~

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Report IXt
Oil Spill
96'

TEXAS HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS

REPORT ON THE IXTOC I OIL SPILL

BENNIE BOCK II
CHAIRMAN

MARCH 10, 1980

FORE WARD
On March 24, 1980, the nine month long struggle to cap the
IXTOC I oil well carne to an end.
the well was successfully capped.

Mexican officials announced that

It is estimated that more than

130 million barrels of oil spilled into the Gulf of Mexico since
June 13, 1979 making this spill the largest ever recorded

.
I

House ot= RepResentatioes

Committee on EnviRonmental A.r:.r:ams
March 26, 1980
Rep. Bennie Bock II, Chairman
New Braunfels
Vice-Chairman
Rep. Carlyle Smith
Grand Prairie
V lce-Chelrmen
Approprlltlve M1ttere
Rep, Fred AQnlch
011111
Rep. Henry E. Allll
Houaton

The Honorable Bill Clayton

Speaker
Texas House of Representatives
Dear Mr. Speaker:
The Committee on Environmental Affairs respectfully
submits its report on the IXTOC I oil spill in
accordance with your charge to the committee.

Rep, Roneld C. Bird

Antonio

Set~

Rep. Jerry Clerk

Bun a
Rep , Fr1nk Collezo, Jr.
Port Arthur
Rep. Nolen J. " Buzz" Robnett
Lubbock
Rep , Blll Sullivant
Galnetvllle
Rep. Tim Von
Golfed
Rep, Ed R.
0Hr Park

Dohlet~

Wetaot~

Commlttll Clerk
Arlene Wilton

T1m Von Dohlen

P.O. Box 2910

Auat ln, Tex ea 78 769

51 2/475-352 1 or 475-5987

Tex - An 826-6!574

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
INTRODUCTION

FEDERAL STATE CONTINGENCY PLANS

FEDERAL INVOLVEMENT

STATE ACTIVITIES

RESEARCH

TEXAS SYSTEM OF NATURAL LABORATORIES REPORT

International Base Line Data Coding System

Profile of an Oil Spill

11

Biological Aspects Relating to the IXTOC I Oil Spill

15

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT

61

BLOWOUT PREVENTION

62

CLEANUP MEASURES

64

FEDERAL/STATE/LOCAL POLICIES

66

SHRIMP/FISHING INDUSTRY

68

TOURISM

69

SUMMARY

70

RECOMMENDATIONS
Committee

72

Agency

74

Footno t es

76

Charts
Progress Limits of Mexican Oil

National Contingency Plan Concepts

4-a

Organizational Charts/ State Contingency

4-b,c

Food Web
Beac h Cleanup Zones

17
65

APPENDICES
A

"Potential Components of a More Effective Oil Pollution

Control Program for the State of Texas"
Roy W. Hann, Jr., Texas A&M University
"Use of a Mixture of Beach Sand and Inspissated Oil
Dune Nourishment and Stabilization:
w. L . Fisher, Bureau of Economic Geology

78

114

Computer Models of Bays and Estuaries

H. w. Grubb, Texas Department of Water Resources

118

Damage Assessment Study Outlines

E. G. Wermund, Bureau of Economic Geology
The U.S. Geological Survey

125
134

Authority of Texas State Agencies For Oil Spill

Prevention and Response
Prepared by Mike Hightower, General Land Office

142

Texas System of Natural Laboratories, Inc.

Credentials

143

INTRODUCTION
On June 1, 1979, the Petroleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) oil well
blew out and ignited in the Bay of Campeche which is 500 miles
south of the coast of Texas.

(See Map)

The well, known as the

IXTOC I, has spilled more than 3 million barrels of oil into the
waters of the Gulf of Mexico.
still not been capped.
near the wellhead.

As of this writing the well has

Until early July, 1979, the spill remained

Seventy days after the blowout, oil appeared

in Texas waters and on Texas beaches in the form of tar balls,

"mousse" (oil weathered to a fudge-like consistency), and slicks.
Beaches were affected from Port Aransas to the mouth of the Rio
Grande.

In September, changes in the prevailing winds and currents

caused the oil to stay in Mexican waters.

When the currents resume

their northerly flow, the oil could again threaten the Texas
coastline.
Concerned that the oil from the spill affected a large area of
the Texas coast, tourism, the fishing industry and possibly human
health and the environment, Rep. Bill Clayton, Speaker of the Texas
House of Representatives, assigned the Committee on Environmental
Affairs, chaired by Rep. Bennie Bock II, to conduct a study on the
oil spill's effects.
This report attempts to answer the following charges (as
presented by the Speaker):
1.

monitor the effects, immediate and long-term of the blowout,

on the coastal environment;

2.

evaluate the effectiveness of the cleanup effort and the

Oil Spill Contingency Plan;

3.

review federal, state, and local policies regarding

assistance for natural and manmade disasters; and

4.

determine if changes in State law are needed to address

issues which include, but are not limited to, financial
disaster aid.

At the time of the above charge to the committee, it was not

anticipated that part of the problem would be the capping of the
well.

This report was delayed several months awaiting the capping

of the well, and as of the date of this report the well still has
not been plugged.

Until the flow of oil is stopped, there is no way

-1-

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to assess the final damages.

Consequently, this report will attempt

to document those answers that can be made with the obvious

limitations.
On August 24, 1979, the Committee on Environmental Affairs
held its first meeting in Corpus Christi to learn what action was
being taken to safeguard the Texas coast.

Various federal and

state officials described their functions regarding the oil spill

crisis.
On October 16, 1979, the Committee met again to discuss safeguards to prevent blowouts from occurring.
educationa+ programs were discussed.

Preventive training and

The Committee also heard

testimony about developing oil spill cooperatives in the state.

In addition to the hearings, the Committee sought comments
from the federal and state agencies, the universities, and industry.
The Texas Department of Water Resources cooperated fully with the
committee and continues to send progress reports concerning the flow
of the oil as well as the cleanup operation.

The General Land Office

prepared a chart and supporting documentation showing the authority

of the state to regulate oil, gas, and related operations to prevent
oil spills.

{See Appendix E)

In order to fulfill the request of the Speaker of the House

to undertake an in-depth study of the threats posed both to the
coastal environment and the economy of Texas by the Mexican oil
spill, and at the request of the Speaker, the Committee on
Environmental Affairs engaged the services of the Texas System of
Natural Resources {TSNL) on a staff basis to assist in the
evaluation process of the environmental impact.
FEDERAL/STATE CONTINGENCY PLANS
The National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency
Plan

1977.

was developed in compliance with the Federal Clean Water Act of

2

This plan seeks to insure a coordinated Federal response at

the scene of a discharge of oil or hazardous substance. The On-Scene

Coordinator {OSC) coordinates and directs the Federal response to
spills, and discharge removal efforts at the scene of a discharge.
The Coast Guard is charged with providing the OSC in the coastal
-3-

regions of the United States.

(See Figure I)

The Environmental

Protection Agency has that responsibility in inland regions.

The state government is represented on the Regional Response
Team (RRT) by the Texas Department of Water Resources (TDWR} and
provides advice and assistance to the OSC.

At the request of the

OSC, state resources can be utilized directly to pick up or contain

spills.
In addition to the clean-up activities conducted under the federal
fund set up under Section 311 of the Federal Clean Water Act of 1977,
clean-up activities can be conducted under subchapter (g), "Coastal
Oil and Hazardous Spill and Prevention Control" of the Texas Water
Code. 3 These activities must be conducted in accord with the
National Contingency Plan.

The executive director of the TDWR

places the resources of the state at the disposal of the OSC, if

he is present, or engages in cleanup activities when directed to do
so by the OSC.

(See Figure II}

When no OSC is present and no action

is being taken by an agency of the federal government, the executive

director of TDWR may act to clean up oil under Section 26.264(h) (2}.
(See Figure III)
Pursuant to Section 26.264(f), the TDWR and the State Department
of Highways and Public Transportation (TDHW} have an existing contract
relating to the manner in which Highway Department resources are to
be used.
Also relating to oil spill cleanup is the State of Texas Disaster
Plan which provides for the coordination of state agency efforts
in the event of disasters by the Division of Disaster Emergency
4
Services of the Texas Department of Public Safety (DPS) .
FEDERAL INVOLVEMENT
Shortly after the IXTOC I well exploded in the Bay of Campeche,
the United States Coast Guard began its preparations for the
potential onslaught of oil in the waters of Texas.

The command

center and theregional news office were established in Corpus Christi.

On July 27, 1979 Captain Roger Madson relieved Commander Joel Sipes
as the Federal On-Scene Coordinator (OSC).

The Scientific Coordinator

was named, Mr. John Robinson of NOAA and LCDR James Paskewich

-4-

.NATIONAL
1510.32
1510.33

1510.3~

1510.35

CONTINGF:~CY

PLAN CONCEPTS

NRT

NRC

RRT
RRC

1510.22

1510.23

- 4a-

1510.23

FIGURE II
ORGANIZATIONAL CHART WITH RESPONSIBILITY FOR
COASTAL OIL AND HAZARDOUS SPILL PREVENTION AND CONTROL

U.S. Coast Guard

On-Scene Coordinator (OSC)
(Present)

osc

I
Conmercial

Contractors

I~
I

*Texas Department of
Water Resources

I
Local
Governments

Texas
Department of Highways
and Public Transportation

Authority for this Organization is given by the Texas Water Code, Subchapter G,
Section 26.264(h) and Section 26.266(d).

* Section 26.264(h){1) and {h)(3) applies specifically to this situation.

--- Indicates that State ofTexas resources are at the disposal of the OSC.

-4b-

FIGURE II I
ORGANIZATIONAL CHART WITH RESPONSIBILITY FOR
COASTAL OIL AND HAZARDOUS SPILL PREVENTION AND CONTROL

U.S. Coast Guard

On-Scene Coordinator (OSC)
(Not Pr.esent)

*Texas Department
of Water Resources

Commercial Contractors
and local Governments

Texas Department of Highways

and Public Transportation

Authority for this Organization is given by the Texas Water Code", Subchapter G,
Section 26.264(h) and Section 26.266(d).

* Section 26.264(h)(2) and (h)(3) applies specifically to this situation.

l
- 4c -

was named as the Response Coordinntor.

Representatives from

other Federal agencies and the State of Texas were named to serve
on the response team.

A vulnerability study was conducted by

Research Planning Institute (RPI) of Columbia, South Carolina to

identify and map sensitive areas of the entire Texas coastline.
In mid July, the U.S.C.G. cutter Valiant sailed with NOAA and EPA
scientists aboard to obtain samples of the oil and also to chart the
water currents in the Gulf.

NOAA gathered data from the Coast Guard

overflights in order to monitor the movement of the oil.

On August 24, 1979, Captain Roger L. Madson, U.S.C.G., testified
before the Committee on Environmental Affairs.

Captain Madson

explained the National Contingency Plan and the role that the
National Response Team and the Regional Response Team play in
dealing with major oil spills.

The Coast Guard, according to Captain

Madson, decided that its first line of defense would be "to stop
the oil from entering these bays and estuaries, and this would mean
booming of the passes, starting at Brazos-Santiago, moving up to Port
Mansfield, the Fish Pass below Aransas, and then Aransas Pass, itself."
When the oil was 60 miles below the Rio Grande, all organizations and equipment involved in the operation, were called in.
The Navy Mark-0-Skimmer worked effectively on the mousse.
The strategy used by the Coast Guard, according to Capt. Madson's
testimony, was to give highest priority to cleaning the beaches near
the hotels and motels to minimize the economic impact as much as
possible.

Isolated areas of beaches were not cleaned at that time,

stated Madson, because it was not economically feasible to clean 130

5
miles of beaches daily.
STATE ACTIVITIES
During the 70 days from the blow out (June 3, 1979) until oil
began to appear in Texas waters and on the beaches, several meetings
were held to coordinate the spill response effort of state and federal
agencies.
On July 13, 1979, a meeting of the Regional Response Team (RRT)
was held at the Eighth Coast Guard District Headquarters in New Orleans.
Dick Whittington, Deputy Director of the Texas Department of

-5-

Water Resources (TDWR) named by the Governor to be the state's

representative to the RRT, outlined the state's strategy for bay
and estuary protection and beach cleanup.

The priorities of the

plan were:
1

To prevent oil from entering bays, estuaries, and the

the Laguna Madre by fill in or deploying booms across
passes

2
3

To clean recreational beaches

To clean remote beaches 6 .

On July 20, a meeting of all state agencies interested or

involved in the spill response activities was held to obtain comments
on the TDWR pass protection plans and beach cleanup strategy.
On July 27, the TDWR presented at the RRT meeting a
strategy, which had been coordinated with other Texas state agencies,
for protecting the bays up to the Colorado River.

This strategy

was later refined by the USCG strike teams and placed into effect.
On July 31, the TDWR staff personnel were permanently
assigned to the USCG command post in Corpus Christi to represent
the state.

State-On-Scene Coordinator was John Latchford.

The following is a brief description of the roles of the

other state agencies involved:
The Division of Disaster Emergency Services (DES) of the Texas
Department of Public Safety (DPS) had the responsibility of continuous

evaluation of the effects of the oil spill.

Reports received

from the Coast Guard and from DES contacts with authorities concerned
with the slicks potential impact on the Texas coast were reviewed and
reports were transmitted by message, telephone and personal contacts
8
to the Governor's office.
The General Land Office (GLO) monitored the coastline from
Aransas County to Cameron County to assess the social, economic and
environmental impacts of the oil spill on state lands.

The GLO also

designated potential holding sites as they were needed and coordinated

9
information gathering with TDWR.
The Texas Department of Health (TDH) collected samples of marine
food organisms from all of Texas major bay systems for hydrocarbon
testing before the oil arrived to provide a data base for determining
-6-

the effect on the wholesomeness of Texas seafoods in the event that

the oil invaded the bays and estuaries.

The Department's Division of

Food and Drugs conducted tests to determine if any seatood had been
10
contaminated by the oil spill. No contamination was reported.
The Texas Railroad Commission deployed remote weather stations and
9
arranged for storage and salvage of recovered oil.
The Texas Department of Highways and Public Transportation prepared
disposal sites, closed passes, participated in cleanup of the beaches,
transferred oil debris to its final disposal site, and constructed
9
access roads where needed.
The primary role of the Texas Parks and Wildlife Dept. was to
monitor the fish and wildlife populations.

The Department chemists

also aided in bioassays and decisions on oil containment and cleanup.

The Texas Air Control Board conducted burning tests as an
9
alternative to oil removal technique.
The Attorney General's office provided assistance in legal
questions arising from the oil spill and the cleanup operations.

RESEARCH
Texas beaches, bays and estuaries are irreplaceable assets of
great value to the Texas coastal economy.

In order to protect this

valuable asset for the future, basic research is needed now to assess
the oil spill of last summer.
12
Key processes of the coastal ecosytem which must be understood
include:
A.

Productivity
- carbon uptake
- nitrogen uptake
- fresh water input
- input from swamps and marshes

B.

Geochemical cycles
- metals
- pollutants
- organics from rivers

C.

Food web analyses

- benthic role
- seagrass role
-7-

11

- plankton role
- nitrogen fixation and nitrogen cycle
D.

Physical and geological

- sedimentation rates
- water movement.
All existing baseline studies which contribute directly to long

range key processes studies should be updated at the time of peak

activity for all major disasters.

The different samplings done on

the IXTOC I spill and the Burmah Agate should take into account the
existing Bureau of Land Management Outer Continental Shelf baseline
studies.

The sampling should be related to the USGS/BEG Core

Sediments Archives using the same precise sampling latitude/longitude

grid to which the original sampling is tied and to which other
sampling also can then be related by latitude/longitude points.
A baseline is the norm against which the plus or minus effects of
an impact can be measured using samplings taken at the time of
"peak activity" and taken again after the fact.

Four or five such

major base line studies for Texas coastal waters and the outer
continental shelf were completed from 1975 to 1977. 13
Texas has a cooperative pair of resources which is unique in
the nation.

The State has the Texas Natural Resources Information

System (TNRIS), and the universities have their private, non-profit

consortium, the Texas System of Natural Laboratories, Inc.

(TSNL).

(See Appendix F)
The following document prepared by TSNL will consist of the
International base line data coding system; profiles of an oil spill
with a related one for fish and shrimp species; and also the
biological aspects relating to the IXTOC I oil spill.

- 8-

INTERNATIONAL BASE LIN: . DATA CODING SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE: This outline is tle TSNL categorization system for storage,
retrieval, and interrelation of information drawn from a broad range of
sources.
STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL: Since data may apply to more than one topic
heading, it can be stored under all relevant topic headings and retrieved
from any one of them. All data under a single topic can be retrieved by
recalling that topic. By recalling two topics, only that information
recorded under both topics (i.e., at their intersection) will be displayed.
This information at the intersection of two or more topics will show
relationships between outline factors.
GEOGRAPHICAL PLACEMENT: When available, information will be assigned
geographical designations according to place names listed in an appendix.
This assignment can be assumed where it is not specifically noted within
an outline section.
INVENTORY AND DISTRIBUTION: The relationship between geographical
location and any other outline category can be displayed in two ways.
Either all references to a place (such as the soil types of a county) or
all distributional information for a topic (such as the county distribution
of a particular soil type) can be retrieved.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: All entries will be carefully referenced, and a source
bibliography for any outline topic (or intersection of topics) will be
available. A reference is stored under all relevant topic hea9ings, not
merely by title or key words as currently provided by most abstract
services.
APPLICATIONS: This system is intended for use by researchers, managers,
and planners in academic institutions, industry, and government. In
addition to primary uses for teaching and research, it can facilitate
the preparation and evaluation of impact statements and management
decisions, ease time consuming literature searches, and provide inspiration
for further research. Although not a model, this system is designed to
provide an adequate data base and base line framework for modelers.
FEA'IURES: There are a number of advantages to this coding system. One
is its design in outline form, implying relationships between factors,
rather than as a simple list. Further detail can be developed as necessary.
Also, the outline can supplement or interface with such diverse data
systems as the Texas Natural Resources Information System or the United
Nations Environmental Program. Unlike most other data systems, man is
treated in the biological section.

November, 1978
Austin, Texas

- 9-

TEXAS SYSTEM OF NATURAL LABORATORIES, INC.

INTERNATIONAL BASE LINE DATA CODING SYSTEM (!BLOCS)

OtSCRII'TION:
TSNL'o Mas~er Outline (IBLDCS is summari~ed here to the fir~t three levels only to provide an overview of its scooe.
In its complete ro~ so~ sections are subdivided down to 10 levels. It i deaiqned so that further detail can be .
added on the lower levels to accomnodate specific research and data atoraqe needs.

BAS~

A.

I.

INI'URIIATlOII:

B.

C.
D.
E.

r.

G.
H.
I.

J.
K.

II

I.

Climatic belts
Wind
Precipitation
Te10perature
Evapotranepiration rate
Solar radiation
Ultra-violet radiation
visible ba~a
Photosynthesis
Cli-.tic changes
Extraordinary weather events

11.

BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS

TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION
" Viruaes
B. Superkingdom Prokaryonta
Kingdom 1. Monera
C. Superkingdom Eulcaryonta
l<ingdolll 1. llyceteae
Kingdolll 2. Plantae (Phyta
Kingdoll J. Anilll&lia (Zoa
ECOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
A. Evolutionary hbtory
B. Distribution
C. Habitat
D. Abiotic interaction
. Biotic interaction
F. Biotic/cultural interactiona
G. Cultural interaction

GEOLOGICAL

A.
C.
0.
E.

t.

v.

BASE INFORMATION:

IIYI.>ilLOGICAL
A. Drainage Baein
B. River or stre. . reach
C. Water illpOUndmant
D. Aquifer/ground water
E. Estuary/bay eyetem

B.

1\'.

B.

.~I:TI;:O~OLOGICAL

A.

II.

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

Stratigraphic
Structural
Paleontological
Geoaoorpbological
Econoalc
EnvironMntill

APPENDIX A:
I.

II.

CKEI'IICAL
A. Nitrogen cycle
B. Phosphorus cycle
c. Carbon cycle
D. Other geoch~cal cyelee
E. Dissolved oxygen - aquatic
F. Chemical oxygen dea&nd - aquatic
G. Bioch~cal oxygen demand - aquatic
H.
Atmospheric gaaea
1. Total particulate
J. co_,n ale~~~enu
K.

Trace ele-nta

L.

Heavy Nt&la
Radioactive eubatances
Herbicidal and peaticides
Petroleum

M.
H.
0.

Natural resource&
A.

a.
c.

PtDOLOGICAL
A. Cla~aification
B. Geographical distribution
C. Deacription
o. Use capability

Ill.
IV.

II.
III.

-10-

Mr

Water
Land
D. Biological
B. Ener9y
Utilization of resources
A. Agriculture, forestry and fishing
a. Mining
c. Conetruction
D. Manufacturing
B. Tranaportation, communications, electric,
gaa, and sanitary aervieea
F. Wboleaale trade
G. Retail trade
H. Finance, insurance, and real estate
r. Servicea
J. Public administration
K. Nonclaaaitiabla eatablis~nts
Lllliting factors
A. Natural preaaures
B. Han-made pressures
Educational resource&
A. Reaearch resources
B. Researchers
c. Research report
D. Bibliography ot soureea

APPENDIX 8 o
I.

CAPITAL RESOI.lRCES INVENTORY

MANAGEMENT CONCERNS

Managerial interet by industry

A. Induatdal
8. Public administration
Activitiea (iapactal
Managerial conaiderations by category
A. Organia01
8. Environment
C. Physical de&cription

I:'ROFILE OF /,N OIL SPILL

An extract from the TSNL International Base Line Data Co ding System (IBLDCS)

INTRODUCTION : The IBLDCS Master Outline, the coding system for regional
inventorying of field data records, is described more fully on page 8.
When all the references concerning a particular topic are assembled from
the master outline in sequence, a complete description or "profile" of
that topic or species is the result.
DESCRIPTION : The oil spill profile consists of factors which must be
addressed in order to evaluate the impact of an oil spill. Naturally a
small spill will affect only a few factors, while a large spill may
affect them all. Many of the factors are directly affected by oil
(water quality, biological organisms, etc . ) and many other factors are
secondary or tertiary effects (strains on the tax base, induced psychological
stress, etc.}. A related profile which could be valuable would be the
converse profile, factors which affect oil spills. This would show a
two-way relationship in many cases. For example oil affects bacteria
and bacteria affect the oil.
USES: When stored in an automated system, the oil spill profile or the
species profiles do not exist as separate entities, but are integrated
into the total data base. When one is interested in a particular topic
such as oil spills, the data base can be. queried for that particular
profile. The request might be, for instance, to list, for each oil
spill factor, the agencies, organizations, or individuals whose data
has been filed under that category. For a legal a s se ssment of oil spill
damages one would also recall information on the type o f study which
generated the base line data, and whether this study is ongoing or
completed . Such a search capability is an effective tool for determining
overall funding priorities.
Such a review would reveal gaps in the data, areas where perhaps no work
has been done at all, but where works needs to be done.
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT: A complete oil spill damage a s ses sment will consist
of comparing the data base which describes all these factors for a
region with the sampling and inventory data taken during and after the
period of peak oil spill activity.
When the sampling and inventory data is entered into the data base,
the computer can be instructed to compare the situation before and
after the spill to spot potential problem areas . If it was seen, for
example, that the shrimping industry might be adversly affected, the
shrimp profile could be pulled and correlated with the oil spill profile
using the new data to assess the potential impact. If tourism was under
discussion, a profile for man, the tourist, can be developed including
such aspects as sportsfishing, beaches, tourism related business, development,
and investments .
This powerful tool works only because of the comprehensive nature
of the Master OUtline.

TSNL
January, 1980

- 11 -

OIL SPILL PROFILE

Extracted from the TSNL Master Outline for Regional Inventories

A.

Physical aspectl
I. Meteorological

IT.

B.

l~1rll"ological and

E.

Hydrogearorphic
Estuary/bay system
). Water quality
b. Cation concentration
c. Anion concentraticn
d. Salinity
e . Specific conductance
f. ptl
g . 1\Jrbidity

h.

TransparerlC)'

1.

~trienta

1) Carbcn
Hydrodynamic relationahips
f. Erosion
1) Shoreline
g . Depositicn
1) Shoreline accretion
2) SeJilrentation
111. Geological
F. Envi.rormental
l. Active processes
d. Erosion and accretion
2 . Engineering properties
b. Cohesion
d. Density
f. Infiltration/runoff
3. Biogeochani.s tty
4. Land Resource
5. U!nd use
a. Capability
b. Clusification
IV . Pedological
c. Description
1. Physical characteristics
d . Texture
f. Consiatence
j . Penetrability
k. Penneability
r . Aggregate stability
u . Porosity (7.)
2. Soil hydrology
a. Soil misture ccntEI'\t
f. MaxJnn -water oolding capacity
i. Rl.rloff
j. Hydraulic conductivity
k. Infiltration rate
3. Chemical characterization
a. Elemental
1) len concentraticn
3) Total carbon.
b. Organiccarpolrlds
f. Wastes and pollutants
5. Effects of physical interaction
a. Abiotic
2) lllEmical
b . Biotic
1) Mechanical
c) l\mln
v. Hi.ning/quanying
2) Cllemical
c) JUran
iv. Petroleum effluents
D. Use capability
3. Engineering uses
a . Suitability
b. Degree of limitation
v. Chemical
c. Carbon cycle
2. AqUAtic
D. Other geoc:Nmical cycles
E. Dissolved oxygEI'l - aquatic
F. Ou!ml.cal oxygen demand - aquatic
G. Moc:Nmical oxygen dmllnd - aquatic
H. Acn:lspheric gasses
1. Gaseous pollutants
2. Gaeoua ncnpollutants
I. Total particulates
1. Aquatic
2. Airborne
0 . Petroleun

4.

-12-

Biological aspects
I . T&lCmOIIII.c classification
A. Viruses
B. S~dan Prokaryonta
Division 1. Cysnobacteria
Division 2. Bacteria
c. ~dan Eukaeyonta
KiDgdaa I. Myceteae {FUlgi)
Division 1. G)wlcmycota
Division 2. Mastigcnycota
Division 3. ~cota
Kingdan 2. Plantae (Phyta)
Division 1. Chlorophycophyta
Division 2. Euglenophycophyta
Diviaion 3. Olarophyta
Divisicn 4. Phseophyceae
Division 5. Phodophycophyta
Division 6. Cllrysophycophyta
Diviaion 7. Pyrrlv:Jphycophyta
Division 8. Cy.mochloronta (Cyanophyta)
Division 9. Schizonta (see B.D-2)
Division 10. Myxallycota
Division 11. flnycota (see C.K-l.D-3)
Division 22. Magnoliophyta (Anthophyta)
IUngdan 3. Animalia (Zoa)
Phyl\JII l. Protozoa
Phyluu 2. Porifera - SPCJI18e&
l'hyl\JII 4. Chidaria (Coelenterata)
Phyl\JII S. Ctenophora
Phyl1111 6. Placyhelmint:Ns ~ flatworms
Phylun 7. Mesozoa
Phyl1111 8. Rhynchocoela (Nenertina) ~ proboscie wms
l'hylun 9. <hltlv:>starulida
l'hyl\JII 10. Potifera - rotifers
Phyl\JII U. Gastrotricha
l'hyh.m U. Kirorhyncha (IchJmdera)
Phyh.m 13. Namtoda - ~rms
PhylUD 14. Nematamrpha - haiiwoiDB
PhylUD 15. Acanthocephala
l'hyl\Jll 16. Priapulida
PhylUll 17. Sipmcula peanut womB
l'hyl1111 18. l'bllusca
PhylUll 19 . Echiura
l'hylun 20 . Annelida - ae~ted Wl1a'l
Phyl\JII 21. Pogonoph:lra
Phyl\JII 22. Tardigrada - water bears
PhylUll 24. Arthropoda
l'hyl\Jll 26. Phoronida
Phylt.m 27. Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) - bryozoans
Phyhn 28. Entoprocta
l'hylUII 29. Brachiopoda - l~~~p shells
PhylUII 30 . Ovletognatha - arrowwoiTil9
PhylUII 31. Echinodennata
Phyl\111 32. Herticl'ordata - acom worms
Phyhc 33. Cllordata
II. Ecological classification
c. Habitat
1. Marine
2 . Estuary/bay
3 . Saline narah
5. Coutal cble caq>lex
D. Abiotic interactions
4. Meteorological data
a. Physical
5) Solar radiAtion
5. Hydrological data
a . Physical
3) Water turbidity
10) Solar radiation
b. Oleml.cal
10) Pollutants
c. Biological
1) Organic 1111tter
2) S.Cterial ccntent
6. Pedological data
a. Physical
8) Permeability
9) Penetrability
c . Oia!d.cal
1) pH
9) Other
e. Biological
l) Organic ~tter

1'SNI. OlL SPD.l. PIU"IlL tcontinued)

II.

Appendix A:

Ecological classification (continued)

r . Biotic/cultural interactions
1.

I.

Between species

Eravironnental perception and w:>rld view

l) Ehv1ranle\tal perception
a) Perception determinants
b) Evaluative criteria
c) Problan areas
i. Biophysical
U. Recreatiooal
iv. Jobs
vi. Health
viii. Hazards
i) Natural
11) Man-made
d) Atrut:ude intensity scale
1. Biophysical
1i. Recreation
iv. Jobs
vi. Health
viii. Hazards
h) Attitudes of decision makers
L Biophysical
ii. Recreation
iv. Jobs
vi. Health
viii. Hazards
l) Goverrm!ntal guidelines
i. Federal
ii. State
iii. Local
2) W:>rld view
CUltural interactions
2. Wichin group interactions
b. Non-material culture
1) Sociocultural aspects
a) Social subsystan
XV. Q.Jality of life
i) Aesthetics
ii) Leisure
i] Recreation
viii/ Vacations
U./ Recreatimal facilities

c.

b.

C.

x/ Parks
xi/ Other
IVi . Social probltlll9
1.) Disasters
b) Econanic subsyst8D
i. Econanic organization
i) Agriculture, foreatry and fishing
vii) Retail trade
viii) Finance, insurance, rul eatate
u) Services
x) 1'\iolic Mninistration
iii. Food s~ly
viii. Waste and pollution
U.. Natialal/regimal ecananic d.ewlopoent
c) Political subsyst8D
iii. Governnental activities
ii) Public finance
iii} Public works
iv) Research and develO!l"'!flt
vii} Public welfare
u) Miscellaneous governnent activities

-13-

Capital resources inventory

Nat\.n:al resources
B. Water
E.

l.a\d
~

Olerllical bond
a. Pettoleun
c. Natural gas
II . Utilization of resources
A. Agriculture, forestry and fishing
5 . Fishing, lu\ting and trapping
1.

B.

Ill.

Mining

4. Oil and gas extraction

G. Retail trade
H. Finance, insurance, and real estate
I. Services
J. Public a<ini.ni.stration
Limiting factors
A. Natural pressures
1. Geophysical
b. Hydrologic
c . Geologic and geanorphic
B. Man-made pressures
1. Ftlvironrental stress phenallena
c. Resource extraction
e. Land alteration
f . Resource renewal
2. liual stress phencm!na
a. Physical
4} Visual
b.

f.

Ecooani.c

Governnental
1)

l..aw9

2} Regulation
3) Taxation
Mana&EIIBit concerns
I. Managerial interests by industry
A. Industry
3. Fishing and lu\ting
7. Trade ~ wrolesale
8. Trade - retail
9. Transportation
12. Services
13. Finance
14. Insurance
15. Real estate
II. Interests by project and activity
B. Activities
4. ResOilrce extraction
B. Waste ~lacement, treatment, disposal
9. Olemical treacrmt
10. Accidents
III . Managerial conaideratima by category

Appendix B:

A.

