibular neuronitis, Meniere's disease, Benign positional
vertigo, Middle ear surgery
DRUG / CHEMICAL
Ipecacuanha for intentional emesis, e.g. In certain cases of
poisoning
Opioid analgesics
General anaesthetics
Cytotoxic chemotherapy
Anti-parkinsonian drugs: Levodopa and bromocriptine
Antiepileptic drugs
Digoxin overdose
POST OPERATIVE
Paralytic ileus
Mechanical obstruction
Agents administered, e.g. General anaesthetics, analgesics,
cytotoxic chemotherapy
Procedure itself, e.g. Gastrectomy causing bilious vomiting
PSYCHOLOGICAL
Bulimia nervosa, Psychogenic vomiting, Conversion disorders,
Rarely, schizophrenia
MISCELLANEOUS
Normal physiological response: Stress, Travel, Pregnancy.
Radiation therapy
Mesenteric arterial occlusion
Hepatic and biliary disease: Cirrhosis, Acute cholecystitis
Pancreatic disease: Ruptured pancreas, Acute pancreatitis
Disseminated malignancy, Hereditary spherocytosis, Testicular
torsion, Twisted ovarian cyst
Regard vomiting as protective mechanism: Treat Cause.
For treating minor event causes
Motion sickness and vestibulocochlear dysfunction
Acetylecholine (Ach) receptor antagonists
Histamine H1 receptor antagonists
Block stimuli to CTZ
Dopamine D2 receptor antagonists
Phenothiazides
Metoclopramide (Cholinergic Effect Also
GOJ tone, stomach emptying )
Block VC & afferents of GI tract.
Serotonin (5HT) receptor antagonists
Ondansetron
Mechanism of action unknown
Cannabinoids
The strong propulsive forces generated during retching and

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vomiting can tear oesophageal mucosa

MALLORY WEISS tear haematemesis
Usually superficial and heals rapidly.
Chronic vomiting e.g. bulimia may lead to
Acid damage to teeth and gums
Fluid and electrolytes dehydration and altered
blood chemistry
Loss of Gastric contents
Hypokalaemia
Hyponatraemia
Metabolic alkalosis
Loss of Intestinal contents
Metabolic acidosis
Aspiration

INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION
Def

PP

Cause
Georges Cat HAD FF TITS
Small Bowel
Gallstone ileus
Crohn's
Herniae external/internal
Adhesions
Foreign body- cocaine
Tumour
Intusucception
TB- accounts for 7% of small bowel obstruction
Large Bowel
Sigmoid or Caecal volvulus *** (Risk: Pyloric Stenosis,
Congenital Bands, Paraoesophageal hernia)
Tumour
Faeces
Diverticulitis
Path

S&S
Anorexia
Nausea / Vomiting with relief (early with SB)
Colicky abdo pain (with SB- More constant with LB)
Abdominal dissention (less with SB)
Constipation (need not be absolute if obstruction is high)
Tinkling bowel sounds
***vomiting / non productive retching, regurgitation of saliva,
failure to pass NG tube
DDx
Inv /
AXR
horizontal fluid levels
Dx
*** gastric dilation + double fluid levels laparotomy
Tx
Conservative
Analgesia
NG tube- drip & suck
Correct U&E imbalance
Strangulation requires urgent surgery- within 1 hr
Small bowel obstruction with gross dilation >8cm and
tenderness over caecum also requires urgent surgeryperforation is nearby!
Mx
Comp
GASTRO OESOPHAGEAL REFLUX DISEASE (GORD)
Def
Periodic episodes of gastroesophageal reflux usually
accompanied by heartburn and that may histopathological
in the oesophagus
PP
UK Prevalence: 30%
Cause
LES dysfunction
Recently ingested fat in duodenum
Progesterone (pregnancy & pill)
Supine position
Fat / Chocolate / Caffiene / OH / Smoking
Hiatus Hernia (30% of >50s)
20%: Rolling / Paraoesophageal (GOJ remains in
abdo, but stomach herniates alongside
80%: Sliding / Diaphragmatic (GOJ slides up into
chest)
Others
Oesophageal Candidiasis
Suicide attempts (Bleach, Battery acid)
Oesophageal ulcers caused by tablets are trapped above
strictures: K+ supplements / NSAIDS
Path
Develops when oesophageal mucosa is exposed to gastric contents
for prolonged periods of time.
S&S
Chest Pain- 75% pts- GORD- mimicks angina
Provoked by straining / lying down
Waterbrash
Persistant non productive cough
Dysphagia
Choking- (reflux irritates larynx)
Odynophagia

WILL WESTON

Loss of dental enamel

Hoarse voice
DDx
Gasritis, Gastric , Oesophageal Varices, PUD, Pancreatitis
Inv /
Endoscopy
>40 yrs, >4 weeks
Dx
+ / - pH mon, + / - manometry
(pH <4 for >6-7% study time= Dx)
Barium Swallow
May show hernia
FBC
Anaemia
Tx
Stop smoking / OH / late meals / aggravating diet / lying flat /
that aggravate: NSAIDS, Nitrates
Step down Management:
Antacids [Mg trisilicate mix] / Alginates [Gaviscon]

Full Dose PPI [lansoprazole]

GOOD RESPONSE
BAD RESPONSE

PPI maintenance dose

Consider pH monitoring

H2 Receptor antagonists [ranitidine]

Good
Bad
(Help symptoms only)

Response

(Nissens)
Antacids
Fundoplication
Comp
BARRETS OESOPHAGUS
(40x risk of , incidence in white )
Vomiting
Haematemesis
Dysphagia
Melaena
Tx: Laser ablation (old)
Tx: Oesophageal Resection (young)
MALLORY WEISS TEAR
Haematemesis
Dx: Bx
Tx: PPI + Balloon dilation
OESOPHAGITIS
Ranges from mild redness severe bleeding and ulceration
Correlation b/w symptoms and endoscopic findings
ANAEMIA
Long-standing oesophagitis blood loss iron deficient
anaemia.
Almost all have large hiatus hernia.
BENIGN OESOPHAGEAL STRICTURE
Long-standing oesophagitis fibrous strictures.
Most pts:
Elderly, Poor oesophageal peristaltic activity, Hx of
heart burn but not always
Dysphagia: Worse for solids than liquids
ACUTE PANCREATITIS
Def
Inflammation of pancreas due to autodigestion by its own
enzymes due to inappropriate activation
PP
3% all abdo pain, 2-28 / 100,000
Cause
Risks: Dont GET SMASHED when Pregnant.
Gallstones (Common)
Ethanol (Common)
Trauma
Steroids
Mumps
Autoimmune
Scorpion Venom
Hyperlipidaemia & Hypothermia & Heredity & Ca
ERCP (Common)
Drugs: Asathioprine, Asparaginase, Metacaptopurine,
Penamidine, Didanosine, Thiazide Diuretics
Path
Defective intracellular transport & secretion of pancreatic
zymogens
Reflux of infected bile or duodenal contents into pancreatic duct
e.g. sphincter of Oddi, disruption by gallstones
Hyperstimulation of pancreas, e.g. OH, fat
Pancreatic duct obstruction e.g. choledocholothiasis, tumours
The 4 above lead toPremature activation of zymogen granules

Release of proteases

Digestion of pancreas and surrounding tissue.

