Emerging Silicon Carbide Power

Electronics Components
J. C. Zolper
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
3701 North Fairfax Drive
Arlington, VA 22203

properties can be exploited in power devices. High

breakdown electric fiefds allow Sic power devices to be
fabricated with thinner and higher doped blocking laycrs
reducing on-state resistance. As seen in Fig. 1, for a given
blocking voltage, the on-state resistance for S i c
components can be 400 times lower compared to a Si device
[2]. Superior on-state performance leads to lower switching
loss that in turn can be traded off to enable higher switching
frequencies. The high thermal conductivity of S i c readily
dissipates heat enabling an increase in the applied power to
the device for a given junction temperature. In addition, the
large bandgap of the semiconductor is exponentially
inversely proportional (I E exp(-E,kT)) to the generation of
background carriers. This results in a much higher
operating temperature and higher radiation hardness for S i c
devices.
This paper begins with an overview of the fundamental
limits and technological challenges that Sic materials and
devices face in order to expand their penetration into the
commercial and military markets. Then, a few applications
will be profiled in voltage ranges between 300 V to 10 kV
using the current state of the art devices, while identifying
areas for improvement. Finally, the benefits of utilizing Sic
devices for each application will be discussed.

Abstruct--Power electronics engineers seek to optimize the

performance of their circuits and systems to maximize
efficiency, reduce size and cost, and perfect power quality. To
support this, the developers of power electronics components
have driven the performance of the underlying silicon-based
switches and diodes to reduce on-state and switching losses,
increase frequency of operation, and expand the integration of
control electronics. However, some silicon power electronics
components are facing fundamental limits in performance that
may not support future system requirements. This paper will
describe the emergence of a new class of power electronics
components based on the wide bandgap semiconductor silicon
carbide (SIC) that will extend the design space for future
power electronic engineers.

I. INTRODUCTION
Just as silicon-based digital electronics manufacturers
continue to improve circuit performance by advancing the
core transistor technology to follow Moores Law,
manufacturers of silicon power electronics components
continuously improve on the component performance
through enhanced device designs and more aggressive
processing techniques. However, just as high speed silicon
CMOS transistors are facing fundamental limits in scaling
that may force the industry to radically different transistor
concepts, power component performance is also faced with
the intrinsic limitations of silicon technology leading to the
emergence of a new class of power electronics components
based on silicon carbide (Sic) material.
The ideal power switch should have low on-state
resistance, IOW switching loss, high operation frequency,
and good thermal capability. In selecting the ideal switch
for an application, circuit designers may trade-off between
the switching speed and the on-state voltage drop. Other
important considerations include: high temperature
capability; radiation hardness; ease of current control; ease
of protection under abnormal modes of operation; and
whether the device is normally-on or normally-off [I].
Beyond
these
technical
considerations,
the
designerslproduct engineers also seek to minimize costs.
Power devices made with Sic are expected to show great
performance advantages compared to those made with Si.
S i c has a ten times higher critical electric field and three
times higher thermal conductivity (attributed to the strong
silicon to carbon covalent bond). Both these material

0-7803-8975-1/05/$20.00 02005 IEEE.

102

103

104

Blocking Voltage (V)

Figure 1. Theoretical on-state resistance versus blocking voltage for Si
and SIC power electronics components.

11

available today from two primary suppliers with ratings of

600-1200 V / 1-10 A [4] and 300 V - 1700 V I 4 -25 A IS].
The prime benefits of the Sic S3D lie in its ability to switch
fast [< 50 ns) with almost zero reverse recovery charge,
independent of forward current and temperature. Fig. 3
shows the reverse characteristics of the 10 A I 600 V SBD
with a leakage current of 50 pA at 25 C and 70 FA at 200
C - a very nominal increase for such a wide temperature
range (see Fig. 3). These Zero Stored Charge diodes are
finding application in high performance power supplies and
power factor correction units [ 6 ] . The remaining challenges
for Sic SBDs are to achieve the lowest possible on-state
voltage drop and high breakdown voltage for a given
voltage blocking epitaxial layer and to further reduce cost
by increasing device manufacturing yield [7].

