Fall 2010

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Ph.D. CANDIDACY EXAMINATION

Day 1

September 15, 2010

(Problems 1 - 6)

Work all six problems. Please write clearly and show all the steps of your work.

Define any symbols that you introduce. Credit will be given only for significant
progress toward a solution. Use clear diagrams wherever appropriate.

NO NAMES SHOULD APPEAR ON ANYTHING YOU SUBMIT; USE

YOUR CODE NUMBER ONLY.

1. Short Answer Questions

(a) A certain type of bacteria is known to double in number every 24 hours.

Two cultures of these bacteria are prepared, each consisting initially of one
bacterium. One culture is left on Earth and the other placed on a rocket
that travels at a speed of 0.866c relative to Earth. At a time when the
earthbound culture has grown to 256 bacteria, how many bacteria are in
the culture on the rocket according to observers on Earth?

(b) Main sequence stars are stabilized by a balance between inward gravita-
tional pressure and outward fluid pressure. By dividing the star into con-
centric spherical shells, this can be described by the equation of hydrostatic
equilibrium
dP/dr = −ρ(r)g(r)
where g(r) is the local acceleration of gravity within the star and ρ(r) is
the local mass density. Using this fact, estimate the order of magnitude of
the central pressure of the Sun.

(c) For an experiment you are handed a custom designed electrical plate on
which you find equipotentials, relative to a given spot on the plate, as
follows:

r(cm) V (mV)
1.0 0.0
2.0 −1.4
3.0 −2.2
4.0 −2.8

where r is the radial distance from the spot. Estimate the magnitude of
the electric field in the plate at r = 2.75 cm.

(d) Consider two spheres with the same diameter and same mass, but one is
solid while the other is hollow. Clearly describe quantitatively a nonde-
structive experiment to determine which sphere is solid and which sphere
is hollow.

(e) An elevator is pulled upward by an AC motor which has a maximum rating

of Irms = 20 amps and is connected to an electric grid with a voltage of
Vrms = 240 volts. Determine the maximum speed with which the elevator
can ascend if its total mass is M = 500 kg.
 Answers

(a) N = 2 d where d is the number of days. On Earth N = 256
d = 8 . Relative to Earth, time on the
rocket is slower by a factor of
. For the given velocity
 2 ; therefore, only 4 days have passed on the
rocket. So, N ship = 24 = 16 .

(b) Treat the whole Sun as one shell with zero pressure at the outer surface. Therefore, dr = R
, dP = Pc
(the central pressure), g = GM / R
2 , and the order of magnitude of the density is
= M / R
3 . This gives
Pc
GM 2 / R4
Plugging in numbers gives Pc
1015 N/m 2 .

(c) The magnitude of the electric field is given by

V
E
h
We can estimate E(2.75) by interpolation. E(2.5) and E(3.5) are estimated as
V (3.0)
V (2.0) V V (4.0)
V (3.0) V
E(2.5)  = 0.8 E(3.5)  = 0.6
3.0
2.0 cm 4.0
3.0 cm
Thus, we interpolate to get E(2.75)
E(3.5)
E(2.75) E(3.5)
E(2.5) V
=  E(2.75) = 0.75
3.5
2.75 3.5
2.5 cm

(d) Any behavior which depends on moment of inertia can distinguish the spheres. For example, if the
spheres roll from rest down a ramp of height h without slipping, the change in gravitational potential
energy at the top becomes kinetic energy at the bottom:
1 1 1
KE = Mv2 + I
2 =  MR 2 + I 
2
2 2 2
So the solid sphere, with the smaller moment of inertia, will have a larger
and reach the bottom first.

max
(e) Assuming 100% efficiency, I rms Vrms = Mgvmax
vmax = 0.98 m/s
2. Moving Pendulum

A simple pendulum is placed in a railroad car that has a constant acceleration

a in the horizontal direction. Consider the motion of the pendulum in Earth’s
reference frame.

(a) What is the Lagrangian describing the pendulum motion and the associated
equation(s) of motion?

(b) What is the equilibrium angle for which the pendulum hangs without os-
cillating?

(c) Suppose that the pendulum is now perturbed slightly away from that equi-
librium angle, and as a result executes small oscillations about its equilib-
rium angle. What is the oscillation frequency?
Moving Pendulum - Solution
(a) Choose coordinates so that the pivot of the pendulum is at x = 12 at2 , y = 0.
Then, the position of the pendulum bob is x = ( 21 at2 + ` sin θ)x̂ + (−` cos θ)ŷ. It’s
velocity is ~x˙ = (at + ` cos θθ̇)x̂ + (` sin θθ̇)ŷ. The kinetic energy is T = 1 m~x˙ · ~x˙ =
2
1
2
m(a2 t2 2 2
+ 2at` cos θθ̇ + ` θ̇ ). The potential energy is U = mg~x · ŷ = −mg` cos θ.
The Lagrangian, therefore, is
1
L = m(a2 t2 + 2at` cos θθ̇ + `2 θ̇2 ) + mg` cos θ.
2
To get the equation of motion we use the Euler-Lagrange equation, ∂L ∂θ
= dtd ∂L
∂ θ̇
1 d h i
m(−2at` sin θθ̇) − mg` sin θ = m(at` cos θ + `2 θ̇) − mat` sin θθ̇ − mg` sin θ
2 dt
= ma` cos θ − mat` sin θθ̇ + m`2 θ̈
g g
θ̈ = − sin θ − cos θ
` `