S&S
Pain: steady / severe / epigastric / 1-4 hrs post meal / when
leaning forward / Radiates to back
N/V
Guarding / Rebound tenderness (may be retroperitoneal)
Fever
Hypovolaemiaoliguria
Discolouration of
Flanks (Grey Turners sign- Also AAA Rupture , RTA)
Periumbilical region (Cullens sign- Due to Enzymes)
Erythema Albigme: Skin that is chronically exposed to infrared

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DDx

Inv /
Dx

Tx

Comp

radiation e.g. Hot Water bottle which may relieve pain. More
often with Chronic Pancreatitis.
Biliary Colic, Cholecystitis, PUD, Perforated viscus, Small bowel
obstruction, Abdo , Dissecting aneurysm, Renal colic, DKA, Ectop
pregnancy rupture, Mesenteric ischaemia / thrombosis
O2 & ABC

Ca
: Due to Lipase combining with it
during digestion of tissue (Like soap!)
LDH

Amylase
> 1000: biliary disease
200-500: OH pancreatitis
WCC

Glucose

Urea

Transaminase

AXR
Exclude perforation / obstruction
US / CT
Pancreatic Swelling (GS, Biliary
obstruction), Peripancreatic Fluid
ESR / CRP

GLASGOW CRITERIA- > 3 = Severe (PANCREAS)

Other score systems: Ranson Criteria; APACHE II

PO2
<8kPa

Age
>55

Neutrophils
> 15 x109 / litre (WBCs)

Calcium
< 2 mmol/l

Renal Function
>16 mmol/l ((Urea after rehydration))

Enzymes: LDH, ALT

(LDH) > 600 U/I; (ALT) > 200 U/I

Albumin
<32 g/l

Sugars
> 10 mmol/l
NBM (ng tube)
IVI (plasma expanders)
Pethidine (morphine constricts sphincter of oddi)
O2
ABx: Cefuroxime
ERCP: gallstone removal
SYSTEMIC
Shock (Inflammation dilation of blood vessels)
Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS):
Renal failure
Paralytic ileus
Vomiting
Hyperglycaemia (Distruption of islets of Langerhans with
altered insulin/glucagons axis)
Serum albumin conc ( Capillary permeability)
PANCREATIC
Necrosis
Abscess
Pseudocyst: Enzymes breakdown of duct allows juice to
accumulate elsewhere e.g. in the lesser peritoneal sac (B/w
stomach and duodenum). Tx Percutaneous Drainage.
GASTRO INTESTINAL
Upper GI bleeding (Gastric or duodenal erosions)
Variceal haemorrhage and erosion into colon (Splenic or portal
vein thrombosis)
Duodenal obstruction (Compression by pancreatic mass)
Obstructive jaundice (Compression of CBD)

APPENDICITIS
Def

PP

Cause

Path

S&S

WILL WESTON

Inflammation of vermiform appendix

Incidence in 20s & 30s
common - lifetime incidence of 6%
Obstruction of appendix lumen
Obstruction with fecalith
Distension of appendix
lumen pressure
Venous engorgement & ischaemia
Bacterial invasion of wall
Inflammation
Appendicitis
Necrosis
Rupture
Peritonitis
Pain: Central abdo colic as inflammation begins
Pain: shifts to RIF as peritoneum becomes inflamed
Anorexia almost invariable + / - Vomiting
Constipation usual
Diarrhoea may occur.
Tachcardia
Fever- 37.5-38.5
Furred tongue
Lying still
Foetor +/- flushed
Coughing hurts

Shallow breaths
Right Iliac fossa:
Tenderness, guarding
Rebound tenderness
PR- painful on right
ROSEVINGS SIGN: more pain in RIF than LIF when LIF is
pressed.
Rotating a flexed right hip when supine (OBTURATOR SIGN) or
raising a straightened leg against resistance (PSOAS SIGN)
may elicit pain
Gastroenteritis, Perforated Peptic Ulcer, Meckels Diverticulum,
Cholecystitis, Mesenteric lymphadenitis, Intestinal obstruction,
Crohns, Diverticulitis, Renal Colic, Ectopic Pregnancy, Ruptured
ovarian follicle

WBC
AXR
Soft tissue mass
US
Dx if +ve, but not exclusion if ve
CT
Abscess formation
Hx- Pelvic syndromes in
IV fluids
Appendicectomy
Abs- Metronidiazole + Cefuroxime
Perforation Peritonitis / Later Infertility in
Appendix mass
Tx: NBM, Abs, Delayed Appendicectomy
Appendix absess
Tx: Drainage (Laparotomy / PR), ABs

DDx

Inv /
Dx

Tx

Comp

DIVERTICULAR DISEASE
Def
DIVERTICULUM: an outpouching of the wall of gut
DIVERTICULOSIS: that diverticula are present
DIVERTICULITIS: inflammation within a diverticulum
PP
1/3 of Western world have diverticulosis by 60.
Cause