11. Sic MATER~ALS

The attractivc intrinsic matcrial propertics of S i c have
been known for many years, but the obstacle for
cornmercialization has been the poor quality of S i c wafers,
resulting in low device yields. Ln particular, S i c substrates
used to produce power devices have been plagued, until
recently, by a defect known as a micropipc or open core
screw dislocation. However, recent advances in wafcr
quality, including the reduction in micropipe density, have
resulted in the emergence of the first commercially
available power components.
Fundamentally, device yield is a function of defects, such
as micropipes existing in the wafer. Fig. 2 represents the
calculated device yield vs. current at different micropipe
densities; this plot assumes micropipes are the sole defect
affecting device breakdown and that the devices are
operating at a current density of 150 A/cm2. A reasonable
ideal yield of 87% for commercially attractive 20 A rated
device is expected when the micropipe density is less than
licm. Additionally, if StC devices operate at the higher
current densities, yicld improvements are also observed.
For example, a yield of 95% for a 20 A device operating at
350 Ncm can be expected for the same defect density of
l/cm2 [l].
To achieve high device yield, a recent program hnded by
the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA)* Wide Bandgap High Power Electronics (WBGHPE) Phase 1 demonstrated SIC substrates with micropipe
densities reduced to 0.2/cm2. This has led to commercial
high quality three inch n-type 4H-Sic wafers, albeit at a
higher per unit cost than silicon 131. Due to their current
expense, Sic components will first enter the market for use
in high value applications where the superior performance is

B. 4 H - S i c PiN Diode
The 4H-Sic diodes are attractive choices as high power
rectifiers compared to Si PiNs due to their extremely high
blocking voltage potential (2 10 kV) and 10 times faster
switching speeds than a silicon device [8]. However,
growth of pure, low defect density epitaxial layers with
sufficiently high minority carrier lifetimes has been a
challenge for commercialization of such high voltage
rectifiers.
Recently, high quality I00 pm and 200 pm epitaxial drift
layers have been grown for 10 and 20 kV PiN devices with
forward voltage drops 2 3.9 and 6.3 V, respectively, at IO0
A h 2 (See Fig. 4). This level of reverse blocking has never
been achieved with silicon diodes. However, these early
demonstrations have suffered from device instabilities due
to defect generation under forward bias operation, and from
poor device yield due to inconsistent reverse leakage in
large devices. These limitations are being overcome with

demanded.

reccnt results showing 10 kV diodes with stable forward

111.

voltage (V,) characteristics (less than 100 mV voltage drift)

over 100 hrs [ 9 ] . This has been accomplished by further
improvements in the material growth technology.

sic POWER SEMICONDUCTORS DEVtCES

A . Sic S c h o f t bDiode

S i c Schottky Barrier Diodes (SBD) are commercially

50

40
0

8 10 12 $4 16 16 20 22 24 26 28 30

Current (A)
Figure 3 . The reverse characteristics of a 10A1600 V 4H-Sic SBD.

FIgure 2. Calculated yictds as a function of current rating and defect

densities in Sic.
.MWP Lfurnia/ianabuiir DARPA is uvuilable al mw.durpo.niil

12

Low channel mobilities increase on-resistance to values that

prevent operating at low on-state voltage drops. If channel
mobilities improve to 50 cm*Ns, the potential of Sic
MOSFETs begin to be realized [11,
Significant work is ongoing to improve the devices
specific on-resistance through surface analysis, S O 2 growth
conditions, and post-implantation annealing [ 121. For
example, work done in WBG-HPE Phase I showed an
excellent low on-state resistance of 123 mR-cm2 for a
blocking voltage of 10 kV DMOSFETs with active area =
4 . 2 ~ 1 0cm2
. ~ and guard ring termination (See Fig. 5) [,13].
The Phase I1 extension will work on developing 10 kV
MOSFETs with on-state resistance of 5 0.25 a-cm with a
die yield of > 30% at 200 C junction temperature [I.