(b) At the equilibrium angle, θ(t) = θ0 . Therefore,

g g a
θ̈ = 0 = − sin θ − cos θ =⇒ θ0 = tan−1 (− ).
` ` g

(c) Write θ(t) = θ0 + (t), where (t)  1 describes small oscillations about
equilibrium. Further note that
cos θ(t) = cos(θ0 + ) = cos θ0 cos  − sin θ0 sin 
sin θ(t) = sin(θ0 + ) = sin θ0 cos  + cos θ0 sin 
where
g −a
cos θ0 = p and sin θ0 = p .
a2 + g 2 a2 + g 2
The signs must be this way because − π2 ≤ θ0 ≤ 0.
From the equation of motion we have
d2 g g
(θ0 + ) = − sin(θ 0 + ) − cos(θ0 + ).
dt2 ` `
This reduces to p
a2 + g 2
¨ = −  + O(3 ).
`
Thus, to first order, the oscillations about equilibrium are harmonic with fre-
quency
p !1/2
a2 + g 2
ω= .
`
3. Band of Rubbers

Figure 1: A simplified model of rubber. A rubber molecule is modeled by a chain

consisting of rigid rods. The rigid rods are shown as arrows with circles at both ends.
The rods are assumed always to be parallel to the x-axis

Rubber consists of many cross-linked polymer chains, and exhibits an unusual

behavior of its elastic properties as functions of temperature T . To understand
the elastic properties of rubber, consider just one polymer chain. We model the
chain as being composed of N rigid rods of length l connected to each other at
their ends. The angle between two adjacent rods is assumed to take only one of
two values: 0 or π, independently at each junction. These two configurations are
assumed to have the same energy. The model is illustrated in Fig. 1. One end
of the chain is fixed at the origin x = 0, while the other is free to move along the
axis (in discrete steps of length l).

(a) When the chain’s free end is at the position x = L, find expressions for the
number of configurations W and the entropy S of the chain in terms of N
and L.

(b) Find the free energy F of the chain, and the force f necessary to hold the
free end at x = L, as functions of N , L, and the temperature T . What is
the behavior of f for L  N l?

(c) Find the thermal expansion coefficient α = L−1 ∂L/∂T |f . Does the rubber
band expand or shrink when heated?

Hints: Use the Stirling formula n! ∼ n log n − n; in one dimension the distance L
is analogous to the volume of a gas, and the force f is analogous to the negative
of the pressure in a gas.
Band of Rubbers - Solution
(a) Let the number of left-oriented links be n− , the number of right-oriented
links n+ . We have

N = n+ + n− L = (n+ − n− )l. (1)

Solving this for n± , we have

Nl + L Nl − L
n+ = , n− = . (2)
2l 2l
For fixed N , the distance L between the end points of the chain is fixed by
n+ . Then the total number of configurations for a given L is the number of ways
of choosing n+ out of N to be right-oriented, that is
N!
W = (3)
n+ !n− !
Setting the Boltzmann constant to be one, we find the entropy:
N!
S = ln W = ln
n+ !n− !
≈ N log N − n− log n− − n+ log n+ − N + n− + n+
Nl + L Nl + L Nl − L Nl − L
= N log N − ln − ln . (4)
2l 2l 2l 2l
(b) Since all the configurations have the same energy, the (non-constant part of
the) free energy F is simply related to the entropy S by
 
Nl + L Nl + L Nl − L Nl − L
F = −T S = T ln + ln − N ln N . (5)
2l 2l 2l 2l
Using the analogy with pressure, the tension of the string is given by differ-
entiating the free energy (5) with respect to the length L
∂F T h Nl + L Nl − Li T Nl + L
f= = ln − ln = ln . (6)
∂L 2l 2l 2l 2l N l − L
When L  N l, this expression simplifies to
T
f≈ L, (7)
N l2
which is the Hooke’s law with the effective spring constant k = T /N l2 . Notice
that the polymer becomes stiffer when the temperature is raised, and this is
related to the negative coefficient of thermal expansion found in the next part.
(c) Solving for L Eq. (6) we have

e2f l/T − 1 fl
L = Nl 2f l/T
= N l tanh . (8)
e +1 T
and so

1 ∂L  fl 1 1 2f l 1
α= =− 2 =− ∼− , (9)
L ∂T f T fl
2 fl 2f l T
cosh tanh T 2 sinh
T T T
where the last expression is the limit of high temperature (T  f l). For any
temperature the coefficient of thermal expansion is negative, and this means that
the rubber band shrinks when heated.
4. A Rod on Two Rails
Two rails, each of length 2L, are positioned parallel to each other and on a
horizontal plane as shown in the figure. The rails have resistance of ρ per unit
length, and they are located with a separation distance ` from each other. Their
ends are connected to identical batteries with emf V . A metal rod of mass m
and resistance R lies perpendicular to the rails and can slide along them. The
entire system is placed in a uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the plane as
shown. Neglect internal resistance of the batteries and contacts, and inductance
of the circuit.