Path
fibre intra abdominal pressure mucosal herniation
S&S
Diverticulosis: Asymptomatic / alternating bowel habit / lower
bowel pain relieved by bowel movement / flatulence
Diverticular Bleed: generally painless / signs of lower GI
bleeding
Diverticulitis:
LIF pain with bowel movement: LIF > RIF Due to more solid
stool intra lumen pressure.
Inflammatory mass in LIF
Tenderness (rebound = perforation)
Fever
DDx
Inv /
PR exam
May reveal most important competing
Dx
diagnoses: Pelvic inflammation, Colonic C
WCC
Diverticulitis
ESR
Triad: LIF pain + fever + leukocytosis
Sigmoidoscopy
Barium enema
Colonoscopy
US / CT
CT may be > useful than US, & plain films
may only be useful in showing vesical
fistulae.
Tx
Avoid Morphine due to colonic spasm
See Comp
Mx
Comp
Diverticulitis known as the LHS Appendicitis i.e. similar complications!
DASH & Follow Pretty Polly
1. PAINFUL DIVERTICULAR DISEASE
bowel habit
Pain: usually colicky, left sided, relieved by defecation
Nausea, Flatulence
TX: fibre diet, Antispasmodics
Surgical resection is occasionally resorted to.
2. DIVERTICULITIS
1 + PYREXIA
WCC
ESR
Tender colon + localised and generalised peritonism
TX: Bed rest, NBM, IV fluids, Antibiotics (metronidazol,
ciprofloxacin)
3. PERFORATION
Ileus, peritonitis +/- shock
Mortality: 40%
Tx: Laparotomy
4. HAEMORRHAGE
Sudden and painless
Common cause of big PR bleeds
Tx: Transfusion may be needed
Tx: Colonic resection

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5. FISTULAE
Colon + small bowel / vagina / bladder (giving
pneumaturia, +/- intractable UTIs)
Tx: Colonic ressection
6. ABSESSES
Swinging fever
Leucocytosis
Boggy rectal mass
Tx: Pelvic absess- drain rectally
Tx: Subphrenic absess giving no signs- urgent US.
Anti biotics with US guided drainage may be needed
7. STRICTURES POST INFECTIVE
May form from the sigmoid colon

Path

OBESITY
Def

PP
Cause

Path
S&S

DDx
Inv /
Dx
Mx
Tx

Comp

In body weight beyond limitation of skeletal / physical

requirement
50% UK overweight, 10% obese
billion a year in treatment costs to the NHS
BEHAVIOURAL
High fat diet
Snacking
OH (Stimulating appetite, Restraint)
Giving up smoking
ENDOCRINE
Hypothyroidism
Cushings
Insulinoma
DRUGS
Antidepressants
COC
Corticosteroids
GENETIC
Prada Willi Sydnrome

Underweight
<18.5
Normal
18.5-24.9
Overweight
25-29.5
Obese
30-39.5
V Obese
>40
Abnormal walk to accommodate their weight- widened stance
stressing the joints Osteoarthritis (hips, knees, and
ankles) Walking even more difficult Low back pain.
Fatigue Physical and social activities
Peripheral Oedema
Sweating (Relatively little body surface for their weight)
Skin disorders (moisture is trapped in skin folds)
Difficulty breathing (Lungs compressed by accumulation of
excess fat below the diaphragm)
Pregnancy, Fluid overload (HF, Nephrotic syndrome, Ascites),
Medication, Endocrine, Muscular development
BMI
Body Mass Index: Weight kg / height m2
GHR
Girth-height ratio (waist circumference divided
by height
Diet & exercise advice (exercise prescription)
Orlistat- Pancreatic / gastric lipases decreased absorption
by 30%
Sibutramine- 5HT agonist, B adrenoreceptors
Vertical Banded Gastroplasty- pouch created from stomach
size + decreased outlet
Gastric Bypass- staple across stomach rendering lower
stomach useless and connects top to small intestine
smaller stomach + less absorption.
Type II Dm- +113%
Hypertension
Stroke -+53%
Hyperlipidaemia
CHD
Gallstones
Especially in women
And non-alcoholic steatohepatitis
Caner risk
Obstructive sleep apnoea
Psychological consequences

CARCINOMA OF THE OESOPHAGUS

PP
7th commonest cause of death from cancer in Worldwide.
Incidence of 15+ in Eng/Wales is 5,736 / year
Incidence worldwide is decreasing (c.f. Gastric C):
Most strongly linked to OH (especially spirits) and smoking.
Distribution: Highest in China, Africa (Esp SAfrica), Iran.
Age: Uncommon before 50. Sex: M>F (7:1)
Risk
LIFESTYLE: Risk .for Squamous Cell Carcinoma i.e. Upper 2/3
OH (20x: Esp Spirits. Latency 15-20 Years)
Smoking: (5x) Synergistic with OH.

WILL WESTON

S&S

DDx
Inv /
Dx

Mx

Prog

SOCIOECONOMIC GROUPS: Group Risk

Dietary deficiencies of Protein, VitC, Riboflavin, Trace elements
PAST MEDICAL HISTORY
Achlasia, Plummer-Vinson syndrome: Oesophageal web
Caustic injury (i.e. Acid ingestion)
HPV and Tylosis palmaris (hyperkeratosis with pitting of palms)
GORD: Highest risk for adenocarcinoma (i.e. Lower 1/3).
Carcinoma commences as nodule Either papilliferous mass
(60%), ulcer (25%), or annular constriction, usually of cardia.
Historically: Majority were squamous. Adenocarcinoma
incidence rising rapidly and now accounts for 50%.
Squamous arises in upper 2/3 of oesophagus.
Adenocarcinoma arises in region of specialised
columnar epithelium (SCE) metaplasia in lower 1/3 Barrett's oesophagus (See below).
BARRETT'S OESOPHAGUS:
Gastric / Intestinal metaplasia of mucosa of distal oesophagus.
Most often acquired condition (Rarely congenital) and
represents important comp of long-standing GO reflux.
In acquired BO, GORD Causes squamous mucosa of
oesophagus Metaplastic Change Squamocolumnar
junction (ora serrata) migrates caudally.
Risk of Oesopageal Cancer x 25-130 / Stricture / Ulcer
Dx: Endoscopy + Bx.
Invasion Progresses from Mucosa Submucosa Muscular
layer Tracheobronchial / Aorta / Recurrent laryngeal nerve.
Metastasise to periesophageal nodes Liver +/or Lungs
Unfortunately, by time first S&S manifest, cancer already
spread to nodes (mediastinal, cervical, celiac) in most.
1) DYSPHAGIA (Solids Liquids)
2) WEIGHT LOSS (50% with osophageal carcinoma).
3) PAIN: Epigastric / retrosternal area. May also be bone pain.
4) HOARSENESS: Recurrent laryngeal nerve invasion (Poor
Prog as unresectable)
5) RESPIRATORY S&S: Aspiration of undigested food; Direct
invasion of tracheobronchial tree (Poor Prog as unresectable).
Lymphadenopathy in laterocervical / supraclavicular areas
represents metastasis and, if confirmed by needle aspiration /
biopsy, is a contraindication to surgery.
Achalasia, Oesophageal Stricture
Barium
First-line after history of dysphagia: Characteristic:
Swallow
Irregular stricture + shouldered margins, 4-10 cm
long and often tortuous; a tracheo-oesophageal
fistula may also be demonstrated
Endo + Bx
Establishes Lesion Hist & Limits.
May be Tx: Dilate, so nutrition before Sx.
Cytology
Wwashing / abrasion Tech (Screening in China)
CT
Met: Mediastinal / Liver
Bronchoscopy
may be needed to exclude bronchial involvement in
upper and middle-third lesions
US
Met: Liver deposits
Management dependent on lesion level and stage of disease.
UPPER THIRD LESION
RadTx ( Dose) indicated for lesions up to 5 cm long.
Vital structures in mediastinum closely related to upper third
make Sx clearance and resection very difficult.
MIDDLE THIRD LESION
RadTx ( Dose) indicated for lesions up to 5 cm long.
Early tumours resectable.
LOWER THIRD LESION
Most accessible surgically; Adenocarcinomas radioresistant.
EXTENSIVE DISEASE Requires Palliation Of Dysphagia:
Endoscopic Laser Surgery for lesions < 8 cm long
Oesophageal Stenting (Celestin tube) for lesions > 8 cm long
Alternatives include: Oesophago-Gastrostomy / OesophagoJejunostomy / Short Course Radiotherapy
Prognosis dependent on the site. 5-year survival figures are:
Upper third tumours have a 20% 5-year survival
Middle third tumours have a 6% 5-year survival
Lower third tumours have a 15% 5-year survival
The prognosis also depends on: Size, Site, Depth, Node/Widespread
Metastases, Tumour grade, Lymphocytic response, General health.