Improvements in the repeatability of the reverse blocking

characteristics have also been demonstrated through
advances in device edge termination as was done in the
Work
early days of silicon device development [I.
continues to optimize the performance of these devices for
commercial and military applications. During Phase I
WBG-HPE, Sic PiN diodes were demonstrated with reverse
blocking of > 9 kV with IO0 gm drift layers and Vf = 4.2 V
(drift of < 100 mV) at 20-50 A (current density of 100
A/cm2) [3]. The focus o f the next phase of the program is
developing 10 kV PiN Diodes with Vr 5 4 . 2 5 V and die
yield of more than 30%, operating at junction temperature
of 200 C [ 101.
C. 4 f f - S i cMOSFET

D. 4H-Sic IGBT

One of the most significant advantages of Sic is the

ability to grow a stable thermal oxide, much in the same
way as on Si, enabling fabrication of MOS-based device
structures. S i c MOSFETs are promising in high-power
applications due to their low on-state voltage drop (at lower
current densifies), high switching speeds, lower drift layer
charge compared to Si, and high temperature stabitity.
However, S i c MOSFETs are still far away from
commercialization due to their extremely low electron
inversion channel mobilities (-10 cm2Ns) [ l l ] .

0.5

0.0

1.5

1.0

25

20

3.0

3.1

IGBTs combine the current density and the low loss of

bipolar transistors with the speed and high impedance of the
MOSFETs. S i c bipolar devices show 20-50 times lower
switching losses, and also lower on-state voltage drop (even
with order of magnitude smaller carrier lifetimes in the drift
region) as compared to similarly rated Si bipolar devices.
Low on-state voltage drop enables > 20 kV devices to be
more reliable and thermally stable.
IGBTs are classified into two categories, N-channel and
P-channel. Compared to N-channel, P-channel lGBTs have
higher an-state power losses (due to lower inversion layer
hole mobility), but have lower turn-off losses because of the
use of NPN transistor [I].
In general, for 4H-Sic
fabrication a P-channel IGBT is more suitable than a Nchannel IGBT because highly conductive P-type substrates
are not currently available. To circumvent the Iack of Psubstrates, alternative fabrication techniques have been
suggested using N-substrates for N-channel devices. The
WBG-HPE Phase 11 goal will evaluate the construction of

4.0

180

Forward Voltage M

zE

140

.-C 100
E
n

E
a
U
I

.-0

20

Forward Voltage (V)

Figure 4. Forward conduction of
fabricated on a) 100
Forward voltage drops
Reverse blocking is
respectiveiy

60

high power 4H-Sic PiN diodes

pin and b) 200 pm epilayers.
of 3.9 and 6.3 V are observed.
nominally IO and 20 kV,

Drain-Source
Figure 5. On-state characteristics for a lOkV Sic MOSFETs with
active area = 4 . 2 ~ 1 0 cm.

13

vokages of 650 V and 3.5 V at 250 pA rcspectivcly and an

on-slate currcnt of 50 A. The power module (IGBTs +
Schottky diode) has on-state current of 400A, and thermal
resistance of 0.107-0.11 I "CIW for ICBT and 0.137-0.127
"CIW for the diode.
Next generation designs will demand significantly tnorc
performance from the power dcvices specifically in the
areas of: increased current capabilities, minimized losses,
minimized parasitics, good electrical isolation, and thcrmal
and mechanical ruggedness [ 171. As suggested previously,
Si deviccs will not meet the demands; therefore new devices
with more advanced capabilities, such as S i c power
modules, will be required. Advantages include: higher
breakdown voltagcs; lower on- resistances; larger thermal
conductivities; operation at temperature up to 600 *C;
reduced switching losses and electromagnetic interference;
and radiation hardness [18,19]. In replacing Si power
devices with Sic, improvements in space, weight, and
power (SWAP) are realized - a 10% improvement in
traction drive efficiency and a 66% reduction in heatsink
size [ZO].
In a HEV traction drive simulation performed with Si and
S i c MOSFETs, the switching losses were approximately
the same, while the big difference was observed in the
conduction losses - these conduction losses wcre around
6000 times less than observed when using Si devices. With
the six MOSFETs integrated together into an inverter, the
total device losses wcre 66% less in the SIC based inverter
as compared to the Si system. Further advantages will be
realized using Sic devices for HEV electric drives including
higher operation temperatures requiring smaller heat sinks
decreasing the volume and weight of these devices. This
reduction will appear as improved HEV efficiency [IS-].