Organi!ID

2.
3.

B.

Bacteria
Plants
4. hi.!JDale
a. Fish and wildlife
1} Cannercial
2} Sport
3} Rare and endangered
Environmental
1. Physical
a. Air
b. Water
1) Water quality
3} Toxic substances
5) Areas of hiJ;l natural productivity
or essmtial habitat
6) Hazards
7) V!Jual blight
c. Land
1} Land resources
b) Soils
2) la\d use/land C8pabillty
3} Areas of high natural productivity
or essential habitat
4} Areas of u:dque, scarce, fragile, or
wlnerable natural habitats or physical
features, including wild and scenic areas
5) Areaa of recreations! Vlllue
6} Areas of cultural value, including historical
features and archaeological sites
8) Toxic substances
9) lluards
10) Visual blight

Major param<tcrs considered 11pplicable to TSNL fish/shrimp spccieti profiles

~.

U~st

11.

;;:.

l11furmat ion: Biological Aspects

rcoloqical classification
A. volutionary history
B. Oistribution
C. Habitat
0. Abiotic interactions
4. Meteorological data
a. !'hysical
~Solar radiation
6. Oz partial pressure
5. Hydrological
a. Physical
1) Water depth
2) Water temperature
3) Water turbidity
4) Current speed
5) Current volume
6) Current direction
7) Tidal phase
b. Chemical
I) Dissolved oxygen
6) Salinity
F.
7) pH
13) Herbicides and pesticides
14) Toxic substances
15) Other
E. Biotic interactions (and adaptations for interactions)
1. Intraspecific
a. Reproduction
4) General reproductive strategy
a) Reproductive attempts/lifetime
b) Age at reproduction
c) Attempts/year
d) Effort/reproductive attempt
i. Offspring number
ii. Size-weight ("value")/offspring
iii. Eggs/female
5) Reproductive phenology and location
b) Mating
i. Time
i i. Site
iii. Artificial propagation
b. Development and maintenance of life stages (varies with taxon)
4) Adult
a) Morphology and physiology
iii. Mutrient requirements/utilization
b) Energetics
i. Productivity
viii. Growth rate
c) Spatial factors
i. Mobility
ii. Space utilized
i) Bottom-dwelling
ii) Surface-dwelling (aquatic)
iii) Buried/underground
vii) Territoriality
viii) Migratory habits
d) Chronological factors
i. Life span/longevity/length of phase
i i. Innate rhytllns
i) Circadian
i i) Diurnal
c. Population parameters
1) Birth rate
2) Mortality (rate and causes)
3) Rate of recruitment
2. Interspecific
a. Individual
1) Nutritional source (food)
2! Predators
3 Parasites
4) Competitors

c)

Symbionts
a Conmensa l ism
b Protocooperation
c) Mutualism
6) Epiphytes
b. Conrnun i ty
1) Trophic level
a Autotroph
b Heterotroph
2) Succession
3) Relative abundance
a Capture records
b Catch/unit effort
4) Contributions to the community
a) Habitat modifications
b) Hatter/energy transfer
i, Products
ii. Pathway (nutrient cycles)
c) Other
5) Associated species
Biotic/cultural interactions
l . Be tween species
a. Interactions with man (positive and negative)
1) Diet
b) Vertebrates
i. Food
3) Aesthetics
b) Vertebrates
i i. Sport and tourism
i) National parks
ii) Wildlife refuges
iii) Other
4) Health/medical
b) Vertebrates
i. Disease
i i. Parasites
i i i. Poi sons
iv. Allergens
v. Drugs
i) Antibiotics
ii) Other
vi. Other
5) Status
a J Legal
i. Rare
i i. Endangered
iii. Threatened
iv. Other
b) Actual
i. Rare
i i . Endangered
iii. Threatened
iv. Other
c) Causes
i. Rare
i i. Endangered
iii. Threatened
iv. Other
b. Environmental perception and world view
1) Environmental perception
a) Perception determinants
i. Culture
i. Income
i. Educational level (I)
v. Other
b) Evaluative criteria
i . Kl uckhohn mode1
i) Han subject to nature
ii! Man with nature
iii
Han over nature
iv) Han within nature
5)

Problem areas
i. Biophysical
Recreation
Jobs
Health
Hazards
i) Natural
i i} Han -made
ix. Other
d) Attitude intensities scale
i. Biophysical
i i. Recreation
i v. Jobs
vi. Health
viii. Hazards
ix. Other
e) Activities (involvement) index
i. Genera 1 issues
11.
loca 1 issues
f) Cognitive dissonance
i. Stated interests (1-9)
11.
Actual behavior (1-9)
f) Identification of perceived decision-maker
i. Elected officials
ii. Planners
iii. Scientific/technical experts
i v. toea 1 residents
v. Other
h) Attitudes of decision-makers
i. Biophysical
i i. Recreation
iv. Jobs
vi. Health
viii. Hazards
ix. Other
i) Other
i. Governmental guidelines
i) Federal
1i) State
iii) Local
ii. Existing models
2) World view
Cultural interactions
2. Within group interactions
b. Mon-material culture
1) Sociocultural aspects
b) Economic subsystem
i. conomic organization {SIC)
i) Agriculture, forestry and fishing
i v) Hanufac ruri ng
vi) Wholesale trade
vii) Retail trade
viii) Finance, insurance, real estate
ix) Services
ii. Trophic levels
i) Exploitative and producer activitio
ii) Consumer activities
iii. Food supply
iv. Land use
vi. Exchange and marketing
vii. labor and employment
viii. Waste and pollution
ix. Mational regional economic development
x. Other
c) Political subsystem
iii. Government Activities
iv) Research and development
v) Government enterprises
vi) Government regulation
ix) Miscellaneous government activitie!
iv, Public policy (foreign, social, econom
i) Political attutudes
it) Polittcal socia11zatton
i i.
i v.
vi.
viii.

l
l

G.

BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS RELATING TO THE IXTOC I OIL SPILL

The following assembled materials review the biological information
pertinent to an understanding of the possible effects of the Ixtoc I oil
spill on the ecology of the Texas Gulf coast.

Included are: a diagram

of the trophic relationships of important species; a chart relating the

spawning patterns of these species; individual species accounts revealing
general temporal and spatial distributions and concentrations; a comprehensive list of South Texas Gulf coast fishes; a table of commercial
fish landings from Texas coastal waters; and a review of the known
effects of oil on biological systems.
It has been necessary to choose only the most relevant data on a selection
of the most important species.

Many species that occur in the Gulf

region have been omitted to make this report more comprehensible.

Complete lists of algae and molluscs for the entire Gulf coast along
with distribution and habitat records, are available at TSNL.

Also

available is a nearly complete list of all other Gulf coast organisms.

Although oil pollution is a relatively new problem, entire monthly
journals are devoted to its study and, each year, the amount of published
literature on the subject has shown an amazing proliferation.

To

review all of the literature is therefore impossible, and only certain

references have been chosen .
some extent.

Other review papers have been utilized to

A complete bibliography for this report is available from

TSNL.

- 1 5-

Figure 1. FOODWEB CHART

NORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXICO
TEXAS COASTAL ZONE

Figure 1 represents a small portion of the food

web dealing primarily with the region encompassing
the South Texas coast. Arrows follow the direction
of the producer-consumer or prey-predator relationships, always advancing towards successively higher
trophic levels. The sun is also included due to its
role as the primary energy source for the photosynthetic processes carried out by the producers.

- 16 -

1'~*=..J

I'

~~I
I II .

aect
snapper
{Lut:janu.s

Trtiary

Tt

l!.-!

(CyB:JSC.JOn

I ' I!
:I

Florid. pompano

Sand seatrout

u .. ios<oonus

(Trachinotus

tt t

I
j

[Cynoscion

croJinus)

Cons;un~er

I
'1

IIiII . I.

spoon b l. 11 3

'

.----

[Cyp<>nodon

m.:.eqatus~

j j t

~
I
I

UI

'

lOrqanl~;

....
I

'

Sltlall or la.rval

--

'. '

A;

&

----- ----
..

---

- . _- _

---t---,

'

.'

... -

_ _

__ _

Jl

If

L!l

'

Striped

:~ullot I:

(Muq:.l cephalusl J

I ii

ll lI

---- - , i

I .~

I
,

,.

'
J----

~I
I Phyto~l<llnkt.on

II L

Se~thLC."

'

I ''

-~ -r .

II
'J.
~

! , ~

I
II

_I

.
!

'

t
'I

J
....

--------,-----------

'I

Ii ,
j
II J'
'
~
I!:
I

'

TeE'restrial Plants

EpLphyue .-lqae

J~II

:.~~"'wid~si

r---rt+,-~
1
lf1ttL:
I

!ish
(l~;odon

Pi~

.A.
1

'

I
I

I .

...

.A.

SUN

11 ~r ~ ,:

Zooplankton

II

__()'
J

.a.._

"<=nusl

...

I 'j

~ :~
'! ' r :'

(Brehoort:l.l

-~

-.

I :: j

'

,,

'

11

Gulf menhaden r-

.,

-: :

'