(a) What is the current that flows through the rod when it is placed in the
middle of the rails?

(b) If the rod is held at a position x away from the middle of the rails as shown,
what is the current that flows through the rod?

(c) The rod is released from position x of part (b); what is the equation of
motion of the rod? Assume x is small compared to L.

(d) Once released from position x, if the rod oscillates, find the period of os-
cillation; if it does not oscillate, find the characteristic time for exponential
growth of its displacement.
A Rod on Two Rails - Solution
(a) The current in thisy-oJls
Jl
situation is zero.
(b) We use Kirchhoff’s laws:

(If)

V 7
<D

4-—l •
V -

Bottom Junction: I1 = I2 + I3 (10)

T" ——
Vx
Loop 1: 2I1 ρ(L − x) + I2 R = V (11)

Loop 2: 2I3 ρ(L + x) − I2 R = V (12)

f = j

These equations give

Vx Vx
I2 = ≈ .
ρ(L2 − x2 ) + RL ρL2 + RL

(c) The force on the rod is given by

V `B
F = I2 `B = x.
L(ρL + R)

Therefore, the equation of motion is

V `B
−mẍ = x.
L(ρL + R)

(d) From the equation, it is clear that the motion is an oscillation with period
r
mL(ρL + R)
T = 2π
V `B

If the induced emf on the rod is included, a term B`ẋ needs to be added and this
term will cause damping to the oscillation.
5. A Potential Step
A quantum mechanical particle of mass m and energy E > 0 moves in one
dimension along the x axis in the potential U (x) = 0 for x < 0 (region 1), and
U (x) = −V0 for x > 0 (region 2).
The general solution of the time-independent Schrodinger equation in this
case is
(
A1 eik1 x + B1 e−ik1 x for x < 0 (region 1),
ψ(x) = (13)
A2 eik2 x + B2 e−ik2 x for x > 0 (region 2).

(a) Write the time-independent Schrodinger equation and find the values of the
momenta k1 and k2 .

(b) Find the scattering matrix S that, by definition, relates the amplitudes of
the incoming and outgoing waves:
   
B1 A1
=S . (14)
A2 B2

(c) The probability flux (or current) is defined in one dimension as

~  ∗
ψ (x)ψ 0 (x) − c.c. .

j(x) = (15)
2mi
Find the currents in both regions. Check that the current conservation
holds across the potential step.

(d) Find the reflection (R) and transmission (T ) coefficients defined as the
ratios of the reflected, transmitted, and incident currents as follows:

|jreflected | |jtransmitted |
R(E) = , T (E) = . (16)
|jincident | |jincident |

Do these coefficients depend on which region we choose as the region where

the incident wave is coming from?

(e) Find the asymptotic behavior of the reflection coefficient R(E) for large
energies E  V0 , and the transmission coefficient T (E) for small energies
E  V0 .
A Potential step - Solution
(a) The time-independent Schrodinger equation is
~2 00
−
ψ (x) + U (x)ψ(x) = Eψ(x). (17)
2m
Substituting the general solution in this equation, we find
1√ 1p
k1 = 2mE, k2 = 2m(E + V0 ). (18)
~ ~
(b) Continuity of the wave function and its derivative at x = 0 (the position of
the potential step) gives
(
A1 + B1 = A2 + B2 ,
(19)
k1 (A1 − B1 ) = k2 (A2 − B2 ).
Solving for B1 and A2 , we obtain
k1 − k2 2k2 2k1 k1 − k2
B1 = A1 + B2 , A2 = A1 − B2 . (20)
k1 + k2 k1 + k2 k1 + k2 k1 + k2
From this we read off the scattering matrix
 
1 k1 − k2 2k2
S= . (21)
k1 + k2 2k1 k2 − k1
(c) For the current in region 1 we have
~ 
ik1 A∗1 e−ik1 x + B1∗ eik1 x A1 eik1 x − B1 e−ik1 x − c.c.



j1 =
2mi
~k1 
|A1 |2 − |B1 |2 + A1 B1∗ e2ik1 x − A∗1 B1 e−2ik1 x + c.c.

=
2m
~k1
|A1 |2 − |B1 |2 .


= (22)
m
For region 2 we have, similarly,
~k2
|A2 |2 − |B2 |2 .


j2 = (23)
m
To check the current conservation we have to express both currents j1 and j2
in terms of the same pair of amplitudes. To do this we need to use the relations
(20). Thus, for region 1 we have
 2 !
~k1  k 1 − k 2 2k 2 
j1 = |A1 |2 −  A1 + B2 
m k1 + k2 k1 + k2
~k1  
2 2 2 ∗ ∗
= 4k 1 k2 |A 1 | − 4k 2 |B 2 | − 2k 2 (k 1 − k 2 )(A 1 B2 + A 1 B2 )
m(k1 + k2 )2
2~k1 k2 2 2 ∗ ∗


= 2k 1 |A 1 | − 2k2 |B 2 | + (k2 − k 1 )(A 1 B 2 + A 1 B2 ) . (24)
m(k1 + k2 )2
Similarly, for j2 we have
 2 !
~k2  2k1 k2 − k1 
j2 = A1 + B2 − |B2 |2
m  k1 + k2 k1 + k2 
~k2  
2 2 2 ∗ ∗
= 4k1 |A1 | − 4k k
1 2 |B2 | + 2k (k
1 2 − k 1 )(A B
1 2 + A B
1 2 )
m(k1 + k2 )2
2~k1 k2
2k1 |A1 |2 − 2k2 |B2 |2 + (k2 − k1 )(A∗1 B2 + A1 B2∗ ) .