P- and N- channel IGBTs to achieve 10-15 kV devices with

VF 5 4.25 V and die yield of more than 50% at junction
temperature o f 200 "C [I. To date little research has been
done on Sic IGBTs, but further improvements in materials
quality and device design arc expected to dramatically
improve the operating characteristics.

E. 4H-Sic Field Cutitrolled Thyristor:

Higher breakdown electric field, carrier saturation
velocities, and thermal conductivity of S i c enable S i c
thyristors to have superior performance - fast switching, low
voltage drop at high current density, higher tcmpcrature
operation (up to 527 "C) and higher radiation hardness compared to Si thyristors [14]. High voltage applications in
the range of 2-5 kV, such as traction control and DC
transmission, are potential candidates to benefit from S i c
thyristors. In these applications, one single SIC thyristor
can replace multiple Si thyristors.
To date, the most promising S i c thyristor structure is p-np-n, which permits the use of low-resisitivity N-type
substrate. These devices showed blocking voltages of 600
V both in forward and reverse bias [IS]. This device has a
rated forward current of 1.8 A (563 A/cm2) with a voltage
drop of 3.7 V.

IV. sic APPLICATION

INSERTION OPPORTUNTIES
Currently, there are significant efforts to accelerate the
development and insertion of the new high voltage and high
frequency SIC devices needed for commercial and military
applications. The frontier or power electronics, and S i c
components in particular, i s to realize high power devices to
enable high voltage systems to employ the same power
conversion and distribution concepts available today only at
lower voltages with silicon. For example, research is
underway to fabricate components at 2 10 kV for solid-state
power substations to be used in commercial utilities or naval
shipboard power distribution.
A number of other
applications can benefit from Sic electronics to overcome
the limitations of current technologies as discussed in the
following sections.
Hybrid electric vehicle- 300-600 V
Commercial hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) are being
developed to minimize the dependence on oil-refined fuels
and supplies and to help curb the destruction of the
environment from the burning of fossil fuels. HEV use both
the usual internal combustion engine (ICE) powered by
gasoline plus an electric motor (EM) with a high voltage
battery. Fig. 6 displays the 2004 Ford Escape Hybrid and
the schematic for the HEV system revealing the
interconnection between the different drive trains [ 161. As
seen in the figure, the battery is connected to an ac-dc
inverter providing power to the traction motor and generator
converting electrical energy into the mechanical drive.
Current HEV inverter designs use Si IGBT switches
linked together as ii module to achieve the required power
levels. Individual IGBTs have breakdown and threshold
A.

A
Tncdon

* M W

t,n m k d l d

Figure 6. 2004 Ford Escape Hybrid vehicle displaying the location

of the LCE under the hood and the EM in the center of
the car, with the HEV schematic (0 2004 IEEE).

14

B. Power Fuctor Correction (PFC) Circuirs- 600-I200V

Power factor (PF) reflects how efficiently devices utilize

significant amount of additional circuitry is required for

turn-off, increasing component cost and decreasing the
drive reliability. IGBTs are advantageous due to use of
MOS-gate, fast switching, and minimum cooling
requirements, but have high conduction losses at medium
voltage levels and require series connection of multiple
IGBTs [23]. ABB introduced Insulated-Gate-Commutated
Thyristors (IGCTs), a modification to GTOs, delivering fast
switching with inherently low losses, less complex circuitry
with improved reliability [24J.
The superior performance of S i c diodes makes it possibfe
to replace Si IGBTs or thyristors in motor drive
applications. For the voltage range of 1.5-3 kV, it is
possible to use Sic Schottky-PiN hybrid rectifiers, which
combines the advantages of both Schottky and PiN diodes,
like the Junction Barrier Schottky (JBS) and Merger PiN
Schottky (MPS) diodes. These hybrid diodes have excellent
characteristics including: low on-state voltage drop, low offstate leakage, fast switching, and good high temperature
performance. Beyond 3 kV, Sic PiN diodes show great
potential because of their exceptionally fast switching,
comparable on state voltage at sufficiently high current
densities, and high-temperature operation [25]. Therefore,
Sic-based drives will be smaller, more efficient, cost
effective, and handle higher power [26].