; II

~~~ IT!
I

I l i1 ,

'

! II {Ar<!oidael I
.iu~
I
1
!
L
1
I --T-- j
h

ffjf! 1

HollQphtl.t sp.}

'

erythrorhynchos)

[Herons 5 Sit.t.ern'SI

'

I
1

II .j ill ;

r:f j ,

.r

'

'

!~

lfo~lodul.e wriqhtii
!-"--!:Vu~qodium EilUornr 1Ruppt.l ,nntJ,.,..

II _

__._,

_l_L_L_I
("Tlwi41SSi..J c:ttudinum

1- 0

-.

.,,--, ;

'

'

t '! :
Ii I I I I

~~

Sraall crust.acea

lA:

'

toc~phdlUS)

Ill ~

'

. --

. ..

Seaqrasses

Sheepsl\ead

11'

'd

{ltr(;hosdrgus
prcb..

'

.:111;,,

"!" f-i..........:...
-.-f

..
"

'

t=;

fishes

I
I,.

..

(La

~,..,ite
pelican
(Pelecanus

n ae
rt-A A . -

'

~ j
,

detl'itus

'
I:

.
'

H-- f - -

r .

'

--1-

1-f--1-

_j-

1'&

:;:t

'.
II !
Lf-+

'Ainerl.c;.3.n est.e~n. ~ystertiCrassost.r~..t Vl rgJn.l.C.J)

...

~-

..

lulnel.lda

'

II

Shr:~o~p

'

...

(Seqmen.tetl WOrtnl(;}

.A.

ff-J

,
1

I
'

' ;:
,,

[Pen~eus se~Eerus)

'--:-

j
1r10llus~s

Other

L---l

''

.
,

'

' 0Gulls Tern

White shri01p

Pink

,
1

llr""'n shrimp
C,..,n.,eus dZtecusl

'-

'

pelic~n

occ.!de-nt.;,Jist

II ' I I III
I ; I~
I iI

lttchostig~n~:~)

1--P"" ;

(l'<tralic:hthys

(Pendell.$ duoraru.m)

"

___,;...J

It

'

Squ~ds

1 '-=

111innow

'

ll. ... ....

:
'

'

........ ,

rr- ,

L----

ffi=w
n
(Pelecanus

'nl i!

rSouthern Uounder

r-..:

;~ 1 1 1

I ,-\~:::LTeuthoideal h

1'---1
Sh-:p~hedd

~A

~ ++

,.

s.opldusl

Blue erab 1H{Callinectes 1 .-'

[Thresklornlthidael

'

a.ren.triu.s)

""T

I rib Lses

I.

I'

(Seolopacidael

I: I1

S.ndpip""s

I
r

f,.,.

Spot

III

Spotted seatrout

.ranU..uru!li)

I~:'

C.CON.S)

+ .-

I ... 1~

11ebulosus)

Blac~ drum
---, ( Po~n.i as
1+ f +

amerJc.~:nus)

t .--..-411
I I
I

i>[Otluce.rs

.I' i
1

__j

(GrtZ:J

undultus}

.,

I I II II Whooping crane

croaker~
( ICic.ropo~n

Atlantic

!I

Pri.dat"Y

....
1

T fl

Red drum
{Sc:ienops
ocellata}

'I

~...

COru;;lJ:IIecs

::onsur~e:cs

campech.onusl

>A

'
l
mr....
Ill'

'

s eco nd.a ry

{HollO sapiens)

!Ifififijlitf4~

'

t
iI

Bottle-no:sid dolpfU.n
(TUr.t'iops trunc..ttus)

Man

..

...

--

FOOD WEB

Figure 1 represents a small portion of the food web found within the
great expanse of the Gulf of Mexico.

The purpose of such an illustration,

with respect to possible damage to one or any number of the given organisms
by oil, becomes apparent when the impact throughout the food web of such
an occurrence is examined.

The figure, in addition to providing insight

into interspecific trophic relationships, also establishes an hierarchy

whereby, at a glance, one can estimate the approximate trophic level
occupied by any given species, i.e. producer, primary consumer, secondary
consumer, tertiary consumer, as well as intermediate levels.

Most of

the organisms included on the chart were chosen from those which were
considered to be most valuable to man from a commercial, recreational or
aesthetic standpoint.

However, many of the taxonomic groupings, as well

as some of the individual species, were included solely as an aid in

understanding the food web as a whole.

Some possibly significant species

or groups have been excluded due to the limited amount of information

available as well as the need to limit the scope of such a project.

It

is for this reason that amphibians and reptiles, as well as small land
mammals, were excluded, in spite of their importance to the diet of many
of the shorebirds.

Each of the arrows on the chart represents data

extracted from one or several different references.

Ondtted arrows,

where one ndght, in fact, expect trophic relationships to exist, have

resulted

~rom

the lack of sufficient documentation within the researched

literature to support their inclusion.

Man and the bottle-nosed dolphin

were placed at the head of the figure since neither is severely threatened
by any known predator and both reach a larger adult size than most of
the fishes found below them in the hierarchy.

However, man's role as an

omnivore is also considered with the addition of terrestrial plants as a

food item.
Although it might seem somewhat tedious to attempt tracking down all of
the trophic relationships involving a given species by following the
lines, the value of such a figure lies more in its ability to present

-1~-

the information as it relates to the food web as a whole rather than

simply as one small piece of data.

As an example, one can readily see

the large concentration of lines leaving the centrally located shrimp

species which, in turn, can be interpreted as -demonstrating their greater
relative value to the stabilization of the food web as a whole.

However,

the exclusion of the white or brown pelican could be seen as having less
of an obvious impact on the other species found within the web.
In several cases , such as with the croaker, kingfish (king mackerel),
red snapper and spot, reference to an item in the diet consisting of
"fish" was slightly modified and represented by the category "small or
larval fishes" due to the lack of a separate category which included
adults.

The obvious cases of cannibalism found within the larger groups

such as molluscs and crustaceans as well as among the individual species

were not included.

- 1 9-

SPATIAL REPRESENTATION
OF SPAWNING CHARACTERISTICS AMONG IMPORTANT
SPORT AND COMMERCIAL c !SHE ~ AND I NV E RTEBRATE SPECIES
ALONG THE SOUTII TEXAS COAST

FJ.gure 2

~ I

,I
I

TEMPORAl AND

r--L--

1--r-li
I'~

I ,

+I

I :

I~

I ~

~ Possible spawning period

Peak spawning period

-20-

SPAWNING ACTIVITY

Figure 2 is provided to enable the speedy determination of spawning time

and site for those species mentioned as the most valuable sport and
commercial fishes and shellfishes of the Texas coast.

Due to the

increased susceptibility of the larval stages of most organisms to the

toxic effects of oil (Sanborn, 1977), such a determination is necessary
when assessing possible damage to a given population or species group.

The months of the year, listed down the left column, are divided into
thirds representing approximate 10-day periods to enable a more precise
representation of spawning time.

As indicated in the key, cross-hatching

is used to indicate possible spawning time, while the darkened portions

represent peak spawning periods as determined through the literature.
Often a given period is representative of the cumulation of data from
several different sources and may not refer to any one statement. This
was necessary since authors quite often differ with respect to the
beginning and cessation dates for the respective spawning periods.
Spawning sites are indicated using the letters B, P and G referring, in
that order, to the bays, passes and the Gulf of Mexico.

Fish and invertebrate

species have been listed in taxonomic sequence (down to order) which

facilitates comparison of this figure with the species synopses which
follow.

-21-

SPECIES ACCOUNTS

In an attempt to provide the additional information needed to establish

the temporal and spatial distributions and concentrations of those
fishes and invertebrates found in Figure 2, the following short synopses
were assembled.

Information with regard to preferred habitats, migratio nal

patterns, relative abundance, as well as additional reproductive information

not included in Figure 2, is provided .

Following the species accounts,

a comprehensive list of fishes of the South Texas coast, as well as

offshore forms, has been included.

This, as well as more specific

distributional information by bay system, can be found in the TSNL

publication Fishes of Coastal Texas.

Table I, a compilation of previously

published Texas Parks & Wildlife Commercial Fish Landings reports, has
also been included listing yearly averages for both Gulf and bay commercial
landings in both pounds and dollars for the six year period beginning in
September 1972 and terminating in August 1978.

TARPON - Megalops atlantica

Although tarpon populations have declined in numbers since they were

first fished along the Texas coast, in recent years they have made a
comeback and have begun to reappear moving up and down the coast as
previously reported (Dutch, 1975) .

The reason for their temporary

absence has not yet been determined, although some say it might have
been due to the generalized increase in pollutants of the area (Dutch,
1975).

Tarpon prefer coastal marine areas, often entering brackish water

and sometimes rivers (Knapp, 1953; Jones, Martin, and Hardy, 1978).
Movements along shore coincide with spring migrations of the silverside
mullet, a preferred food item, along the lower coast (Dutch, 1975).
Very little is known of their spawning activity along the Texas coast.

GULF MENHADEN - Brevoortia patronus

Gulf menhaden are very abundant along the Texas coast, moving into the

- 22-

bays through the passes as young, from winter until early spring, after
which many emigrate back to the Gulf in the fall (TPWD, 1978) .

Menhaden

are strictly surface forms (Hoese, 1965) relying heavily on a planktonic

diet.

Though of little value as a sport fish (TPWD, 1978) they are

relatively important as food to many of the commercial fishes of greater

interest to man.

The eggs are buoyant (James, Martin, and Hardy, 1978)

and are found from the beaches to offshore (Hoese, 1965; TPWD, 1978)
from midwinter to early spring (Gunter, 1945; Miller, 1965).
SHEEPSHEAD MINNOW - Cyprinodon variegatus
These small fish can be found mostly in shallow salt marsh areas bordering
on Texas bays (Gunter, 1950; Moore, 1958; Strawn and Dunn, 1967; Haese
and Moore, 1977).

Having the greatest salinity tolerance of any known

fish, they often inhabit extreme environments (Haese and Moore, 1977;
Hardy, 1978a).

Movements are usually restricted to migrations towards

warmer and slightly deeper water in the fall (Gunter, 1945) although
Hardy (1978a) mentions limited inshore and offshore movements in April,
May and November on the Texas coast.

Hardy (1978a) also states that the

fish tend to enter bayous during the colder months and bays during the
warmer periods.

Peak abundance seems to occur during the winter and

spring (Gunter, 1945; TPWD 1975b; Johnson, 1977).

The eggs of the

sheepshead minnow are "demersal, adhesive or semi-adhesive, sticking to

plants, stuck to each other, or at times partially buried in the bottom"
(Hardy, 1978a).

Spawning takes place in the shallow areas of bays,

large tidepools, mangrove lagoons, and pools, over bottoms of sand,

black silt, or mud (Hardy, l978a).
FLORIDA POMPANO - Trachinotus carolinus
The Florida pompano inhabits primarily the Gulf beach surf zone (Reid,
Inglis, and Hoese, 1956; McFarland, 1963; Pew, 1966; Hoese and Moore,
1977) although large fish are sometimes found within the bays {Gunter,
1944).

Peak abundance of young pompano occurs in the summertime during

- 23-

July, August, and September (Gunter, 1945) with fewer numbers reported
during the winter months (Johnson, 1978).

Although little information

on migration patterns in the Gulf of Mexico exists, the eastern Atlantic

population appears to move northward during the spring and summer (Johnson,
1978).

The Florida pompano is considered by many the most delicious of

all fishes (Pew, 1966).

RED SNAPPER - Lutjanus campechanus

In recent years the red snapper has become one of the most sought after
sport fishes of the Gulf coast (Moseley, 1965).

Considered a reef

dwelling species, most individuals occur in the offshore Gulf (TPWD,

1978).

Commercial data indicate that adults are not strictly confined

to irregular or hard bottoms (Moseley, 1965) and juveniles, in fact, are

usually found widely distributed over muddy and sandy bottoms (Moseley,
1965; TPWD, 1978).

Spawning probably occurs offshore with some "inshore

transport of larvae and juvenile stages" {Moseley, 1965) .

Although

definite migrations have not been substantiated, some offshore movements

in the winter and inshore movements in the summer have been observed
(Hardy, 1978b).

It has also been suggested that "as snappers grow they

seek deeper water" (Moseley, 1965).

Declining landings in recent years

may be an indication of declining populations {Arnold, et al., 1978).

STRIPED MULLET - Mugil cephalus

One of the truly euryhaline fishes, the striped mullet is found in

nearly all environments from fresh water rivers to hypersaline flats and
shallows (Gunter, 1945; Reid, Inglis, and Haese, 1956; Haese and Moore,
1977; TPWD, 1978).

During the ebb tide at night they are known to

concentrate in large numbers along the shallow waters adjacent to beaches

(Reid, Inglis, and Haese, 1956; Fuls, 1974).

Migrations consist of

adults leaving the bays in large schools in the fall to spawn (Gunter,
1945; McFarland, 1963; TPWD, 1975) and a return of smaller schools to
the bays over a six-month period (Hoese and Moore, 1977).

-2 4-

The larvae

hatch from floating eggs although ''some sinking of viable eggs" has been
documented (Martin and Drewry, 1978).
bays soon afterwards (TPWD, 1978).

The young then migrate to the

The striped mullet is one of the

most abundant organisms in South Texas in both numbers and biomass

(Hellier, 1961; McFarland, 1965; Moore, 1974; Heese and Moore, 1977).
They thus form a major link in the food web providing many of the
marine carnivores with an abundant nutrient source.

SAND SEATROUT - Cynoscion arenarius

Although not especially abundant, the sand seatrout has become a significant
sport fish along the Texas coast.

It occurs in greatest numbers in the

bays during the late summer and fall (Pew, 1966) with an abundance peak
in the Gulf in December and January (Gunter, 1945; Parker, 1965; TPWD,
1975e).

Gulfward migrations take place "only during cold weather"

(TPWD, 1978}.

Spawning occurs in the deeper areas of the bays or the

shallow Gulf, the young remaining over muddy bottoms (Haese and Moore,
1977}.

SPOTTED SEATROUT - Cynoscion nebulosus

Considered the "most sought after, most often caught sport fish on the
coast" (TPWD, 1978}, the speckled trout frequents bays and the shallow
Gulf areas.

Both adults and juveniles seem to prefer areas over dense

vegetation, particularly Thalassia beds

1978).

(Zimmerman, 1969; Johnson,

Spawning occurs mostly at night in the deeper areas of the bays

and lagoons (TPWD, 1975a; TPWD, 1975f; Heese and Moore, 1977; Johnson,
1978}.

The eggs are initially buoyant becoming demersal after twelve

hours and hatching after about forty hours (Johnson, 1978).

The young

remain in or near bottom vegetation (Haese and Moore, 1977) seemingly

preferring the "shell rubble of channel bottoms and the edges of grass
flats"

(Johnson, 1978).

Migrations are limited to general gulfward

movements as temperatures decline, the extent of movement usually depending

on the severity of the winter (Stevens, 1978).

- 25-

Some fish actually enter

the Gulf, although many simply seek out the deeper bay waters.
the warmer months the fish return to the inland bay areas.

During

Sometimes a

rapid decrease in salinity will cause them to seek out other areas
(TPWD, 1975a).

Although abundant year-round, the speckled trout is seen

in greatest numbers during the warmer months {Parker, 1965; TPWD, 1975e).

SPOT - Leiostomus xanthurus

A very common bay and shallow Gulf species (Heese and Moore, 1977), the
spot seems to prefer mud and sand bottoms although as juveniles they are
also quite abundant in Thalassia beds (Zimmerman, 1969; Johnson, 1978).
Since spawning generally occurs in the Gulf near the passes, the young
spread rapidly into the bays (Gunter, 1945).

As the young fish mature

they gradually move towards deeper water (Hoese & Moore, 1977) where
they remain in the shallower lagoons and coves until temperatures drop,
when they move to the deeper waters of the bays and Gulf (Johnson,
1978).

Although very abundant in Texas bays throughout the year, they

can also be found during the fall spawning season in the Gulf (TPWD,
1978).

ATLANTIC CROAKER - Micropogon undulatus

The Atlantic croaker is usually found over mud, sand, mud-sand mixtures,
mud-shell mixtures and over "live" bottoms of mud-sand mixtures in the
bays during the warmer months (Johnson, 1978).

During the fall (September

and October) adults migrate to the Gulf to spawn and remain there while
the young return to the bays.

Juveniles can tolerate colder temperatures

better than the adult fish and thus remain in the upper reaches of the
estuaries throughout the winter while most adults remain offshore (Johnson,
1978}.
species"

Considered perhaps the "commonest bottom-dwelling estuarine

(Haese and Moore, 1977) the croaker is also spoken of as the

IDOst abundant individual species of food fish in the bays (TPWD, 1978).

- 26 -

BLACK DRUM - Pogonias cromis

The black drum seems to prefer the shallow waters of the bays (TPWD,
1975f; Haese and Moore, 1977) and is most often found over sandy bottoms
(Johnson, 1978).

Nursery grounds usually occur in shallow vegetated

regions (TPWD, 1975a) most often in muddy waters (TPWD, 1975f).

Besides

the pronounced spawning migrations towards the passes which occur in

late winter and early spring, a period of heavy runoff can also initiate
temporary movements into freshwater streams

(S~ons

and Breuer, 1962).

The highest concentrations of the black drum are usually found in Corpus
Christi Bay and the Laguna Madre (Simmons and Breuer, 1962).

Peak

abundance off Texas occurs from October through February (Johnson,

1978).

RED DRUM - Sciaenops ocellata

Adult redfish are usually solitary, living in the shallower waters of

the bays (Hoese and Moore, 1977).

Spawning migrations occur in the fall

with actual spawning taking place in the Gulf near passes and channels
(Johnson, 1978).

The young immediately enter the bays (TPWD, 1978)

where they seek out "clumps of grass or oyster shell over slightly muddy
bottoms in quiet protected waters" (Johnson, 1978).

These smaller fish

usually remain in the bays even during the winter months (TPWD, 1978).
In contrast, some of the largest redfish may stay offshore instead of
returning to the bays in the spring as the young or other spawning
adults do (Hoese and Moore, 1977).

Thus, redfish movements can be

characterized as either "broad random movements, loosely coordinated

temperature migrations, or strong offshore migrations" (TPWD, 1975f).
KING MACKEREL - Scomberomorus cavalla

Although more common in deep clear water (Pew, 1966; Causey, 1969), the
king mackerel has also been found to inhabit murky areas (TPWD, 1978).
Off of Galveston, Freeport, and Port Arthur they are known to "congregate

- 27 -

in large:

numb~:rs

around reefs" (Pew, 1966).

These fish migrate in large

schools along the Gulf coast throughout the swmner months (Pew, 1966;
TPWD, 1978) , and their appearance is regarded by some as "the marine
harbinger of summer" (Hoese and Moore, 1977).

Very popular as an offshore

\

sport fish it is often considered as the "very backbone of the offshore

sport fishing along the Texas coast" (TPWD, 1978).

SHEEPSHEAD -

Archosargus probatocephalus

Both adult and juvenile sheepshead seem to prefer vegetated areas such
as Thalassia beds (Zimmerman, 1969) or other protected areas where
shelter is abundant (TPWD, 1975f; TPWD, 1979).

Adults, specifically,

can be found frequenting "oyster beds and muddy shallow waters, particularly
about inlets near piers, breakwaters, wrecks and often up rivers"
(Johnson, 1978).

Spawning occurs in the Gulf "near jetties, rock piles

and reefs" (TPWD, 1978).

The young hatch from floating eggs

(TPWD,

1975f; Johnson, 1978) and enter the bays from late winter to early
spring

(TPWD,

1975f).

Peak occurrence in the Upper Laguna Madre is from

December to March (TPWD, 1975e) while in Galveston Bay it is during the

months of May, June, July, and October (TPWD, 1975f).
PINFISH - Lagodon rhomboides

According to Reid, Inglis, and Hoese (1956) there exists a "high degree
of association between this species and vegetated areas".

Although the

adults "prefer open waters as opposed to estuaries", vegetation is still

the most important variable in habitat choice (Johnson, 1978).

If

vegetation is absent they seek some other form of shelter such as "rocks,
pilings, etc." (Johnson, 1979).

Pinfish migrate towards the Gulf in

late summer and fall culminating in a late fall and winter spawning well
offshore (Hoese, 1958; Miller, 1964; Cameron, 1969).

It has been suggested

by Cameron (1969) that perhaps this winter spawning is an adaptation to

the grasses growing in the spring, for, from March to April, population
levels increased sharply due to the influx of large numbers of juveniles

-28-

into the grassflats (Zimmerman, 1969).

These migration patterns are

thus likely responsible for the peak abundance levels in the Thalassia
Deds during the spring, summer, and early fall and the lows during the
late fall and winter (Zimmerman, 1969).

SOUTHERN FLOUNDER - Paralichthys lethostigma

Adult southern flounder are usually found within the bays and shallow
Gulf (Hoese, 1958) over "softer mud bottoms" (Heese and Moore, 1977).
The juveniles are found in shallow bay areas sometimes venturing into
lower salinities (Knapp, 1953; Hoese and Moore, 1977) and apparently
avoid areas of high turbidity (TPWD, 1975a).

Spawning migrations take

place in the Gulf of Mexico during the fall (Stokes, 1975; TPWD, l97Sf;
Heese and Moore, 1977; TPWD, 1978).

Mass migrations can be triggered by

a severe norther initiating this exodus out of the bays (Hoese and
Moore, 1977).

Young flounder begin to enter the estuaries in late

winter and spring (Stokes, 1975; TPWD, l97Sb; TPWD, 197Sf; Johnson,
1977).

The adults also return in the spring but more gradually than the

fall outflux (Stokes, 1975).

Johnson (1977) states that the southern

flounder is "possibly the most common sport fish besides the Atlantic
croaker in sport catches".

However, bulkheading and other forms of

shoreline destruction "may adversely affect the adults" (TPWD, 1975a).

AMERICAN EASTERN OYSTER - Crassostrea virginica

The American eastern oyster is found in shallow lagoons and estuarine
waters attached to a hard or semihard substrate.

Reefs, which are

oyster colonies usually living on a substrate of discarded oyster shells,

are generally found perpendicular to the prevailing currents in an area
(Fotheringham and Brunenmeister, 1973).

Each oyster on the reef is thus

exposed to a flow of water carrying fresh supplies of food and oxygen.

Oysters are still found in every bay along the Texas coast although
their numbers have declined somewhat in recent years due to alteration
of their habitat by man (TPWD, 197Sb; TPWD, 1975c; TPWD, 1975d).

- 29 -

Oysters

do not migrate as adults, but their larvae are carried about by currents
until they settle.

When larvae reach the !;Cttling stage, they are known

as "spat", and may control their movements to some extent by closing

their valves and sinking to the bottom (TPWD, l975f).

Larvae must

settle onto a hard substrate to survive to maturity (TPWD, 1975b).

Spawning of adults is induced whenever the water temperature rises to
75F, therefore, on the Texas coast, spawning occurs between April and
October (TPWD, 1975).
SQUID - Lolliguncula brevis

This small squid species prefers relatively high salinities but will
still enter the bays (Gunter, 1950).

They enter the bays as the temperatures

rise in late winter, remaining near the Gulf passes and returning to the
Gulf in the fall (Gunter, 1950).

Although little information is available

concerning the time and site of spawning for this species along the
Texas coast, it is known that "large numbers of Loligo", a closely
related genus, "come together to copulate and spawn at the same time and
a community pile of egg strings may be formed on the bottom" (Barnes,
1974).
BROWN SHRIMP - Penaeus aztecus

The importance of the brown shrilllp to the Texas shrimp fishery is well
documented, thus indicating the need for a thorough understanding of its
life cycle.

Spawning takes place throughout the year with a peak in the

fall and perhaps an additional peak in the spring (Farfante, 1969).

There is some evidence that the larvae "overwinter in nearshore waters
and enter estuaries the following spring, probably surviving by burrowing"
(Cook and Lindner, 1970).

Once within the estuaries, the juveniles,

bottom dwellers, seek out the marginal areas of estuarine waters before
returning to the deeper waters of the estuaries in two to four weeks
(Cook and Lindner, 1970).

As adults, the brown shrimp leave the estuaries

gradually, usually at night (Farfante, 1969).

-3 0 -

Sane movement southward,

parallel to the coast, may occur during the autumn and winter (Gunter,
1962) .

The adults usually prefer offshore substrates of mud or silt,

sometimes of mud, sand or shell (Farfante, 1969).

They generally inhabit

waters of less than one meter to a depth of ninety-one meters (Gesner,

1971) .

Abundance varies from year to year (Cook and Lindner, 1970) and

may be affected by a number of phenomena both natural and man-made.

Floods and late cold spells as well as any adverse conditions within the
estuaries during periods when the young are most abundant could prove
detrimental to subsequent offshore catches (Cook and Lindner, 1970).

WHITE SHRJMP - Penaeus setiferus

Adult white shrimp are found offshore in shallower waters than the brown
shrimp, usually at a depth of less than twenty-seven meters (TPWD,
1975b) .

They prefer substrates of soft mud or silt bottoms or "bottoms

of clay or sand with fragments of shell" (TPWD, 1975b).

Spawning also

takes place in shallower waters than for Penaeus aztecus (Fotheringhar..

and Brunenmeister, 1973) and "appears to increase to a single peak and
then decline" although the young often seem to have been produced from
two or three broods (Lindner and Cook, 1970).

The young enter the

estuaries in the summer and fall and, as bottom dwellers, utilize many
of the same marshes as nurseries previously inhabited by juvenile brown
shrimp (TPWD, l975c).

Because of their preference for low salinities,

<10 ppt (Cook and Lindner, 1970), these juvenile shrimp seek out the
back bays and bayous instead of the marsh areas of the primary bays
(TPWD, 1975c).

Migrations from the estuaries to the open Gulf are

"associated with increasing maturity, intensified by falling temperatures

in the latter part of the year" (Lindner and Cook, 1970}.

Offshore

movements generally exhibit a northward trend in late winter and early

spring and a southward trend during the fall and early winter (TPWD,
1975f).

-31-

PINK SHRIMP - Penaeus duorarum

Habitat preferences for the pink shrimp have been described as "estuaries
and inner oceanic littoral, predominantly on sand, shell-sand or coralmud bottom from water's edge to twenty-eight fathoms", rarely deeper
(TPWD, 1975f).

Spawning seems to be a year-round phenomenon although it

increases during the spring, summer and fall and seems to be induced by
rising temperatures (Farfante, 1969).

The young move to inshore waters

and usually arrive at the estuarine nursery grounds as post-larvae

(Farfante, 1969).

The commercial value of the pink shrimp is less than

that of the brown or white shrimp simply because it is less abundant

along the Texas coast (TPWD, 1975f).

BLUE CRAB - Callinectes sapidus

The blue crab is found over a variety of bottom types although it seems
to prefer a substrate of mud and sand (TPWD l975a; TPWD 1975f) .

It is

most common inshore due to its preference for brackish waters (McEachron,
1977) but can be found as deep as eighteen fathoms (Hildebrand, 1954).
The young have a tendency to inhabit lower salinity waters than the
adults (Gunter, 1950) and, in fact, blue crab populations are deleteriously
affected when freshwater inflow into a particular estuary is decreased
(TPWD, l975a).

Spawning generally takes place in the deeper waters of

the Gulf (TPWD, 1975f).

takes place.
(TPWD, 1975).

Eggs are carried by the females until hatching

This occurs "in the Gulf, or occasionally in the bays"

The blue crab is not only important as the basis for

sport crabbing, but also accounts for the "fourth most commercially
important fishery along the Texas coast" (TPWD, 1975f).

- 32-

FISH SPECIES OF SOUTH TEXAS COASTAL WATERS

AJopJas vuJpJnus - threoher shark

Apcionodon Jsodon - finotooth shark
Crchrhlnus 4cronotu5 - blacknoae shark
Cdrchrhinus !dlcitormis - eilky ohark
Caccharhinus Jeucas bull shark
Cdcchrhinus li~botus - blocktip ohork
Carchorhinus longiaanus oceanic whitetip shark
Corchachinus aoculipinnis - spinner ehark
Carchorhinus obscurus - dusky shark
Carcharhinus porosus smalltail shark
CJeoc~rdo cuvieri - ti9er hrk
HusteJus canis - smooth dogfish
Negaprion brevirostris - leaon shark
Rhizoprionodon tecrA~novae - Atlantic sharpnoae lhatk
C4rchrodon cacchrJas - white shark
Isurus oryrinchus shortfin aoko
Odontaspis taurus - sond tiger
Gingly~ostomo cJrratua nurae shark
Rhincodon typus whale hark
Scyliorhinus retJ!r - chain dogfioh
Sphyrno Jwin1 - ocalloped haaaerhoad
Sphyrna mokarran - great haerhead
Sphyrna tiburo - bonnethead
Sphyrn tudes - oaalleye haaaerhoad
tmopterus schult:i
et~opterus v1rn
Squolus cubnsJs - Cuban do9fiah
Squotina dumerJlJ - Atlantic an9el ohork
OasyatJs oaerJcona - oouthern stingroy
Dsvtis centrour - rou9htoil otingray
Dosyotis sabina - Atlantic stin9ray
Oasytis sy1 - bluntnoeo etin9ray
Gymnura micrura - saooth butterfly ray
Hant bJroscrJs - Atlantic aanta
Aetobotus narJn1rJ - spotted eagle ray
Hyliobatis freminvillei - bullnose ray
Rhinoptera bonasus - cownose ray
Pristis pectJnat - alltooth sawfioh
Pristis perotteti - largetooth sawfioh
Breviraja sinusmericana - short-nosed okato
Raja eglanter1 - clearnooe skate
Raja lentiginosa - freckled okoto
Raja olsen! spreadfin okate
Raja terana - roundel skate
Springeria tolirostr1s
Rhinobtos lentig1nosus - Atlantic guitarfish
Nrcine brasiliensis - leaaar electric ray
H~drolgus alberti - Gulf ratfioh
Lepisosteus oculatus - apotted 9ar
tepisosteus osseus - lon9noae gar
LepJsosceus sptul - alli9ator 9ar
L.episosteus spp.
Albula vulpes - bonefish
elops sourus - ladyfiah
Hegalops at11nt1ca - tarpon
Anguilla rostrat - Aerican oal
Ar1oso"'o sp.
Conger oceanicue - c0n9ar aal
Congrin dubius
Congrin !lava - yellow conger
Congrina gracilior - whiptail conger
Neoconger ucronaeus - slender pike oal
Prconger caudilimbatus - argintail conger
ProvJlantor schJtti
Vroconger syringus
Oyso aphododora - ahortbally eel
Horingua ed~ards1 - apa9hatti eel
Hoplunnis macrurus - silver conger
Hoplunnis tenuis - alonder pike conger
enchelycore sp. - chestnut aoray
Gymnothoro oceJJatus - ocallata4 aoray
Gymnothorax vic1nus - purpleouth aoray
Bascanichthys scuticar1s - whip eel
echiophis intertinctus - spotte4 spoon-noaa eel
Ech1ophis aordas anappar aol
ch1ophis punct1ter - stippled opoon-nooo ool
L.ethrchus velJter - sailfin eel
Hyroph1s punctatua - opaoklad vora eel
Ophichthus go~1 - ahrlp eel
Ophichthus ocellatus - paleapotted eel
AJosa chrysochloris - okipjock herring
Brevoorti gunter! - fineacalo eanhadan
Brevoorti patronua - qulf aonhaden
Brevoortia tyrannus - Atlantic nhadan
Srevoortio spp.
Oorosoea cepedianu - gizzard oha4
Ooroso petenonae - threadtin ahad
Etrumeus teree - roun4 herrin9
Hrengula pensacol - scaled aardino

-33-

Opisthonema ~glinum Atlantic thread herring

Sardinella anchovl - Sponiah aardino
Sardinell sp.
Anchoa hepsatus - otriped anchovy
Anchoa Ditchilli - bay anchovy
AM~hua nasuea - lonvnoae anchovy
Ancho sp.
Anchoviella sp.
Sngraul1s eurystole - ailvar anchovy
Hiodon alosoides - 90ldeya
epcoder aacrops
Argentin silus - Atlantic argentine
Argntin striae
Astronesthes gemmiter
Chauliodus sJoani - viperfish
ssor americanus - radfin pickerel
Ssor lucius - northarn pike
Gonoato elongata
rarrell blacktordi
Photoatomiaa guernoi
Echiostoma margrita
Arg~ropelecus aculoatua
Arg~ropelecus altJnis
Arg~ropelecus gig
Arg~ropolecus

Arg~ropolocus

hem1g~nus

l~nchus lvnchus
oltors1
PolvJpnus astero1des
Sternopcv dJphana
Chlorophthalu agassi~i - ahortnoaa greenoya
Chlorophthalu chalvbeius
Parasud1s truculent - lon9noeo 9raanaya
D1aphus duaorili
Oiaphus interaed1us
taepanvccus supralacarJJa
Nyctophum affine
saurJda bras1linsis - largaecale lizardfloh
Saurida sp.
svnodus !oatans - inshore li&ardfish
Synodus poeyi offohoro lizar4fioh
Synodua synodus - rod 11car4f1ah
s~nodu sp.
rrachinocephaJus ~ops - an~kofiah
Ictiobus bubalus smallmouth buffalo
Ar1us !alia - oea catfiah
Bagre r1nus - gafftopoail catfiah
lctalurus !urcatus - blue cotfioh
!ctalurus meJas - black bullhea4
lctaJurus natalJs - yallov bullhead
Ops1nus beta gulf toa4fiah
Opsnus pardus - leopard toadfieh
Opnu spp.
Porichthv poroslas1uo - Atlantic 1deh1pan
Gobleso punctulatus - otipplod clin9fiah
Gobleaor atruosus - akillotfioh
Antennarius ocollatus- ocellated frogfioh
AntonnarJus r1diosua ainglaopot frogfieh
AntennarJus acabor - aplitlure frogfiah
AntennarJus sp.
Hlstrlo histr1o- oargaoauafilh
ophiou sp.
Oibranchus atlnticus
Hlieutlchthys aculeatus - pancake batfiah
Ogcocephalus nsutu - ohortnoaa batfioh
Ogcoceph&lus parvu- rou9hback batfilh
Ogcocephalus rad1atus- polka-dot batfiah
Ogcocephalus spp.
Zalloutea mcgintyi - tricorn battiah
Bregmaceros atlant1cus - antenna codlot
Gadell llt&roldi
Nerlucciu magnocuJus- lilvor hake
PhvaJcuJus tulvus
Steindchnaria argentea- luminous hake
Urophyc1s cirretus- gulf hake
Urophyci tlorldanus eouthern hake
Urophycis sp.
Bth~gadu crops
Joth~gaduo toJ1JantJ
Car1buru zanJophorus
Coelorhynchus caribbaau
Coel~hynchus crlnatus
Hv~~cephalua cavarno1us
NaJacocephaJu occidantalJs
ltezuotia b1irdJ- arlin-epike
Nezui hildebrandl
Brot ula barb& ta - boar4od brotula
Dlcrolen 1ntron1gra
Cunterichthy long1pon1s- 90ld brotula
opophidiu graallsi blackadgo cuak-oal
Arg~ropolecus

sp.
NeobytnJtes gJlltl
N~obythlces rgJnatus
Ogtlbi sp.
Ophidion gcayi - blotched cuak-eel
Ophidion holbcoo-l - bank cuak-eel
Ophldion ~elshJ - crested cusk-eal
vphidion spp.
Rissola carginata - atripe4 cuak-eel
Hecbras cartinic - rough silveraide
Hembras sp.
Nenidia becylltna - tidewater ailveraida
Ablennes nJans - flat nee4lef1eh
PJtybelone argalus - keeltail nsedletiah
Strongylura marJna - Atlantic needlefiah
Strongylura notate - radfin needlefiah
StrongyJura sp.
TyJosurus crocodJJus - houndfish
AdinJa xenic - 4iaaond killifish
Cyprinodon varJegatus - aheepahead ainnow
Fundulus grandJs - qulf killifish
Fundulus puJvereus - bayou killifish
Fundulus sJaJ1Js - longnoae killifiah
~ucani parva - rainwater killifiah
CypseJucus cyanopterus - argined flyingfish
Cypselurus essiJJens - bandwing flyingfiah
Cypselurus celanurus - flyingfieh
Cypselurus sp.
ruleptorhacphus veloz - flying halfbaak
Hirundichthys rondeletJ - blackwing flyingfiah
Hyporhacpnus unJ!escJatus - halfbeak
Paresocoetus brachypterus - seilrin flyingfiah
Gacbusia affJnJs - aoaquitotiah
Poecilla latlpinna - aailfin aolly
arbourJs ruf
Holocentrus ascensionJs - aquirrelfiah
Holocentrus poco - saddle squirreltish
Holocentrus rufus - lonqspine equirrelfiah
Holocantrus vezillariu - dusky aquirralfiah
Polyai~ia lo~ei - beardfish
Hoplostethus aedJterranaus
AntJgonia caproa - deepbody boarfiah
Cyttopsis rosous
zenion hololapis
Zenopsis ocellt - ~orlean john dory
Aulostomus aaculatus - truapatfith
Hacrorhaaphosus gracilis - slender anipefish
Hacrorhaaphosus scolopaz - longapine anipafiah
Fistularia tabacarJa - bluespottad cornetfish
Hippocampus arectus - lined aeahoree
Hippocacpus obtuse
Hippocecpus zosteraa - ~warf seahorse
H1ppocacpus sp.
Syngnathus elucens - ehortfin pipefish
Syngnathus florid - duaky pipefiah
Syngnathus fuscus - northern pipefish
Syngnathus louJsJanaa - chain pipefish
Syngnathus pelagJcus - sargaeaua pipefish
Syngnathus scovelli - qulf pipefish
Sygnathus sp.
Acanthurus bahJanus - ocean surgeon
Acanthurus chlrurgus - 4octorfieh
Acanthurua coeruJaus - blue tang
Apogon aurolineatus - bridle car41nalfish
Apogon aaculatus - flaaefish
Apogon psaudoaaculatus - twoapot cardinalfiah
Apogon to~nsendJ - belted cardinalfiah
Epigonus pandJonJs
Synagrops bella - blackaouth cardinalfiah
Synagrops spJnoaa
41ennJus cristatus - aolly aillar
Blennius aaraoreus - seaweed blanny
Chasaodes bosquJanus - striped blanny
Hypleurochilus geminatus - created blanny
Hypsoblennius Jonthas - freckled blenny
Ophioblennlus atlantJcus - re4lip blenny
caulolatJJJs cyanops - blackline tilafiah
CauJolatJlia intaradJus - Culf bareyed tilafiah
CaulolatiJus aJcrops - qray tilefiah
Lopholatilua chaaaalaonticeps - tilefiah
Halacanthus pluJarJ - sand tilefiah
Alectls crJnJtus - African poapano
Caranz bartholoaaeJ - yellow jack
Caranz hippos - cravalle jack
Caranz latus - horae-eye jack
caranz ruber - bar jack
Chloroscoabrus chrysurus - Atlantic buapar
Elagatis bJpinnulata - rainbow runner
H~aicrn asbl~rh~nchus - bluntnoaa jack
~~pcphld>um

-34-

Naucrates ductor - pilot fish

saurua - laatherjaekat
Selar cruconopnthalaus - bi;aye 1cad
Selene voaar - lookdown
SerJoJ duaarJlJ - greater aaberjack
Srlol rivollana - alaaco jack
SerJoJa zonata - banda4 ruddezfiah
rrachJnotus carolinus - Florida poapano
TrachJnotus crocodilus
rrachJnotus talcstus - pazeit
rrachJnotus goodaJ paloaeta
rrachJnotus ap.
rrachurus 1athaa1 - rou;h scad
uraspJa secunda - cottonaouth jack
Vocer setapJnnis - Atlantic eoonfiah
cvrJnoaJaua sJaplas
Lapoais gulosus - warmouth
NJcropterus salaoidea - largaaouth base
PoaosJa annuJaris - white crappie
PoaozJs nJgrocaculatus - black crappie
Centropoaus undecJaaJJs - anook
Centrop~ge argi - cherubfieh
Chaetodon aculeatus - lonqanout buttertlyfiah
Chatodon a~a - bank butterflyfiah
