Problem Set 1

Problem Set 1
FRW: Geometry and Dynamics
Warm-Up Problems
(a) What is conformal time? Why is it useful?
(b) How do the energy densities in radiation (r ), matter (m ) and a cosmological constant ( )
evolve with the scale factor a(t)?
(c) What is a(t) for a flat universe dominated by radiation, matter or a cosmological constant?
(d) What is the redshift of matter-radiation equality if r = 9.4 105 and m = 0.32?
(e) What is H01 in sec and in cm?
1. De Sitter Space
(a) Show in the context of expanding FRW models that if the combination + 3P is always
positive, then there was a Big Bang singularity in the past. [Hint: A sketch of a(t) vs. t
may be helpful.]
(b) Derive the metric for a positively curved FRW model (k = +1) with only vacuum energy (P = ):

ds2 = dt2 `2 cosh2 (t/`) d2 + sin2 d2 .
Does this model have an initial Big Bang singularity?
2. Friedmann Equation
Consider a universe with pressureless matter, cosmological constant and spatial curvature.
(a) Show that the Friedmann equation can be written as the equation of motion of a particle
moving in one dimension with total energy zero and potential
V (a) =
4G m,0 k 2
+ a .
3
a
2
6
Sketch V (a) for the following cases: i) k = 0, < 0, ii) k = 1, = 0, and iii) k = 0,
> 0. Assuming that the universe starts with da/dt > 0 near a = 0, describe the
evolution in each case. Where applicable determine the maximal value of the scale factor.
(b) Now consider the case k > 0, = 0. Normalise the scale factor to be unity today (a0 1)
to find that k = H02 (m,0 1). Rewrite the Friedmann equation in conformal time and
confirm that the following is a solution
a( ) =
h
i
m,0
1 cos( k ) .
2(m,0 1)
Integrate to obtain the proper time

t( ) = H01
h
i
m,0
k
sin(
k ) .
2(m,0 1)3/2
Show that the universe collapses to a big crunch at tBC = H01 m,0 (m,0 1)3/2 . How
many times can a photon circle this universe before tBC ?
3. Flatness Problem
Consider an FRW model dominated by a perfect fluid with pressure P = w, for w = const.
Define the time-dependent density parameter
(t)
(t)
,
crit (t)
where crit (t) 3H 2 /8G. Show that

d
= (1 + 3w)( 1) .
d ln a
Discuss the evolution of (a) for different initial conditions and different values of w.
4. Einsteins Biggest Blunder
(a) Show that for a physically reasonable perfect fluid (i.e. density > 0 and pressure 0) there
is no static isotropic homogeneous solution to Einsteins equations.
(b) Show that it is possible to obtain a static zero-pressure solution by the introduction of a
cosmological constant such that
= 4Gm,0 .
However, show that this solution is unstable to small perturbations.
5. Accelerating Universe
Consider flat FRW models (k = 0) with pressureless matter (P = 0) and a non-zero cosmological
constant 6= 0, that is, with m,0 + ,0 = 1.
(a) Age of the universe.Show that the normalised solution (a0 1) for m,0 6= 0 can be
written as

1/3
h
i2/3
m,0
a(t) =
.
sinh 32 H0 (1 m,0 )1/2 t
1 m,0
Verify that a(t) has the expected limits at early times, H0 t 1, and at late times, H0 t 1.
Hence show that the age of the universe t0 in these models is
h
i
1/2
t0 = 32 H01 (1 m,0 )1/2 sinh1 (1
1)
,
m,0
and roughly sketch this as a function of m,0 .
(b) -domination and acceleration.Show that the energy density of the universe becomes
dominated by the cosmological constant term at the following redshift

1 + z =
1 m,0
m,0
1/3
,
but that it begins accelerating earlier at 1 + zA = 2 3 (1 + z ).

(c) Causal structure and future.Show that the furthest object with which we can communicate
is today at a physical distance
Z 1
H01 dx
p
.
1 m,0 + m,0 x3
0
Argue that this implies the existence of a future event horizon (for all m,0 < 1). By
integrating back in time, show that the redshift 1 + zeh of these objects can be found by
equating
Z 1+zeh
Z 1
dx
dx
p
p
=
.
3
1 m,0 + m,0 x
1 m,0 + m,0 x3
1
0
For the concordance model (m,0 = 0.3 and ,0 = 0.7) we find zeh 1.8 and so the
many galaxies and quasars observed beyond this will be forever inaccessible. What caveats
might affect this conclusion?

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Problem Set 1

FRW: Geometry and Dynamics

Integrate to obtain the proper time

where crit (t) 3H 2 /8G. Show that

but that it begins accelerating earlier at 1 + zA = 2 3 (1 + z ).

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