electricity - essentially comparing the amount of useful

work realized from the total amount of electrical energy
supplied. PF is the ratio of "usefid" power, measured in
watts (W), divided by the "apparent" power, measured in
volt-amps (VA) - PF = W N A [21,22]. A PF of unity
indicates that all the supplied power is converted to useful
work (resistive).
In reactive devices (devices using
inductive coils or capacitors such as electric motors,
transformers, etc.), a portion of the supplied power goes to
create an electro-magnetic field and not to resistive work.
PFCs are compensatory electronic devices that attempt to
make the electric system more resistive in nature [I.
PFC circuits are boost converters that are driven in
Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM) or Continuous
Conduction Mode (CCM). DCMs do not require highspeed diodes, but suffer from de-rating of circuit
components and instability under light loads. CCM circuits
offer IOW RMS currents, stability under light load operation,
but require ultrafast diodes
CCM PFC circuits utilize Si PiNs. Si Schottky barrier
diodes are not used due to their large on-state voltage drops
observed in the 600 V range. However, PiNs have reverse
recovery charge values around 100-500 nC, which increase
significantly with larger forward currents and higher
temperatures, and switch times of 100 ns. This places a
tremendous burden on the other switching elements in terms
of larger losses and forward safe operation areas.
S i c SBD offer prime benefits to be used in PFC circuits.
These benefits include: fast recovery (50 ns) and almost
zero reverse recovery charge even at high junction
temperature operation. Additional advantages for PFC
circuits include: reduction in the number o f MOSFETs by
SO%, elimination or size reduction of the active or passive
snubbers, and reduction of the EM1 filter size and other
passives [,]
The introduction of S i c based circuits will positively
impact PFC circuits by improving circuit efficiency,
enabling the operation o f the power distribution systems at
higher temperatures and frequencies, and decreasing the
total number of circuits required without sacrificing
performance.
Fig. 7 compares power efficiencies at
different loads for Si and SIC diodes. The efficiency of
circuits made with S i c is 5% better at 40% load compared
to Si [I.

D. Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System ( E M LS) 3-6kV

The U S Navy is presently pursuing EMALS as a
replacement to the existing steam catapult aircraft launching
system in carriers. There are a number of factors driving
this change. First is decreasing the size of the launching
equipment; existing catapult systems are 1133 m' and weigh
486 metric tons. Such volume assumes significant amount
of below-deck space and the top-side weight impacting the
ship's stability and righting ability.
Second, hture
platforms demand launching larger, heavier, and more
sophisticated aircrafts; therefore higher energy launching
systems will be required. Current steam catapult systems,
with cfficiencies -5%, are not sufficient to provide the
anticipated launching power. Finally, steam catapults lack
feedback control which imparts a sizable amount of
transient stresses onto the airframes during launch, leading
to diminished equipment lifetimes 127,281,

C. Indusdrial Drives and Traction 2-5kY

Ac and dc traction applications (pumps, fans, and
compressors) use high torque and low speeds for high
efficiency conversion of electrical energy into rotational
energy; they currently utilize Si-based Gate-Turn Off
Thyristors (GTOs) or IGBTs for switching functionality.
These technologies have advantages and limitations
associated with their use. GTO technology is reliable and
conduction losses are at acceptable levels. However, a
h