Chaatodon capJstratua - fouraye butteztlyfiah
Chaatodon ocel!atu apotfin butterflyfiah
Chaetodon sendentarius - reef butterflyfiah
Chaetodon striatus - banded buttarflyfieh
Holacanthus berudensJs - blue angelriah
Nolacanthus cJliarJs - qu,en angelfish
HoJacenthus tricolor - rock beauty
Poaacanthus arcuatus - gray angelfish
Poaacanthus paru - French angelfish
AblycJrrhitua pJnos - redspotta4 havkfiah
~ableaaria pandionJa - eailfin blanny
Labrisoaus nuchJpJnnJs - hairy blanny
Sterkaia ocallata checkered b1enny
Cor~phaena equisetJs - poapano dolphin
Coryphaana hJppurus - dolphin
Cor~phaena 1p.
achaneis naucretes - aharkauckor
Remora australia - whaleeuokar
Remora ostochir - aarlinsuckar
Oli~op11tas

Reor remor remora

DoraJtator aaculatus - fat sleeper
~Jaotr1s pJsonJs - apinycheek sleeper
Krotelis smaragdus - aaerald sleeper
CobJoaoru doraitor - bigouth sleeper
ChaetodJpterus faber - Atlantic apadefiah
DJapterus olJsthostoaus - Irish poapano
lueinostoaus argenteua - apotfin aojarra
EucJnostoaus gula - silver jenny
lucJnostoaus spp.
Cerres cinereus - yallowfin aojarra
ul lefroyl aottled aojarra
lathygobius soporstor - trillfin goby
lollannia coaaunis - ra;qe4 ;oby
cor~phopterus punctipactophorus - spotted qoby
lvorthodus Jyricus lyre qoby
GnatholepJs thoapsoni - goldspot goby
CobJoJdes broussonnatJ - violet goby
CobJonaJJus boleoso - darter qoby
Gobionallus hastatus - aharptail 90by
Gobionellus ocaanicus - highfin ~oby
Gobionallus shuteldtJ - freshwater goby
CobioneJJus saaragdus emerald goby
Cobionellus sp.
Cobioeo boscJ - naked goby
GobJoso glnsburgi - seaboard ;oby
Gobloao longJpala twoacale goby
GobJoaoaa oceanops - neon qoby
GobJosoae robuatuc coda goby
CobJosoaa ap.
Ioglossus calllurus - blue qoby
Lythrypnus nasiotes - island qoby
Lythrypnus spilus - bluegol4 90by
Microgoblus guloaua - clown goby
Mlccogob1us thalassJnua - green goby
OuJaquJlJus hi~ollti - ru1ty qoby
R1aor ruber tuaked goby
Ry~ticus caculatus - vhitespotted aoapfiah
Rypticus aaponaceus - greater aoapfish
Rypticus subbifrenatus potted opfieh
Itiophorus pJatypterus - aailfieh
Nakeira nlgricans - blue arlin
Tetra~turus albidus - white aarlin
retrapturu pfluagar1 - longbill apearfiah
Kyphou incisor - yellow chub
Kyphoaus sectatrl - lerauda chub

sp. - chub
Bodianus pulcheJlus - epotfin hoyfih
Bodianus rufu~ - Spanish hoyfieh
ClptiCU$ parri - creole wraee
H4lichoeres bivlttatua- slippery dick
Hdlichoer garnotJ
Hallchoere radlatua - pudd!n9 wife
~a.jpceronotus novcul - pearly razortih
tachnolaJ~us maxJaus - hogfilh
Thalassoma blfasclatum : bluehead
Lobotes surinamensis - tripletail
LutjdnU$ nali - mutton napper
Lutjanu~ dpodus choolmater
Lutjanus campechanu8 - red anapper
Lucjanus cyanoptarus - cubera napper
Lutjanus griseus - gray snapper
Lutjanus synagris - lane anapper
Ocyurus chrysurus - yellowtail snapper
Pristipomoides &quilonaris - wenchan
Rhomboplltes aurorubens - vermilion snapper
Hicrodesmus longipinnls - pink vormfiah
Hlcrodesmus sp.
Agonostom~s monticola - ~ountain mullet
Hugil cephalus - atriped mullet
Hugil cure - white mullet
Hugil sp.
Hulloidichthys martinicus - yellow goatfiah
Pseudupeneus maculatus - spotted 9oatfieh
Upeneus parvus - dwarf qoatfieh
Lonchopisehus lindneri - ewordtail jawtieh
Bembrops anat1rostris - duckbill flathead
Bembrops 90bioides - qoby flathead
Polydactylus octonemus - Atlantic threadfin
Abudefduf saxatills - eer9eant major
Abudefduf taurus - night eergeant
Chromis cyanea - blue chromie
Chromis enchrysura - yellowtail reeffish
chromis insolatus - eunehinetieh
Chromis mult111neatus - brown chromie
chromis scotti - purple reeffieh
Hicrospathodon chryaurus - yellowtail daaaaltiah
Pomacentrus dorsopunicans - dueky daaelfiah
Pomacentrus fuscue - dusky d&&elfiah
Pom&centrus leucostictus - beaugregory
Pomacentrus partitus - bicolor daeelfish
Pom&centrus planifrons - yellow daeelfiah
Pomacentrus variabilis - cocoa daalfiah
Ani~oere~us ~urinaensi~ - black margate
Anisotremus vir9inicus - porkfish
conodon nobil1s - barred grunt
Haemulon aurolineatum - tomtate
Haemulon macrostomu - Spanish grunt
Haemulon melanurum - cottonwick
Haemulon parrai - aailore choice
Haemulon striatum - atriped grunt
orthopr1stis chrysoptera - pigfiah
Pomdasys crocro - burro grunt
Po~atomus saltatrix - bluefieh
Priacanthus arenatus - bigeye
Priacanthus cruentatus - qlaaaeye napper
Psaudopr1acanthus altus - short bigaye
Rachycentron cndu - cobia
Scarus taeniopterus - princeea parrotfieh
Scarus vetula - quean parrotf1eh
Sparisoma aurofrenatua - redband parrotfieh
Sparisoma radians - bucktooth parrotfish
Sparisoma virJde - etoplight parrotfiah
Bairdiella chrysura- eilver perch
Cynoscjon aranriu - eand eeatrout
cynoscion nebulosus - spotted aeatrout
cynoscion nothus - eilver aeatrout
Cynoscion sp~
~quetus lanceola~us - jackknife fiah
Eque~u~ umbro~u - cubbyu
~arimus fasciatus - banded dru
Leiostou xanthurus - spot
Henticirrhus ericanus - southern kinqfish
HenticJrrhus JittoraJJs- gulf kinqfiah
HentJcirrhus aazatalJs- northern kinqf1ah
HentJcJrrhus sp.
Hicropogon undulacus - Atlantic croaker
Odontoclon dnte - reef croaker
PogonJas cromie - black dru
Sciaenops ocaJlata - red drum
stellifer Janceolatue- star drum
Ubrina coroid - sand dru
Acanthocybiu solanderi - wahoo
Au~is thazard frigate mackerel
Euthynnus alletteratus - little tunny
K~phosu

-35-

Buthynnus pela:s - skipjack tuna

Sarda sarda - Atlantic bonito
Scombar japonicus - chub mackerel
Scomberomorus cavalla - kinq ackerel
Scomberomorus maculatus - Spanieh ackerel
Scomberomorus regalJs - caro
Thunnus atlantJcus - blackfin
Thunnus thynnus - bluefin tuna
WeoerJnthe heingvayi - sp1nycheak ecorpiontish
PontJnus longispinis - longapine acorpionfiah
Scorpaena brasiJJensjs - barbfieh
Scorpaena calcarata - aaoothhead acorpionfiah
Scorpaena dJspar - hunchback acorpionfish
Scorpaena plumJerJ - spotted acorpionfiah
Scorpaenodes caribbaeus - reef acorpionfish
Setarches parmatus
Centropristis ocyurus - bank aaa base
Centropristis phJladelphica - rock sea base
DJplectrum bivittatum- dwarf sand perch
Diplectrum tormosua - &and perch
Epinephelus adscensionJs - rook hind
lpinephelus cruentatus - gra~aby
Bpinephelus drummondhayi - speckled hind
Ep1nephelus !l&volimbatus - yellove4qa qrouper
Epinephelus guttatus - red hind
Epinephelus 1nerm1s - marbled grouper
Epinephelus itajar& - jewfieh
Epinephelus moria - red grouper
Bpinephelus nigr1tis - Waraaw grouper
Epinephelus niveatus - snowy grouper
Gonioplectrus hispanus - Spaniah flag
HemanthJas leptus - longtail baa
HemanthJas viv~nus - red barbiar
Hypoplectrus chlorurus - yellowtail hamlet
HypopJectrus unicolor - butter halet
Liopropoma eukrines - vrasae baa&
L1opropoma rubre - peppermint baaa
Norene saxatllis - atriped baa&
Nycteroperca bonac1 - black grouper
Hgcteroperca interstitlalis - yallowmouth qroupar
Nyctaroperca microlepls - gaq
Nycteroperca phenax - &camp
Nycteroperca rubra - comb grouper
Nycteroperca sp.
ParanthJas furciter - creole-fish
PJkea mexicana - yellowtail baaa
Serran1culus pu1lio - pygy baae
Serranus atrobranchus - blackaar baea
Serrenus phoebe - tattler
Serranua subligar1ue - belted aandfiah
Archosargus probatocephalus - eheepahead
Calamus arctifrons - graaa porgy
Calamus bajonado - jolthead porgy
Calamus calamus - eaucere~a porgy
Calamus campachanus - Campecha porgy
Calamus leucosteus - whitebone porgy
Calamus nodosus - knobbed porgy
Calamus penna - aheepehaad porgy
calamus sp.
Diplodus holbrooki - apottail pinfiah
Lagodon rhomboides - pinfiah
Stenotomus caprinu - lonqapine porgy
Sphyraena barracuda - great barracuda
Sphyraena borealis - northern eennet
Sphyraen& guachancho - guaguanche
Ariomaa bondi - ailver-rag
Centrolophus nJger - black ruff
Hyperoglyphe bythitas
Nomeus gronoviJ - an-of-var fiah
Peprilus alepJdotua - harveatfiah
PepriJus burti - gulf butterfiah
Peprilus simillimus - Pacific pompano
Panes pellucidus - blackrag
Trichiuris Jepturus - Atlantic cutlaaefieh
Bellator mJlitarls- horned aaarobin
ParJatedion longispathum
PerJstedion mln1atum - arored aearobin
PerJatedion gracile - alen~er eaarobin
Prionotua evolans - atripad aaarobin
PrJonotua martis - barred eaarobin
PrJonotus ophryaa - bandtail aaarobin
Prionotue peralatua - Ha1can eaarobin
PrJonotus roseus - bluaapottad robin
Prionotus rubio - blackfin aaarobin
PrJonotua aalmonJcolor - blackvinq aearobin
Prionotua scJtulua - leopard aaarobin
Pr1onotus stearna1 - ahortwing aaarobin
Prionotus tribulus - biqhead aearobin
Prionotus sp.

Astco~copu
Gn~th~gnu~

y-grdcum -

eqreglua -

Kathetostom

~lblgutta

southern atarqA&er

freckled
-

~argazer

lAncer etr9zr

xiph> gladiu - awocdfiah

dilect& - three-eye flounder
Anc~lopsetea quadrocellata ocellated flounder
Bothus spp.
Citharichth~s cornutus - horned whiff
Citharichth~s ~crop - epotted whiff
Citharichth~s spilopterus - bay whiff
Citharichthv P
c~clopsetta chlttendenl - Mexican flounder
C~clopsetta
fimbriate - epo~fin flounder
Enqyophrws senta - epiny flounder
Etropus crosaotus - fringed flounder
Anc~lopaett~

Etropu~

sp.

- deepwater flounder
albigutta - gulf flounder
Paralichthy~ lethostigma - aouthern flounder
Paralichthys squamilentus - broad flounder
Parallchthws P
swaciu~ gunterJ - ahoal flounder
svacium paplllosum - dueky flounder
Trichopsetta ventralis - aaah flounder
Symphurus cJvJtatua - offehore tonguefiah
Syaphurus dioedianus - apottedfin tonguefieh
Symphurus parvua - pyqay tonguetieh
Symphurus pelicanus - longtail tonguefleh
Symphurus piqer - deepwater tonguefieh
Symphurus plagiusa - blackcheek tonguefieh
Symphurus sp.
Poecilopsetta bean1
Achirus lineatus - lined aole
Cymnachlrus te - fringed aole
frJnectes maculatus - hogchoker
Aluterus heudelotl - dotterel filefieh
Aluterus schoeptl - orange filafleh
AJuterus scriptus - ecrawled flleflah
BalJstes capriscus - gray triggerfieh
Balistes vetule - queen triggerfish
Canthidermi sutflan - ocean triggertleh
Cantherhines pullus - orangeepotted filefieh
~elichthys niger - black durqon
Nonacanthus ciliatus - fringed fllefieh
Nonacanthus hispidua - planehead filefieh
~onacanthus setlfer - pygmy filefieh
xanthichchys rinqena - sargaeeum triggerfleh
Chilomvcterus achoepti - etripad burrfieh
Diodon holocanthus - balloonfiah
Dlodon hystri - porcupinetiah
~ala lenceoleta - aharptail mola
~ole mol - ocean eunfieh
Lactophrys quadricornis - aorawled cowfieh
Lactophrv trigonus - trunkfleh
Lactophrys trJqueter - emooth trunkfiah
Lactophrys sp.
Canthigester rostrate - eharpnoee puffer
Lagocephalus leevigetus - eaooth puffer
Sphoeroldes dorsalis - arbled puffer
Sphoeroides naphelu - southern puffer
Sphoeroides pechygaater - blunthea4 puffer
Sphoeroidea parvus - leaet puffer
Sphoeroides spenqleri - bandtall puffer
Sphaeroid testudineua - checkered puffer
Sphoeroides ep.
Parahollardle lineata - jambeau
~onolene

se~alllcauda

Paralichth~s

-3 6 -

TABLE I

COMMERCIAL FISH LANDINGS

Yearly Mean for Six Year Period
(September 1972 - August 1978)

Gulf Landi ngs

Fish

Mean Pounds

Bay Landings

Mean Value

Mean Pounds

Mean Value

1,049

3,108

606,868

396,652

*1,587

*1,319

33,982

2,230

37,589

2,904

1,974

671

13,967

4,466

244,792

94,750

1,448,911

597,614

Croaker

31,070

2,401

67,528

5,845

Blackdrum

65,303

9,774

1,431,923

316,855

Red fish

92,916

33,632

1,517,116

597,989

Sheepshead

48,075

5,823

273,008

24,382

224,733

70,300

185,219

82,081

2,566,731

2,238,621

Pompano

1,712

Red Snapper
Mullet
White Seatrout
Spotted Se a trout

Flounder

lunerican Eastern
Oyster
Squid
Brown and
Pink Shr.i.Jnp
White Shrimp
Blue crab

1,487

7,191

1,663

5,142

1,260

58,641,732

75,839,846

3,966,214

1,629,653

*10,307,259

*13,778,960

7,124,062

5,950,077

47,739

5,987

6,736,685

1,204,318

* yearly mean for less than six year period

- 37 -

EFFECTS OF OIL ON BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

Introduction
Oil pollution of the sea from various sources is fast becoming a serious
global problem.

Oil pollution does not respect any national boundaries--

nor are its effects easy to predict.

Some marine life seems almost

unaffected by oil, but under other conditions oil is lethal to a variety

of species.
Research on the effects of oil on living organisms has been performed in
the laboratory since the beginning of the century, but most of the early
research lacked adequate controls, or description of the oil or oil
fractions used.

Other conclusions concerning the effects of oil on

marine life have been drawn from studies of oil spills in the past.

great deal of enlightenment has been obtained from studies of major

spills, such as Santa Barbara and Amoco Cadiz.

This paper summarizes

briefly the toxic effects of oil on marine organisms, the factors

affecting oil toxicity, and the possible effects of the Ixtoc I oil
spill.
Evans and Rice (1974) list eight ways in which oil poses a potential
danger to marine life:
(1)

Direct kill of organisms through coating and asphyxiation.

(2)

Direct kill through contact poisoning of organisms.

{3)

Direct kill through exposure to.the water-soluble toxic

components of oil at some distance in space and time from the
accident.

(4)

Destruction of the generally more sensitive juvenile forms of

organisms.

{5)

Destruction of the food sources of higher species.

{6)

Incorporation of sublethal amounts of oil and oil products

into organisms (resulting in reduced resistance to infection

-38-

and other stresses--the principal cause of death in birds

surviving i mmedi are exposure t:n oi.l) .
(7)

Incorporation of carcinogenic and potentially mutagenic

chemicals into marine organisms.

(8)

Low-level effects that may interrupt any of numerous events

(such as prey location, predator avoidance, mate location or
other sexual stimuli, and homing behavior) necessary for the
propagation of marine species and for the survival of those
species higher in the marine food web.

All of these short-term effects have been documented either in laboratory

or field experiments.

The long-term effects on marine life of an accumu-

lation of tar from successive spills have not yet made themselves felt.

I.

Effects on Marine Organisms

A.

Primary Producers

Most of the biomass of the ocean is in the form of one-celled

pelagic plants known as phytoplankton.

Phytoplankton potentially

could be affected severely by oil spills since a large proportion

of the phytoplankton is near the surface of the water, where oil
concentrates and has its greatest effects.

Galtsoff et al.

(1935)

examined the effect of oil and oil extracts on the diatom Nitzchia

closterium E.

A heavy layer of surface oil left on the surface

longer than a week tended to inhibit growth of the diatom.

When

diatom cultures were treated with oil extracts at a concentration

of 25\ or higher for a considerable period of time, growth was
retarded.

Similarly, Sanborn (1977) found an immediate and complete

loss of photosynthesis occurred when the flagellate Chlamydomonas

angulosa was treated with aqueous extracts.

Sanborn concluded that

the effects of oil on the species can only be surmised.

These

results are at odds with recently published studies by Pulich

(1979) who found no observable effects of weathered Mexican oil on

- 39 -

photo5ynthesis of cultures of diatoms and green flagellates.

Pulich (1979) however warns that the experimental results should
not be interpreted to mean that Mexican oil will have no effect on
growth and cell division of Gulf of Mexico phytoplankton populations.
He points out, for example, that some lethal hydrocarbon compounds
had no immediate effect on photosynthesis.

Inshore, grasses are major producers of biomass and provide shelter

and food to larvae and adults of a wide variety of species.

Marsh

grass seems to be especially vulnerable to the toxic coating effect

of spilled oil (Roland et al., 1977, Nadeau and Bergquist, 1977).
However, marshes and estuarine systems have a high energy flow
which may reduce the residence time of the oil in the marsh grass
system (Hershner and Moore, 1977).

Mangroves also can be severely

affected, especially young trees (E. I. Chan, 1977).

At this time, the total effect of spilled oil on marine plant life
could only be surmised, even if more complete information was
available.

Oil probably affects some species more severely than

others and individual laboratory testing is needed to determine

harmful amounts.

For mangroves and sea grass communities to recol-

onize following a fatal spill should take quite a long time in

nature due to changes in the substrate in which they grow and the
long generation time of these species.

Phytoplankton, on the other

hand, should recover fairly quickly due to its immense powers of

reproduction.

B.

Primary Consumers

1.

Zooplankton

The most important group of primary consumers in the Gulf of

Mexico is the zooplankton population.
kinds of zooplankton.

There are two important

The first are organisms which remain in

-40-

the zooplankton their entire lives, such as copepods, amphipods

and other small crustaceans .

There also are zooplankters

which are the eggs and larvae of larger organisms such as

fish, molluscs and larger crustaceans.

Both kinds of zoo-

plankton feed on phytoplankton and smaller zooplankters.

Descriptions of the general effect of oil on zooplankton of
the first kind have sometimes been published, with contradictory results.

Sanborn (1977) reported no harmful effects

of oil on zooplankton after the Santa Barbara or the Torrey

Canyon spills.

The University of Texas Marine Science Institute

(1977) stated that although hydrocarbon fractions were found

in zooplankton tissues, indicating substantial petroleum
contamination, there was no observable effect.

Sanborn also

reported that the ingestion of oil had no effect on zooplankton.

In contrast, Galtsoff et al. (1935} reported that Elmhirst in
1922 found that plankton was killed by contact with oil.

How

Elmhirst performed his experiment is not known.

Several species of planktonic invertebrate larvae have been
subjected to oil extracts.

Sanborn (1977) reported that some

planktonic larvae of benthic invertebrates are killed by

contact with oil pollution.

In particular, the gametes of

these invertebrates, which are released into the water, are

extremely sensitive.

The larvae in an oil polluted area

during the period of the spill could experience possible

mortality through eutrophication of the water, change in the
sediment on which they would settle, direct poisoning, or the
disappearance of gregarious settled larvae followed by failure
to recolonize (Sanborn, 1977).
Larvae and eggs of fishes have also been exposed to oil.

Sanborn

(1977) says that pilchard eggs showed high mortality in the

Torrey Canyon spill.

Also, developing eggs of the Black Sea

- 41 -

flatfish, Rhombus maesticus, were highly sensitive to oil and

5
oil products down to a concentration of l0- ml/liter. Hatched
larvae were more resistant.

On the Texas coast, Arnold et al.

(1979) found that redfish (Sciaenops oce11ata) larvae and eggs

both experienced mortality and developmental abnormalities
when exposed to water soluble fractions of oil.

As with the

plant life, the effect of oil on the zooplankton probably

varies with the species.

The small planktonic organisms which

reproduce rapidly would probably not be long affected by oil

pollution, no matter how severe the initial kill.

The plank-

tonic larvae and eggs, which seem more susceptible to oil

pollution on the weight of the data, would also be more
severely affected due to their much longer generation time.

2.

Benthic Invertebrates

a.

Oyster

The American eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, has

been one of the most widely used organisms for oil spill
studies.

The species is widely used for food, but oil

pollution gives oysters an oily taste, making them unmarketable {Galtsoff et al., 1935; St. Amant, 1970), and
therefore research on this species has been stimulated.
Also, the filter-feeding mechanism of the oyster raises
the question of what happens to an organism that strains
oil from the water along with its food.

Oysters also

make good subjects for experiments because of their

sedentary habits, which make large tanks unnecessary.

Other effects on oysters of natural oil spills have been

categorized as mortality, tarry coating on the shells,
watery color and texture, reduced glycogen content, and
reduction of gonad development (Galtsoff et al., 1935).

- 4 2-

Weathered oil sinks to the bottom and when released by

storms, oyster harvesting or dredging, continues to have
the same effects (Galtsoff et al., 1935).
Laboratory experiments on oysters show that they are not
greatly affected by oil in seawater unless the water is
stagnant (Galtsoff et al., 1935).

Lund {1957) measured

the ability of oysters to clear water of food particles

and found that high concentrations of bleedwater, greater
than 15\, slowed the ability of the oysters to clear the
water.

Soluble oil fractions and crude oil at low

concentrations had no effect on the oyster's ability to

clear the water or take in suspended matter.
Oysters can protect themselves from large doses of oil in
water by closing their valves tight and excluding water
from their shells.

Varanasi and Malins {1977) found that

oysters remained closed when there was 900 mg/liter crude

oil in the water.

Oysters, like many other marine species,

can also remove assimilated hydrocarbons from their

tissues once the oil has disappeared from the water .
The weight of the data indicates that while oil has
potentially severe effects on oysters, an oil spill, with
diluted and weathered oil, will not result in serious
mortality in the oyster population.

A large spill directly

on the reef would probably result in serious loss.

However, even small spills may lower the oyster's commercial value by affecting its taste, and little is known
about the effects of oil on the ability of oyster larvae
to settle.

While the adult oysters can protect themselves

from oil by closing their valves, the spat are more

vulnerable to oil, especially oil on the rocks where they
are to settle (Sanborn, 1977).

- 43-

b.

Other Molluscs and Annellid Worms

Benthic invertebrates, such as other mollusks beside

oysters, and annellid worms are severely affected by
settlement of oil on the substrate (Sanborn, 1977).
Those organisms which are filter-feeders may have their
gills or filter mechanisms clogged by oil or tar particles,
smothering the animal.

This danger is greatest for those

benthic organisms which live in the subtidal or intertidal

zones, near the shore, where oil is most likely to be
washed up.

In one incident, polychaetes suffered mortalities when

cracking residue thinned with Number 2 fuel oil was
spilled on the beach (Sanborn, 1977).

Benthic worms are

especially vulnerable to the smothering effects of oil,

even weathered oil.

Isopods, small crustaceans which are

important scavengers, are trapped and killed by oil

spilled in the intertidal region (Cubit, 1970).

Other

benthic organisms below the high tide mark are likely to

suffer the same fate.

Other effects on benthic animals

may stem from alteration of the substrate rather than

asphyxiation or coating.

For example, the polychaete

bloodworm Euzonus mucronata usually burrows to the top of

the sand during receding tides.

When the sand was coated

with spilled oil the worms avoided the surface (Cubit,

1970) .

Oil in the sediment affects molluscs, such as clams.

For

instance, large numbers of Pismo clams, Tivela stultorum,

and razor clams, Siligua patula, were killed by spills of
diesel oil in California (Sanborn, 1977).

Here only the

initial kill was reported, but oil in sediments may

result in continuing mortality.

- 44-

A serious spill of No. 2

fuel oil mixed with JPS jet fuel in Searsport, Maine

caused continued mortality of clams of the genus Mya,
with 85\ of the harvestable population killed in 3
years.

The estimated loss was 50 million clams.

The surviving clams had a high incidence of gonadal

tumors which in some cases replaced gonadal tissue.

Note

that this spill involved refined products which would be

expecte d to be more dangerous to marine life, due to
their lower molecular weight (Sanborn, 1977) .

Further

evidence of the tendency of hydrocarbons to remain in the

sediment is provided by a spill of crude oil in Casco
Bay, Maine, where the clams still showed contamination
nine years after the spill (Sanborn, 1977).
3.

Fishes

Two common species of fish, the striped mullet, Mugil cephalus

L . and the Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia patronus, can be
considered primary consumers, as they feed mostly on the
plankton.

Adult fishes are presumably more able to avoid oil

spills than other marine species since their mobility is

greater.

Thus one would expect fish species to make contact

with oil mainly in the act of feeding upon oiled food items.
Fishes which filter small items out of the water in the act of
feeding would seemingly be more likely to ingest oil than
those which eat larger items.

St . Amant (1970) states that

menhaden are not affected by oil pollution, although he notes

that fishes that have fed upon oily food develop an oily
taste.

More information is needed on these species, which are

important members of the food web.

c.

Secondary Consumers

1.

Shrimp

- 45-

Gulf shrimp of the genus Penaeus are an important part of the

food chain.

They feed on smaller crustaceans and plankton of

all sorts , and are a preferred food of all the larger fish
species.

Man also prefers these shrimp, known as white,

brown, and pink shrimp, as an item of his diet.

Shrimp, being partly filter-feeders, are susceptible to ingesting
oil or tar particles, or becoming entangled in oil.

A recent

study by Flint et al. (1979) found slight mortality (9\) at

the highest concentration of oil accommodated water, and less
mortality at lower concentrations.

This shows that besides

the clogging effect on gills of oil particles, shrimp are

affected by direct toxicity of oil.

As with all the organisms

that have planktonic larval stages, the possibility that the

larvae may be more severely affected than the adults cannot be
ignored (Evans and Rice, 1974).
2.

Fishes

Sanborn (1977) lists 5 possible ways in which an oil spill can

cause damage to fish populations: First, egg and larval
mortality by direct coating or toxic effects, (2) Adults could
be killed in a similar way in narrow or shallow water, (3)
Contamination of spawning grounds, (4) Fecundity or spawning
behavior may change, and (5) Local food species may be adversely
affected.
In a study of fishes of "oiled" and "nonoiled" environments ,
Ebeling et al . (1970) found no significant difference between
them.

St . Amant in 1970 reported that commercial fishes faced

with chronic oil pollution have not experienced any serious

breakdown in the food chain or animal life cycles.

Neverthe-

less, he recognized that finfishes which feed on lower forms

-46 -

which have ingested oil develop an unpleasant oily taste which

could affect their market value (St. Amant, 1970).

More

serious than the oily taste from ingestion of oil in food, is

the fact that fishes also assimilate oil hydrocarbons directly
from the water.

One experiment, cited in Galtsoff et al.

(1935}, found that an extract prepared by shaking lOOcc of oil

with 2,000cc of distilled water was toxic to brown trout.

Young and larval fishes are generally more adversely affected

by oil pollution (Craddock, 1971).
larvae of plaice and flounders

This has been observed in

(Galtsoff et al., 1935), and

pilchard eggs and eggs of Black Sea flatfishes (Sanborn,

1977).

Arnold et al.

(1979) found a very definite statistical

relationship: as the concentration of oil in water rose, the

number of fish eggs and larvae which were deformed or dead
also rose.

Although from the foregoing experiments it appears

that small larvae are sensitive to oil, one set of experiments

seems to indicate the reverse.
Galtsoff et al.

Gardinier (1927), cited in

(1935), reported that trout when only 60 days

old showed no effects from 2-hour immersion in a 40 phenol:lOO,OOO

water solution.

The same species, when 110 days old, was

unable to withstand a 15-minute immersion.

Most early experiments

on oil toxicity are suspect because at that time the experimental

methodology was not as rigorous as it has become, and the
results were often not reported in statistically analyzable
form.

Modern experiments, such as Arnold et al.

(1979), are

much more trustworthy.

Studies indicate that the commercial fishery in the Black Sea

has been nearly ruined by oil pollution.

Sanborn (1977)

states that the first sign was a fall in zooplankton productivity.

Since 1930, sturgeon catches have dropped to one-third of
their former level, and salmon, bream, carp, and si1d catch have

-47-

dropped to one-tenth.

The Black Sea is nearly landlocked,

Sanborn points out, and oil can't escape or be diluted as in

other bodies of water.
there is very bad.

The chronic oil pollution problem

The North and Baltic Seas have also been

frequently polluted by spilled oil for decades, but Sanborn

reports no effect on the fish population.

He attributes this

to the better exchange of water between the Baltic Sea, the

North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.

3.

Squid

Squid are generalized predators, occupying roughly the same

place in the food chain as sport fishes such as the redfish.
Squid lay their eggs on the bottom, so one might postulate
that their immature stages would not be as susceptible to
direct toxic effects as the floating eggs of fishes.

No

experiments on effects of oil on squid were located in the

literature search.

4.

Crabs

Crabs are considered secondary consumers because of their

appetite for flesh, but much of their food is obtained from
scavenging.

The blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, is abundant

over much of the world, and especially

Mexico.

co~on

in the Gulf of

It is the object of a considerable sport and commer-

cial fishery, as crab meat is considered a delicacy.

All the crabs have planktonic larvae, which are vulnerable to

floating oil, like other zooplankton.

Adult crabs are likely

to become exposed to weathered oil or tar when scavenging on

or near the bottom.

More needs to be known about the effect

of oil on the life stages of the blue crab.

-49-

5.

Birds

A number of migratory and native bird species depend mostly or

wholly upon the productivity of the Gulf, bay and estuarine
areas of the Texas coast.

Birds in general are very vulnerable

to spilled oil, which coats their feathers and renders them

useless for flying or insulation against cold.

Birds attempting

to preen oil out of their feathers may then succumb to the

toxic effects of petroleum.

Oiled seabirds are one of the

first obvious effects of an oil spill (Gorman and Simms,

1978).

More than 3,450 birds of 33 species were killed by the

Amoco Cadiz spill in 1978 and other oil spills have almost
invariably taken a large toll (Jones et al., 1978).

Mortality

continues up to 300 days after the birds' exposure to oil

(Cowell, 1976).

Sublethal effects on birds from exposure to spilled oil include

enteric respiratory disorders, renal disorders, lung infections,
arthritis, and dessication through physiological imbalances
and metabolic changes (Cowell, 1976).

A good idea of the

danger that spilled oil presents to birds can be had from the
fact that only 5\ of auks, when cleaned and kept in captivity,
recover from oil coatings.

Gulls and ducks, which adjust

better to cleaning, may have a recovery rate of 75\ (Cowell,

1976).

Gorman and Simms (1978) found that ingested crude oil

did not result in slower growth in nestling gulls, as had been

earlier reported.

This may indicate that ingestion of oil is

relatively unimportant, and that most of the bird mortality

occurs from oil coating bird plumage.
Although seabirds are appreciated more for their aesthetic
value than for any commercial value they might have, their
susceptibility to oil should be investigated further, since
they are warm-blooded animals like man, and are relatively

-49-

high in the food chain.

D.

Tertiary Consumers

1.

Man

Man should be less vulnerable to toxic effects of oil that he

ingests in his food, because man is the only animal who
exercises rigid quality control over his food.

This is in

contrast to the behavior of plaice, Pleuronectes platessa,

which prefer to eat oiled shrLmp, since they are caught more
easily than healthy ones (Sanborn, 1977).
Oil spills are likely to affect man by removing items from his
diet.

Not only will contaminated food be unfit for human

consumption, but toxic effects may kill off food species thus
reducing the efficiency of the fish and shrimp harvesting
industry.

Low levels of hydrocarbon pollution can result in

carcinogenic or mutagenic chemicals in the human diet.

II.

Factors Affecting the Toxicity of Oil

A.

Chemical Factors

Most damage to wildife is done by the most volatile fractions of

oil.

There is general agreement that the smaller the hydrocarbon

molecule, the greater its toxicity to life.

and Dwyer, 1974).

(Cowell, 1976, Moore

Aromatic hydrocarbons (those molecules containing

an aromatic or benzene ring) are more toxic than straight chain or

branched ones (Evans and Rice, 1974).

Toxicity of molecules increases

in the series paraffins, naphthalenes, olefins and aromatics,

according to Cowell (1976).

Molecules which are more soluble in

water pose a greater risk of being assimilated {Cowell, 1976).

Most authors therefore state with good reason that the low boiling,

-so-

more water-soluble aromatics are the primary cause of immediate

biologic~!

B.

dam~gc.

Physical Factors

When exposed to atmospheric conditions, oil tends to break down, a

process known as weathering.

On a volume basis, oil becomes less

toxic to life the longer it weathers (Bender, 1977).

Evaporation of

the smaller, more volatile molecules is the major weathering

process which removes the most toxic molecules from the marine
environment.

Other hydrocarbons undergo photooxidation, a process

in which they are broken down into smaller molecules by solar

radiation in the presence of oxygen.

Although this process is not

as fast as evaporation, it continues to break down the large molecules after the smaller ones have been lost through evaporation.
Burning of the spilled oil, of course, greatly accelerates its
removal from the oceanic environment.

The constituents most likely

to be oxidized by burning are the small molecules and aromatics.

This process generates heat which evaporates other oil molecules.
Although burning renders the more dangerous components of spilled
oil harmless to marine life, the air pollution effects from hydrocarbon smoke on all terrestrial life can be serious.
Oil can be removed from the water by adsorption onto suspeQded
sediments which then settle to the bottom.

This was a major factor

in carrying much of the spilled oil to the sea floor following the
Santa Barbara spill in 1969 (Evans and Rice, 1974).
Physical effects can increase the toxicity of oil as well as decrease
it.

Mixing of oil with water can cause the more water-soluble

components to go into solution more quickly, and cause increased

mortality.

In one example, intense onshore winds and shallow water

-51-

caused oil droplets to mix with water which caused sudden mortality
in sea cucumbers, conchs, prawns, sea urchins and polychaetes
(Nadeau and Bergquist, 1977) .

Oil may act synergistically with physical effects with unexpected

consequences.

An intertidal barnacle, Pollicipes polymerus, is

prevented from breeding by the presence of oil in the surrounding

area.

The cessation of reproduction was linked to a rise in body

temperature when the black oil absorbed solar heat (Straughan,

1977).

C.

Biological Factors

1.

Biodegradation

Two ways in which oil can be detoxified (photooxidation and

evaporation) have already been mentioned.

The third way in

which oil becomes less dangerous to organisms is biodegradation.

This process involves the entrance of oil hydrocarbons into
the tissues of an animal or plant, and the subsequent oxidation
of the molecule as part of the organism's metabolism (Gibson,
1977).

The most efficient hydrocarbon oxidizers are certain

microorganisms including bacteria, filamentous fungi and

yeasts (ZoBell, 1973, Yall, 1979).
Each species of microorganism typically only oxidizes a small
spectrum of hydrocarbon compounds, because all of them do not
possess the necessary enzymes to break down a wider range of
compounds.

They are very abundant, however. In oil-polluted

3
6
harbors or oil dumps there may be 10 to 10 oil-oxidizing
microorganisms per milliliter. In bottom sediments the popu9
lation may reach 10 oil-oxidizing microorganisms per milliliter
(ZOBell, 1973).

-52-

All of the oil-oxidizing organisms in the bottom sediments are

near the surface of the sediment because the oil-oxidizing
process is aerobic, requiring dissolved oxygen.

Oil deposited

in deeper sediments therefore is not biodegraded unless it is

exposed to dissolved oxygen by wave action or some other
disturbance.

There is therefore a danger that successive oil

spills will build up layers of tar in marine sediments which

will be a barrier to burrowing animals (Cubit, 1970).

Alter-

natively, the oil could be ingested and returned to the biosphere

