Boiling and Condensation: Mihir Sen University of Notre Dame

BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Mihir Sen
University of Notre Dame
September 29, 2010
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Outline
1 Outline
2 Overview
3 Boiling
Pool boiling
Flow boiling
4 Condensation
Dropwise condensation
Film condensation
5 Boilers
6 Condensers
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Overview
Overview
Boiling: heat is transferred to the liquid to be vaporized
Condensation: heat is transferred from the vapor to be
condensed
In thermodynamics, phase change at constant pressure
occurs without temperature change. The difference in
enthalpy is the latent heat of transformation hf g
In reality, heat transfer is due to temperature differences
Boiling and condensation can achieve very high heat
transfer rates qs for small differences in temperature
(Ts T )
Convective heat transfer coefficient is high (2500100,000
W/m2 K) according to Newtons law of cooling
q = h(Ts T )
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Boiling
Boiling
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Boiling
Boiling at a solid surface
The thermodynamical saturation temperature is

determined by the liquid pressure.
Boiling is possible when the surface temperature Ts exceeds
the saturation temperature Tsat .
Excess temperature Te = Ts Tsat
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Boiling
Types of boiling
Pool boiling
Flow boiling
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Boiling
Pool boiling
Pool boiling
Nukiyama (1934) identified different regimes in pool boiling

Measured Te vs. qs in a submerged wire
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Boiling
Pool boiling
Boiling curve
Below A: free convection

ONB: onset of nucleate
boiling
AC: nucleate boiling (AB:
isolated bubbles, BC: jets
and columns
C: critical heat flux qmax

CD: transition boiling
D: Leidenfrost point
Above D: film boiling
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Boiling
Pool boiling
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Boiling
Pool boiling
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jcXVLMjWvsc
Nucleate boiling
Isolated bubbles: bubbles form at nucleation sites and
separate from the surface; fluid mixing induces increasing
convective heat transfer
Jets or columns: More nucleation sites are activated;
densely populated bubble jets at the surface inhibit liquid
motion; convective heat transfer coefficient begins to
decrease.
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Boiling
Pool boiling
Nucleation sites
11/ 36

Boiling
Pool boiling
Nucleate boiling
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Boiling
Pool boiling
Nucleate boiling correlations
Nu = CRem P r n
r
D
g(l v )
3

cl Te
g(l v ) 1/2
q = l hf g
Cs hf g P rln
Nu = Nusselt number
l = liquid
v = vapor
D = diameter of bubble
c = specific heat at
constant pressure
C = empirical constant
= surface tension
coefficient
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Boiling
Pool boiling
Critical heat flux (CHF)
This is the highest heat flux that is safe to operate at
qmax
= Chf g v
g(l v )
2v
1/4
C is an empirical constant that depends on geometry
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Boiling
Pool boiling
Transition boiling
Bubble formation is so rapid that a vapor film forms on the

surface
The state oscillates between film and nucleate boiling
The heat flux decreases during this mode, because the
thermal conductivity of vapor is much lower than liquid
At Leidenfrost point
qmin
= 0.09hf g v
g(l v )
(l + v )2
1/4
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Boiling
Pool boiling
Film boiling
The surface is completely covered by a vapor blanket

Heat transfer is only by conduction and radiation through
the vapor
As the surface increases in temperature radiation heat
transfer ( T 4 ) dominates and heat flux increases
Surface temperature becomes very high and damage or
softening may occur
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Boiling
Pool boiling
Nucleate boiling
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ALfwp6D3lmU&feature=related
Leidenfrost effect
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gjsMV1MglA4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6NiZlFNXPlw&feature=related
Critical heat flux
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NO3I5MGErOE
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Boiling
Pool boiling
Other factors
Gravitational field; CHF 0 as g 0

Rotation in machinery; artificial g
Surface roughness: nucleation site density increases with
roughness.
Enhanced boiling surfaces can be used
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Boiling
Pool boiling
Enhanced boiling surface