CARCINOMA OF THE STOMACH

PP
4th commonest cause of death from cancer in UK
Following bronchial, colorectal and breast.
Incidence of 15+ in Eng/Wales is 10,227 / year
Incidence worldwide is decreasing (c.f. Oesophageal C):
Improved diet, esp fresh fruit and vegetables. Salt .
Improved housing conditions, e.g. less overcrowding,
transmission of H pylori.
Distribution: East Asia, especially Japanese.
Age: 50 70, but any age. Sex: M>F (Slight)
Anat
Stomach begins at gastroesophageal J. Ends at duodenum.
Stomach has 3 parts, which are semidisctinct histologically:
CARDIA

Uppermost

Mucin-secreting cells

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FUNDUS /
BODY
PYLORUS

Middle
(Largest)
Last

Mucoid, Chief, & Parietal cells.

Mucus-Producing & Endocrine cells

Stomach wall made up of 5 layers. From lumen out:

Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscular, Subserosal, Serosa.
Peritoneum of greater sac covers anterior surface of stomach.
Peritoneal portion of lesser sac drapes posteriorly over
stomach.
Gastroesophageal junction limited or no serosal covering.
R Anterior gastric surface adjacent to left lobe of liver and
anterior abdominal wall.
L Part of stomach adjacent to spleen, left adrenal gland,
superior portion of left kidney, ventral portion of pancreas, and
transverse colon.
Site of lesion classified on basis of relationship to long axis.
40% cancers develop in lower part .CHECK!
40% cancers develop in middle part
15% cancers develop in upper part
10% cancers involve > one part.
Recently, no of lesions discovered in prox stomach +/involving GOJ has increased.
95% Adenocarcinomas. 3 Morphologies with Prog:
Fungating tumours , Malignant ulcers , Infiltrating carcinoma
Vascular supply relates to routes of hematogenous spread.
Vascular supply of stomach is derived from Coeliac artery.
Coeliac A L Gastric A Upper R Stomach.
Common hepatic A R Gastric A Lower Stomach
R gastroepiploic A Lower portion of greater curvature.
Lymphatic drainage relates to areas of nodal involvement.
Lymphatic drainage of stomach is complex.
Primary drainage is along celiac axis.
Minor drainage occurs along splenic hilum, suprapancreatic
nodal groups, porta hepatis, and gastroduodenal areas.
DIET
Risk: Pickled vegetables, Salted Fish, dietary salt,
smoked meats. Risk: Fruit & Vegetables rich in Vit C.
HELICOBACTER PYLORI INFECTION
H pylori infection is assoc with chronic atrophic gastritis
Prolonged gastritis 6x Risk for Gastric cancer.
Assoc for tumours in antrum, body, fundus, BUT not Cardia
PREVIOUS GASTRIC SURGERY
Rationale is surgery alters normal pH of stomach.
GENETIC FACTORS
Poorly understood: Pernicious Anaemia, Blood Gp A

Prog

Screening by regular gastroscopy popular in Japan.

Early endoscopy considered in all dyspepsia > 35 years old
5-year survival after Sx: 30-50% with stage II disease, 10-25% with
stage III disease. Sx Mortality rate at major centres < 3%.

Path

Cause

Path
S&S

DDx
Inv /
Dx

Mx

EARLY DISEASE: No associated S&S;

Indigestion, N&V, Dysphagia, Postprandial Fullness,
Appetite, Weight .
LATE COMPLICATIONS:
EFFUSIONS: Peritoneal & Pleural;
OBSTRUCTION of the gastric outlet, gastroesophageal
junction, or small bowel;
BLEEDING in stomach, O Varices, anastomosis after Sx;
JAUNDICE: Hepatomegaly Intrahepatic. Extrahepatic.
Inanition resulting from starvation or cachexia of tumor origin.
SIGNS RELATE TO LATE EVENTS:
Palpable enlarged stomach with succussion splash
Primary mass (rare)
Enlarged liver,
Virchow (Left supraclavicularaka Troisier's sign)
Sister Mary Joseph Node (Met in umbilicus- Anatomical region
where peritoneum closest to skin. Rare.)
Blumer shelf (PR Met: Growth in recto-uterine/vesical space)
Signs of weight loss
Patients may have pallor from bleeding and anemia.
Oesophageal Cancer, Oesophageal Stricture, Oesophagitis, Gastric
Ulcers, Gastritis, Gastroenteritis, , Lymphoma, Malignant Neoplasms
of Small Intestine
Endos + Bx
investigation of choice
Barium Meal
Space Occupying Mass
Rigidity Of Adjacent Gastric Wall
Greater Curve Ulcer
Ulcer with irregular borders and disruption of
normal mucosal folds
Contracted, non-distensible stomach
Fundic tumours difficult to evaluate because
of poor filling
Mets?
CXR. LFTS, Liver US,
FBC & FOB
Anaemia: 50%; FOB +ve in vast majority
Sx: (Partial / Total gastrectomy) is only curative Tx.
Palliation: Radiotherapy and chemotherapy are ineffective
Palliation: May also best served surgically. Esp if obstruction /
dysphagia is complication.
Other procedures inc gastrojejunostomy, placing plastic tube at
site of constriction in those with very short life-expectancy.