by sediment-inhabiting organisms.

The oil- laden sediment

could therefore become a source of a chronic oil pollution

problem in the area where the spill occurred (Evans and Rice,
1974).
Hydrocarbons are known to remain stable in marine sediments
for geologically long periods of time.

Crude oil is in fact

formed from hydrocarbon sediments which are the remains of

marine animals and plants.

The effect of such sediments on

the living organisms in an area declines with the sediment

depth, and therefore its age.
2.

Incorporation in the Food Web

Hydrocarbons, when spilled in the marine environment, invariably

will enter the food chain.

Most hydrocarbons are lipid (fat)

soluble and therefore tend to accumulate in fatty tissues of

animals that ingest them.

As animals that are low in the food

chain are eaten by ones that are higher, the hydrocarbons

spread throughout the fauna in the area of the oil spill.

Oil is most likely to be incorporated into the food chain when

it is freshly spilled.

At this time, floating oil is absorbed

by zooplankton and phytoplankton.

The most toxic molecules

have not yet evaporated and are still present in the oil-water

-53-

mixture at this time .

Cox et al. (1975) found that the

highest concentration of naphthalenes in seawater was approximately 48 hours after the spill.

This was the time of greatest

mortality and the highest concentration of naphthalenes in

animals sampled from the area.

Other hydrocarbons were presum-

ably also present in high concentration.

By 14 days after the spill the naphthalenes reached a peak

concentration in the sediment {Cox et al., 1975).

This is the

time when benthic animals, especially detritus feeders such as

annelids, are in the greatest danger of feeling the toxic
effects of hydrocarbons.

As the concentration of oil drops in

succeeding weeks, the toxic effects decrease, but the oil may
still enter the food chain through the benthic animals; and
will continue to do so until it is buried too deep to be
ingested.

Like petroleum hydrocarbons, the chlorinated hydrocarbons such

as DDT are fat-soluble and accumulate in the fatty tissues of
animals (Evans and Rice, 1974).

Chlorinated hydrocarbons

also are concentrated in the food chain because animals are

not able to excrete them and therefore retain nearly all that
they have ingested in their life.

This results in mortality

and sublethal effects, especially at the top of the food

chain, where the effects of DDT on the eggshells of predatory
birds are well known.

It is now known that DDT is more soluble

in petroleum hydrocarbons than in water.

Consequently DDT

concentrates near the surface of the water when oil is present

there, exposing surface organisms to a higher concentration of
DDT (Ehrlich et al., 1973).

Opinion is divided on whether oil-derived hydrocarbons accumulate

in the food chain.

Scarratt and Zitko (1972) note that carnivores

tend to have lower concentrations of oil than herbivores and

- 5 4-

conclude that oil most likely is not concentrated in the food

chain.

Evans and Rice (1974) cite several authorities in

support of the theory that certain hydrocarbons may accumulate

in the food chain.

They also indicate that oil may be excreted

in the feces of animals which have ingested it.

There are

also many references that document the accumulation of hydrocarbons by marine animals living in oil-polluted water, followed
by the return of the hydrocarbons to the environment when the
water becomes clean (Anderson and Neff, 1974; Fossato and
Conzonier, 1976).

Some species studied have also shown an

ability to partly metabolize assimilated oil hydrocarbons

(Scarratt and Zitko, 1972}.
Apparently, the biological fate of hydrocarbon molecules
depends on the molecule and the organism involved.

An animal

or plant in an oil-polluted environment has no choice but to

absorb oil from the environment or from its food.

If the oil

is not passed out immediately in the feces, then it seems

there are three things which can happen to an assimilated oil
molecule.

(1)

The molecule is stored in tissue and accumulates;

the animal has no enzyme or transport system to get
rid of it.

(2)

The molecule is metabolized; the animal possesses

the enzymes necessary to break it down.

(3)

The molecule is transported out of the body; the

animal gets rid of the molecule with the waste
products of cellular respiration or cellular breakdown.

Some animals may be porous to certain molecules, taking them

up and then releasing them.

Processes (2) and (3} happen at

- 55-

some rate which may be too slow to guarantee that all the
hydrocarbons are actually

~xcreted

or metabolized.

In that

case the molecules are passed up the food chain in the same
way as those molecules which are stored in tissue.

A toxic molecule which occurs in the spilled oil at a low

concentration may rise in concentration as it goes up the food
chain.

This process would be the major danger from hydro-

carbon molecules which are not metabolized or transported out

of the organism.

It could cause mortality to predators at the

highest trophic level.

Eggs or larvae mortality of the

predator species could also be threatened, since embryos

usually have a lower tolerance to toxic substances (Craddock,
1971).

It should be remembered that some molecules may also have

carcinogenic or disabling effects on the organism even if they
are only present within its body for a short time.

For an

exhaustive listing of sublethal effects on various phyla, see

Johnson (1974).

Such sublethal effects can be caused by

persistent concentrations of soluble aromatic derivatives in

the range 10-100 parts per billion (Moore and Dwyer, 1974).

III .

Toxicity of Ixtoc I Oil

The best available report on the composition of Ixtoc I oil (Parker

et al., 1979) indicates that it is not especially different from
other crudes.

At the well, Ixtoc I crude contained 52-53\ saturated

hydrocarbons, 34-35\ aromatics and 7-8\ NSO compounds.

Data on

Arabian and Iranian oil indicate that the oil spilled from the
Amoco Cadiz had between 30 and 35\ aromatics and 50-83\ paraffins,
or saturated hydrocarbons (Spooner, 1978).

Toxicity of oil depends

first upon its composition, and therefore there is no reason to

-5 6 -

believe the Ixtoc I oil to be more toxic than, for

Amoco Cadiz oil.

Other oil spills,

involv~ng

~n s tance,

the

tuel oil, gasoline or

jet fuel, caused more damage to marine life since the lighter
fractions of petroleum are more toxic (Sanborn, 1977).
Ixtoc I oil underwent a considerable amount of weathering before
landfall in Texas.

Figures 3 and 4 show the composition of lxtoc I

oil forty hours after the spill, and oil collected by the USCG Pt .
Baker at 22 SO'N and 96 26'W.

This is a point not reached by the

oil until July 24, 51 days after the blowout.

The most common

constituents of the 40-hour oil are saturated hydrocarbons of fewer

than 14 carbons and various naphthalenes, also of low molecular
weight.

After weathering, these components almost disappear .

Saturated hydrocarbons in the 17 to 20 carbon range are the most

common, along with higher order aromatic compounds .

Thus the first

compounds removed by weathering (a term that includes evaporation,

photooxidation and biodegradation) are the most common and most
toxic to life.

From the distance which Ixtoc I oil had to travel before its
landfall on Texas beaches, one must conclude that its most toxic
components were probably first removed by weathering.

The sheer

amount of oil continuing to be spilled indicates that the toxic

effects near the well are probably severe indeed.

In addition,

much of the oil must settle onto sediments not far from the well,
making nutrients from the bottom unavailable for much of the marine
life in the area.

How large an area will be so affected is not

known, but if other spills are any indication, it could be several

years after the flow is stopped before newly deposited bottom
sediments again support a variety of marine life (Moore and Dwyer,
1974).

Recent reports by the Texas Department of Health Resources indicate

- 57 -

that so far fishes and shrimps from Texas waters are not being contaminated by Ixtoc I oil (Munoz and Sherry, 1979).

Continued sampling

over a wide area will provide valuable information on the movement

and persistence of oil molecules in biological systems.

-58-

1 ..

A
16

18

20

l 6

Figure 3.

Gas chromatograms of the saturate fraction of a mousse sample

collected 40 hrs after the IXTOC I blowout (A), and the Pt.
Baker mousse (B). (Figure from Parker et al., [1979)).

-59-

N HN
I

DMN

r1

PEAK INDENTIFICATION
N
MN
DMN
11rn

DBT P
~~ MDBT DMP DMDBT -

Naphthalene
Methylnaphthalenes
Dimethylnaphthalenes (includes ethylnaphalenes~
Trimethylnaphthalenes (includes all methylethyJ
and propyl- naphathalenes )
Dibenzothiophene
Phenanthrene
Methylphananthrenes
Methyldibenzothiophenes
Dimethylphenanthrenes (see DMN)
Dimethyldibenzothiophenes (see DMN)

nrn

MP

DMP

+
troBT

+
I DZ.!DBT

DBT

I~

DIN

DMN
r--1

Figure 4.

Gas chromatograms of the aromatic fraction of a mousse sample

collected 40 hrs after the IXTOC I blowout (A), and the Pt.
Baker mousse. (B). (Figure from Parker et al., 11979]).

-60-

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
The sooner expert studies are started the better the position
there is to establish a basis for later studies with an ability to
detect differences that occur.
14
The Federal statutes
require that a damage assessment be
prepared to evaluate the damage to the resources of the northwest
Gulf of Mexico as a result of the damage from the IXTOC I oil spill.
The objectives of the management structure of the Damage
Assessment Plan established are:
1 - identify and quantify the biological, ecological,
and economic impacts reulting from the IXTOC-I oil spill.
2 -

Produce a series of reports which will make data and

information generated under (1) above available to
decision makers in a useful and timely manner.

3 -

develop techniques, procedures and methodologies

applicable to future interagency/state assessments of
damage resulting from spills. 15

The first proposal to fulfill these objectives developed by

the Federal Government seemed designed for projects by the Federal
Government.

The state's scientific capabilities were not to be

implemented and as a result the proposal was not enthusiastically

accepted by most of the State of Texas agencies.

Texas has many

well-trained scientists, engineers, planners, researchers and managers

to whom Texas and the Federal government should be turning for help
to rescue our Texas beaches and bays.
The management structure is currently being reviewed and
while general overview and guidance will be accomplished by the
agencies at the Washington level, operations and studies will be
completed locally.

This working management should provide a

Washington input without hindering local response activities.

A draft is currently being developed which will serve as the basis
for the formal program. The National Oceanographic Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) has made a supplemental budget request for funds
for the damage assessment but to date the funds have not been made
available. 16
-61-

BLOWOUT PREVENTION
It is not certain what caused the blowout of IXTOC I on June 3,
1979.

PEMEX, the Mexican national oil company, said that the blowout

was caused by a loss of drilling "mud" which occurred while the crew
was attempting to remove the inner drill tubing and bit from the hole.

17

(Mud is the liquid that is circulated through the wellbore during

18
rotary drilling and workover operations)
Testifying before a joint hearing of the United States Senate
Committees on Commerce, Science, and Transporation and Energy and
Natural Resources on December 5, 1979, Jerome Milgram, a professor
of ocean engineering at the Massachussets Institute of Technology and
an inventor of oil spill cleanup equipment, said that efforts to kill
the well were halted when .. it was observed that gas and oil were coming
out of the seabed in the vicinity of the well, indicating a lack of
integrity of casing structure.

The pressure required to pump the

mud at this time was very high " 19
Testifying before the same committee, Donald Kach, Chief of the
USGS conservation division said that by USGS standards, mud supplies
were inadequate on the rig and that there was a question about the
experience and qualifications of the Mexican drilling crew. 19
At the same hearing, Stephen Mahood, SEDCO, executive vicepresident, said PERMARGO (a Mexican drilling firm) which held two
long-term PEMEX offshore drilling contracts, leased the SEDCO rig.
PERMARGO also contracted for a few SEDCO personnel.

"No SEDCO

personnel participated in the decision making process or had access

to the geological data upon which PEMEX based its judgments pertaining
to the drilling of the well", Mahood said.
19
was provided was operating properly."

"All SEDCO equipment that

On October 16, 1979, the Texas House Committee on Environmental

Affairs held a public hearing in Austin to find out what standard
and customary measures are taken to prevent blowouts in Federal and
State waters.
A blowout is the direct result of a "kick".
intrusion of a formation of

fluid~

A "kick" is an

Blowout Prevention schools are

required by the USGS of companies drilling in federal waters.

The USGS requires that everyone involved in the operation of the
well should know the procedure for killing a well and be certified
-62-

annually.

The USGS also requires mechanical blowout preventers,

pressure monitoring systems, well casing specifications and weekly

20
tests of equipment and procedures.
Jim Herring of the Texas Railroad Commission testified that the
oil and gas division of the RRC exercises control of those wells
drilled within state waters and is not involved with drilling
beyond the 12-mile limit.

The Commission has operational requirements

designed to keep oil spills from occurring, but does not now require
that personnel attend blow-out prevention schools.
Mr. Bruce Damron, Instructor at A&M University, testifying before
the committee emphasized that one way to prevent kicks would be to
make it mandatory for "trip tanks" to be placed on all rigs.
A trip tank involves a calibrated tank used for the monitoring

of mud volume used to replace the steel volume of the drill pipe
when pulling the drill string from the wellbore.
The trip tank is only used for the monitoring of mud volume
when pulling out of the hole.

These tanks are generally calibrated

to five barrels and fill the hole by gravity feed.

When the drill pipe is being pulled from a wellbore, the hole
experiences a reduction in bottom-hole pressure, due to the interaction,
or friction between the drill pipe and mud, known as the swabbing
pressure.

If the pressure reduction is great enough, a volume of

formation fluid can be allowed to blow into the wellbore.

This volume

of fluid allowed into the wellbore is monitored by the trip tank.

The intrusion of a formation fluid is a potential hazard to the
drilling operation and, if encountered, the drill pipe that has been
pulled, should be run back into the hole and the intruding fluid
circulated out, before it becomes a hazard.
The trip tank allows the operator to determine exactly how much
21
is being placed in the hole, versus a known volume of stee1.

-63-

CLE!>.:WP

HEASURES

The oll trom the IXTOC well arrived in the form of tar balls
around the 7th of August. When the oil arrived the Coast Guard Open
Water Oil Containment and Recovery System (OWOCS) was in place,
together with backup booms and skimmers.

Cleanup crews used vac-alls,

graders, and front-end loaders to scrape the oil from the beaches.
As indicated earlier in this report, the policy of the RRT was to keep
the oil out of the bays and estuaries and to use the barrier islands
as a natural boom.

The oil on the high use beaches was removed as

quickly as possible and the other beaches were left to naturally

biodegrade.

To date the U.S.C.G. has removed 13,757 cubic yards of

oiled sand and tar balls, 46,975 gallons of an oil/water emulsion,

and 55,080 pounds of oiled debris.
Criticism arose from the policy of the RRT especially from
Dr. Roy Hann from A&M University.

He felt that if the oil was left

on the beaches, cleanup at a later date would be more difficult

because the oil would mix with the sand and seaweed. Hann felt if
the oil was not removed from the remote areas, storms and tides
would redeposit the oil on other Texas beaches.
Dr. Hann prepared
for this committee an extensive proposal entitled "Potential
Components of a More Effective Oil Pollution Control Program for the
State of Texas."
While the most practical and short term solution of oil on the
beaches is to remove the oil from the sand, the most ecological
method is the cleaning of the sand which is a long-term process.

The

committee has heard testimony to the effect that it is increasingly

dangerous to remove sand from an already eroding beach line.

During

the cleanup operation reports were received that cleanup crews were
removing up to six inches of sand when it was only necessary
to remove two inches.

The unnecessary removal of sand diminishes

the Gulf beaches which are a public resource.

Dr. W. L. Fisher,

Director of the Bureau of Economic Geology at Austin submitted a

report to the Texas Department of Water Resources which covers the
feasibility of using beach cleanup materials (a mixture of oil and
sand) for dune nourishment and stabilization.

-64-

..... '

C~EANUP

r',-~

ZONES

~
-- -=-'
..6TEAS

2
)

1<1~0

'b=-..-.......J

...us

/~

- -If

_,

CLEANUP ZOIIES

..~.~~
.......

1
3

'&...J -

0
_!0
I<II.O"!TEAS

't-.r=-L-......! --WK.ES

LEGEND
Zone 1 - Cleanup should take
place when oil coverage
in the intertidal region
reaches 15%.

Zone 2 - Cleanup should take

place when oil coverage
in the intertidal region
reaches 85%.

BEACH CLEANUP ZONES

-65-

Zone 3 - Cleanup at the

discretion of OSC.

On January 29, 1980, an

adv~sory

board consisting of Federal

and State agencies as well as personnel from the Research Planning

I~stitute

met in Corpus Christi to reevaluate measures to be taken

if the oil from the IXTOC well once again threatened the beaches of
Texas.

The consensus of this group was:

"It is proposed that a conservative approach be taken to

beach cleanup during periods of chronic oil impact.

Cleanup operations

should be based on economic considerations as well as the physical

and biological characteristics of the shoreline.

In those areas where

cleanup is undertaken, the methods employed should be practical from

both a physical and economic perspective." 22
The Advisory Board recommended that major cleanup activity should
be concentrated in regions of high recreational usage or areas in
close proximity to entrances through the barrier island system.

Lower

levels of cleanup are indicated for areas of moderate recreational

usage, however, for the majority of the coastline no cleanup is
recommended during periods when impacts may be expected to continually
22
occur.
(See Chartr p. 65)
Dick Whittington, in a letter to Captain Gerald Hinson, OSC,
on behalf of the Texas Disaster Council, stated that "cleanup should
be extended to include areas where a single impact occurs with no
anticipation that another impact will occur and to areas where oiling
occurred on multiple days but has finally ceased and where it will
not recur ever or for an extended period of time." 23
FEDERAL/STATE LOCAL POLICIES
The U.S. Water Quality Act of 1977

created a national contingency

fund to pay for cleanup costs; and does not cover economic damages.
The Federal Small Business Association makes long-term, low interest
loans available both for physical damage to private property and
economic injury to private businesses.
4
The State Disaster Act of 1975 authorizes state agencies to
accomplish whatever is necessary to alleviate the effects of any
disaster including oil spills.

The Disaster Act does permit "arms

length" assistance to local governments and individuals when assistance

for physical damage is authorized by the federal government.
-66 -

The

state is limited to 25% of the federally approved grant which cannot

exceed a total of $5,000 per individual.

This program does not cover

economic injury or loss of income, thus is not applicable to the oil

spill.

Local governments have the same authority as the state under

the same statutes, except for the physical loss program.

If the oil that hit the Texas coast had been from a tanker
that had coverage from TOVALOP or CHRISTAL, the economic, as well as
cleanup charges, would have been paid.

TOVALOP stands for Tanker

Owners Voluntary Agreement concerning Liability for Oil Pollution.

CRISTAL stands for a Contract Regarding an Interim Supplement to
24
Tanker Liability for oil pollution.
Pending in the U.S. Congress is a fund called the Comprehensive
Oil Pollution Liability Compensation Proposal (Superfund).
would provide compensation for spills in U.S. waters.

This fund

In addition to

covering spills from ships and barges it would cover spills from
terminals, pipelines, refineries, drilling rigs, production platforms,
24
and deepwater ports.
The primary objective of oil spill legislation is pollution
prevention; secondary objectives should ensure that governments,
businesses and individuals, within constitutional restraints, are
reimbursed for severe economic losses in the case of public
calamities.

The Committee is currently studying compensation

programs established in Maine and Florida, that use a state pollution

fund to reimburse citizens and businesses.

The current Texas Coastal

Protection Fund is limited to a narrow field of cleanup costs and

related activities.
The legislation that the committee is currently considering
would provide an easily accessible source of money for the cleanup
costs, and would reimburse public and private entities for losses.
Several options for funding are being reviewed.

Other states

raise money from registration fees, or by various taxes.

The current

Texas Coastal Protection Fund has a ceiling of $5,000,000, while i t

actually contains $500,000 appropriated by the legislature .

-6 7-

SHRIMP/FISHING INDUSTRY
In a news release, dated November 21, 1979

25

, the Texas Parks

and Wildlife Department stated that "the environmental impact of

oil from the Mexican well in Campeche Bay has for the most part
been minimal on Texas fish and wildlife resources."

The release

went on to say "Based on information now available, there is no

evidence of noticeable damage to Texas fish or wildlife other than
possibly redfish larvae as a result of the oil spill."
11
But in a letter dated November 5, 1979
from Charles Travis,
executive director of the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, to
Rep. Bennie Bock, Chairman of the Committee on Environmental Affairs,
Travis stated that "An oil spill of the magnitude of IXTOC-1 could
be devastating to fish and wildlife populations along the Texas coast
and the Texas portion of the Gulf of Mexico".

"Sports and commercial

fish and other aquatic organisms will have sustained the major damages
to fish and wildlife", wrote Travis.
The Department continues to be concerned about the impact on
the red drum which spawn in the shallow Gulf near passes from midAugust through November, when the heaviest oil pollution occurred in
the Gulf.

After fertilization, the eggs float to the surface until

they hatch in about 72 hours.

The eggs do not die after contact with

the mousse, but a high percentage of the larvae produced are deformed
at the time of hatching.

The presence of oil during the period of

red drum spawning could have affected the 1979 reproduction on the
Texas coast.
"Shrimp represents the most valuable fishery of the state
and nation ... " stated Ralph Rayburn, executive director of the
Texas Shrimp Association.

"Should the oil leaking from IXTOC I

cause significant damage to the shrimp resources, not only will a

multi-million dollar a year industry fall, but also a vital link
26
in the marine food web will be removed."
Dr. Addison Lee Lawrence, Director of the Department of
Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences at the Texas Agricultural Experiment
Station, stated in his draft proposal for a Data Assessment Plan,
dated October 16, 1979, that "the potential effect of the oil on the
reproduction potential of the commercial shrimp should be evaluated
because:
-68-

1.

a decrease in the reproductive potential of the commercial

shrimp would produce a dramatic and significant reduction
of the shrimp populations in the Gulf of Mexico; and

2.

the maturation-reproductive phase is the most sensitive

biological event in the life history of living organisms
to changing environmental conditions." 27

TOURISM
The news media coverage at the time of the IXTOC I oil spill
persuaded the public to stay away from the Texas beaches even before
the oil actually hit the coast. Normally in August, the Texas beaches
are prime tourist attractions bringing in millions of dollars in
revenue.

Through the efforts of the Federal, State and local

governments, as well as the private sector, most of the oil was

successfully removed from the beaches in time for the Labor Day
weekend but the impression was already formed and the tourists did
not come.
Island.

Economic losses were heavy from Galveston to South Padre

South Padre Island was especially hard hit, according to

Frank Hildebrand, executive director of the Texas Tourist Development

Agency.

Lost revenue there was between $16-20 million.

coast also suffered severe damage.

The middle

The upper coast around Galveston

was affected adversely by oil from the ruptured tanker Burmah Agate.

28

Hotel/motel revenue from the calendar quarter ending September

30, 1979, estimated losses in room rentals for the period was 25%.
The loss in revenue was incurred during the last three weeks in
August.

The oil spill and the resulting publicity caused occupancy

to drop from 100% to less than 30%, according to Ralph Thompson,

executive vice president of the South Padre Island Tourist Bureau.

29

The long term effects of the oil spill and the publicity it
generated has not yet been determined. As long as the IXTOC I well
remains uncapped the beaches of Texas could once again become
polluted this spring when the currents turn north again.

The economic

losses would even be more substantial because an entire tourist

season could be affected rather than just a three week period.

- 69 -

SUMMARY
Since June 3, 1979, thousands of barrels of crude oil have been
s~illing

into the Gulf of Mexico.

Daily reports continue to indicate

that the well will be capped "soon".

In the meantime Texas has lo@t

millions of dollars in tax revenues, lawsuits have been filed and

both real and potential damage to the fish and shrimp is largely
unknown.

The question that arises again and again is, can a spill of

this magnitude reoccur?

Future spills are entirely ESSible because

of the amount of drilling that is being done.

IXTOC I was only one

of 18 wells being drilled in the Bay of Campeche.

We hope to learn

lessons from this tragic waste so we can cope with, or prevent future
spills.
Oil spills have disastrous affects on both manmade and natural
resources.

Damages can be high for inhabitants of coastal areas,

on the tourism industry, and on the fishing industry.

The National

Academy of Sciences divides the natural or ecological impacts into

five categories:
1

Human hazard from ingesting contaminated food

Damages to fisheries, seaweed, birds, marine mammals, and

other wildlife

Damages to beac,hes and other recreational areas

Damages to the marine ecosystem by eliminating or decreasing

populations of certain species

30
Modification of habitats

The damage assessment plan under the auspices of NOAA is still

awaiting funding: little work can be done by the federal government
until the appropriations are made.

It has been suggested that the

Texas legislature obtain the necessary appropriations to furnish its

own damage assessment program.

Studies, whether undertaken by the

state or by the federal government, should be built upon existin9

Texas Coastal research and should utilize available on-site facilities
and laboratories.

This report has furnished a workable comprehensive

oil spill profile by categories and a fish/shrimp species profile,

documented baseline data relating to the effects of oil and the
reproductive and spawning cycles as well as a regional food web of
commercial fishes, shrimps, crabs, oysters and man.

-70-

The IXTOC I blowout occurred in Mexican waters and Texas has

little control of international waters.

An international commission

the blowout prevention techniques of the U.S. government

u tilizi~g

and responsible for keeping individuals in the industry apprised of

advanced blowout techniques would greatly mitigate the possibility
of another blowout.
In the event that a spill should reoccur either from a blowout
on a rig, or a tanker collision, better and more immediate means of
cleaning the beaches should be initiated.

All avenues of cleanup

measures should be investigated including the development of

cooperatives between the industry and local authorities.

Equipment

should be made more readily available on a short-notice.

Time is

vitally important during the initial crisis.

Compensation policies should be carefully reviewed and evaluated
so that help can be readily available to those suffering severe
damage.

Existing federal and state law do not cover the victims

of the IXTOC I spill, since the spill occurred outside federal waters.
IXTOC I is the largest oil spill ever recorded.

The Coast

Guard expended, through February 28, 1980, $7,612,659.92 in the

cleanup effort.
The U. S. Coast Guard, the Regional Response team which includes
the Texas Department of Water Resources, and the other state agencies
and universities involved in the oil spill response should be commended
for their fine efforts.

In retrospect, the oil spill has caused much

reevaluation of the available procedures, additional prevention

measures as well as cleanup techniques that are presently utilized by
the state.

-71-

COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONS
1.

The State Contingency Plan should establish specific

priorities for action in the event of a spill endangering
Texas bays and estuaries.

2.

The State should study the cost effectiveness of purchasing

its own coastal defense equipment and encourage the creation
of an oil industry cooperative to combat spills.

Texas should

participate in and encourage the development of local spill

cooperatives similar to the Corpus Christi Spill Control
Association.

The government and industry should pool their

manpower and equipment in the case of a major spill and become

a strong defense against the spill.
3.

Form an oil spill advisory group with representatives of

government, the oil industry, the fishing industry, the
tourist industry and other related interests.

The group

would develop recommendations and become involved in oil

spill contingency planning and response.
4.

Encourage the use of state universities in the coastal area

for blow out prevention training schools.

5.

The committee should study legislation to provide a fund,

similar to TOVALOP or CRISTAL, that would cover the costs and
damages resulting from oil spills.

The current Texas Coastal

Protection Fund covers only the cost of cleanup.

The IXTOC I

oil spill indicates that many other areas may need financial
aid to deal with the effects of a major oil spill.
6.

The Texas legislature should pass a resolution encouraging the

federal government to create an international commission
composed of all states bordering the Gulf of Mexico.

The

purpose such a commission would be to protect those states

from the damages of spills, as well as prevention .

-7 2 -

7.

Encourage federal officials to use the services of Texas

scientists, engineers, planners, researchers and managers for
closer interaction in addressing the Mexican oil spill related
problems.

8.

The committee supports Attorney General Mark White in his

efforts to collect damages from the proper, responsible, and
liable parties involved in the oil spill.

AGENCY RECOMMENDATIONS
TEXAS DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES:
The following is a brief description of the problems encountered
or perceived by the Department's personnel in their response efforts
regarding the Bay of Campeche Oil Spill and their recommendations
for correcting the problems.
1.

A definite need exists for 4-wheel drive vehicles for beach

impact and cleanup surveillance.

In addition, based upon the

past experiences of the TDWR representative to the OSC, such

vehicles are not readily available.

Consequently it is felt

that the Coast Guard should make arrangements to secure such

vehicles on a permanent basis so they will be available on
short notice when they are required .
2.

The various state agencies which have a legitimate interest in

oil spills and response activities are not consistently able
to obtain up-to-date, understandable, concise information
regarding major beach impacts, cleanup activities and the
northermost extent of significant impact.
Department's representatives to the

osc

Consequently, the

had to spend significant

amounts of time collecting and passing on such information to

interested parties.

The information should be incorporated

into a simple, readable fashion into the Pollution Reports

which are put out by the Coast Guard and widely distributed
to the state agencies.
3.

A great deal of emotional local interest (in some cases

opposition) developed regarding the removal of oiled sand from
the beaches, the ultimate disposal of such oiled sand, and the
need for sand replacement. The following actions may help to
alleviate the problems:
a)

conduct research into the beach building/ eroding phenomena;

b)

conduct local public meetings prior to the beginning of

the 1980 spill response campaign to determine local views
so that response activities could be modified accordingly.

-74 -

4.

The

~DKR

supplied the Coast Guard with pass protection plans.

The plans lacked current detailed information on shoaling,

current fluctuations, volumes of water passed, existing
structures, etc., because the information was not available.
Much of the information had to be generated on the spot under
duress.

When funds become available, the TDWR plans to generate

and maintain such data.

The Coast Guard should pursue this

vital aspect of spill contingency planning as well.

5.

The TDWR believes that research should be conducted and equipment

developed in regard to sand cleaning and foul weather operations.
During the 1979 spill response several unusual phenomena were
encountered such as the sinking of the oil, creation of sunken
tar mats in the sub-tidal zone, inability to cleanse oiled sand
and deficiencies in foul weather operations.

GENERAL LAND OFFICE:

1.

The General Land Office should maintain a list of sites on

state land that can be used for temporary storage of oil spill
material.

The Land Office should draw up construction guide-

lines for each site with the size, levee specifications, drainage
provision and access roads.

These preparations would allow a

timely response to both local spills as well as spills the size

of the IXTOC I.
2.

Although back-dune areas have not yet been used for storage,
guidelines should be developed for temporary storage behind dunes.

3.

The contingency plan should take into account seasonal effects.

An oil spill during the waterfowl nesting season, for example,
could endanger rookeries.

Measures for protecting rookeries

should be developed.
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC SAFETY (Disaster Emergency Services) :
Amend the State Disaster Act to authorize an appropriation to
DES which could use the funds to contract with cities and counties
for the provision of necessary public and private disaster related
relief.
-75-

FOOTNOTES

1.

Federal Register/Val. 44, No. 94, May 14, 1979. Nttional Oil and
Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, 40 CFR 1510.

2.

Federal Clean Water Act of 1977, Section 311.

3.

Texas Water Code, Subchapter G.

4.

Texas Disaster Plan, issued in accordance with the Texas Disaster

Act of 1973, 63rd Legislature.

5.

Coast Guard Captain Roger Madson. Testified before the Texas House
Committee on Environmental Affairs, Corpus Christi, August 24, 1979.

6.

Dick Whittington, Deputy Director of the Texas Department of Water

Resources. Statement to the Regional Resonse Team meeting in New Orleans,
Lousianna, July 13, 1979.

7.

Dick Whittington, Deputy Director of the Texas Department of Water

Resources. Testified before the Texas House Committee on Environmental
Affairs, Corpus Christi, August 24, 1979.

8.

Wilson Speir, former director of the Texas Department of Public

Safety. Letter to Committee Chairman Bennie Bock dated September 24, 1979.

9.

Bob Armstrong, Commissioner of the General Land Office.

furnished to the Committee, October 3, 1979.

10.

Neil Travis, Director of Shellfish Sanitation Control of the Texas

Department of Health. Letter to Nevenna Travis of the Texas System of Natural