d Ubb

Figure 7. Efficiency comparison of PFC circuit with Si and Sic diodes

15

The Navy's EMALS design uses an impulse-power linear

induction launch motor (LIM) that will accelerate aircrafts
to speeds in excess of 130 knots (67 &sec). The system
consists of four elements: energy-storage subsystem; powerconversion subsystem; LIM; and control consoles to set
launch parameters and monitor the entire system. Fig. 8
provides a schematic of the envisioned EMALS system
[29]. LlMs are comprised of a row of stator coils energized
by very-high-power silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs).
The SCRs are situated independently along the length of the
launch track and handle tens of thousands of amps at several
thousand volts. Active cooling is required to keep the
individual elements from overheating and effectively
remove the heat buildup during launch [28J.
S i c devices have been considered as a new approach for
EMALS design. A preliminary study performed under
WBG-HPE Phase I investigated the advantages of utilizing
S i c MOSFETs compared to Si IGBTs or IGCTs. The main
conclusion from the siinulations was an enormous EMALS
volume reduction (80%) arising from savings in device and
heat sink volumes, and the elimination of the inductors (see
Table 1) [30]. This added space is greatly demanded for
integrating advanced tactical functionalities in future
carriers [28].

[GBT

Topology

Total D e v i c e
V o l u m e (cm')
Total
H eatsink

3-Level

IGCT

Sic MOSFET

3 - L e v e l NPC

(% volume reduction)
2-level V S I

N P C VSI

VSI

148,300

124,200

39.210

2 @4,43 0

154,800

51,120
(-66)

Figure 8. Projected EMALS system.

candidate has been Si IGBTs. Even as these devices

continue to be improved, the power handling density and
thermal stability are being approached due to material
limitations.
To protect the devices, the switching
frequencies are reduced or additional circuitry are
integrated, however these options increase costs or heighten
power losses [3 11.
S i c promises to be a potential enhancement for the power
utility industry because of its capability to handle larger
voltages, current densities, and to operate at higher
switching frequencies. A detailed study performed during
WBG-HPE Phase I revealed the size and weight benefits
S i c offers in solid state power substation (SSPS) designs.
In replacing the conventional 2.7 MVA 60 Hz power
transformer-based down converter with a 20 16-I~S i c SSPS
converter using MOSFETs, a savings of more than 50% in
weight and volume was predicted (See Table 11) [30].
Additional features expected are: improved power quality
factor; digital control and reconfigurability; and superior
control of power sag, flicker, and harmonics [32]. With the
reduced size and additional features of Sic, high voltage
equipment can be used in applications where smaller size
substations are desired.

(-68)

E. High Power Trailmission Utility - 10 kV+

High voltage transmission equipment is used to transmit
power from generating locations to points where the
electricity can be used. GTOs, in early high power
applications, enabled the building of efficient converters but
this came at the cxpense of power losses and the need for
additional power protection devices. The introduction of
IGCTs simplified the design and size of the converters and
significantly decreased the losses observed when using
GTOs. Currently, IGCTs represent an optimal costeffective choice in many high power applications requiring
turn-off devices.
There is a need for devices capable of handling high
current densities with low forward voltage drops for power
transmission systems. Until now, the most successful

TABLE 11
SIZE ANDWEIGHT COMPARISONS BETWEEN Sic-BASED
SSPS
ANDCONVENTIONAL POWER TRANSFORMER.

13.8 kV to4160 V Converter

Sic MOSFET number

Transformer Size (m')

Total Size (m')
Device Weieht ltonsl
Total Weight (tons)
I

I
I

Conventional

I IO

0.313
I

* Estimated 4 m'when fully packaged

** Estimated weight

16

SSPS

1.724*
0.0185

2.63**

10
I

v.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

CONCLUSfONS

Thanks are due to several of the performers on the

DARPA High Power Electronics Program for contributing
their results to this article, these include: Dr John Palmour
and Dr Anant Aganval of Cree Inc, Prof. Alex Huang of
NCSU, Prof James Cooper of Purdue University, Dr Allen
Hefner of NIST, and Scott Littlefield of the Office of Navai
Research. Special thanks are due to Dr Fereshteh Farzad
and Anand Raghunathan of Booz Allen Hamilton for the
preparation of this manuscript.

This paper reviewed the representative high power

electronics application areas that can benefit from the higher
breakdown electric field, carrier saturation velocities, and
thermal conductivity of S i c compared to Si devices. As a
result of the advantages in the fundamental device
performance, tremendous savings in weight, volume and
cost can be realized at the system level. However, in order
to commercialize S i c devices and fully exploit their
potential in power electronics (especially for high voltage
applications), more improvements at the material and device
levels are essential.
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