WILL WESTON

COLON CANCER
Def
3 principal cell biological processes which underlie the development of
cancer: Mutation, Proliferation, Apoptosis
PP
2nd most common cause of C
Incidence: 50-60 / 100 000 UK, 30 000 cases per year
Rare in Africa and Asia (Environmental differences)
In West, life risk 1:50 (1:17 with 1st degree relative)
Synchronous (> than 1) tumours present in 2% cases
Rectal > , Right Sided >
Risk
Diet: Fat Fibre
Cancer Previously
Ulcerative Colitis
Neoplastic Polyps
DNA
Familial risk
Age esp > 50
CUFF
Familial Polyposis
FP is Autosomal Dominant
Histologically, 3 Types of Adenomatous Polyp: Villous / TubularVillous [Most common] / Tubular (In order of Most potential for
Malignant )
Path
Dukes grading of Colorectal Cancer
A Tumour confined to bowel wall (adenocarcinoma) (95%)
B Tumour extending through bowel wall
C Regional lymph nodes involved
D Distant Metastasis (e.g. Liver)
S&S
Mass
Obstruction: N/V, Tachycardia, Sweating, o BS
Perforation
Haemorrhage
Fistulae
Fatigue
Lymphadenopathy- groin
+ RHS = WAP
+ LHS = PowerPoint (PPT)
Weight
In bowel habit
Anaemia
PR Bleeding
Pain- Abdominal
PR Mass
Tenesmus
DDx
Inv /
Fe Def Anaemia in Old = Col until proven otherwise
Dx
FBC + Faecal Oc Bl
Anaemia
LFTs/ Liv US/ CXR
Liver / Lung Secondaries
PR / Protoscopy
Mass
Sigmoidoscopy / Barium Enema
1/3 Tumours detected
Colonoscopy (+ Bx)
Most specific and sensitive
Scrn
SCREENING- Bowel Cancer Screening Programme 04/2006.
All (60-69) send FOB every 2 yrs. Potential to Mort by 20%
Positive Colonocopy (/ Barium E / Flexible Sigmoidoscopy).
TWO TYPES OF FOB Test:
Guaiaco: Dietary restrictions (no red meat, fresh fruit,
iron, Vit C, aspirin or other non-steroidal rheumatic
drugs for 3 /7 before). Requires 3 Evacuations.
Immunochemical: Requires only 1 Evacuation.
Mx
Dukes A::
Colonic Resection (Colonoscopy
6/12 later)
Dukes B:
Dukes C:
Colonic Resection + Chemo
Dukes D:
Palliative Care
Prog

CARCINOMA OF THE RECTUM

PP
M=F; 1/3 Intestinal tumours. Affects > 20s, Mostly 50-70s.
Risk
Ulcerative colitis, familial polyposis and pre-existing adenoma.
Path
Majority Adenocarcinomas. May also be colloidal or papilliferous.
S&S
See CCC- Colon Cancer: LHS S&S
DDx
Benign rectal tumour, Carcinoma of sigmoid (prolapsed through pouch
of Douglas), Uterine / Ovarian Tumours, Secondaries In Pelvis
Extension From Prostatic / Cervical Carcinoma, Endometriosis,

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Inv /
Dx

Spred

Mx
Prog

Diverticular Disease, Lymphogranuloma Inguinale, Amoebic

Granuloma
PR
PR reveals carcinoma 90% of time.
Sigmoid
+ Bx
Barium E
Indicated if: growth not visible on Sigmoidoscopy, 2 nd
tumour suspected, Hx of UC / Familial Polyposis.
Rectal US

Mets?
FBC, U&Es, LFTs, CXR, Liv US, IVU,
DIRECT
Bowel Lumen, Muscular Wall, Adjacent
Organs, e.g. prostate, bladder, vagina, etc
LYMPHATIC
Inf Mes nodes. Later: Iliac / Groin / Sup Clav
HAEMATOGENOUS
Liver / Lungs
TRANSCOELOMIC
Peritoneal Cavity Seeding
Usually Surgical. RadTx / ChemoTx if Palliative
See CCC- Colon Cancer (Dukes Staging)

SCLEROSING CHOLANGITIS (PRIMARY)

Def
PRIMARY (See below): Characterised by chronic inflammation +
fibrosis of bile duct.
SECONDARY - Bile duct strictures that result from:
Bile Duct Stones
Post-Operative - Especially postcholecystectomy
Inf: Cryptosporidium, Microsporidia, CMV in AIDS
PP
Rare disease. Unknown aetiology. M>F (7:3)
Assoc
Assoc: 75% Cases assoc with IBD (Esp UC: 3-4% Cases).
Also: Retroperitoneal Fibrosis, Sarcoidosis, Riedel's thyroiditis.
S&S
Obstructive Jaundice
Inv
LFTs , Bx, ERCP, AutoAbdies
Mx
Tx S&S. Ursodeoxycholic acid. Sx / Transplant
Comp
End Stage Liver Disease.
Biliary Strictures, Infective Cholangitis, Cholangiocarcinoma.
Prog
Mean survival for all patients is 7 years
BILIARY CIRRHOSIS (PRIMARY)
Def
PRIMARY: (See Below) Autoimmune disorder marked by chronic
inflammation of intrahepatic bile ducts.
Aka Destructive Sclerosing Cholangitis. Aka Cholangiolitis
SECONDARY results from obstruction of the extrahepatic ducts.
Bile Duct Strictures, Gallstones, Sclerosing Cholangitis
PP
Rare disease. Unknown aetiology. F>M (9:1). Rare under 30.
Assoc
Autoimmune Thyroiditis, Sjogren's syndrome, CREST
syndrome, Scleroderma, RA, Fibrosing Alveolitis
Path
Both Primary & Secondary Micronodular hepatic cirrhosis.
S&S
Pruritus & Fatigue. Later S&S include jaundice & abdo pain.
Inv /
LFTs & Lipids
( HDL)
Dx
Liv Bx
Diagnostic
Antibodies
95% have anti-mitochondrial autoantibodies
ERCP
Exclude other pathology.
TFTs
T4
Mx
Tx S&S. Ursodeoxycholic acid. Sx / Transplant
Prog
Survival from 5-20 years depending on time of presentation.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO (PSC AND PBC)
PSC: Bile duct changes both intra- and extrahepatic
PSC: Antimitochondrial antibodies (AMA) absent
PSC: 8090% of patients also have IBD disease
PSC: Predominantly affects men
PSC: May also affect children and adolescents
BOWEL INFARCTION (Chronic & Acute)
Def
Ischaemic bowel disease may be acute or chronic.
Most cases result from arterial occlusion, usually of SMA.
Small bowel affected uncommonly.
Ischaemic injury to large bowel known as Ischaemic Colitis.
Anat:
Coeliac Axis
Duodenum (1st Part)
Blood
SMA
From Duodenum (2nd Part) Splenic Flexure of
Large Bowel.
IMA
Splenic Flexure of Large Bowel Prox Rectum
Int Iliac artery
Distal Rectum
Branches
Phy
Potential areas of ischaemia are watershed between supplies
SPLENIC FLEXURE
RECTOSIGMOID REGION
Normally, intra-abdominal digestive organs receive 25% of CO.
Hypotension causes mesenteric arterial occlusion with shunting
of blood to heart and brain. Bowel can tolerate a 70% in
blood supply without damage. Mucosa is most vulnerable area;
muscularis propria, the least.
Ischaemia, i.e. an inadequate blood supply, results in tissue
hypoxia and accumulation of toxic waste products, which may
cause tissue necrosis, i.e. infarction.
Degree of bowel damage sustained depends upon:
Rapidity of ischaemia and its duration
Extent of any collaterals
Metabolic requirements of the area affected
Nature of bowel flora e.g. anaerobes such as Clostridia
species may produce toxins that accentuate damage