Laboratories dated December 14, 1979.

11.

Charles Travis, Executive Director of the Texas Parks and Wildlife

Department. Letter to Committee Chairman Bennie Bock dated November 5, 1979.

12.

Texas System of Natural Laboratories Report to the Committee on

Environmental Affairs, January 15, 1980, p. 8.

13.

Material

Ibid, p. 5.

14.

National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan,

Section 151022.

15.

NOAA and Fish and Wildlife (DOl) draft report Start Up Strategy
and Management Structure for the Proposed Assessment Program attached to
letter to Texas Governor William Clements from NOAA Deputy Administrator
James P. Walsh dated January 16, 1980.

16.

Judith Roales, NOAA. Statement at the Regional Response Team

Meeting in Corpus Christi, January 28, 1980.
-76-

17.

Joseph Albright, Austin American Statesman.

September 9, l97q,

18.

Bruce Damron, Instructor at Texas A&M University . Testified

before the Texas House Committee on Environmental Affairs, Austin,
October 16, 1979.

19.

"Pemex slapped for handling of 1 IXTOC,, Oil and Gas Journal,

December 17, 1979.

20.

Federal Register, Vol. 43, No. 39, p. 8040-1.

Training and Qualifications.

21.

Bruce Damron, Instructor at Texas A&M University.

Committee dated November 7, 1979.

22.

John H. Robinson, Scientific Support Coordinator, NOAA. Letter to

Captain Gerald C. Hinson, Federal On-scene Coordinator, U.S.C.G. dated
February 5, 1980.

23.

Dick Whittington, Deputy Director of the Texas Department of Water

Resources. Letter to Captain Gerald C. Hinson, Federal On-scene
Coordinator, U.S.C.G. dated February 15, 1980.

24.

James J. Reynolds. Article Oil Spill Liabil~ and Compensation

(Superfund). Proceedings of the Oif Spill Conference, March 8-10, 1977,
New Orleans, La., p. 15. Sponsored by the American Petroleum Institute.

25.

Texas Parks and Wildlife Department newsrelease on oil spill damage

dated November 21, 1979.

26.

Ralph Rayburn, Director of the Texas Shrimp Association. Letter to

Nevenna Travis, Texas System of Natural Laboratories dated January 4, 1980.

27.

Addison Lee Lawrence, Professor, Department of Wildlife and Fisheries

Sciences, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service.
Draft proposal Determination of the Potential Effect of the Ixtoc I Oil
Spill on the Reproductive Potential of Three Species of Penaeid Shrimp
dated October 16, 1979.

28.

Frank Hildebrand, executive director of the Texas Tourist Development

Agency. Letter to Nevenna Travis, Texas System of Natural Laboratories
dated January 9, 1980.

29.

Ralph Thompson, executive vice-president, South Padre Island Tourist

Bureau. Letter to the committee dated November 30, 1979.

30.

National Academy of Sciences, 1975.

Environment. Washington, D.C.

- 77-

Newspaper article,

Geological Survey
Letter to

Petroleum in the Marine

APPENDIX A

POTENTIAL COMPONENTS
OF A MORE EFFECTIVE
OIL POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAM
FOR THE

STATE OF TE.>O\.S

Prepared by
December 1979

Roy W. Hann, Jr.

Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas

TABLB OF CONTENTS

I.

II.
III.
IV .

v.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.

INTRODUCTION . .

80

...

RECENT SPILL EXPERIENCES IN TEXAS AND ELSS\iHERE

AND THEIR LESSONS ~

81
89

SUMMARY .
SUHt'1ARY OF SHORTCOHINGS OF THE EXISTING
SYSTEM IN TEXAS . . . . . . . .

89

STATE OF TEXAS ALTERNATIVES .

92

\-lHY A GREATER ROLE FOR TEXAS

92

GREATER STATE ROLES BEING ASSUMED ELSE\-JHERE

93

ORGANIZATIONAL COMPONENTS OF A PLAN TO

PROTECT TEXAS . . . .

94

OIL SPILL CONTROL COOPERATIVES

DEVELOP~ENT IN TEXAS . . . .
OIL SPILL

COOPEI~TIVE

ADVANTAGES

THE ROLE OF TEXAS DEPART~ffiNT OF HIGHWAYS

AND PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION . . . .

95
99

102

DESIGNATION OF A STRONG STATE RESPONSE TEAM 106

XIII.

DESIGNATION OF A STRONG STATE TECHNICAL

SUPPORT TEAM AND A STRONG STATE SCIENCE
COORDINATOR . . . . .

106

XIV.

ADVISORY GROUP FROM GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRY

AND ACADEMIA . . . . .

107

LEGAL FRAME{'JORK FOR AN OIL SPILL PROGRAM

108

FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN

109

XV.
XVI.
XVII.

SU~~RY

AND CONCLUSIONS

112

Dr . Roy W. Hann , Jr.

Dece mber 1979
INTHOUUCTION

Texas, a state with a long history of living in harmony

with the oil industry, has suffered an incredibly bad year
with regard to oil pollution of its bays, estuaries, ship
channels, beaches and coastal waters.
influx of oil spills have ranged

fro~

The reasons for this

acts of God such as

lightning striking the SEA TIGER and CHEVRON HAWAII, inadequate

technology, as in the case of the IXTOC I, and seamanship problems ranging from the collision of the BURMAH AGATE, the
collision of the AMOCO CREMONA with a mooring dolphin and the
reported overrun of its own anchor by the ESSO BAYWAY.
There are, however, two common factors which make the likelihood of the repeat of these accidents a real probability.
First, the majority of these spills involve foreign oil shipped
to Texas to replace our dwindling domestic supply.

This is a

phenomena of only the last few years but could continue.

Secondly, the exploration and production of oil in deeper areas
of the sea where problems cannot be solved as quickly or easily.
Perhaps these problems could be tolerated if an adequate
response mechanism was in place.

Unfortunately, none have

been perfect and some have been downright pitiful, allowing

hundreds of miles of Texas beaches to be fouled with oil,
large areas of our coastal plain were covered with floating
slicks and considerable oil was deposited in the subtidal zone
near our coast.

In addition, many of the decisions being made

are not using the experience and capability of Texas scientists

and engineers or extensive Texas data bases, nor adequately
considering the wishes of Texas state agencies.

All resources

of Texas agencies and industry have not been utilized.

As a

result it appears that the time has arrived for Texas to

develop a program to assure that effective responses are
generated to oil spills which impact on the beaches and subtidal

- 80-

Dr. Roy w. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
resources it

hol~s

in trust fur its

citi~ens.

In this document the author reviews a number of lessons

learned from selected spills in Texas in the recent past which
he hus studied in depth.
A program is then proposed for Texas which he believes
can capably use the governmental, industry and academic resources in Texas.
RECENT SPILL EXPERIENCES
IN TEXAS AND ELSEWHERE
AND THEIR LESSONS
A.

The IXTOC I:

The IXTOC I was the first of the two

really major spills that exposed the deficiencies in the existing oil pollution control response mechanism as i t exists for
Texas.

The IXTOC I resulted in approximately 10,000 tons of

oil being deposited on the Texas coast in August and September

1979.

The spill response was carried out under the auspices

of the National Contingency Plan with funding from the National

Oil Spill Contingency Fund, inasmuch as the United States was
concerned, the spill

f~ll

either into the category of mystery

spill or one where the spiller refused to accept responsibility

for the spill.

In the opinion of the author the response left

much to be desired.
1.

The input to the decision process by Texas agencies

and academic community was minimal and particularly the wishes

of some State agencies were given little regard in the federally
dominated response.
2.

No predeveloped plans for the booming of the estuary

entrances had been published and, indeed, are not believed to

have existed prior to the spill.

In spite of the 75-day lead

time, no such plans were documented and published, and oil did
appear at two of three most southern Texas estuaries before
any booms were in place whatsoever.
As an example the Oil Spill Technical Assistance Team of

-81-

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
Texab A&M UIJiVeLsity, in conjunclion with the Drownsville Navi gation District had gone into a field a month before the oil
hit the Brazos Santiago Pass and carried out an extensive background study including current measurements and potential boom
deployments in the Brazos Santiago Pass. Although they advised
the current Federal on-scene co~~ander that they were in the
field carrying out these studies, and had hand carried the study
results to the science support coordinator and discussed preliminary results in person with the on-scene strike force commander,
the recommendations were not followed nor were the reasons for
choosing an alternate plan presented.

Indeed, the person in

charge of the response in the Brazos Santiago Pass had not even
been made aware of the study or provided a copy of it.
3.

Our bay and estuary entrances were protected more by

the pelletized nature of the weathered mousse and the normal

current characteristics at the end of the jetties which tend
to divert sand and thus other particles around the entrance to
the estuaries than by protective booming.

This was fortunate

because all but one boom deployment in the Brazos Santiago and
Mansfield cut areas were placed in current regimes where they
could not possibly hold oil against the prevailing currents
during a normal tidal cycle.

The exception was one boom which

would hold under prevailing currents but would fail under

nominal wind conditions from the east, the prevailing wind
direction.
4.

Since large inventories of booming materials were not

available in Texas, and thus had to be acquired from Navy or

contractor resources adequate booming equipment was late in
coming and inadequate in terms of quantity.
5. There was a failure to use industry resources other
than the excellent but quite limited capacity of a few oil
spill cleanup contractors.

In developing plans to deal with

the IXTOC I little or no use was made of the extensive resources available throughout the industrial community of Texas.

- 82 -

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
As the horne of the oil industry in The United States, extensive
engineering and managerial talent for use on the major oil
spills exists in the State and large inventories of equipment
are maintained under the auspices of the Clean Gulf Cooperative
and its member companies throughout the Gulf Coast region, with
the heaviest emphasis in Louisiana. At the time of the IXTOC I
spill some 56,000 feet of oil spill control boom was owned and
stockpiled by these entities.
6.

The most unacceptable component of the response from

the viewpoint of the author was the slow rate of removal from
the beaches in front of the resort hotels and the failure to
remove materials from other beaches.

Based on a gross miscal-

culation of the stability of our barrier island system and of

the efficiency of equipment for removing oil effectively from
the beaches, decisions were made which allowed oil to remain
on the beaches.

This decision resulted in the oil becoming

further mixed with sand, a major part of it being deposited 1n

the subtidal zone immediately in front of the beaches at the
fragile edge of the ocean and other quantities moving elsewhere
in the environment, either to other beaches or into the bays
and estuaries.

Although a reversal in this policy was achieved,

by the concerted effort of State agency personnel, the U. S.

Fish and Wildlife Service and other groups working through the
science support coordinator, the delay in getting the policy
reversed led to the oil being so buried on the beaches or deposited in the subtidal zone that further recovery was impossible.
7.

The leaving of the oil on the beaches in such large

volumes established a dangerous precedent in that others who

spill oil off the Texas coast could argue for non-cleanup of
their oil on the beaches based on the example of the IXTOC I.
This came to pass following the collision of the BURMAH AGATE.
8.

Relatively little concern was shown on the federal

level except by local Congressmen for the plight of the

-83-

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979

individuals who incurred economic damages as a result of this

spill.

Indeed, there appeared to be those who felt these

people should willingly accept economic loss to enhance the

negotiations for Mexico's energy.

Sptcific remedial legis-

lation in Congress is being held hostage by those who hope to

use the IXTOC I spill to force the passage of the larger
and more comprehensive "Superfund" bill.
B.

The BURMAH AGATE:

The BUF0ffiH AGATE oil spill began

with the collision of the freighter MH10SA and the BURMAH

AGATE at the Ga~veston Bay entrance channel some six or seven
miles offshore at Galveston on November 1, 1979.
in this spill were:
l.

The key issues

The failure of the U. S. Coast Guard to adequately

monitor the movement of the oil along the coast;

2.

A repeat demonstration that contingency plans did not

exist for the booming of the bay entrances in the event of such
a spill and indeed until impact occurred on the coastline
without any defensive measures being in place whatsoever;
3.

The spill waa the exact $ituation for which the Coast

Guard had developed their offshore containment and removal

equipment package over the past nine years, and although the
Coast Guard was supposed to be able to respond rapidly to a
tanker accident which was spilling oil, the response in this
case was exceptionally slow. An initial Coast Guard skimming
barrier was not put into operation until four days after the
spill, and it failed.

Skimming operations using a second

barrier and t\\70 Navy Marco skimmers did not initiate until
eleven days after the spill, and their recovery rates were
very disappointing.

The Navy's Lockheed skimmer was not yet

in use sixteen days after the spill.

The excellent weather

existing in the Galveston area during much of this period and

the fact that in most cases the oil came from the ship in a
narrow cohesive stream particularly demonstrates that this

-84-

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
federally owned, offshore containment equipment is no major
defense from pollution from an offshore spill.
4.
cited.

Failure to use industrial resources can again be

Again, for various reasons, the substantial offshore

pollution control capability of the oil industry on the Gulf

Coast was not utilized in dealing with this spill.

The Clean

Gulf Cooperative has several skimming devices including a fast

response skimmer and a large

11

Hoss .. skimming system which were

available for use during this spill but were not.

Fortunately, as the spill progressed, some estuarine defenses were developed and deployed to cover further releases
from the ship.

The failure for fast response to this spill may

be partially attributed to the organizational framework under

the Federal Water Pollution Control Act which permits the responsible party to handle its own cleanup.

The question arises,

however, when the person responsible is not able to physically

carry out a fast response and the governmental agencies have
the capability to do so, whether the government should not
proceed immediately

t~

deal with the problem until such time

as the industry is able to do so.

BU~mH

and cleanup costs by the

The assumption of liability

AGATE and their insurance

company is applauded; however, it is believed their interests

would have best been served if an organization were available
to deal with the problem immediately until help, arranged for
by these parties, could have arrived, rather than allowing the
oil to flow freely into the environment.
C.

The ESSO BAYWAY:

The ESSO BAYWAY spill occurred in

the Neohes ship channel on January 29, 1979.

The spill is

believed to have resulted from the ESSO BAYWAY overrunning its

own anchor in this shallow waterway, when it tried to make an
emergency stop to avoid a sinking barge at the Sun Oil docks.
The ESSO BAYWAY spill is notable because the company involved
in the spill had been carrying out an extensive worldwide
marine casualty response program planning activity and as a

- 85-

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
result, a capable management and contracting team worked
together to deal wjth the spill.

The favorable north winds

during the spill period enabled the oil to be contained in a

relatively small area and the ultimate cleanup \vas successful.
However 1 southerly winds could have carried the oil into the
large marshlands area of the Bessie Heights canal and Grays
bayou.
1.

The spill exposed the following weaknesses:

The lack of an effective oil spill cooperative organi-

zation among the industries of the Neches estuary;

2.

The lack of an effective oil spill contingency plan

for the Neches estuary area;

3. The lack of specific site-specific planning for such
areas as estuary entrances on the channel which included plans
to close these estuaries and the equipment and personnel
available to expedite their closure at the time of the spill.
D.

The HEARNE PIPELINE BREAK:

The HEARNE PIPELINE BREAK

occurred near the community of Hearne north of College Station

in early June of 1977.

It is mentioned to show that not all

of our pollution problems are confined to the coastal zone.

In this case a pipeline ruptured and spilled over a thousand
of barrels of oil which ran into local creeks. An initial
quick response by company personnel in the local area, was
effective in containing the oil.

Unfortunately, a skilled oil

cleanup contractor was not quickly called in to remove the oil

and the removal rate by contracted vacuum trucks was slow and
ineffective.

During the period of the spill removal a major

thunderstorm occurred in the drainage basin of one of the

creeks causing the creek to rise and currents to increase in
excess of entrainment velocities on the booms.

As a result,

the majority of the oil was swept under the booms, down the
Little Brazos River and the Brazos River into the Gulf of
Mexico.

During the time of the spill personnel from EPA who

are in charge of spills in inland areas and the Texas Railroad Commission visited the site but did not stay in constant

-86-

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
contact with the cleanup operations.

Three major lessons

were learned from this spill:

1. Continuous monitoring of the spill response effectiveness is needed;
2.

On-scene personnel need to be advised of effective

resources to deal with the spill and the potential problems

of not using them;
3.

The necessity of cleaning the banks of an additional

fifty miles of the Little Brazos River (as a result of losing

the oil) was a much higher cost than that of bringing in a
contractor with effective skimming devices early in the spill.
E.

The

~ffiTULA:

The oil spill from the supertanker METULA

provided many lessons to those throughout the world who careG

to look and consider them.
Since no cleanup was attemptee,
this spill has become a major scientific experiment on ~~at
happens when a spill is left to nature.

It generally shows that

in high energy areas the oil erodes away rather quickly and
goes into the marine environment.

In sheltered areas, such as

protected beaches, supratidal areas and marshlands, the oil

can remain for extended periods of time if substantial oiling
has occurred.

This spill showed us that the already large

volume of oil spilled was magnified by the emulsification of

approximately two to three parts of water into each unit of
oil.
The task of moving this mass of emulsified oil is a public
works job of significant proportions.

It was this observation

that led to the designation of the Texas Department of Highways

and Public Transportation as an action agency during the time
of the spill since they are an entity which has the manpower
and equipment to deal with such a task.
The METULA spill occurred in a very remote area where access
and the use of equipment would have been very difficult.

It

also reminded us that we have such systems in Texas in that

access to many of our barrier island systems is limited and

-87-

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
that getting equipment to such islands and oily materials from
such islands is a problem which must be dealt with effectively
~n

our contingency planning program.

F. The AMOCO CADIZ:

Until the IXTOC spill, the ANOCO

CADIZ spill of 223,000 tons of oil on the Brittany coast of

France was the world's largest oil spill. It also brought
forth many interesting lessons, only a few of which will be
discussed here.
1.

The lesson it again demonstrated was that the major

defense for a major spill will be made on the coastline.

2.
It again demonstrated that the volume of material to
be handled can be increased considerably by the emulsification
of the oil and the contamination of sand, seaweed and detritus.
3.

The overall effort and cost of cleanup were increased

dramatically by failure to act swiftly.

4.

There was a failure to have effective site specific

contingency plans for the protection of the estuaries and

for quick marshalling of forces to remove the oil when it is
most amenable to removal.
5. There is a need for an effective overall contingency
plan for both the federal administrative level and a local
site-specific level.
6.
It is also necessary to have a hierarchy of response
organizations running from local capability to deal with
small spills to major public works and military resources to
deal with large spills.
Following the AMOCO CADIZ, the Republic of France has
initiated a program which requires its national public works
agency, the Department of Equipment, to carry out extensive
local site-specific contingency planning.

The author has ob-

served some of these local site-specific contingency plans

which deal with each beach, each harbor and each estuary of
the

coasts

These include detailed plans of boom deployment,

-88-

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
boom requirements, the construction of boom anchorages, beach
access, oiled material disposal areas, etc.
SUHtvlARY
The spills discussed in detail above are but a few from
which major lessons can be learned.

Detailed reports have

been written by the Oil Spill Technical Assistance Team at

Texas A&M University on most of the above mentioned spills,
but the team is prepared to provide additional information on
spills elsewhere which also demonstrate these and other points.
SUMMARY OF SHORTCOMINGS OF
THE EXISTING SYSTEM IN TEXAS
The author has viewed the spills discussed above and has
tried to develop a summary list of what he considers to be the
shortcomings of the existing system, as it relates to Texas.
1.

In the absence of an aggressive State program, the

system is federally dominated.

As a result, decisions are

possible, as on the IXTOC I, which are not in the best interest

of Texas, e.g. international energy politics with Mexico or
the failure to move quickly and effectively with regard to the
spill taking place from the
2.

BU~~H

AGATE.

There has been a demonstrated shortcoming in the

federal organizational response capability, i.e. the federal

response carried out in Texas to date has depended entirely
or almost entirely on contractor resources and the limited
capability provided by the U. S. Coast Guard and U. S. Navy.
3.
ning.

There is lack of site-specific local contingency planIn spite of the charge in the 1970 Federal Water Pollu-

tion Act that local contingency planning should be carried out,

it generally has not been done in Texas (with the exception
of the Corpus Christi area with its local spill control
association).

As a result when a spill like the BURMAH AGATE

occurs off our coast, there is no detailed plan readily available

-89-

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 19 79
v;h ich shows how to boom certain estuaries or to demonstrate

the priority of protection for the different environmental

systems.
4.

There is a need for preconstructed boom and anchorages

in estuary entrances, ferry landings on inaccessible islands

for emergency access, preconstructed diversion areas in which
to deflect oil, storage facilities, etc, in order to make rapid
responses and to be able to respond effectively in remote areas.
5.

There is a lack of response capability based in Texas.

In spite of the heavy level of marine and oil related commerce

and the evolving oil production offshore, the amount of oil
pollution control equipment based in Texas is quite limited.
The main industrial equipment inventory is maintained in Louisiana, the main contractors working on the Gulf Coast have their
headquarters in Louisiana and the limited federal response
capability of the Gulf Strike Team is based in Mississippi.
Similarly, the Navy capability is based on the east and west
coasts of The United States and not in Texas.
6.

There is a failure to use existing industrial capability

and management in deaiing with oil spill response.

The carry-

ing out of a major oil pollution response such as to the IXTOC

or even a smaller spill, requires the establishment of a response organization with skilled and knowledgeable people in the
key areas.

On a spill that lasts for an extended period of

time, a reserve of such people is necessary so that those involved can cycle back to their old duties and other responsibilities.

There exists in the industrial community in Texas

either current or potential capability for staffing such response organizations.

Indeed, many individuals have been used

to staff responses within their companies either in Texas or

elsewhere in the world.
7.

The federal response in this area is dictated by the

Regional Response Team, which has representatives from many

federal agencies but only one seat for the State of Texas.

- 90 -

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
Indeed, the State agency that is represented must have many
of its programs approved by the federal government and much
of its budget comes from the federal government making the
taking of a strong position at cross purposes with the
federal administrators very difficult unless backed by a
strong state policy group.
Aspects of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act calling
for either the subcontracting of certain activities to the
State and the repayment of certain State costs incurred at the
time of spill makes it possible for a state to take a much
more aggressive role if it chooses to do so. A model program
exists in the State of Maine.
8.

The failure of the U. S. Coast Guard to succeed in

making a rapid response to the BURMAH AGATE or other spills

indicates that a more rapid response capability needs to be
establishe d in Texas.
9.

The failure of the U. S. Coast Guard and Navy equip-

ment at sea to attain a meaningful reduction of the pollution

level leaving a stricken ship indicate s that the State should
develop alternate response measures as well as be prepared
to deal with the oil on the coast.
10.

There has been a substantial use of non-Texas

scientists as part of the federal science support program in

Texas while at the same time ignoring the years of experience
existing in Texas agencies and institutions.

The use of such

scientists has led to decisions which are at cross purposes

to the wishes of Texas agencies and to the beliefs of many
specialists in Texas who deal routinely with oil related issues.
11.

Failure to establish either policy or decision ra-

tionale for cleanup methods, disposal methods, chemicals, sand

replenishment, etc., which need be decided before (not during)
the spill.

-91 -

Dr. Roy W. llann, Jr.

December 19 "/9
S'fl.TE OF TEY-A.S
hLTER:jATIVES

Texas is believed to have three alternatives it can

pursue with regard to oil pollution control in Texas.

1.

Tex~s

can accept the current standard of performance and

continue to let the federal government deal with oil spills with
only token State participation.
2.

Texa s can aggressively seek improvements in the federal

response structure but

3.

w~th

still only token Texas participation.

Texas can embark upon a joint state-industry program

whereby it is able to establish its own policies for the cleanup of its coastlines and to utilize the management, academic
personnel and equipment resources of the local and State
government and industry resources to develop the model State
program for the protection of its environmental resources.
GREATER
ROLE FOR TEXAS

h'1-IY A

It is believed that State action is needed or warranted to

achieve a more effective oil spill response in Texas for the
following reasons:
1.

The State is allm.;ed to assume greater responsibilities

and to be repaid for response expenses under the Clean Water Act
and the National Contingency Plan.
2.

Reasonable local government cleanup costs and third

party damages can be reimbursed under international insurance programs.

3.

The need for effective site specific contingency plans

for Texas bays and estuaries.

4.

The need to prepare access to some barrier islands, boom

and anchorages, diversion areas and storage areas.

5.

The need to stimulate fact efficient response to mini-

mize impact.
6.

The need for a reservoir of response e quipment in Texas.

7.

The need for a trained corps of men for rapid reponse and

- 92 -

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
su9ervision.
8.

The need to have State policy pre-established regarding

what areas are to be protected, Hhere and how to clean, what

to use, where to put residue, sand replacement, etc.

9.

The need to provide for use of State resources to supple-

ment individual and contractor resources and vice versa.

10.

The State superport may require direct

State response

and industry assistance and,

11.

There is a need to carry out tests of response methods

for use on Texas environmental systems.

GREATER STATE ROLES

BEING ASSU!-1ED

ELSE~'lHERE

The idea of a greater State role in oil pollution control

1s not new.

A very successful program is being carried out in

Maine and the program is being copied to various degrees in

New Hampshire, New York and New Jersey.
The Ma1ne program is an entirely state program funded by
a State Contingency Fund acquired from a
03 per barrel tax
on crude oil and products.

The fund is currently being raised

from $6,000,000 to $10,000,000 with strong industry support.

The program is administered by Mr. Marc Guerin and is
staffed with a group of State spill response supervisors.
The program role is to either oversee a spiller's cl"eanup or
to step in and clean up the spill if necessary.
The program fund is partially regenerated through response
charges paid by spillers.
In Maine the U.

s.

Coast Guard role shifts from that of

complete responsibility to that of being a resource to be

called in by the State.

The U. S. Coast Guard Division in

Boston is reported to be quite pleased with the arrangement.

Although the Maine program is somewhat different from
the one suggested for Texas, there are many aspects of the
program which are similar.

A visit to Maine to explore this

- 9 3-

Dr. Roy W. Hdnn, Jr .

December 1979
program in

de~th

miyht be

v~luable

for those planning

new

program.

ORGANIZATIONAL CO~WONENTS
OF A PLAN TO
PROTECT TEXAS
It is sugge sted that Texas intensively investigate the
formation of development of an integrated oil spill response
framework for

~e

State of Texas.

The key elements of such a

plan would be:

1.

A stronger State role in policy development using

state agency, academic and industrial talent.

2.

A stronger State role at the spill time utilizing

such techniques as a State Advisory

Corr~ittee,

a State

Science Support Team, and a strong State On- Scene Commander

and Science Support Co-ordinator.

These groups could execute

and promote State policies on speed of response, resources to

be utilized, methods to be utilized, and results to be
achieved.
3.
Texas.

A stronger response mechanism within the State of

These could include the creation (or stimulation) of

oil spill co-operatives utilizing state, industrial and

federal participation patterned along the lines of the highly
successful Corpus Christi Area Spill Control Association.
This response mechanism could include State participation in
providing the resources and management and staffing for such
a response, the establishment of a hierarchy of response using
contract, state agency, and industrial personnel, and the
development of industry-state agreements prior to spills with
regard to the use of State resources on industry spills and
ultimately, industry resources on State spills if the State
support comes into being.

-94 -

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
4.

An appropriate fin2ncing mechanism to share the burden

of cost for the response mechanism and the scientific support

could be established utilizing a variety of State and industrial
funding mechanisms.
5.

The preparation of appropriate legislation to enable

the program to provide for State participation in the program,

to construct needed State facilities and to provide a source
of emergency operational funds until repayment is received from
the spiller or the Federal Contingency Fund.
OIL SPILL CONTROL COOPERATIVES
DEVELOP!-lENT IN TEXAS
Throughout The United States there have been developed over
100 oil spill cooperatives.

Many have been very effective.

They

have established a strong equipment and supply resources for dealing with spills.

Some provide emergency manpower from a group

of government or industrial sources and some carry out intensive

response drills and training sessions to prepare to deal with
spills.

A few are nothing but loose mutual aid societies that

have little effect.

The idea of effective oil spill cooperative structure has
not developed on the Texas coast.

Most existing cooperatives

such as those on the Neches Estuary, Houston Ship Channel, Texas

City, Freeport area and the Galveston-Lower Trinity areas have
limited equipment resources and little or no contingency planning
or collective response plan capability. The notable exception is
in Corpus Christi.

The Corpus Christi Spill Control Association

is a unique local government-industrial partnership; each pays

half the cost of equipment and for running an effective cooperative capable of dealing with the normal expected problems in
that local area.
It is the example of an effective cooperative in this area
which demonstrates the pathway to an effective State program to
stimulate the growth of the cooperatives in the other areas and
to spur through State assistance

-95-

their improvement.

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
As shmm in Fig. 1, it is suggested that a group of five
spill control associations be established along the Texas
coastline with perhaps a sixth being established in the
inland portions of the State.

These would consist of the

Golden Triangle Spill Control Association, which would cover

the Orange, Beaumont, Port Neches, Port Arthur area; the
Houston-Galveston Bay Spill Control Association which covers
the Houston ship channel, Bayport-Cedar Bayou industrial
complex and the upper half of the Galveston Bay; the Coastal
Texas Spill Control Association which would cover the Galveston,
Texas City, Freeport area and associate coastline; the Corpus
Christi Spill Control Association which would expand its
coverage from the Rio Grande to Pass Cavallo and the Offshore
Texas Spill Control Association which would expand upon the
capability of the Clean Gulf Cooperative for offshore operators,
but also integrate with this the capability for dealing with
marine transportation accidents.
A potential line diagram showing the overall structure
recommended in this section and within it these five associations, plus membership by the State in the Clean Gulf
Association to gain access to its equipment reserves, is sho\m
in Fig. 2.
It is envisioned that these organizations would be set up
as living entities with a core staff to administer the program
and maintain cooperative equipment resources and each would
have technical support from its member companies or consultants
to carry out an effective, aggressive activity of contingency
planning for their project area under general guidelines provided by the State of Texas.
The specific activities envisioned for each of the cooperative entities are outlined as follows:
1.

To develop both administrative and site-specific con-

tingency planning to deal with anticipated types of accidents

in their particular areas.

-96-

&oc=:r=
o o ro ..
J

'ICJ

r:==c::==

SCf.!..(

LOCATIO~~

1, 1

UIL.( :;

f.1AP

ME~CO

TEXAS COASTLINE
- - -

CONTROL
TEXAS OIL SPILL ADVISORY COMMITTEE

STATE MANAGEMENT
RESPONSE TEAM

STATE SCIENCE SUPPORT

COORDINATOR

FF~HOR~ I\ I GOLDEN ~R I ANGLE

TEXAS
SCA

~----__..J

AREA-SCA

I
I....____ ___,

HOUSTON SHIP
CHANNEL
AREA-SCA

COASTAL TEXAS

II'I CORP US CHRISTI .

II AREA
SCA
I

SCA

1...--------'

I
l

CLEAN \,ULF
ASSOCIATION
EQUIPNENT
RESERVE

TEXAS SCIENTI FIC

SU PPOR T TEA M

INLAND TEX AS
SCA

STATE AGENCY
SCIENTISTS
AND
ENGINEERS

FIGURE 2

POTENTIAL OIL SPILL CONTROL ORGANIZATION FOR TEXAS

ACADEMIC
INSTITU TE
SC I ENTISTS
AND
ENGI NEERS

Dr. Roy W. Hilnn, Jr.

December 1 979
2.

To construct the necessary facilit ies , boom

anchorages, diversion areas, interim storage areas, long

term disposal areas and ferry landings for use during time of
spills.
3.