= 2
(25)
m(k1 + k2 )
We see that j1 = j2 , that is, the current is conserved across the potential step.
(d) Let us choose region 1 as the region where the incident wave is coming
from. Thus we set A1 = 1 and B2 = 0. For the amplitudes of the reflected and
transmitted waves we have, using Eq. (20),
k1 − k2 2k1
B1 = , A2 = . (26)
k1 + k2 k1 + k2
The incident, reflected and transmitted currents are
~k1 ~k1
jincident = |A1 |2 = ,
m m
 2
~k1 2 ~k1 k1 − k2
jreflected =− |B1 | = − ,
m m k1 + k2
~k2 ~k1 4k1 k2
jtransmitted = |A2 |2 = . (27)
m m (k1 + k2 )2
The reflection and transmission coefficients follow:
 2
k2 − k1 4k1 k2
R(E) = , T (E) = = 1 − R(E). (28)
k1 + k2 (k1 + k2 )2
(e) Substituting expressions (18) into the reflection and transmission coefficients,
we get their energy dependence:
√ √ !2 p
E + V0 − E 4 E(E + V0 )
R(E) = √ √ , T (E) = √ √ . (29)
E + V0 + E ( E + V0 − E)2
For large energies E  V0 the reflection coefficient behaves as
!2  
2
p
1 + V0 /E − 1 V0
R(E) = p ≈ . (30)
1 + V0 /E + 1 4E
For small energies E  V0 we can neglect E everywhere in the equation for T
except for the first factor in the numerator:
r
E
T (E) ≈ 4 . (31)
V0
6. The Friedmann Equations

The Friedmann equations for a flat Universe are

 2
ȧ 8πG ä 4πG
= ρ, =− ρ(1 + 3w) (32)
a 3 a 3

where G is Newton’s constant, a(t) is a scale factor describing the “size” of the
Universe, taken to be unity at the present time, and the parameter w describes
the ratio of pressure p and energy density ρ: p = wρ. For a matter-dominated
Universe, w = 0, while for a Universe dominated by radiation, w = 1/3. We are
taking units with c = 1.

(a) Suppose the energy density scales as ρ = ρ0 /aα , where α > 0 and ρ0 is
the present energy density. Solve the first Friedmann equation to find the
time-dependence of a(t), assuming a(0) = 0. Does this assumption make
sense if ρ is independent of a(t), and hence of t? What is the solution in
that case? For convenience define a constant H0 with dimensions of inverse
time such that
8πGρ0
= H02 (33)
3
(b) Use consistency of the first and second Friedmann equations to relate w to
the scale-dependence parameter α of the energy density. What values of α
correspond to a pressure-dominated Universe (w = 0) and to a radiation-
dominated Universe (w = 1/3)? What w corresponds to a Universe with
energy density independent of a?

(c) Suppose you have a Universe consisting of a present fraction f of matter-

dominated energy density and 1 − f of a-independent energy density, with
total energy density at the present time equal to ρ0 . Integrate the first
Friedmann equation to relate the scale factor a(t) to the look-back time
t̃ = tnow − t.
The Friedmann Equations - Solution
(a) The first Friedmann equation may be written
 2
ȧ 8πG
= ρ0 a−α = H02 a−α . (34)
a 3

This may be solved to give

α 2/α
a= H0 t (α > 0) ; a = exp(H0 t) (α = 0) . (35)
2
(b) For α 6= 0,
 
ä 2 2 1 1
= − 1 2 = − H0 (1 + 3w)a−α . (36)
a α α t 2

Demanding consistency with (ȧ/a)2 = (2/α)2 t−2 , we find

 
1 + 3w 2 2 α
= 1− / = − 1 ⇒ α = 3(1 + w) . (37)
2 α α 2

For α = 0 consistency between the two Friedmann equations leads directly to

w = −1.
(c) For a matter-dominated Universe with f = 1, so that ρ = ρ0 /a3 , the first
Friedmann equation may be expressed in terms of the lookback time t̃ with the

2/3
condition a(0) = 1 to give a = 1 − 23 H0 t̃ . For a Universe where f = 0 so
ρ = ρ0 , the solution is a = exp(−H0 t̃). For a Universe with a present fraction
f of matter and 1 − f of constant energy density, the first Friedmann equation
becomes  1/2
da f
= −H0 + (1 − f )a2 . (38)
dt̃ a
The solution of this is
1
√
a0 da0
Z
H0 t̃ = p , (39)
a f + (1 − f )a0 3

which may be expressed with the substitution α ≡ a0 3/2 as

Z 1
3 dα
H0 t̃ = p
2 a3/2 f + (1 − f )α2
" s s !#
1 1 − f 1 − f
= √ sinh−1 − sinh−1 a3/2 . (40)
1−f f f
 √
An equivalent function for sinh−1 is sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1) . The limits of
Eq. (40) for f → 0, 1 are:
 2/3
2
f → 0 : a(t) → exp(−H0 t̃) : f → 1 : a(t) → 1 − H0 t̃ . (41)
3
 Fall 2010

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Ph.D. CANDIDACY EXAMINATION

Day 2
September 16, 2010
(Problems 7 - 12)

Work all six problems. Please write clearly and show all the steps of your work.
Define any symbols that you introduce. Credit will be given only for significant
progress toward a solution. Use clear diagrams wherever appropriate.