Koratkar (RPI), 2008
A scanning electron microscope

shows copper nanorods deposited
on a copper substrate. Air trapped
in the forest of nanorods helps to
dramatically boost the creation of
bubbles and the efficiency of
boiling, which in turn could lead to
new ways of cooling computer chips
as well as cost savings for any
number of industrial boiling
application.
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Boiling
Flow boiling
Flow boiling
Depends greatly on geometry and orientation

External flow: over heated plates or cylinders
heat in
Internal (duct) flow: in piping; sometimes called

two-phase flow
flow
vertical, internal
heat in
flow
horizontal, internal
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Boiling
Flow boiling
External flow boiling correlations

Low velocity
"

#
qmax
4 1/3
1
1+
=
v hf g V
We
High velocity
(l /v )3/4
(l /v )1/2
qmax
=
+
v hf g V
169
19.2We 1/3
Weber number
We =
v V 2 D
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Boiling
Flow boiling
Two phase flow in ducts
Flow regimes
Single-phase liquid
Bubbly flow
Slug flow
Annular flow
Annular flow with
entrainment
Drop flow
Single-phase vapor
22/ 36

Boiling
Flow boiling
Patterns in two phase flow
23/ 36

Boiling
Flow boiling
Two phase flow correlations

X = average mass fraction of vapor in fluid (quality)
h
= 0.6683
hsp
l
v
0.1
X 0.16 (1 X)0.64 f (Fr )

+ 1058
q
m
hf g
0.7
(1 X)0.8 Gs,f
Froude number
Fr =
m
2 1
l gD
Stratification parameter f (Fr ); for horizontal tubes

f (Fr ) = 2.63Fr 0.3
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Condensation
Condensation
25/ 36

Condensation
Types of condensation
Surface condensation
Dropwise condensation: higher heat transfer rate
Film condensation: lower heat transfer rate
Homogeneous condensation, e.g. like in a fog

Direct contact condensation: vapor condenses at a
vapor-liquid interface.
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Condensation
left dropwise
right film
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Condensation
Dropwise condensation
Dropwise condensation correlation
Steam on copper (SI units)

(
51, 104 + 2044Tsat [ C]
h=
255, 510
for 22 C < Tsat < 100 C

for 100 C < Tsat
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Condensation
Film condensation
Film condensation correlations
Laminar film on vertical plate

V
Nu L =
hL L
kl
= 0.943
gravity
"
l g(l v )hf g L3
l kl (Tsat Ts )
#1/4
hf g = hf g + 0.68cp,l (Tsat Ts )
L = liquid
V = vapor
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Condensation
Film condensation
Turbulent film on vertical plate
#3/4
"
kl L(Tsat Ts )
3.78
for Re < 30
l hf g ( 2 /g)1/3
#0.82
"
3.70kl L(Tsat Ts )
Re =
for 30 < Re < 1800
+
4.8
l hf g ( 2 /g)1/3
#4/3
"
0.069kl L(Tsat Ts ) 0.5

0.5
for Re > 1800

Pr 151Pr l + 253
l hf g ( 2 /g)1/3
1/3
1.47Re
for Re < 30
Re
hL (l2 /g)1/3
for 30 < Re < 1800
= 1.08Re 1.22
5.2
kl
Re
for Re > 1800
8750 + 58Pr 0.5

(Re 0.75
253)
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Boilers
Boilers
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Boilers
Types
Fossil fuel boilers
Nuclear boilers
Solar boilers
Waste heat recovery boilers
32/ 36

Boilers
Types of boilers
Water-tube or fire-tube
Natural or forced circulation
Subcritical or supercritical pressure
33/ 36

Boilers
Design considerations
Heat flux is controlled not the temperature, so there is a
danger of film boiling
CHF must be accurately pre-determined
Boiling crisis
The pipe temperature needs to be monitored to prevent
this
Occurs due to two mechanisms
Local metal temperature rises to levels where the creep life
is rapidly exceeded
Rapid corrosion occurs due high concentrations of dissolved
solids at the steam-water interface.
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Condensers
Condensers
Types
Direct contact
Spray
Barometric and jet
Surface condensers
Single pass
Multipass
barometric
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Condensers
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BOILING AND CONDENSATION