To develop and maintain inventory of specialized

supplies and equipment for use during time of spills.

4.

To develop necessary pre-agreements for governmental

agency, contractor and industry response covering the use of

manpower, equipment and other resources and further develop
agreements with other cooperatives in the State and elsewhere
such as Clean Gulf to share equipment in the case of a major
spill.
5.

To provide an instantaneous management structure

to deal with both major and minor spills.

6.

To provide either response personnel or initial

response personnel until replaced by contractor or spiller

personnel resources.
7.

To identify participants who will staff both manage-

ment and operating personnel roles so they can be trained in

these activities.
OIL SPILL COOPERATIVE
ADVANTAGES
It is believed that the development and promotion of
the Oil Spill Cooperatives by the State of Texas will generate
many advantages, mainly:
1.

It will call for utilization of the capability from

various sources to deal with the emergency, i.e. government,

industry, academia, etc.
2.

It will prevent needless duplication on the part of

the industries and agencies in Texas.

3.

It provides for a quicker response than normally

would be provided by individual spiller responders or by the

U. S. Coast Guard from locations outside of Texas.

-99-

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
4.

It provides for an in-depth reservoir of

man~gRment

personnel.
5.

It provides the focus for the planning and t.raining

activity.
6.

It develops a consistency in the response.

7.

It develops a mechanism to deal with spills from

mystery sources and from those unwilling or unable to deal with

spills.
Financial aspects of the Cooperative Plan are presented
later.
It should be remembered that by establishing oil spill
cooperatives for the State of Texas this does not in itself
resolve all of our oil pollution problems.

Indeed, no matter

where you are dealing with a spill a hierarchy of resources

depending on the size of the spill and duration of the cleanup
is required.

This hierarchy of resources ranges from the

spillers 0\vn personnel, the resources of cooperatives, the

resources of contractors, the resources of specific pollution
control agencies, the military and other entities.

Fig. 3

shows many of the resources available for the response hierarchy.

By developing a system of cooperatives for the Texas
coastline we will have available immediately company resources
and cooperative resources to be able to make a rapid response
to a spill.

We also have available the resources of those

contractors in Texas and those that we can reach here in a

reasonable period of time from Louisiana and other locations.
We also have the Texas Department of Public Resources which
is uniquely capable of dealing with oil on beaches and of
ferrying men, equipment, and materials to and from barrier
islands.

By the combination of all these resources a sub-

stantial capability will be developed 1n the State of Texas.

This overall response group will be capable of making a

- 1 00 -

L\ f' ;, 1: I L I TY

----- ----- -- - - -----

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Fi g ure 3
ORGANI ZAT I O~~A L

COMPON ENTS OF TH E RESPO!\SE HIERARCHY

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
complete response on modest sized spills and the important
initial response on a major catastrophic spill.

This response

would include sealing off the bays and estuaries under a predetermined plan, making initial attempts at containing the oil
offshore and/or carrying out initial containment and removal
activities along the beachfront to prevent oil from spreading

to other areas .
If we exceed these resources with a spill of catastrophic
proportions that will require an extensive and costly cleanup,
it is then possible to turn to resources such as traditional
contractors, the military or other sources to replace the
shared cooperative resources,or those of State agencies.
The people involved from these entities could then return to
their primary activities.
THE ROLE OF TEXAS
DEPARTMENT OF HIGHWAYS
AND PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
The major role anticipated for the Texas Department of
Highways and Public Transportation in the 1975 Texas Oil and

Hazardous Materials Law has not evolved as envisioned.

This

agency was chosen for this role because it has some very unique
capabilities which could play a very ' important role 1n oil
spill response in the State of Texas.

Three important areas

are:
1.

Fast, mechanized cleanup of impacted beaches.

2.

Providing access to otherwise inaccessible areas in

the coastal zone.

3.

Operating the material handling components of the

plan including stockpile of replenishment sand for the beaches

and management of oil material reclamation and disposal areas.
The selection of the Department of Highways and Public
Transportation for these roles was made with four major factors
in mind, namely:

-10 2 -

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
1.

The availability of skilled engineering and management

staff.
2.

A large labor resource.

3.

A large inventory of specialized public works

equipment.
4.

The agency role in operating the ferry system and

the intercoastal waterway in the State of Texas.

For this agency to be a truly effective entity in dealing
with the spill problem however, it must be authorized funds for
this purpose, it must develop a cadre of trained people in the
area, and it must acquire certain specialized equipment.
This major role for the Department of Highways

an~

Public

Transportation would be expected to continue as a part of the

cooperative program outlined within this document.

It would be

expected that the district engineer or other staff engineers

in each of the cooperative areas would participate actively in
the conduct of the cooperative planning programs and the Texas
Department of Highways and Public Transportation organization
would provide men and equipment for many of the responses.
Indeed, the state contribution to the cooperative organization
might best be handled through the budget of the Department
of Highways and Public Transportation rather than as a direct
appropriation for the purpose.
The original selection of the Department of Highways and
Public Transportation came as a result of recognizing that
dealing with a major oil spill is a public works job of
significant proportions requiring public works related
management, logistics and equipment.

In the State of Texas,

only the Department of Highways and Public Transportation has

the critical mass to provide an immediate work force to deal
with such a task.
During the past year we have also learned that we must
work very quickly to remove oil from our beaches or else the
material is either buried, washed into our estuaries or deposited

- 1 0 3-

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
into our subtidal zone.

Fig. 4 indicates this concept.

We have also learned that equipment such as motor graders,

front-end loaders, scraper loaders and vacuum trucks, if used
quickly, can minimize the amount of sand removed from the
beaches.

It has however, been carefully drawn to our attention

that sand removed by this process on many Texas beaches should

be replaced either for legal or environmental considerations.
This is because many of our barrier islands are suffering
sand starvation as a result of many other environmental modifications made in Texas and elsewhere.
We strongly believe that this important State resource
manned by fifteen thousand persons and with thousands of
pieces of equipment can help make Texas a model state with
regard to oil pollution control when this capability is combined with that of industry in the more traditional role of
on-water containment and removal.
The use of the Texas Department of Highways and Public
Transportation results in a substantial savings to the public
in cleanup costs.

These savings result because equipment used

for most parts of the cleanup are normally used in other

routine activities.
For an oil spill contractor to stockpile such routine
public works equipment for only occassional use during spills
would lead to substantially higher equipment charges.

Similar

savings result from using normal labor sources with effective

Texas Department of Highways and Public Transportation supervision rather than higher priced short term labor and supervisors.who would be hired for a cleanup and then laid off.
Funds accrued to the Texas Department of Highways and
Public Transportation from cleanup fees would go to pay
overtime charges and replacement labor to "catch up" on jobs
delayed by participating in the response activity.

- 104 -

FIGURE 4

EFFECT

OF

DELAYED

CLEANUP

RESPONSE

100 /0

T~---OIL LOST TO THE

ENVIRONMENT

AMOUNT OF
OIL
SPILLED

l_

OIL CA~BLE OF
BEING REMOVED

:._____

TIME

OIL BECOMES STABILIZED

IN SAND, ON VEGETATION,
ETC. BUT IS BEING
COVERED WITH SAND, ETC.

RATIO OF
WATER I SAND
AND DETRITUS
PER UNIT OF OIL
MOVING

INITIAL

WATER

TIME

IN

ENVIRONMENT

CONTENT

-====C>

COST

OF

CLEANUP

(LOG SCALE )
COST
INCREASES BECAUSE OF
SPREAD AND ENTRAIN M ENT
TIME~

LENGTH
OF
COAST

IMPACTED

TEMPERATURE

WINDSHIFTS,
BEACH EROSION

ETC.

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
DESIGNATION OF A
STRONG STATE
RESPONSE TEAM
It would be expected that the State as a whole as well
as each cooperative would establish a managerial response
team .

This would include specialists in a number of important

areas such as:

1.

Offshore response.

2.

Coastal cleanup response.

3.

Public information.

4.

Accounting.

5.

Communications

6.

Documentation

7.

Logistics

B.

Oil Reclamation and Disposal, etc.

It would be expected that the local area team would

handle any spill requiring only resources currently available
within their area.

On a spill which involved more than one

area, or involved resources in addition to those needed for

the local area, .the State response team would be activated.
The state response team would have similar components as well
as specific Texas agency representation.
DESIGNATION OF A
STRONG STATE TECHNICAL
SUPPORT TEAM AND A STRONG
STATE SCIENCE COORDINATOR
During the major spills of the last year, NOAA, through
its hazardous material response program brought a large number
of scientists to the State of Texas and carried out an aggressive program of providing science support to the cleanup activity
and documenting the spill activities.

However, these teams

have generally only had modest input from local Texas scientists
and indeed, many of those scientists in Texas who had some of
the greatest knowledge dealing with petroleum and its effect

- 106-

Dr. Roy W. Hann , Jr.

December 1979
on the marine environment have not been utilized.
It is
believed that a much more effective science support team for
the State of Texas can be established from the agencies and
academic institutions in the State of Texas.

All that is

necessary for initiating and carrying out such a program are

the financial resources to activate and support such an
activity.

It is emphasized that this activity is not intended

as the "observer" role provided at the spill scene by many

State agencies.

This is intended as a strong, active group to

provide to the response team detailed scientific and engineering information including that collected in the impacted area.
And to carefully document the physical, chemical and biological
environments which are impacted.

The reader is referred to the

draft program entitled, Engineering and Scientific Studies

Before, During and After a Spill, and to reports developed by
the Texas A&M University Oil Spill Technical Assistance Team
on the ESSO BAYWAY spill as a demonstration as to what is included in this type of program.
It is also emphasized that this is to be a free-standing
State-supported science team with its own science support
coordinator to interface both with State and/or federal OnScene Commanders.

Thus, the State will be represented one-on-

one with the federal team rather than a subserviant role such
as one of a large group of scientists brought in by the federal
government.
ADVISORY GROUP
FROM GOVERNMENT,
INDUSTRY AND ACADEMIA
It is suggested that a group composed of government, industrial and academia personnel be organized in an advisory
status to guide the state response activities, review past
performances, and make recommendations for future capabilities.
To some degree this team would serve the same role within the

- 10 7-

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
State of Texas as the Federal Regional Response Team; however,
the majority of the members of the advisory group will be
~elected

because of their tPr.hn1cal competence in the oil

spill control field rather than as merely the formal representatives of the specific agencies.
LEGAL FRAME\vORK
FOR AN OIL SPILL PROGRAM
It is proposed that the Oil and Hazardous Material Control

Law for the State of Texas be amended to accomplish the following:

1.

To develop a State program to stimulate the development

of, to participate in, and deposit cleanup resources with a

series of oil spill cooperatives on the Texas coast.

2.

To call for and finance effective site-specific oil

spill contingency planning for the entire Texas coast and major
river basins.
3.

To provide funding to utilize existing information and

to acquire adequate new scientific information on environmental

resources and physical features to permit effective contingency
planning.
4.

To establish the mechanism and funding for a State

oil spill technical and science support coordination program

to utilize Texas engineering and scientific talent and existing data available at the time of major oil spills.
5.

To establish an oil pollution advisory committee to

act as a parallel to the federal regional response team and

recommend policy determination, and decisions on products and
methods for use in Texas.
6.

To establish the mechanism for State-industry mutual

assistance with appropriate means of compensating for these

activities.
7.

To establish a program of training activities developed

to train personnel from management to equipment operators to

-108-

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
assure trained personnel are on hand to supervise and/or staff
response efforts.
8.

To establish liability on the part of the spiller for

the repayment of spill cleanup costs and local administrative

support costs charged directly to the State of Texas.
9.

To provide the necessary regulations to permit the

State supported cooperatives to take immediate action at the

time of the spill in order to mitigate the damage of such
spills to the State of Texas and to provide for repayment from
the spiller and/or Federal Contingency Fund for such activities.
10.

To expand the financial resources of the Texas Oil

and Hazardous Material Fund to provide for response activities

until repayment is received from the spiller and/or the
Federal Contingency Fund .
11.

To authorize the expenditure of State funds to provide

access to remote barrier islands, boom anchorages, diversion

areas, storage facilities, ferry landings and emergency ferries,
etc.
12.

To provide for the compensation by the spiller if known,

by the State of Texas.if unknown, to provide for third party

damages to Texas citizens or property owners for proven economic
losses incurred as a result of oil and hazardous material spills.
13.

To authorize an agreement for the State of Texas to

assume responsibility for response for all spills impacting the

coastline or the rivers, bays and estuaries of Texas.
FINANCIAL ASPECTS
OF THE PLAN
It is expected that the industrial share of from one-half
to two-thirds of the cost of the response program would be
borne by those industries using the waterways for either internal or foreign commerce of oil and for oil production.

This

type of arrangement has worked quite well with cooperative organizations elsewhere in The United States.

-109-

Sometimes the cost

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
is shared on a unit basis, with each carrying an equal share,
but more often it is based on some measure of the shipping
volume or production which indicates the likelihood of risk.
Some mechanism needs to be established to insure that
spills from ships will be responded to by the cooperatives.

It

would be expected that ships that were owned by the companies

who are regular participants in the cooperative would automatically have provisions for calling on the capability of the
cooperative organization.

On the other hand, a problem exists

with ships like the BURMAH AGATE, which are owned by oil companies or entrepreneurs who are not based in the Texas area.
It may be possible for the ports to require a trip membership
in the cooperative which would be secured before entering
Texas coastal waters.

The trip membership would authorize the

cooperative to act instantaneously when a spill occurred and

for a fee, to qualify them for the lower cooperative rental
rates for the equipment and manpower.
As with all major cooperatives, a charge would be made
by the cooperative for the actual response.

This charge will

include charges for personnel drawn from a variety of resources,

a rental fee for the equipment which may be different for
member or non-member users, and to repay the prorata cost for
core staff.

Traditionally, funds generated from such purposes

are used to pay for actual expenses of the cleanup and that
portion thereof which covers the cost for equipment rental or
the salaries of the core staff is retained and used to offset
the following year's budget.
A.potential for federal funding for response equipment
exists through either the Coastal Impact provisions of the
energy program or windfall profits tax benefits.

It could

also be possible to arrange for the stationing of the U. S.

Coast Guard,

u.

S. Navy or other equipment in the Texas area.

- 110-

Dr. Roy \'l. Bann, Jr.

December 1979
The cost of equipping and operating oil spill cooperatives
differs markedly from place to place depending on the level
of risk, Lhe local economy and the levAl of environmental protection demanded by the citizens in the area.
The highly successful Clean Bay Cooperative in San Francisco
Bay might compare with the larger proposed Texas Cooperatives.
It has accumulated an inventory of $2.5 million in equipment
during six years of life and has an annual budget of approximately
$730,000.

Of this, $220,000 is for everyday personnel and expenses,

$275,000 for storage, equipment maintenance and repair, $85,000

for planning, training and studies and $100,000 capital acquisition.
The Southern California Offshore Cooperative has a budget
on the order of a half million dollars per year.
Closer to home, the smaller Corpus Christi Area (SCA) has
an annual budget of $143,500 per year.
All of these budgets are core

~udgets

with additional funds

being expended for direct response expenditures.

Co-op costs

are usually larger in the early equipment acquisition years.

It is anticipated that the overall cost to Texas of the
Cooperative Program would be a sum of the following components:
1.

The State share of the Cooperative budgets for example:

2.

The cost of membership in Clean Gulf

3.

State construction costs for ferry landings, etc., plus

4.

State administrative, training and planning costs.

No specific estimates are suggested for the appropriate State

cost but it is believed that the overall cost will be very
small 90mpared to the value of the oil industry to the State of
Texas and the value of the tourist, fisheries and other marine
resources of the State.
Oil spills in Texas from an ocean going tanker are likely
covered by the TOVALOP or CRISTAL international insurance
programs which would pay not only

~leanup

costs but also reason-

able economic damage costs up to 75 million dollars.

-111-

Thus,

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
those in the tourist, fisheries, offshore supply and other
industries and individual properties would be compensated
for their damages.
The same would be true under both the Civil Liability
Conventions and International Fund Convention if The United
States had ratified these conventions.

Unfortunately, they

have not been ratified by The United States to date.

U. S. legislation normally parallels international programs.
Our main oil pollution act was the Water Quality Act of 1970
which at that time followed the international programs by providing only for oil spill cleanup cost payment.
11

Pending

Superfund., legislation which would amend the Water Quality Act

includes third party damage provisions has been bogged down

for various reasons; primarily by the inclusion of hazardous
materials in the bill.
Thus Texas citizens are not covered for damages from U. S.
Coastal Trade barges and ships not under the TOVALOP or CRISTAL
nor from spills from foreign drillings,

tankers in ballast,

and freighters with oil as fuel.

It would be appropriate for Texas to consider the programs
established in other states such as Maine which utilize the
resources of a state pollution fund to pay legitimate damages
incurred to citizens and businesses economically damaged by
oil spills.
SU.t-lMARY AND

CONCLUSIONS
This document serves as a brief skeleton of a potential
oil pollution control plan for the State of Texas which can
provide for a much more effective defense against oil pollution
than has been achieved during the past year.

The achievement

of the program components will let Texas better control the

quality of its coastal resources and assure its c1tizens that
government and industry can work together to minimize the impact

- 1 12 -

Dr. Roy W. Hann, Jr.

December 1979
of the occasional instance of oil pollution associated with
the Petroleum activities that are so important to the State
of Texas.
There have been many different successful formats for
oil pollution response in different areas of the world.

The

ideas collected together in this document appear to be a

workable selection of known and accepted components which
have worked elsewhere and which appear well suited for working
in Texas.

Any other selection of components which will work

effectively are equally acceptable.

What is important is that

efforts be initiated to develop an effective defense for oil

pollution in Texas .

-113-

APP ENDIX B

Use of a Mixture of Beach Jand and Inspissated Oil

Dune Nourishment and Stabilization
THE BUREAU OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
W. L. Fisher, Director
Observations made on South Padre Island in October 1979 revealed
that much of the oil on the beach and at the toe of fore-island lanes
had lost most of its volatiles and that the inspissated oil (that is,
oil from which volatiles escaped) had been broken down into sandsize
particles.

At the time the observations were made the wind was

strong and from the south-southeast; virtually none of the sand and
associated sandsize hydrocarbons were being moved by the wind.
Inspissated hydrocarbons are not detrimental to the beach-dune
environment since they are relatively inert.

Sand-sized tar-like

particles, if in sufficient quantity, serve as "sediment binders" or

as a weak cementing agent.

The Texas Highway Department has, in the

past, sodded certain road cuts, and in order to stabilize the cover;
the THO seeds and sprays the sod with an oilbase emulsion.

Certain

Arab nations are currently converting areas of migrating sand dunes

into productive agricultural lands, first by stabilizing the dunes
with crude oil, and secondly by seeding the dunes with various
grasses, shrubs, and trees.

It has thus been demonstrated that dunes

can be stabilized by using hydrocarbons as a weak cementing agent,

and that these hydrocarbons are not detrimental to subsequent vegetation growth.
As an example along the Texas barriers during the winter of
1974, fore-island dunes and an adjacent dune ridge were excavated to
elevations near sea level to facilitate laying a pipeline across
Mustang Island.

After the pipeline was buried, the dunes and dune

ridge were restored to their original contour.

The barren sand was

sprayed with an oil-based emulsion, sprigged with new vegetation, and

covered with burlap to provide temporary stability.

During the

following spring, the restored dunes were colonized by certain types

of vegetation such as sunflowers that typically occupy disturbed
sand areas.

In subsequent months, these primary flora gave way to

natural dune vegetation.

The revegetation process has proceeded to

the extent that the area is essentially as it was prior to excavation.

-114-

Even trained observers with site-specific information have difficulty

in detecting where the pipeline transects the dunes.
The south Texas barrier islands are in a semi-arid region where
the prevailing southeast winds and hurricane storm surge inflict
considerable erosional damage to the islands, particularly to the foreisland dunes.

Since this is an area of low rainfall, vegetation on

the fore-island dunes is sparse in many areas.

Fore-island dunes

werve to absorb much of the force impacted on the island by hurricanes.

Fore-island dunes retard beach erosion during storms, and serve as a
dam to hurricane storm surge flooding.

Where fore-island dunes are

low, or absent, storm damage may be severe.

In the past there have been some attempts to create and stabilize
1
fore-island dunes to South Padre Island. Picket fences were used to
form a physical barrier to wind-transported sand, and native salttolerant grasses were then used to stablize these incipient dunes.
Research on the stabilization of fore-island dunes has shown that
bitter panicum and sea oats are the best plants for dune stabilization.
It was also discovered that transplants of these grasses was much more
successful than planting seed.

The best time for transplanting sea

oats is December through February and October through May for bitter
panicum.

Irrigation is required when vegetating barren dunes; also

required is some sort of sediment binder, for example, burlap or an

open-weave netting; in this case, inspissated hydrocarbons would
serve as the sediment binder.

Optimum spacing of transplants was

approximately 70 ern; minimum dune height (in order to alleviate the

adverse effect of hypersaline interstitial water) at which stabilization with grasses will be successful is about one meter.
The sand and hydrocarbons that are scraped off the beaches could
be used advantageously to stablize existing fore-island dunes, and
to initiate fore-island dunes in certain hurricane washover areas.
It is recommended that these "experimental dunes 11 be not less than one
meter in height, and that they be horizontally continuous for a few

Dahl, B.E., Fall, B.A., Lohse, A., and Appan, S.G., 1974,
Stabilization and Reconstruction of Texas Coastal Foredunes with
Vegetation: Final Report to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal
Research Center, Fort Belvoir, V., Gulf Universities Research
Corsortium, GURC Report, No. 139, 324 P.
-115-

hundred feet.

They should consist of an appropriate mixture of oil

sr tar and sand.

picket fence shnuld be erected immediately seaward

of these experimental dunes as a protective measure against wind

erosion.

It is recommended that a general all-purpose fertilizer

be applied at the time of seeding or transplanting.

To further

enhance rapid establishment of a vegetation cover, it is recommended

that the experimental dunes be frequently irrigated.

Utilization of

the sand and hydrocarbons, removed from the beach during cleanup
operations, to stabilize existing fore-island dunes and to initiate
new fore-island dunes would not remove sand from the buffer zone,
and therefore would not further deplete the sand

budget~

further

depletion of the sand budget would aggravate shoreline erosion, which

is high on certain stretches of the south Texas barriers.

Information

is available to define specific beach zones of erosion accretion, or

equilibrium.
Advantages of using the sand and hydrocarbons for dune stabilization are several.

First, the cost of transporting the sand and

hydrocarbons to fore-island dune areas would be considerably less than

hauling the materials to some back-island area.

Secondly the sand

budget would not be further depleted in an area that is already in

an erosional state.

Thirdly, the stabilization of existing fore-island

dunes and/or establishment of new fore-island dunes would serve to

enhance the r.atural stability of the vegetated coastal barrier dunes
and provide further critical protection for hurrican storm surges.

- 116-

APPENDIX C

TEXAS DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES

1700 N. Co ni! '
Austi n.

~ ~Avenue

Tl x a~

TEXAS WA'J'I:I( <:( lMMISSIO:-.i

TEXAS WATER DEVELOPMENT BOARD

A . L. Black . Cbmn ~ a
John H . Garrett . VJCc Ch~irm:.n
Milton T . Potts

\\'. McCles ke ~
Glen E. Roney
\\' . 0 B;~nkston

Felix Mdlou ..ld . I 'h .m

n1a n

Dorsey B. Jl .r .l.-m.on
J o R . C arro ll
Harvey Davis
Ex ~ CUOH' Ducr1or

Gcor~e

December 20, 1979

Ms. Neverma Travis

Texas Systems of Natural Laboratories, Inc.
610 Brazos Street
Austin, Texas 78701
Dear Ms. Travis:
On December 19, you inquired about the Department's computer models of the bays
and estuaries. I understand you are interested in whether or not these computer
nodels can be used to predict mvement of oil within the Texas estuarine
system. We feel that with additional infonnation, which would have to be obtained
at the seaward location of the Gulf and estuarine exchange points, the computer
100del could be used to predict the movement of oil and 11tar balls" within the
estuaries that enter through these inlets. The data that are needed are samples
of the concentrations of materials passing from the Gulf through tidal action
into the estuary.

The Department's two-dimensional tidal hydrodynamic JOOdel computes the tidally

generated flows and velocities in the two horizontal coordinate directions
given certain simplifying assumptions. The mst important assumption is that
the bay is well-mixed in the vertical, i.e., the velocity and density are constant
with depth. In addition, in order to solve the differential equations which
describe the tidal motion in a well-mixed estuary, the estuary is represented
by a matrix of one-nautical mile square computational cells. The equations are
solved for each of these computational cells, thus, the computed velocitiE-s ]n
each of the two coordinate directions represent an average velocity across a
one-nautical mile front.
To simulate real-time variations in tidal velocities, the tidal hydrodynamic
JOOdel can be JOOdified to output "instantaneous" velocities at time intervals
as short as two minutes, subject to the availability of sufficient computer
storage.
The operation of the tidal hydrodynamic mdel requires the specification of
certain input conditions. These input conditions which must be known include
the tidal conditions at all tidally influenced boundaries of the estuary, i.e.,
the Gulf exchange pass and all side bays, all freshwater inflows, wind speed

P.O . Box 13087 Capitol Station

Austin . Tc: xas 78711

Aru C o de: 512/475 31R 7

Nevenna Travis
December 20, 1979
Page Two

~~.

and direction, evaporation, and rainfall. Thus, the long-tenn si.nulation of tidal
velocities requires the specification of the Gulf tidal conditions throughout the
simulation period or the assumption that the Gulf tidal conditions remain constant
from one tidal cycle to the next.

The use of
throughout
well-mixed
means that
generation
reactions.

these computed tidal velocities to predict the dispersion of a pollutant

the estuary requires, in addition to the assumption of a vertically
estuary, that the pollutant be a "conservative'' constituent. This
there is no signi ficant, short- term (i . e . , daily) degradation or
of the pollutant within the estuary by physical, chemical, or biological

Subject to these assumptions, the instantaneous velocities can be used to predict the movement of the pollutant within the estuary over a short time period
such as a tidal cycle, or the tidal velocities, averaged over a tidal cycle,
can be used in conjunction with the conservative mass transport JOOdel to predict
the "gross" movement of the pollutant over long-time periods, asstnning a continuous repetition of tidal conditions from one tidal cycle to the next.
The models described above have been developed for the purpose of analyzing the
freshwater inflow needs of the bays and estuaries of Texas. Each oodel has been
computed and calibrated using "field" data collected in each respective estuary.
In our judgment these individually constructed computer models are the best
available tool with which to make estimates of the transport of suspended
material that might enter the bays. However, I reiterate, it would be necessary
to sample at the tidal inlets, in order to collect data about the concentration
of materials in suspension.
We will be happy to provide descriptive detail of the models and to provide
further explanations.
Sincerely,

ld~JVI-'.11~ ~../?
Herbert W. Grubb
Director, Planning and
Development Division

-118-

Input-Output Branch
List of Reports
"Main Models"

TITLE

AUTHOR(s)

NUMBER

The Input-Output Model for the

State of Texas

GrUbb
Lesso

5102-R25-0973-RAN

A Structural Analysis of the Texas

Economy Using Input-Output Models

Grubb

7400-Rl4-0673

Using Input-Output Models for Economic

Analyses of Energy Consumption in
Texas

Grubb

0025-030-1174-NR

Selected National Economic and Energy

Policy Impacts on the Texas Economy:
An Input-Output Simulation Model
Analysis

Grubb
Holloway
Grossman

0025-051-0675-NR

An Economic Simulation Model for

Analysing Energy Policy Impacts in
Texas

Holloway
GrUbb
Grossman

0025-052-0775-NR

Water Resources Planning: Analytic

Techniques and Policy Implications
from a State Viewpoint

Grubb
Holloway
Williams

0025-054-0875

-119-

TWODB SOFTWARE INVENTORY PROGRAMS RECE IVEO

AS OF OCTOBER 3~ 1979

PEP
Parameter Estimation Program
PIPEX-1 Pipeline Optimal Capacity Expansion Model
CAPEX-I Pump Station Capacity Expansion f1ode 1
DEMAND-II Irrigation~ Industrial &Municipal Water
Demand Model
Multibasin Simulation & Optimization Model
SIM-IV
OPSIM-1 Opt. Cap. Expan. Model for Surface Water
Systems
AL-IV
Water Supply Allocation Model
SIMYLD-11 River Basin Simulation Model
CANAL-I Water Conveyance Canal Design Model
ECOSYM
Economic Simulation Model

Quentin Martin

QUAL-I
QUAL-II
LAKE CO
QNET-1
OOSAG-1
DELTA

Stream Quality Model

Stream Quality Model
lake Ecological Model
Multibasin Water Quality Simulation Model
Stream Quality Routing Model
Delta, River Delta Hydroynamic and Water
Quality Simulation Model

Mike Sullivan

FILLIN-1
SEQUEN-1

Multi-Site Data Fill-In

Sequence Analysis Program

Steve Densmore

RESOP-11

Reservoir Operating &Quality Routing Pgm

Lew Browder

IMAGEW-1
CARIZO
GWSIM-II
GWSIM

Well Field Drawdown Model

Carrizo Aquifer Digital Model
Ground Water Simulation Program II
Groundwater Simulation Program

Tommy Knowles

ESTECO
OEM
HYO
RIVTID
SAL

Estuarine Ecologic Model

Dynamic Estuary Model
Tidal Hydrodynamic Model
River/Tidal Hydrodynamic Model
Salinity Transport Model

Gordon Thorn

AUTO QO
GBP
GBP
QUAL-IIQ
AUTOSS
GBP
GBP
GBP

Auto Qual Modeling System

Galveston Bay Project Nitrogenous BOD Model
Hydraulic Model
Qual-IIQ
Auto-Qual Modeling System
Galveston Bay Salinity Model
Galveston Bay Project BOD Model
Galveston Bay Project DO Model

Oa le White

11

11

11

..

II

II

II

II

II

II

11

It

II

II

II

II

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It

rt

11

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tl

If

II

..

11

II

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II

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II

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-120-

II

II

II

If

II

WD0900
WD9000
W01100
WD1200
WD1300
WD1400
WD2000
W02900
WD4500
WD5300
WD5900
W06200
W07200
W08500
DW1600

River Tidal Hydrodynamics & Quality

LOQUOT
Inter-Industry Resource ~1odel
High Plains Inpu~-Output Model
Moving Average

PRCSYS
WAPAM

Pecos River Compact System

Water Availability & Priority Allocation

Flood Hydrograph Analysis

BURDAT
Water Surface Profiles
Unsteady Flow ~todel (SOCH/GEDA)
Reservoir Operating & Quality Routing
Flood Flow Frequency Analysis
Flood Hydrograph System
Irrigation Water Requirements
Hymo

R. Evans

T.

..

II

II

..
II

"
II

"
II
II

STORt~

II

-121-

II

..

II
II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

Larry Crow
II

"

TWODB SOFTWARE INVENTORY PROGRAMS

continued

CAL FORM
CAPEX-I
CARIZO
CHEMQ
CPS-1

Water Supply Allocation Model

Aquifer Chemical Quality
ASTEP
AUTO - Qual Modeling System
AUTO - QUAL Modeling System
BMDP Biomedicai Computer Programs
Computer Mapping System
Pump Station Capacity Expansion Model
Carrizo Aquifer Digital Moael
Chemical Quality
Contour Plotting

DAM

DAM

AL-IV
AQCHEM
ASTEP
AUTO QD
AU TOSS
~MD

OEM
DEMAND-II
DES
DISSPLA
DMEO
oMs noo
UOSAG-I
OPSIM-1
EOCSYM
ELLTAB
ESTECO
ESTPOL 1
STPOL 2
FASTEP
FILLIN-1
GBP
GBP
GBP
GBP
GBP
GWSIM
HAREQ
HCM
HYD
IMAGEW-I
lMSL

Dynamic Estuary Model

Irrig., Ind. and ~un. Water Demand Model
Dynamic Economic Simu-lation Model
Computer Graphics