WILL WESTON

Path

Pathological features depend on severity of ischaemia.

Affected bowel appears red / purple. Often moist and dilated
with friable often haemorrhagic mucosa. Wall may tear easily
and perforate.
In less severe lesions, there is mucosal necrosis which is
reversible. mucosa regenerates if blood supply can be restored.
In more severe injury, muscularis propria is damaged. Any
healing results in stricture.
Class
Divided into the following
CHRONIC MESENTERIC ISCHAEMIA (Uncommon)
Cause
Atherosclerotic narrowing of main mesenteric arteries.
Blood supply to gut adequate during rest but inadequate during
active digestion.
S&S
Colicky, Epigastric pain (30-60 mins after food); Relieved by
defaecation; Food fear Weight; abdominal bruit
Dx
Angiography / Duplex ultrasound.
Tx
Surgical reconstruction of of mesenteric arteries.
Prog
40% recurrence rate (Even With 3 Vessel reconstruction)
ACUTE: SUPERIOR MESENTERIC ARTERY OCCLUSION
Cause
Thromboembolic arterial occlusion
Mesenteric venous occlusion
Systemic vasculitis (e.g. RA, SLE, PAN, Takayasu's arteritis)
Cardiovascular causes (Shock, CCF, MI, AAA)
Secondary to intestinal obstruction
Strangulated hernia
Intussusception: Usually in children
Volvulus: Usually small bowel or sigmoid colon
S&S
HX: Classically elderly + PMHx of Cardiac or arterial disease..
PAIN: Sudden, severe colicky abdominal pain. Occasionally,
pain is vague and insidious.
VOMITING & DIARRHOEA can develop, and both may have a
bloody element due to slow haemorrhage into bowel lumen
Minimal initially with pain out of proportion to examination
findings. However, as necrosis passes outwards from the
mucosa, GUARDING, TENDERNESS, abdominal
DISTENSION and an absence of bowel sounds are apparent.
SHOCK is a late sign.
DDx

Inv /
Diagnosis is often too late as clinical presentation often deceptive:
Dx
Signs deceptively sparse and Inv usually inconclusive at an early
stage. Should always be suspected in arteriopath who develops
unexplained abdominal pain. Prompt laparotomy to search for 'pale
and pulseless' bowel is best policy.
FBC
May show leucocytosis
U&Es
Mildly serum amylase
inorganic phosphate = Intestinal infarction
Metabolic acidosis
Imaging
AXR: Absence of bowel gas at first; later,
appearances of ileus, mucosal oedema and gas in
bowel wall and portal vein
Mesenteric angiography: often Dx, but difficult to do
in moribund patient
Tx
TX ANY UNDERLYING CONDITION, e.g. AF (Caution as
digitalization Splanchnic vasoconstriction)
CORRECT SHOCK: IV fluid (Monitor with CVP and Urine OP)
BICARBONATE may be needed to correct acidosis
ABx Pre-operatively, e.g. cefuroxime 750mg / 6 hourly
INTRA-ARTERIAL INFUSION of papaverine via angiogram
catheter may relieve some of associated arterial spasm
ANALGESIA
SURGERY: Lapartomy Reverisible / Irreversible Ischaemia
(Resection / Stoma)
ISCHAEMIC COLITIS
Cause
Same as Acute: Superior Mesenteric Artery Occlusion
S&S
Hx: Vascular disease, Dm, Sx: Aneurysm, Sx: Ligation of IMA
PAIN: Cramp-like, LHS abdominal pain which lasts for a few
hours, and followed by
RECTAL BLEEDING: Dark red, often without faeces, and may
occur 2-3 times over 12 hours.
NO ABDOMINAL MASSES.
DDx
May be difficult to distinguish bleeding of ischaemic colitis from that
due to IBD, Diverticulitis or Carcinoma
Inv /
AXR
Mucosal oedema at splenic flexure, (thumb printing); A single
Dx
segment is affected with symmetrical stricture
B/En
Support x-ray; C/I in acute illness (risk of perforation)
Endo
Variable appearance from mild reddening to gangrene
Hist
Intramucosal haemorrhage, Fibrosis, Haemosiderin (rare).

IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME

Def
Functional GI disorder characterized by abdominal pain and altered
bowel habits in the absence of specific and unique organic pathology.
PP
Prevalence: 10 -15% of Gen population. 20-30% Consult GP.
F>M (2:1); Constipation predominant sufferers > common in F.
Annual incidence 1-2%. Prevalence varies minimally with age.
Cause
Assoc: Panic disorder, Major Depression, Anxiety Disorder,
Hypochondriasis, Fibromyalgia
Path
Traditionally, a Dx of exclusion. No specific motility / structural

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S&S

DDx

Inv /
Dx
Mx

Prog

correlates have been consistently demonstrated, so IBS remains a

clinically defined illness.
Rome II Criteria for Dx require patients must have following
continuous or recurrent symptoms for at least 3 months over 1 year:
ABDOMINAL PAIN or discomfort characterized by following:
Relieved by defecation
Assoc with change in stool frequency
Assoc with change in stool consistency
SUPPORTING SYMPTOMS include the following:
Altered stool frequency
Altered stool form
Altered stool passage
Mucorrhea
Abdominal bloating or subjective distention
IN MORE DETAIL:
Pain frequently diffuse without radiation.
Common sites of pain include lower abdomen (Esp LLQ)
Symptoms may worsen in the perimenstrual period.
Overall healthy appearance, but may be anxious.
S&S NOT CONSISTENT WITH IBS i.e. ORGANIC PATHOLOGY:
Onset in middle age or older
Acute symptoms: IBS is defined by chronicity.
Progressive symptoms, Nocturnal symptoms
Anorexia or weight loss, Fever, Rectal bleeding
Painless diarrhea, Steatorrhea, Lactose / Gluten Intolerance
Most Important are: Coeliac Disease, Colorectal Carcinoma, Colitis.
Biliary Colic, Chronic Mesenteric Ischemia, Diverticulitis,
Hypercalcemia, Hyperthyroidism, Hypothyroidism, Lactose
Intolerance, Pancreatitis- Chronic, PUD.
Useful to screen for inflammation and other pathology: FBC, ESR,
CRP, LFTs. Others: TFTs, FOB, Anti-endomysial antibody
Explanation and symptomatic relief helps 75% patients
FIBRE CONTENT
Dietary fibre should be gradually . Soluble
fibre e.g. isphaghula may benefit 40%. (Bran
may be no better than placebo).
ANTISPASMODICS
Anti-muscarinic actions may relieve pain by
(Esp mebeverine
moderating smooth-muscle contractions.
hydrochloride)
PEPPERMINT OIL
For colonic spasm and bloating
BULK-FORMING
For constipation
AGENTS
LOPERAMIDE
For diarrhoea
OTHERS
TCA: (Anticholinergic effect)
Hypnotherapy, CBT
Exclusion diet may help e.g. wheat flour, dairy produce, tea, coffee,
citrus fruits, nuts, chocolate, food colourings, additives.
Benign condition with an excellent long-term prognosis.
85% virtually symptom-free in short term
68% still virtually symptom-free 5 years later
Tx response better in: F>M; Cnstipation > Diarrhoea; Short Hx;
< 50% Post-infective / non-infective IBS recover over 6 years

COELIAC DISEASE (aka Celiac Sprue, aka Gluten-Sensitive Enteropathy)

Def
Chronic disease of digestive tract that interferes with digestion and
absorption of gluten (protein in wheat, rye, barley, &, sometimes oats)
PP
INCIDENCE
1:3000.
AGE
Bimodal: 8-12/12 & 3rd 4th Decades.
SEX
F>M (Slight)
DISTRIBUTION
W Europe, Aust, USA.
RACE
Rare in Africans / Asians.
FHx
10% Prevalence in 1st Degree Relatives.
Cause

Path
Ingestion of gluten Immunologically mediated inflammatory
response Damage to intestinal mucosa (Absence of intestinal villi
and lengthening of intestinal crypts characterize mucosal lesions in
untreated celiac sprue) Maldigestion & malabsorption.
S&S
GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOMS:
DIARRHOEA: Common. Watery / Semiformed / Steatorrhoea.
Characteristic foul smell. May Electolyte Complications.
FLATULENCE: Due to bacterial florae feasting on undigested &
unabsorbed food materials.
WEIGHT LOSS: Variable- Some patients may compensate for
the malabsorption by dietary intake. Failure to gain weight is
common in infants and young children.
WEAKNESS AND FATIGUE: Usually related to general poor
nutrition. Severe anaemia Fatigue. Hypokalemia due to the
loss of potassium in the stool Muscle Weakness.
ABDOMINAL BLOATING: Pain unusual with uncomplicated CD.
However, bloating / cramps with excessive flatus.
EXTRA GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOMS:
ANAEMIA: Absorption of iron / folate from Small bowel. If
severe CD with ileal involvement, May be B12 absorption.
BLEEDING: Vit K Absorption Prothrombin deficiency.
OSTEOPENIA: Ca Absorption Bone pain
NEUROLOGIC S&S: Ca Absorption Motor weakness,
Paresthesias with sensory loss, and ataxia. Seizures might
develop because of cerebral calcifications.

WILL WESTON

SKIN: Dermatitis herpetiformis (pruritic papulo-vesicular on

extensors of extremities, trunk, buttocks, scalp, neck).
HORMONAL: Amenorrhea, Delayed Menarche, Infertility in
women. Impotence and infertility in men.
SIGNS:
ABDOMEN: Protuberant and tympanic due to distension of
intestinal loops with fluids & gas. Possible ascites due to severe
hypoproteinemia.
WEIGHT LOSS: Inc muscle wasting or loose skin folds
OTHERS: Orthostatic Hypotension, Peripheral oedema,
Ecchymoses, Hyperkeratosis or dermatitis herpetiformis,
Cheilosis and glossitis, peripheral neuropathy
SIGNS OF LATENT TETANY:
CHVOSTEK SIGN: Tapping course of facial nerve
Contraction of muscles of eye, mouth or nose.
TROUSSEAU SIGN (Neuromuscular excitability due
to Ca Spasms): Compression of forearm
Thumb is adducted, Fingers bunched, Wrist flexed.
Gastroenteritis, Giardiasis, Hypoalbuminemia, Hypocalcemia,
Hypokalemia, Hypomagnesemia, Hypothyroidism, IBD, Iron
Deficiency Anemia, IBS, Malabsorption
Bloods
Blood Film: Iron deficiency. B12 / Folate . MCV ,
PTT (Vit K )
Biochem
Liver Function - hypoalbuminaemia in severely ill
Ferritin, Vitamin D, Calcium may be reduced
Carbohydrate Malabsorption - Confirmed XTT, HBT.
Bx
Jejunal biopsy: Demonstrates characteristic histological
lesion (See Path: Partial / subtotal villous atrophy).
Gluten Free Diet 2nd Bx at 9-12/12 N Mucosa.
Immune
Gold Standard: Endomysial antibodies
Also, IgA antibodies to gliadin in 80-90%.
Imaging
Barium Follow Through: Mucosal oedema & thickened
jejunal folds. US: May show splenic atrophy.
RGC
Rectal gluten challenge: Instill 10 g gluten into rectum;
Bx shows T lymphocytes in sensitised individuals
XTT
Xylose Absorption Test: D-xylose is pentose sugar
(Ingestion Jejunal absorption Excreted
unchanged in urine). Absorption of xylose is measure
of intestine's ability to absorb monosaccharides.
Absorption assessed from urine specimens collected.
HBT
Hydrogen Breath Test: Dx malabsorption of specific
carbohydrates. Sugars malabsorbed in SB pass to LB
& metabolised by COLONIC bacteria Hydrogen
(diffuses rapidly across mucosa into blood Can be
measured in breath. Test commonly used to Dx lactose
intolerance but may be used to detect rarer conditions
GLUTEN-FREE DIET:
Gluten found in wheat, rye, barley but not in rice and maize.
Oats - whether toxic to patients with CD remains controversial.
COUNSELLING:
Explaining disease, importance of diet (with regard to comps)
CLINIC FOLLOW-UP TO:
Check For Symptoms. FBC, Folate and iron
Manage assoc problems, e.g. dermatitis herpetiformis
Detect And Manage complications.
Failure to respond may be a result of:
Dietary Lapse - Monitor Anti-Endomysial Antibodies
Associated Lactose Intolerance due to mucosal damage
Vitamin Or Mineral Deficiency - Zn, Cu
Concurrent Pancreatic Insufficiency
Development Of Malignancy
Incorrect Original Diagnosis
Lymphomas of GI Tract
Adenocarcinomas of GI tract
Small bowel carcinoma: 80x Risk
Oesophageal carcinoma (< commonly- bladder, breast, brain)
Splenic Atrophy
Miscarriage / baby with a congenital malformation in untreated
pregnant women.
Short stature due to nutrient absorption during childhood
when nutrition is critical to growth and development.