NO NAMES SHOULD APPEAR ON ANYTHING YOU SUBMIT; USE

YOUR CODE NUMBER ONLY.
7. Bead on a Loop
A circular horizontal loop of radius R is made of wire with coefficient of friction
µ. A small bead can slide on the loop. What initial velocity should be given to
the bead for it to make exactly one full turn before stopping? Hint: It is useful
in this problem to look for the velocity v of the bead as a function of the angle
θ around the loop.
Bead on a Loop - Solution
Let us use the cylindrical coordinates with the origin placed at the center of the
loop, and the z axis vertically up. We will write components of a vector A in
this coordinate system as A = (Ar , Aθ , Az ).
The forces acting on the loop are: gravity mg = (0, 0, −mg) (vertically down),
normal reaction force from the loop N = (Nr , 0, Nz ) (direction is not known a
priori), friction F = (0, −F, 0) (tangentially to the loop against the direction
of the velocity). The acceleration a = (ar , aθ , 0) of the bead has the radial
component ar = −v 2 /R, and the tangential component aθ = v̇, where the dot
denotes the time derivative. Expressing the components of the acceleration in
terms of the velocity v(θ) viewed as a function of the angle θ along the loop, we
have
 2 0
v 2 (θ) 0 v(θ)v 0 (θ) v (θ)
ar = − , aθ = v̇(θ) = v (θ)θ̇ = = , (1)
R R 2R
where prime stands for the derivative with respect to the angle θ.
The three components of the Newton’s second law are

mar = Nr , maθ = −F, 0 = Nz − mg. (2)

In addition, we have the equation for the friction force F = µN valid during the
motion of the bead. These four equations give

mv 2 (θ)
Nz = mg, Nr = − ,
R

1/2 m 4
1/2
N = Nr2 + Nz2 = v (θ) + g 2 R2 ,
R
m  2 0 m 4
1/2
v (θ) = −µ v (θ) + g 2 R2 . (3)
2R R
The last equation is a first order differential equation for x(θ) = v 2 (θ):

1/2
x0 (θ) = −2µ x2 (θ) + g 2 R2 . (4)

This equation must be solved with the “initial” value x(2π) = 0 (the bead stops
after exactly one turn).
Separation of variables gives
dx
p = −2µdθ. (5)
x2 + g 2 R2
The substitution x = gR sinh y gives dy = −2µdθ. Thus,

x(θ) = gR sinh(C − 2µθ). (6)

The integration constant C is found from the initial condition to be C = 4πµ.

Finally, the initial velocity is found as
p p
v0 = x(0) = gR sinh(4πµ). (7)
8. Half Circle Radiation
~
A magnetic field B(x) is given by:
(
~ 0 for x < 0
B(x) = (8)
B0 ẑ for x > 0

There is no electrostatic field. A non-relativistic particle of mass m and charge

+q, initially moves with a constant velocity ~v = v0 x̂ in the space x < 0. As
shown in the figure, at t = 0 the particle enters the space x > 0, moves in a
semi-circle for a time π/ω0 , and then exits the space x > 0 at velocity ~v = −v0 x̂.
The quantities x̂, ŷ, and ẑ are unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions.

(a) What is the radius of the half circle? What is the angular frequency ω0 of
the particle in the region x > 0?

(b) What is the total energy emitted by the particle?

~ = rẑ, r  c/ω0 observes the differential

(c) An observer on the z-axis at Z
power dP (t)/dΩ where Ω is the solid angle. Sketch the behavior of the
differential power dP (t)/dΩ as a function of time.

~ = rx̂, r  c/ω0 , what is the differential

(d) For an observer on the x-axis at X
power dP (t)/dΩ observed? Again, sketch dP (t)/dΩ as a function of time.
Half-Circle Radiation - Solution

(a) We can determine the radius from

mv02 mv0
= qv0 B =⇒ r= .
r qB

The angular frequency is determined by

v0 qB
ω0 = = .
r m

(b) We use the (non relativistic) relation for the power emitted P = µ0 q 2 a2 /(6πc)
where a = rω02 . This gives
µ0 q 2 2 2
P = v ω .
6πc 0 0
Given that the particle accelerates for π/ω0 seconds, the total energy, E = P t, is

µ0 q 2 2
E= v ω0 .
6c 0

(c) The sketch appears as follows.