Streamflow/Precip Graphics Routine
Data Base Management System
Stream Quality Routing Model
Opt. Cap. Expan. Model for Surf. Water Sys.
Economic Simulation Model
ESLTAB
Estuarine Ecologic Model
ESTPOL - I
ESTPOL - 11
Step-Drawn Test Analysis by Computer
Multi-Site Data Fill-In
Galveston Bay Project BOD Model
Galveston Bay Project DO Model
Galveston Bay Project Hydraulic Model
Galveston Bay Project Nitrogenous ~00 Model
Galveston Bay Salinity Model
~undwater Simulation Program
rrill's Equation
Hirsch Cloud Model
Tidal Hydrodynam1c Model
Well Field Drawdown Model
International Mathemathical and Statistical
Libraries
LAKtCO
Lake Eco-logical Model
LARSYS
LARSYS
MATH/STAT PACK
MATH/STAT PACK
MOS5-IV Monthly Streamflow Simulation
O'Lonnor Program GALV Hydroscience Model for the
Houston Ship Channel

- 122-

T. R. Evans
II

11

II

II

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II

"

lo

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

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II
II

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II

II
II

II
II
II
II

,,

lo

II

,,

.,

II

II

II

II

II

"u

II

II

PEP
Parameter tstimation Program
PIPEX-1
Pipeline Optimal Cap. Expansion Model
PULYVRT
POLYVRT
PRCSYS
Pecos River Compact System
QNET -I
Multibasin Water Quality Sim. Model
QUAL-I
Stream Quality Model
QUAL-II
Stream Quality Model
QUAL-IIQ QUAL-IIQ
RESOP- I
keservoir Operation &Quality Routing Program
RIVER
Program RIVER by Hydroscience. Inc.
RIVTID
River/Tidal Hydrodynamic Model
SAL
Salinity Transport Model
SEISMIC
Retraction Seismic Program
SEQUEN-I Sequence Analysis Program
Slt-1- IV
Multibasin Sim. & Optimization Model
SIMYLD-li River Basin Simulation Model
SPSS
Statistical Package
SYMAP
Computer Mapping System
SYMVU
3-D Plotting System
SYSTEM 2000 Data Base Management System
WAPAM
Water Availaoility & Priority Allocation Model
WQAL
Water Quality
WRECEV
WRECEV
ZOHOY-S
ZOHDY-SCLUMBERGER

-121-

T. R. Evans
II

II
II

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II

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II
II

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II

II

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"

APPEND I X 0

DRAFT

PRELIMINARY OUTLINE FOR OFFSHORE

ECOLOGICAL

DA}~GE

ASSESEMENT STUDIES

Studies Relative to the Fate of Spilled

Oil on the State Submerged

Lands, Utilizing Baseline Data Collected from 1975 through 1977 for
Coastal Zone Management

Submitted by:
Bureau of Economic Geology
The University of Texas at Austin

In cooperation with:
The U. S. Geological Survey and
University of Texas Marine Science Institute,
Port Aransas Marine Laboratory

Contact:

E.G. Wermund, Assoc. Dir.

Bureau of Economic Geology
The University of Tex<l"'
Box X, University Station
Austin, Texas 78712
(512) 471-1534

- 124 -

Preliminary Proposal for

DAMAGE ASSESSHENT OF THE
1979 GULF OF MEXICO
OIL SPILL

Introduction
The purpose of this proposed work is to assess any damage of the
1979 Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill impacting State Submerged Lands.

State

Submerged Lands include all estuarine and bay lands as well as the
Gulf of Mexico shelf from the beach to three leagues (approximately
ll miles).

This preliminary proposal supplements that submitted by

the U. S. Geological Survey and Texas Marine Science Institute.

The Baseline
An extensive program of sampling State Waters was included in the
Texas Coastal Zone Management Program when directed by the General
Land Office of Texas.

Therefore a data base, valuable for damage

assessment from any adverse impact, has already been collected for
State Submerged Lands as reported by McGowen and Morton (1979).
data base

coll~cted

The

in 1975-1977 includes clarr.shel! samp les f4om the

submarine bottom on one mile centers (nearly 6700 samples in all).

These samples were and are being studied for sediment type, textural
analyses, multielement (30) geochemical analyses, and biological
analyses.

Hiological analyses include identification of all

molluscs, crustaceans, and worms; marine flora as well as foraminifers

in Laguna Madre are under separate study.

- 125 -

Live and dead organisms

are studied in all cases .

ln autlition, geophys ical data support the

Completed studies include: s ediment types for the entire area;

textural analyses of all but Port Lavaca, Port O'Connor and the
Beaumont-Port Arthur sheets; biological analyses of the Corpus
Christi (1007.) and Houston-Galveston (857.) sheets: geochemical
analyses of the bays; and geophysical analyses of the shelf.

Damage

assessment will require the supplementation of completed analyses

with further analyses of the samples from the data base that are not
yet analyzed.
Damage Assessment
Most damage to State Submerged Lands will be observed in the
benthic biologic population.

These damages may include direct

short-term effects such as the rapid destruction of bottom dwelling

organisms from contact

~ith

toxic hydrocarbons.

Another order of

damage may relate to long-term toxicity of residues, either imparing

organisms or preventing the reoccupation of normal ecologic niches.
A part of this toxicity can be derived from inorganic components of
the spill residua identified as trace elements.

The bottom dwelling

population in the data base indicates the health of a vital food

chain which impacts both commercial and sport fishing.

Whereas the

damage to tourism may be short term, the damage to food gathering on

the Texas coast might have long-term impacts .
The advantage of a recent data base already under study leads to
a quantitative assessment of the effects of the s pill .

Ratios of

living to dead organisms before and after the spill can be assessed.
The quantitative data can be estimated in dollars , especially for

- 126-

conm{!r<:ial molluscs (oyster-s) and crctaceans (shrimp and cr-abs).

(~u a ntitative

of damages.

data abo contribute to planning for the longevity

For example, a rate of recovery of organisms returning

to normal sites can be used to predict how much commercial (and sport)
fishing may be appropriate in the future.

An analogy is overgrazing

and planned pasture control for cattle and sheep.

These same quantitative data, collected for Coastal Zone
Management, have many applications in addition to assessing oil spill
damage.

These data impact (1) pipeline construction for collection

and distribution of oil and gas, (2) dredging for coastwise as well as
potential deep port channels, (3) disposal of spoil, (4) monitoring of
marshes, (5) beach engineering, and others.

From the same data base,

effects of natural catastrophes such as hurricanes can also be

monitored for economic impacts on natural systems.
The Texas Coastal Zone Management program was implemented through
the General Land Office of Texas from 1975-1978.

Policy guidance was

provided by the Interagency Council for Natural Resources (ICNRE). whose

composition is shown in Table 1.

A successor interagency group named

the Natural Resources Council became the policy group by statute in

1977.

In late 1978, the Governor of Texas reassigned all responsibility

for the Coastal Zone Management Program to the Natural Resources

Council.

The 1979 legislature has reformulated that body into a group

named the Texas Energy and Natural Resources Advisory Council (TENRAC),
effective September 1, 1979.

The TENRAC members are dominated by

natural resource agencies of the old ICNRE, and the council is

co-chaired by the Governor and Lieutenant Governor.

- 127-

luentif icatlon u[

1.

N~me

Studic~

;md Users

of Study

Integrated studies of the fate of hydrocarbons relative

to sediment transport, benthic infnunal communities and
trace chemistry of the upper benthic sediment column, Texas
Submerged Lands.
*Users:

(1)

State and Federal agencies,

municipalities, and other local governmental units,

especially those having mandated regulatory responsibilities and those supplying public services likely
to be impacted, such as parks and recreational
facilities;
(3)

(2)

shrimp and fishing industries;

tourist and recreational industries;

and gas industries;

(5)

(8)

oil

international bodies

concerrted with laws of the sea;

members of the public;

(4)

(7)

(6)

concerned

civic groups; and

congressional oversight committees and judicial

authorities concerned with damage assessment.

2.

Where
Offshore to three leagues and in the bay-estuarine

systems in both short and long-term context for direct

comparison to baseline data and to establish a predictive
timeframe for the ultimate fate and effect of oil released
in a major spill that becomes regionally distributed.

The

work should be coordinated closely with similar studies to

be done in the surf zone and on the adjacent beach sectors.
The need for such coordination is especially emphasized.

-128-

3.

When
To begin soon after shutdown of flow from the IXTOC-1

well has been completed.

Tentatively an initial cruise

should be scheduled for mid-November, occupying, for sampling

purposes, stations along Bureau of Economic Geology transects
which best complete baseline study.

Each of these transects

gave what might be called subprovince characterizations that

would be expected to give good indications of stress from any
pollution by the oil.

A follow-up cruise would be made in

March 1980, and again some time in the period May to September,
depending on information gathered in the two earlier cruises.
Continuation and frequency of cruises in years 2 and possibly
3 would depend on evaluation of the results as the study
progresses.
Study Outline
The study would include reoccupation of the sites reported by
McGowen and Morton (1979) in the same time frame reported in the
U. S. Geological Survey Proposal.

The benthic sediments would be

sampled for relating post-spill conditions to the baseline data to

determine the degree to which oil eventually becomes incorporated into
the sediments and to determine the ultimate influence of oil in
sediments and biota.

The shelf sediments out to three leagues would be

sampled by the team collecting the U. S. Geological Survey samples.

The Bureau of Economic Geology would sample the bays along the same
(or appropriate) transects.
ThP samples would then be analyzed in laboratories for textural,
inorganic geochemical, and

biolo~ical

- 129-

properties.

Hudge t

An estimated budget from which to pursue the monitoring of the

impact of the 1979 Summer Oil Spill on the Texas Coast is shown in
Table 2.

Shown are high

and low figures if one or three bays are

studied along with the four passes.

Shelf sample spacing is SO

lines (the BLM number) at two (2) mile intervals for the Low estimate;
spacing is 100 lines at two (2) mile intervals or 50 lines at one (1)
mile intervals for the High estimate plus denser sampling near the
passes.

Basic biologic descriptions require about four (4) man days

per sample; whereas, the descriptions of -later samples taken during

four (4) seasons for two (2) years take one (1) man day.

It is

possible to expand or compress the program with these basic assumptions.

You should also be aware that The University indirect costs are
included in this budget.
The Bureau of Economic Geology will contribute more than 10
percent of the project costs.

These costs include administration,

textural analyses and one-third the geochemical analyses.

The.latter

analytical costs are based on costs per sample established by two

years of analyses.
Reference
McGowen, J.H. and Morton, R.A., 1979, Subme rged Lands of Texas,
sediment distribution, bathymetry, faults and salt diapirs; The
Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol., Special Report, 47 p., 7 maps.

-130-

Toble 1.

Intf.!r<Jgency Council for N:1tural Resources

~nd

Environment.

Department of Agriculture
Air Control Board
Bureau of Economic Geology
Forestry Department
General Land Office

Department of Health Resources

Department of Highways
Historical Commission
Departments of Parks and Wildlife
Railroad Commission
Department of Soil Conservation

Water Development Board

Department of Water Quality

* Department

Water Resources

of Water Rights

By legislative statute some names are modified and the water agencies
combined.

- 131-

TABLE 2

BUDGET

ESTIMATI::D

TO MEASURE HU)ACT

1979 SUMMER OIL SPILL ON TEXAS

OF

SUB~lliRGED

HIGH

LANDS
LOW

1.

SHELF BIOLOGY
Base description
8 Seasons description

$326,984
$653,964

$171,012
$342,024

2.

SHELF SEDIMENTOLOGY
8 trips =

$ 2,500
$ 20,000

3.

4.

SHELF GEOCHEMISTRY/trip
Inorganic (30 trace elements)
8 trips

$153,640

$ 10,200
$ 86,600

BAY SAHPLING/bay/trip
Air Boat Rental
People

140 samples
$3,000
$1,250

80 samples
$1,750
750

$ 19,200

$4,250

$2,500

$34,000
$102,000

$20,000
$60,000

$70,427
$140,848

$40,244
$80,488

- $211,281

$120,732

$633,843

$362,196

$4,200

$2,400

8 trips =
3 bays

$33,600
$100,800

$19,200
$57,600

8 trips

$6,250
$50,000

$2,500
$20,000

8 trips

$8,000
$64,000

$4,000
$32,000

8 trips =
3 bays ""
5.

BAY BIOLOGY/per bay

Base description
8 Seasonal descriptions .

3 bays
6.

7.
8.

6,250

$ 50,000

BAY BEOCHEMISTRY/bay/trip
Inorganic (30 trace elements)

BAY SEDIMENTOLOGY
TRAVEL/per trip

9.

EXPENDABLES/per yr.

$10,000

$5,000

10.

EQUIPMENT/one cost

$120,000

$70,000

..-132 -

DRAFT

PRELIMINARY OUTLINE FOR OFFSHORE

ECOLOGICAL DAMAGE ASSESSMENT STUDIES
Offshore Studies Relative to the Fate of Spilled Oil in the Nepheloid
Layer and Bottom Sediments, Utilizing Baseline Data Collected from 1974
through 1977 on the South Texas OCS

Submitted by:
The U. S. Geological Survey

In conjunction with:
University of Texas Marine Science Institute,
Port Aransas Marine Laboratory

Contact:

Henry L. Berryhill, Jr.

U. S. Geological Survey
P. 0. Box 6732
Corpus Christi, Texas 78411
(512) 888-3294
FTS 734-3294

- 133-

INTRODUCTION

From 1974 through 1977, the U. S. Geological Survey through

the field office in Corpus Christi, Texas, participated in a
regional baseline study of the South Texas OCS, the region that
has received the initial impact of the IXTOC-1 oil in U. S. waters.
The general work plan outlined herein is presented with the understanding that the U. S. Geological Survey group in Corpus Christi
will join investigators from the University of Texas Marine Science
Laboratory at Port Aransas as a scientific team in carrying out
integrated studies.

These studies also should be integrated with

those of the Texas Bureau of Economic Geology and likely with

Texas A&M University as well.

The Baseline
Personnel from the U. S. Geological Survey group at Corpus Christi,
as participants in the 4 years of baseline environmental studies on the
STOCS sponsored uy the Bureau of Land Management, collected samples
from 264 stations spread regionally over the STOCS for
geological and geochemical studies:

.:1

Yariety of

sediment texture of benthic

sediments, amounts of infaunal bioturbation over the region as an

aspect of regional sedimentation; chemical analyses to measure rates
of sedimentation; trace metals chemistry of benthic sediments,
radiography of benthic sediments; and the texture, chemistry and
amounts of suspended matter in the water column synoptically on a
seasonal basis with emphasis on the nepheloid layer.

In addition

and as a part of the biological and hydrocarbon chemistry studies

-134-

being made by UT, Port Aransas, the U. S. Geological Survey did

the textural analysis and trace metals chemistry for all samples
collected seasonally, and in some cases monthly, by UT along the
master monitoring transects used for the baseline studies.

All of

these data are available in reports prepared for each year of study
and are summarized along with related aspects of data in a series
of Atlas Maps.

The work recommended would closely utilize the base-

line information available.

As part of the studies sponsored by the

Bureau of Land Management, Texas A&M University concentrated on the

string of reefs on the outer shelf and the surrounding nepheloid
layer.

Personnel from USGS participated in some of those cruises.

The USGS and the Bureau of Economic Geology cooperated in collection

of data in State waters .
Identification of Studies and Users
1.

Name of Study
Integrated studies of the fate of hydrocarbons

relative to sediment transport, benthic infaunal communities and trace chemistry of the water and upper
benthic sediment column, South Texas offshore.

Users:

(1)

State and Federal agencies,

municipalities, and other local governmental

units, especially those having mandated regulatory
responsibilities and those supplying public services
likely to be impacted, such as parks and recreational
facilities; (2) shrimp and fishing industries; (3)
tourist and

rccr~ational

industries; (4) oil and gas

-135-

industries; (S) international bodies concerned with

laws of the sea; (6) concerned members of the public;
(7) civic groups; and (8) congressional oversight

committees and judicial authorities concerned with

damage assessment.
2.

Wh~re

Offshore in both short and long-term context for

direct comparison to baseline data and to establish a
predictive timeframe for the ultimate fate and effect of
oil released in a major spill that becomes regionally
distributed.

The work should be coordinated closely

with similar studies to be done in the surf zone and

on the adjacent beach sectors.

The need for such

coordination is especially emphasized.

3.

When
To begin soon after shutdown of flow from the IXTOC-1

well has been completed.

Tentatively an initial cruise

should be scheduled for mid-November,

occupying~

for sampling

purposes, stations along transects II and III of the STOC

baseline study.

Each of these transects gave what might be

called subprovince characterizations that would be expected

to give good indications of stress from any pollution by the
oil.

A follow-up cruise would he made in March 1980, and

again some time in the period May to September, depending

-136 -

on information gathered in the two earlier cruises .

Continuation and frequency of cruises in years 2 and
possibly 3 would depend on evaluation of the results as
the study progresses.
Study Outline
The components of study would include a release of sea drifters,
surface and bottom, from a light aircraft to confirm the water circulation data used for the baseline centroid projections shown
in Berryhill and others, 1976, and to document the change in flow
regime to the south after October when oil in the water should begin
moving southward.
The nepheloid laver would be sampled and analyzed both
chemically and texturally.

The rationale or studies on the

nepheloid layer and the upper sediment column is that all hydrocarbons that do not evaporate become either adhered to clay minerals
and organic particles or coagulate.

In both cases, the hydrocarbons

end up at the surface of the 5eafloor from where the infauna works
it into the upper sediments.

The infauna is highly critical in

the food chain as it relates to species of commercial interest and

consequently the endangered species.

Comparison of the infauna

activity in polluted sediment with the baseline data will provide

direct answers to the "users" about the long-term impact of this
IXTOC-1 oil spill.

USGS would make both texture and trace metals

determinations of the inorganic constituents in the nepheloid layer.

As a part of the study, the water column would be sampled at mid-depth

-137-

and near surface as a part of defining the extent, and thickness

and chemistry of the nepheloid zone relative to the general water
column.

The special characteristics of the nepheloid layer may

delay the transfer of hydrocarbons to the benthic sediments because

of the affinity of the clay minerals in the layer.
The benthic sediments would be sampled for relating post-spill
conditions to the baseline data to determine the degree to

~hich

oil eventually becomes incorporated into the sediments and to

determine the ultimate fate of the oil in the sediments.

The

relation of oil to the sediments would emphasize the role of the

infauna in working the oil into the sediments whence it enters the
food chain; otherwise, studies would include the same studies made
for the baseline.
Sampling would begin with reoccupation of stations along
transects II and III and would be extended to other baseline
stations as needed to provide sufficient coverage, and as
indicated by results as the study progresses.

After sampling

at each station, skimming trawls would be made over the sample

site and outward some one-fourth mile to determine the degree
of tar ball concentration.

The integrated summary and atlas {Berryhill and others, 1976)

contains a very accurate prediction of the path and landfall
of the oil along the Texas coast.

- 138-

General Budget Request (yearly)

Operational expenses and salaries of
support personnel

$ 60,000

Ship time

s Jo;ooo
$ 90,000

Bureau overhead
(Cost of a 3-year effort would be ~ $300,000)

$ 10,000
$100,000

Contribution to the study by USGS (yearly)

$ 30,000

Professional Salaries
Use of laboratories and equipment

18,000

General supplies, services and overhead

support by USGS

12,000

Salary support by persons not covered by

requested budget

22,000

Total

$ 82,000

The general plan presented is considered part of a team effort

to include the University of Texas (both the Bureau of Economic
Geology and the Marine Science Laboratory at Port Aransas) and
possibly Texas A&M University.

Furthermore, it is assumed that it

will be closely coordinated with both the beach profile work and the
work in the surf zone.

Work along traverses involving the three

groups should be considered a total team effort.

-139

9600'

0
0

10

10

:ro

JO

40

Z8

oo'

Figure 123a.

Biologic infaunal stations from

trace metal analyses .

-140-

~hich

subsamples Yere taken for

APPENDIX E

AUTHORITY OF TEXAS STATE AGENCIES

FOR OIL SPILL PREVENTION AND RESPONSE
ncy
i
~

GlO

TDWR

TIIH/OPS

Navi~~:~,g~~~:icts

TNRC 52.032
TNRC 52 .085
T~C 52 .011
135.16. 01 .001- .002

TWC 60.034-.037

sublllt rged

INHC ~2.032
TNRC 34 .005
TWC 51. 117{d}
126.16.01.007
135.16.03.001-.008

TWC 61.l17(d)

Exploration
{drilling)

Leasing
tracts

Production
faci I ities

Abando.nt/
Curtaflllll!flt

.051.02.02. 007- .008

.051.02.02.011,
. 013'. 017 .022
TNRC 91.101
TWC 26.131
P&WC 23 .013

051.02.02 .008(d)(2)(C)
135 .16.03.006-.001 TWC 26.039
TWC 26.041
TWC 26.121
TWC 27.011
W1ter Quality
Standards

TNRC 91.015
TWC 27.031-.034
TWC 27.051-.056
.05l .OZ.D2.008(d)(2)(C)

TWt 26.130

135.16.03.)09-.011 Contingency plan

135 .16. 03.005
appendix C4 ,B

TWC 19.001
TWC 19.037

.051 .02 .02 .070

.051 .02 .02.071(a)(l9)

126 . 18 . 02.002~(1)

TNRC 89 .001
TNRC 89.041
TNRC 91 . 101
.051.02.02. 014-.015

135.16.03.014

TWC
TWC
n.t
TWC
n.t
VAC
VAt

Conttngency plan
appendix C4

Transport/
Unloading

60.071-.073
61.151
19.001
19.037
1SJ.101
art. 8249
art. 1183-1181-1

TWC 60.101
TWC 61.151
TWC 63.153

lfghtering

Coordinttion

n.t 26.261 et seq

TWC 26.127
TWC 26.039,. 041
contingency plan
. 004,.006, . 007

Cleanup

TWC 26. 261 et seq

Contfn~ncy plan

YK. art. 6889. 7

TNRC 52.085

TWC 26.268

.05l .oz.oz.071(a)(l9)

TNRC 61 . 162
TNRC 61.077

.006 b)

other major
response

TWC 26.129
127.20.01.003-.004

TWC 60.101
TWC 61.151
TWC 63.153

Barge
traffic

Pipelines

Pl. II

TNRC 91.101
TWC 26.131
. 051.02.02.024,. 026
.051.02.02 .008

Contingency Plan
TNRC 52 .1 32
13S.l6.oJ. oo1- .ooa .007{c)
Contingency plan
appendix C2,6

Storage &
contai,_nt
areu

Waste
Disch1rge

DDr

P&WC 76.l16
76.205-.206
301.74.02.002

127 .20.20. 002

.051.02.02.008(d)(2)
(H-I)

.ost .oz.o2. 008(d)(J)

.OS1 .02. 02.011(d)(2)
(A)(t)

P&WC 76.116
P&WC 76.205,.212
P&WC 77.004
127.20.20.004

AP PEND I X F

TEXAS SYSTEM
OF
NATURAL
LABORAlDRIES
INC.

CREDENTIALS

The Texas System of Natural laboratories, Inc., (TSNL) is a Texas nonprofit private corporation, with a 50l(c)3 IRS determination, and has a
current HEW Predetennined Indirect Costs Rate of 22'7o of Direct Costs for
contracting purposes for federal funds.
TSNL was chartered in 1967 by Abner V. McCall, John C. Calhoun, and W.
Frank Blair, acting as private citizens for the benefit of all public and
private colleges and universities in Texas. Today these 144 academic
institutions are the TSNL lTV31'ber institutions.
schools operate TSNL in service for all.

Representatives fran 61

Abner V. HcCall, J.D . , President

of Baylor University, today is Chai..nnan of the Board for the thirteenth

successive year.
Docunentation of capability is available fran TSNL Secretary-Treasurer
Neverma Tsanoff Travis at the TSNL central offices in Austin, Texas.

610 Brazos, Fourth Floor .r.usru. TEXAS

TELS 151214774915.1071493:.

-142-

44~4479

78701

TEXAS SYSTEM
OF
NATURAL
LABORATORIES
INC.
A RESO.JU F('F. TH..\5 ;>.';')ThE MiO.
PllOCJU:SS
BY:

DAn:,

IU:PORTt

Texao Systeoo or llatw-al L&bontoriu, Inc., t.and and Life SystelftS Enc:yclopedh for Texas

Nevenne Tsanoff Travis,

secre~ary-Treasurer and

Syste Coordinator, Laboratory

Jnd~x

Series. Project Director

Karch 26, 1979

Texao Syotea of ~atural L&boratoriea, Incorporated ITSNLl io a conoortium of 61 Texas univeroities and colleges. Theae
1natitut1ona operate TSHL a private non-profit Texao corporation, or federal atatus ~OllcJl, which, through ito operation
ao a cl~rin9 houoe, oerveo all Texas general academic institutions 1144 univeroitieo, college&, c~unity colleges, and
junior colleges). Seed ~ney for the clearinghouae are appropriated state trusteed funds, Texas Coordinating Board contract.
TSNL'a priiNiry goal h to eecure controlled u.a of landa for reuarch and to put acientiats and otudents on those lands for
field wcrk and ecological atudleo. Public land1 are available for research, and many ownero of private and industrial lands
in Texao are generously cooperating with TSNL. The land& are being inventoried in a laboratory index aeries of publications.
Thia encyclopedic inventory of aceessible reoearch lando io build1"9 intereat atatewida in field work ~n9 all Texas general
a~ad..U~ 1netitut1ons, facilitating their aearch for teaching and research plots.
Schools everywhere seek comprehensive environaental base line inform.tion to be used in variouo disciplines including the
natural and social sciences, buolneaa, engineering, architecture. and planning. Experience ia now showing that the availability
of such co.prehenaive baae line data ia equally i~rtant to induotry and gove~nt. Copies of TSNL publi~ationo are being
placed in academic librarieo, state depoeitory libraries where possible an4 appropriate, and in ae~ndary achool libraries as
requested. Copiea are given to individual perwdt holders, faculty, and others aa needed. PUblications to date include'
1.
2.
J.

4.
5,
6.

1.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Laboratory Index 174, Edvardo Plateau/Balconea Escarpment-Bla~land llatural Laboratory, Bell, Willi~on
Countlea, 1974, 18 pages
Laboratory Index 274, ta.paaao CUt Plain Natural l.aboratory, Bell County, 1974, lB pages
Laboratory Index l-74, Gulf Coaat Prairie llatural Laboratory, Galveston County, 1974, 18 pages
TSIIL Bulletint Volume l, llo. 1, 1975
TSNL Bulletin Voluma 1, No. 2, 1975
TSNL Review, Volu.e 1. llo. 1, 1975
TSIIL Laboratory Index Sari 476, Kueco Tank1 State Hiotorical Par~. El Poo County, 1976, ~0 pageo
TSNL Laboratory Index Serle& ~-76, Southern Kueco Hountaina. El Paao County, 1976, 51 page&
TSNL l.aboratory Index Seriea LlS-~176, Gulf Coast Region, 36 Counties, Texas, 1976, 416 pages 11000 charta)
Draft 1, Section 1
International Base Line Data Coding syate for ~elating Regional Fund~ntal ~ledge Inventory recorda, Draft
for Review, 1977, 236 pages
TSNL t.Doratory Index Serle& LlS-R-1-78, 1,930 charta, Texas Gulf Coast 36 Counties, Algae, Mollusks. Vaacular
Plante (Hydtocharitaceae 1 Lamia~eae, Najadalea, Poaceae, Scrophularia~eael, Human Ecoloqy IArcha@Ology,
13 countiea1 Socioe~oncmica, 36 countiea)

Publicationo in preparation 1ncludao

1.
2.
3.

TSNL Laboratory Index Serle& LISR-179, Texa Culf Coaat 36 Counties, Meteorology lreviaed LlS-~176), Vascular
Plante (Euphorblaceaa, Solanaceae), Texao Fish, Archaeology (2) countiea), Deaography !revised LISRl76l,
Socioeconcai~s (revised LISRl-76)
six unit indexee in . .nuscript, 50-100 page& each, pro,ected publication in 1979 aa funding allovl
Specie& profile in manuacript and in drafting wetland plants 193), other plante 152), crustacea loyatera,
ahcbop, 12), fiah 1600), bird (109), ...-la 1221

Unit inventoriea, indexing a aingla reaearch plot, are expensive to prepare end production laga behind the exiatin9 need.
Therefore the TSNL eDphaaia hal ahiftad toward raqional indexin9. The regional index provide& a countywide overview with
footnote&, bibliography, an inventory of other reeearch reaour~eo, and potential research topica. UltiMately, aeven auch
regional inventory volume&, atored in the computer by county, apeeieo, and latitude/longitude, will become the publiahed land
and life ayate~ encyclopedia for the whole atate or Texas. Provieioo ia being made to up-data and reviae on an ongoinq
baaia. rootnotea, bibliographie&, and data ayate~ reference& in these voluaea will enAble the atudenta doing reaearch at
evan the e . . lleat coanunity college to ahare the info~tion reeourcea of the qreat governDent and univeraity reaeareh
det&ba~a, collectiono, end librariea through interlibrary loan.
TSNL' a flrat regional index con~e.rna 36 countiea of the Gulf Coast. Draft 1 1a the vork of graduate atudent COIIIpileu. Thia
work of the atudente 11 constantly being reviewed, revlaed, and added to by aenior faculty. A partial draft waa photocopied
in February 1977 and given out to faculty and othera for ravialon an4 revi- U.ISRl16). ln tiacal year 1978 under .. lching
HUD-701 fund& fro- the Governor' Office of Budget and Planning, and a Crant fro- the caeaar ~eber9 Foundation for Wildlife
Conaarvation, 1930 charta were developed (LISRl-78). Charting waa continued in 1978 with Xleberg Foundation aoneyo, and now
in 1979 with a Grant frca the Texaa Coutal and Marine Council.
All the data eoapilationa in the regional indexae are being 4eaigne4 for automation. Care haa been taken to draft a . .ater
ovUina which 1a international in &cope an4 co-pat!ble with the need& of planning, &IDdellng, Nn&g~nt, and funda~~~ental
ruearch. It 1a intended to be used abo u a ooaaunicationa diu. between data eyat._ of reoearch10n worldwide. The final
raion of the N&tar outUne will h.ava bean the vork of faculty and gover.-nt expert&, many of the re~ogniud world
euthoritiea in their field of atudy. A progra~~~ing deaign for reference hy county, by latitude/longitude, and by epaciea
allawing .axJua fleKibility for interrelating cetegoriea ie being developed at thia time aa a pilot pro,ect in cooperation
with the Teaaa Natural Reaourcea Jnfor-&tJon Syate, &yate.. General.
Uaual ~tJvitiaa in aupport of reearcb need& of etudenta end faculty are ongoing. TSML vaa invited to 9ive a poater oeaaion
at the January 2 to 4, 1979, -eti119 of tha Aaoerlcan society of L.ia.nology and Oceanography in Corpwo Chriatl. The regional
Gulf CO&OOt auu .. , an4 Laboratory lndea Snha pilot project COif'Uter . .po attracted wideapread favorable attention. For
lnfo..ation concernin9 available n&tW'al laboratoriaa vrlta t.o Telt&.l Syau. of Natural l.aboratoriea, Inc.
610 BRAZOS. SUITE 400 AUSTIN. TEXAS 78701
TELS (5121 477-4925. 4774934, 444-4479

~143-

Tt:XAS SYSTEM OF' NATUAAL LABOAATORlES , I NC.

Laborato ry I ndex Seri e a

Re9 i ona1 Inve n t o r y P ro ject

TSNL REGIONS BY COUNTY

1. CULF COAST

Man u s (004 1
Aus tln (008 )
Bee (0 1 3)
Brazo r i a (0 20 1
Br ooka (0 24)
Cal houn (0291
C....,ron (0311
Chambers ( 036 )
Co lorado (0451
DeWitt (062 1
Duval (066)
rort aend (0791
Calvuton (084 1
Goliad (098)
Harr1t Cl 01 l
Hidalgo (108)
Jack son 1120 1
Jefferso n (123 1
Jt. Welle U25 l
Kenedy (131 I
Kleberg (137)
LaVAc a (143)

LJ.bHty (146 )
Live Oal< (149 1
""c Hu lle n (1561
ottat aCJOrda (161 )
Mont~r y (170)
Nuecea (178)
Orange (181)
Ref ugio (196 I
San Pa t r lcio ( 205)
Victoria (235)
walker (236)
Waller ( 237)
Wharton ( 2411
OWilla c y (245 )
County with natural laboratories a vai l ab l e thr o ugh TSHL

3. NORTI1 CENTRAL

Anderson (001)
An'ielina (003)
Bowie (019)
Cup (032)
Can (0341
OCMrokee (037)
Delta 10601
F'ranklin (0801
Gre99 (092)
&rdin ClOOl
llarrison (1021
Henderson (107)
Hopkins (ll2J
HOuston (113)
Jasper ll2ll
Lamar (139)
Karion 1158)
llorris (172)
Nacogd<><:hes ( 1,.,

.eeu co14l
Bosque (018)
Brazos (021}
Burluon (0261
.Collin (043)
.COOke (049)
Coryell COSO)
Dallu (057)
Denton (061 )
Ellb (070)
oErath (0721
Falls (073)
eFannin (074)
oFreestone (081)
Grayson (091)
oCrillles (093)
el1&11111ton (097)
Hill (1091

NewtOn (176)

Hunt (116)
Johnson (1261
ol<auf...,n (129)
ol.alopasaa (1411
Leon (145)
1.1-atone (1471
llcLennan (155)
elladhon (15 7 I
oH1la11 (166)
!Iilla (167)
Navarro 1175)
Palo Pinto (1821
Puker (1841
olbbertaon (198)
lbckwall U99l
So~~ervell (2131
'l'arnnt (2201
Waehington {239)
Wise C2Hl

Panola (183)
Polk (1871
Rains (190)
Red River (194)
FI:.~sk (201)
Sabine (202)
San ~ugustine (203)
San Jacinto (204)
Shelby 12101
Sllli th (212)
Titus (2251
Tcinity (228)
Tyler (229)
Upshur (230)
Van :Z:andt (2J4l
Wood (2501

ll~rch

Hood (111)

4. WEST CENTRAL

Archer (005)
Baylor (Ol2 l
Brown (025)
callahan (030)
Children (038)
Clay (039)
Cole.an (042)
CoNnche (047)
Cottle (051)
Eastland (067)
Fisher (076)
Foard (078)
Hardeman (099)
Haskell ( l 04 l
Jack (119)
Jonea (127)
llant (132 l
Knox (1381
K1 tchell (168)
Honta'i\le (169 )
Holan (1771
RuMels (2001
Scurry (208)
Shackleford (2091
Stephens ( 21 Sl
Stonewall ( 2171
Taylor (221)
Throckii'Drton ( 224)
Wichita (2431
Wilbarger 12441
Young (2~2)

5. PANIIANOLE

Al>llstrong (0 06)
Salley (009)
Brlseoe (023)
Canon (033)
Caatro (035)
Cochran (0401
Collingsworth (044)
crosby ( 054)
Dallaa (0561
Deaf s.!th (0591
Dickens (0631
Donley (0651
Ploy<!! (0771
Gana (0951
Gray (0901
Kale (095)
Hall (096)
Hansford (098)
Hartley (103)
oHe~hill (106)
Hoek ley ( 110 l
Hutchinson ( 117 l
King (1351
Lelob ( 140)
Lipscomb (1481
Lubbock (152)
Lynn (153)
Hoore (1711
Motley (173)
Ochiltree (l19l
Oldhaa ClBO)

Parmer (185 l
Potter (1881
llandall (191)
lbberta (197)
Shenoan (211)
Swhher (219)
Terry (2231
Wheeler (242)
Yoak\1111 (2511

16, 1979

~144-

7 SOU'l'll CENTRAL

'Andrews (002)
Borden (017)
'llrawater (0221
'Coke ( 041)
Concho (048)
cr ane (052 )
Crockett (0531
CUlberson (055)
Dawson ( 058)
Ector (068)
El Paso 107ll
Gainaa (0831
Gla .. cock (0871
Howar4 (114)
Hudspeth (1151
Irlon (118)
Jeff Davia 11221
Killble ( 134}
Loving 1151 )
HeCu11oell (154)
M*rtin 11591
Mason (160)
Henard (1641
Midland (165)
Pecos {186 I
Presidio Cl89l
Reagen (192)
Reevu (1951
San saba (206)
Schleicher (2071
sterling (216)
SUtton (2181
"Terrell CZ22l
*TOll Green (226)
Upton (2311
ward (2381
Winkler (248)

Atascosa (0071
Banl1era (010)
aaetrop (011)
'Bexar (0151
Blanco (0161
Burnet (0271
Cald,..11 (0281
Co.al (046}
ot-it (0641
dvar4a (0691
Fayette (075)
Prio (0821
Gilleaph (0861
Conzal.. (089)
Cual1alupe (094)
Hays (lOS)
Jim Hogg (124)
llarnas (l28)
ICenclall (1301
x.rr (133)
Kinney (136)
La Salle 1142}
Laa (144)
Llano (lSOI
Kavaric:k (1621
Hedlna (163)
llaal (1931
Starr (2141
'rravb (227)
UValde (232}
val Verde (233)
webb 12401
'Wi11i~n

(246)

Wilson (247)
zapata (2531
Zavala (254 I

OPERATIONS

CHART.

1978-1979

TEXAS SYSTEM OF NATURAL LABORATORIES, INC., (TSNL)

T

SERVING:

Texas Universities and colleges and their associates

ISecondary schools}-- - - -

Semor universities
and colleges (56)

-~Junior colleges

(35)

(5)

Pr ivate enterprise-1- - - - - - - -

GOVERNING BODY
Board of Directors ( 18) f - - - - elected by members

-- --

Governmentl
I

Corpora te entities

llndividuals

I Finance I

OPERATIONS: PROGRAM
System Coordinator

esearch

Industry

( AgrtcultureJ

management and
development

basic research

Research Manager
Supporting Start

I r Water l
I

management and
development

I
I
I

0---

PRO GRAM: for Members( and associates)

'

Senior Umversities:
and Colleges, 144
undergraduate and
graduate work and
degree programs

I BASIC RESEARCHl

I
Lbortory lndu $erlet:
Unit Yoh. I Y
r..... Gulf to.tt ........
3& (ountlet. }000 ~rtt

--1
I
I

Comprehensive regional
by inter-institutional
teams

!
Secondary Schools:
Teacher I raining
workshops; teachmg
aids review;enriched
learning experience
for students

RESEARCH FACILITIES ACQUISITION

by purchase, lease, or suitable use agreement
1979: Laboratories in 204 Texas counties

TEACHING::

r-

I
1
I
1

Junior Colleges:
~---undergraduate work;
text book rev1s1on;
curriculum revision
0

------------

Specialized
individual researc

TSNL WORLD MICROCOSM

PROJECT (needs funding)
I

1
I

I
I

'

I
I
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _J

-14 5-

Sponsorship or inv1lahono

SENIOR COllEGES AND

UNIVERSITIES, 1972-1973

a-.ou.Mrlllf

L.--IJIGD

___ ,....
I.IIGD-1.-

__ ,,...

-.ooo

111,1100-M,-

s.w-.

- o---

z ......
.. ,.

'C... _.........,.aw-_
......,.,_.,,..,,._.,
r..-. ,,,.,_,....,, ttn.

,..~ ......

MEDICAl AND DENTAl

SCHOOLS, 1972-1973

JUNIOR COLLEGES, 1972-1973

-L.MIIIIf

..--- --~-

1.000 -I.IM

I,OIIf-1.-

Arbingaat, s. A., t.. G. KaMAMrJ R. v. Ryan1 A. t.o1 D. t.. Karney,

C. P. Zlattovltchr K. B. lon1MJ aa4 R. G. Btltla. 1~13.
AtJ

or ,........

Autt:lll:

IIUnau of Bu11Jia81 Reeaarch, TIM

Oniveraity of Texa at Auatin,

-146-

11,11111-IQ.OOO

. ,, :L '