DDx
Inv /
Dx

Mx

Comp

Risk
of

ASCITES: DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSES

Def
Abnormal collection of fluid in peritoneal cavity.
Gravity Collection in flanks of supine pt:
When > 2 L accumulated Percussion dull in flanks.
As fluid , dullness is detectable closer to the middle
line + abdominal distension + umbilical inversion
An area of central resonance will always persist.
Cause
Classified with respect to protein content of peritoneal fluid.
Trans:
Result of hydrostatic pressure forcing fluid out of blood vessels.
<3g
HEART: Cardiac Failure, Constrictive Pericarditis, Tricuspid Inc
Prot /
HYPOPROTEINAEMIA: Nephrotic Synd, Liver F, Budd Chiari.
100ml
Ovarian Tumours, e.g. Meig's syndrome (also pleural effusion)
Exud:
INTRA-ABDOMINMAL CANCER: (Liver C, Mesothelioma)
> 3g
INFECTION: Pyogenic, Tuberculosis (Tuberculous Peritonitis)

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Prot /
100ml
Other

Path
DDx
Inv /
Dx

Mx

Comp

INFLAMMATION: Pancreatitis
IMMUNOLOGICAL: Lymphoedema
Myxoedema
Chylous ascites occurs with massive obstruction of abdominal
lymphatic drainage. It is a milky white ascites, rich in
chylomicrons from mesenteric lymphatics. Usually 2o to
malignant involvement of para-aortic lymph nodes by
lymphoma or metastatic testicular tumour.
Less frequently, it is caused by:
Primary Fistula Tx: Close with nonabsorbable sutures
Primary lymphatic disease
Other secondary causes:
Post-radiation obstruction
Postoperative - very rarely
When surgery is unsuccessful use Leveen shunt

Tx

Prog

scintigraphy
30% small and single tumours can be localised and resected.
PPIs heal ulcers and relieve symptoms: > N dose required
Octreotide injections: Reduces gastrin secretion
5 year survival is 60-75%

Abdo Distension: Fat, Fluid, Flatus, Faeces, Foetus, F**kin big tumour
US
Para30 - 50 ml Fluid withdrawn.
Cenesis
Protein content: Albumin & Total Protein
Malignant cells, Bacteria, WBCs, Glucose
If WCC, i.e. > 250/mm cubed, which is predominantly
polymorphs, suggestive of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis..
> One type of organism suggests possible bowel perforation or
contaminated sample.
Serum-Ascites Albumin Gradient: Calculated by subtracting
[albumin] of ascitic fluid from [albumin] of serum specimen
obtained on same day. Gradient of > 1.1 g / dL = Portal HT.
Amylase
Pancreatic ascites & gut perforation in peritoneal cavity
Smear
Tuberculous smear and culture
Management in Cirrhosis
Para-Cenesis then whether ascites is Tense / Non Tense
TENSE:
Therapeutic Paracentesis (4-6L)
+/- Albumin (Acts as volume expander)
Then Move to Non Tense Mx
NON TENSE:
Rest, Salt, Spironolactone Weight (0.5kg/day)
If not enough Spironolactone +/- Frusemide.
Le Veen shunt (Peritoneo-Venous) for chronic cases.
If fluid contains > 250 WBC/mm3 Empirical broad spec Abx
Respiratory embarrassment when large volume ascites present
Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, esp in cirrhosis; suspect if
ascitic fluid leukocyte count is 500 /microlitre, or if > than 250
polymorphonuclear cells / microlitre

ZOLLINGER ELLISON SYNDROME

Def
Rare disorder. Characteristics
Severe peptic ulceration
Gastric acid hypersecretion
Non beta cell islet tumour of pancreas (gastrinoma)
PP
0.1% of duodenal ulcers. Either sex. Any age (> common at 30-50)
Cause
Path
Gastrinoma secretes gastrin

Stimulating parietal cells to secrete acid and proliferate 3-6 fold

So much acid that it reaches small intestine

Reducing lumen pH to <2

Pancreatic lipase inactivated

Bile salts precipitated

Diarrhoea and steatorrhoea

S&S

DDx
Inv /
Dx

90% tumours in pancreatic head / prox duodenal wall (>

common). Tumour size varies from 1mm 20cm
> 50% multiple Approx 1/2 2/3 malignant but slow growing
20-60% pts have adenomas of parathyroid and pituitary glands
Peptic ulcers: Multiple, Severe, May occur in unusual sites:
Post bulbar duodenum, Jejunum, Oesophagus
Poor response to standard therapy
Short Hx
Bleeding and perforation common
Diarrhoea in 1/3 pts
Barium meal showing abnormally coarse gastric mucosal folds

Aspiration
Serum
Other
Imaging

WILL WESTON

Gastric Asp: Confirms hypersecretion of acid

Serum gastrin levels (10-1000 fold)
Secretin inj does little / nothing to gastrin levels in N
pts: With Syndrome there is paradoxical in gastrin
Tumour localisation:
Endoscopic ultrasound
Radio labelled somatostatin receptor

DONT FORGET: http://www.uwgi.org/guidelines/main.htm

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