(d) Here we use

dP q 2 |r̂ × (û × ~a)|2
= ,
dΩ 16π 2 0 (r̂ × ~u)5
where ~u = cr̂ − ~v = cr̂. Given that p~ = q~x, we can write p~¨ = q~a and we have
 2

r̂ × (û × ¨)
p
~
dP 1 
=
dΩ 16π 2 0 (r̂ × ~u)5
In the region x > 0, p~ = −v0 q/ω0 (sin ω0 t, − cos ω0 t, 0), so that
(
qv0 ω0 (sin ω0 t, − cos ω0 t, 0) for 0 ≤ t ≤ π/ω0
p~¨ =
0 for t < 0, t > π/ω0

For the x direction

~¨ = −ẑ [cos ω0 (t − r/c)] qω0 v0

r̂ × p

(r̂ · ~u)5 = c5
 2
c2 r̂ × (r̂ × p~¨) = c2 q 2 ω02 v02 cos2 ω0 (t − r/c)
 

This gives
dP 1
= c2 q 2 ω02 v02 cos2 ω0 (t − r/c)
dΩ 16π 2 0 c5
Hence, the sketch looks as follows
9. Statistical Mechanics of an Anharmonic Oscillator

(a) A harmonic oscillator with the Hamiltonian (energy)

p2 1
H= + mω 2 x2 (9)
2m 2
is in thermal equilibrium at temperature T . Using the equipartition theo-
p
rem, find the RMS value xRMS = hx2 i of the displacement x. Here, the
angular brackets denote the thermal average.

(b) The potential of the oscillator now contains anharmonic terms:

1 1 1
V (x) = mω 2 x2 + βx3 + γx4 . (10)
2 3 4
What conditions do we have to impose on the coefficients β and γ for the
anharmonic terms to be small compared to the quadratic term?

(c) Assuming that the anharmonic terms are small and treating them as per-
turbations, find (up to the first non-zero order of β and γ) the partition
function, and the average displacement hxi.

COMMENT: The integrals you need for this problem are

Z∞ r
−ax2 2k Γ(k + 1/2) π (2k − 1)!!
e x dx = = . (11)
ak+1/2 a (2a)k
−∞
Statistical Mechanics of an Anharmonic Oscillator - Solution
(a) According to the equipartition theorem every quadratic term in the Hamil-
tonian contributes kB T /2 to the average energy. Therefore, we have
1 1
kB T = mω 2 hx2 i, (12)
2 2
and
r
kB T
xRMS = . (13)
mω 2
(b) We should compare the values of the anharmonic terms with that of the
quadratic term at xRMS . The cubic term can be considered small if
s
2
1 3 1 mω m3 ω 6
βxRMS  mω 2 x2RMS , ⇒ β = . (14)
3 2 xRMS kB T
Similarly, for the quartic term we have
1 4 1 mω 2 m2 ω 4
γxRMS  mω 2 x2RMS , ⇒ γ = . (15)
4 2 x2RMS kB T
(c) The energy of the system is
p2 α β γ
H= + x2 + x3 + x4 , (16)
2m 2 3 4
where α = mω 2 , and the partition function is
Z
dpdx −H/kB T
Z= e
2π~
Z∞ Z∞
−p2 /(2mkB T ) dp 2 3 4
= e e−αx /2kB T e−βx /3kB T e−γx /4kB T dx. (17)
2π~
−∞ −∞

Using Eq. (11), the momentum integral gives

Z∞ 1/2
(2πmkB T )1/2

−p2 /(2mkB T ) dp mkB T
e = = . (18)
2π~ 2π~ 2π~2
−∞

Considering β and γ to be small parameters, we can expand the exponentials

in Eq. (17) as
3 /3k βx3 β 2 x6
e−βx BT
≈1− + (19)
3kB T 18(kB T )2
4 /4k γx4
e−γx BT
≈1− . (20)
4kB T
The odd correction (the x3 term) does not contribute to the partition function.
So to first (non-zero) order in each parameter, the partition function is given by
1/2 Z∞
β2
  
mkB T −αx2 /2kB T 6 γ 4
Z≈ e 1+ x − x . (21)
2π~2 18(kB T )2 4kB T
−∞

Integration using Eq. (11) yields the partition function

1/2  1/2  3 2 
15β 2
  
mkB T 2πkB T kB T 3γ kB T
Z≈ 1+ −
2π~2 α 18(kB T )2 α 4kB T α
r   2     2
 
kB T m 5β 3 kB T kB T 5β 3 kB T
= 1+ − γ = 1+ − γ .
~ α 6α 4 α2 ~ω 6mω 2 4 m2 ω 4
(22)

The average position is given by

Z
1 dpdx −H/kB T
hxi = xe . (23)
Z 2π~
Using the same expansion as above, we only have to keep the x3 term now, since
the even terms multiplied by x in the integrand will give zero upon integration.
Thus, the average position is
1/2 Z∞
βx3

1 mkB T 2 /2k T
hxi ≈ − xe−αx B
dx. (24)
Z 2π~2 3kB T
−∞

Since the integral here is already proportional to the small parameter β, we

can replace the partition function Z by its value for the harmonic oscillator
Z0 = kB T /~ω:
 1/2 Z∞
1 mkB T β 2 βkB T
hxi ≈ − 2
x4 e−αx /2kB T dx = − 2 4 . (25)
Z0 2π~ 3kB T mω
−∞

(d) The free energy is given by

5β 2 2 2
 
kB T 3 kB T
F = −kB T ln Z ≈ −kB T ln + γ− . (26)
~ω 4 6mω 2 m ω4
2

Using the thermodynamic identities (there is no pressure or volume to worry

about in this problem)

dE = T dS, dF = −SdT, (27)

we have
∂F
E = F + T S, S=− . (28)
∂T
This gives the entropy of the oscillator:

5β 2 2
 
∂F kB T 3 kB T
S=− ≈ kB ln + kB + 2
− γ , (29)
∂T ~ω 3mω 2 m ω4
2

and its average energy

5β 2 2 2
 
3 kB T
E = F + T S ≈ kB T + 2
− γ . (30)
6mω 4 m ω4
2

Finally, the specific heat of the anharmonic oscillator is

5β 2
  2
∂E 3 kB T
cv = ≈ kB + − γ . (31)
∂T 3mω 2 2 m2 ω 4

Notice that γ and β contributions have different signs, so whether the specific heat
is increased or decreased due to anharmonicity depends on the ratio 10β 2 /9γmω 2 .
10. A Bump in a Well
A quantum particle of mass m moves in a one-dimensional cavity bounded by
hard walls at x = −a and x = a.

(a) Find the properly normalized wave functions and energy levels of the par-
ticle.

(b) A weak potential of the form V (x) = λδ(x) is now added. Find the shift in
the energy levels to first order in λ.

(c) Find the exact solutions for the energy levels when λ is not necessarily small
and show that they reduce to the answer in part (b) in the limit of small λ.
A Bump in a Well - Solution
(a) The solutions of the free-particle Schrödinger equation
~2 d2
− ψ(x) = Eψ(x) (32)
2m dx2
satisfying the boundary conditions ψ(±a) = 0 are
  
(+) 1 1 πx
ψ (x) = √ cos n + (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .) , (33)
a 2 a
(−) 1  nπx 
ψ (x) = √ sin (n = 1, 2, . . .) . (34)
a a
The corresponding energy levels are:
 2
~2

(+) 1 π
ψ : En = n+ (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .) , (35)
2m 2 a
~2  nπ 2
ψ (−) : En = (n = 1, 2, . . .) . (36)
2m a
(b) If a weak perturbation V = λδ(x) is added, the energy levels corresponding
to ψ (−) are not affected, because their wave functions vanish at x = 0, while the
energy levels corresponding to ψ (+) all shift by an identical amount (calculated
in first-order perturbation theory)
λ
hψ (+) |V |ψ (+) i = . (37)
a
(c) The solutions for x 6= 0 may be written in the form

ψ(x) = N> sin k(a − x) (x > 0) ; ψ(x) = N< sin k(a + x) (x < 0) . (38)

To find the allowed values of k, we integrate the Schrödinger equation from x = −

to x = , where  is small, and find
dψ dψ 2mλ
|x= − |x=− = 2 ψ(0) . (39)
dx dx ~
The free-particle solutions ψ (−) (x) continue to satisfy the Schrödinger equation
with any strength of potential λδ(x) because their wave functions vanish at x = 0.
Hence their energy levels are not affected by V . The solutions ψ (+) (x) may be
taken to have normalization factors N> = N< = N+ by symmetry, and one finds
a transcendental equation for k,
2mλ
−2k cos ka = sin ka , (40)
~2
with E = (~k)2 /2m. In the limit λ → 0, ka approaches the roots of cot ka at
(n + 21 )π (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .). Letting
 
1 π
k = n+ +η (41)
2 a

and expanding k cot ka to lowest order in η, one finds

 −1  2
(~k)2 ~2
 
mλ 1 1 π λ
η= 2 n+ π ⇒ En = ' n+ + . (42)
~ 2 2m 2m 2 a a
11. A Good Model?
A certain phenomenon, quantified by a quantity Q, is modeled to behave as

Q = aξ n , (43)

where ξ is an independent quantity on which Q depends. An experimental effort

makes the first measurements of this quantity with the data below:

ξ Q
0.55 0.08 ± 0.01
1.50 1.73 ± 0.07
3.25 17.02 ± 0.15
4.75 54.01 ± 0.45

Perform an analysis to determine whether the data seem to rule out the model
given. If so, give a clear explanation why. If the model remains viable, use the
data to estimate values for a and n with approximate uncertainties.
A Good Model? - Solution
To test for a power-law dependence, it is best to take the logarithm, giving

ln Q = ln a + n ln ξ . (44)

The table then may be expanded to yield

ξ ln ξ Q ln Q
0.55 −0.5978 0.08 ± 0.01 −2.526 ± 0.125
1.50 0.4055 1.73 ± 0.07 0.548 ± 0.041
3.25 1.179 17.02 ± 0.15 2.834 ± 0.0088
4.75 1.558 54.01 ± 0.45 3.989 ± 0.0083
where we have used ln(x ± δx) = ln x ± (δx/x). To see whether these data satisfy
the linear relation between ln Q and ln ξ (as implied by the plot on the next page),
one may take differences between points:

First two : n = 3.065 ± 0.131 , (45)

Middle two : n = 2.955 ± 0.054 , (46)
Last two : n = 3.047 ± 0.032 . (47)

Taking the average of these points weighted by the inverse squares of their errors,
we arrive at a value n = 3.025 ± 0.027. This is sufficiently close to 3 that we are
encouraged to try a relation of the form Q = aξ 3 . If ln a = ln Q − 3 ln ξ, we may
calculate the value of ln a for each point:

First point : ln a = −0.733 ± 0.125 , (48)

Second point : ln a = −0.669 ± 0.041 , (49)
Third point : ln a = −0.7030 ± 0.0088 , (50)
Fourth point : ln a = −0.6850 ± 0.0083 . (51)

Taking the average of these points weighted by the inverse squares of their errors,
one finds ln a = 0.693 ± 0.006, or a = 0.500 ± 0.003.
One can now calculate the quality of the model Q = 0.5ξ 3 using the χ2 test:
4  2
2
X datai − modeli
χ = , (52)
i=1
errori

which is calculated to be 2.28. Generally a value of χ2 less than or equal to the

number of degrees of freedom = N(data) - N(parameters), which is 2 in this case,
signifies a satisfactory fit. This is close to being the case here; a more sophisticated
method would have explored the values of χ2 ranging over the different values of
a and n.

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12. Magnetic Dipole Interaction

Two particles with spin s = 1/2 and magnetic moments µi = µsi are separated
by a vector r and interact via the magnetic dipole-dipole interaction
1h 3 i
H = 3 µ1 · µ2 − 2 (µ1 · r)(µ2 · r) . (53)
r r
(a) What are the possible values of the total spin S and its projection Sr on
the direction of the vector r?

(b) Consider the total spin S = s1 + s2 and its projection Sr = (S · r)/r. Show
that the Hamiltonian (53) can be written as

µ2  2
S − 3Sr2 .

H= 3
(54)
2r
Hint: express each spin-1/2 in terms of Pauli matrices
     
0 1 0 −i 1 0
σx = , σy = , σz = , (55)
1 0 i 0 0 −1

and use their properties.

(c) Find the spectrum of the Hamiltonian (53) and the spin configuration (the
values of S and Sr ) in the ground state. Do the particles repel or attract
each other in the ground state?
Magnetic Dipole Interaction - Solution
(a) Two spins s = 1/2 can for either a singlet (S = 0) or a triplet (S = 1). The
direction of vector r can be chosen as the quantization axis for the spin (the z
axis). Then the possible values of Sr are Sr = 0 for the singlet, and Sr = 0, ±1
for the triplet.
(b) The square of the total spin operator
3
S 2 = (s1 + s2 )2 = s21 + s22 + 2s1 · s2 = + 2s1 · s2 . (56)
2
Thus,
 
1 2 3
s1 · s2 = S − . (57)
2 2
Similarly, for the projection Sr = (S · r)/r we have

(S · r)2 = (s1 · r + s2 · r)2 = (s1 · r)2 + (s2 · r)2 + 2(s1 · r)(s2 · r). (58)

The first two terms here can be found as follows. Choosing the z axis along the
vector r, we have (s1 · r)2 = (s1z z)2 = σz2 z 2 /4 = r2 /4, where in the last equality
we used the fact that with this special choice of the z axis r = z. The same result
holds for (s2 · r)2 .
An alternative derivation. Writing the components of the spin operator s1 as
σx /2, σy /2, σz /2, and the components of r as x, y, z, we have
1
2 1
(s1 · r)2 = σx x + σy y + σz z = σx2 x2 + σy2 y 2 + σz2 z 2
4 4

+ (σx σy + σy σx )xy + (σx σz + σz σx )xz + (σy σz + σz σy )yz . (59)

Using the properties of the Pauli matrices

σx2 = σy2 = σz2 = 1,

σx σy + σy σx = σx σz + σz σx = σy σz + σz σy = 0, (60)

we have
1 2 r2
(s1 · r)2 = x + y2 + z2) = , (61)
4 4
and the same is true for (s2 · r)2 .
Using these values in Eq. (58) we get
r2
(S · r)2 = + 2(s1 · r)(s2 · r), (62)
2
and
r2 r2
   
1 2 2 1
(s1 · r)(s2 · r) = S · r) − = Sr − . (63)
2 2 2 2

Now we turn to the Hamiltonian:

1h 3 i µ2 h 3 i
H = 3 µ1 · µ2 − 2 (µ1 · r)(µ2 · r) = 3 s1 · s2 − 2 (s1 · r)(s2 · r) . (64)
r r r r
Using Eqs. (57, 63) we rewrite the Hamiltonian as

µ2 h 2 2
i
H = 3 S − 3Sr . (65)
2r
(c) Given the preciously determined values of S and Sr we find the spectrum of
the Hamiltonian. The energy levels are given in terms of S and Sr as

µ2 h 2
i
ES,Sr = 3 S(S + 1) − 3Sr . (66)
2r
Thus, we get the spectrum

µ2 µ2
E0,0 = 0, E1,1 = E1,−1 = − , E1,0 = . (67)
2r3 r3
We see that the ground state with the energy −µ2 /2r3 is doubly degenerate,
and that the spin configuration can be either S = 1, Sr = 1 or S = 1, Sr = −1.
The dependence of the ground state energy on the distance between the particles
r clearly corresponds to the attraction between them.