Behaviour Research and Therapy 51 (2013) 323e331

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Behaviour Research and Therapy

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/brat

Psychosocial predictors of self-reported fatigue in patients

with moderate to severe irritable bowel syndrome
Jeffrey M. Lackner a, *, Gregory D. Gudleski a, Jennifer DiMuro a, Laurie Keefer b,
Darren M. Brenner b
a
b

Department of Medicine, University at Buffalo School of Medicine, SUNY, ECMC, 462 Grider Street, Buffalo, NY 14215, United States
Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 26 October 2012
Received in revised form
28 February 2013
Accepted 1 March 2013

The objective of this study was to assess the level, impact, and predictors of fatigue in patients with
moderate to severe irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). One hundred seventy ve patients meeting Rome III
criteria for IBS completed a variety of measures including the vitality scale of the SF-12, IBS-Symptom
Severity Scale, IBS-QOL, Brief Symptom Inventory-18, Screening for Somatoform Symptoms (SOMS-7),
and a semi structured clinical interview (IBS-PRO) as part of a pretreatment evaluation of an NIH funded
clinical trial of cognitive behavior therapy for IBS. Fatigue was the third most common somatic
complaint, reported by 61% of the patients. Levels of fatigue were associated with both somatic (more
severe IBS symptoms, greater number of unexplained medical symptoms), behavioral (frequency of
restorative experiences) and psychological (e.g., trait anxiety, depression) outcomes after holding constant confounding variables. The nal model in multiple regression analyses accounted for 41.6% of the
variance in self-reported fatigue scores with signicant predictors including anxiety sensitivity,
perceived stress, IBS symptom severity, restorative activities and depression. The clinical implications of
data as they relate to both IBS and CBT in general are discussed in the context of attention restoration
theory.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Stress
Attention
Restorative environments
Anxiety sensitivity
Comorbidity
Depression
Quality of life

Introduction
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a chronic gastrointestinal (GI)
disorder characterized by recurrent abdominal pain and bowel
disturbance (diarrhea and/or constipation) without obvious structural abnormalities, detected through endoscopy or X ray (Mayer,
2008). Lacking a biomarker that reliably corresponds to GI symptoms, IBS is best understood as a functional illness (i.e., the problem
is in the way the intestinal tract functions) whose onset, trajectory
and impact are inuenced by psychological, physiological, and

Abbreviations: SF-36, Short Form-36; SF-12, Short Form-12; IBS PRO, Irritable
Bowel Syndrome Patient Reported Outcome; IBS-SSS, Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Symptom Severity Scale; IBS-QOL, Irritable Bowel Syndrome Quality of Life; PSS,
Perceived Stress Scale; PEAT, Pittsburgh Enjoyable Activities Test; NIS, Negative
Interactions Scale; SOMS, Screening for Somatoform Symptoms; DSM-IV, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders e IV; STAI, State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory; ASI, Anxiety Sensitivity Inventory; BSI-Depression Scale, Brief Symptom
Inventory-Depression Scale; ART, Attention Restoration Theory; AS, Anxiety
Sensitivity; IBS, Irritable Bowel Syndrome; GI, Gastrointestinal; ICD-10, International Classication of Diseases-10; GERD, Gastroesophageal Reux Disease.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 716 898 5671; fax: 1 716 898 3040.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.M. Lackner).
0005-7967/$ e see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2013.03.001

environmental factors (Tanaka, Kanazawa, Fukudo, & Drossman,

2011). The interplay of these factors has the potential to disrupt
brainegut interactions and gives expression to GI symptoms. It is
believed that the effect of psychosocial factors is strongest in
severely affected IBS patients (Lackner, Gudleski, et al., 2012). With
a worldwide prevalence of 10e15% (Lovell & Ford, 2012), IBS is more
common than diabetes, asthma, heart disease, or hypertension
(Adams & Benson, 1990). Not surprisingly, IBS is one of the most
common diseases seen in primary care and specialty GI practices
(Mayer, 2008). Because IBS symptoms are painful, emotionally
bothersome, intrusive and mimic symptoms of organic GI diseases,
IBS results in signicant direct (e.g., use of healthcare-related services such as physician visits, diagnostic tests, and prescription or
over the- counter medication) and indirect (work absenteeism,
diminished quality of life) costs to patients, the health care industry
and employers (Spiegel, 2013).
Compounding the social and economic costs of IBS are the high
rates of co-occurring medical problems. A large comorbidity study
of patients with IBS, inammatory bowel disease and healthy controls demonstrated that IBS patients had a median odds ratio of 1.93
of having a symptom-based non-gastrointestinal somatic diagnosis
(Whitehead et al., 2007). Indeed, the biggest driver of health

324

J.M. Lackner et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 51 (2013) 323e331

care costs of IBS patients are non-GI symptoms (Levy et al., 2001).
A common physical symptom is fatigue (Simren, Abrahamsson,
Svedlund, & Bjornsson, 2001). Fatigue can be conceptualized
(Grandjean, 1968) along a continuum from extreme tiredness,
exhaustion, or a need to rest to high energy, strength, vitality, and
enthusiasm (Grandjean, 1968). Fatigue differs from normal tiredness in that it is neither relieved by rest or sleep nor does it correspond to ones level of exertion. Previous research has identied
fatigue and loss of energy as important health problems in patients
with IBS (Gralnek, Hays, Kilbourne, Naliboff, & Mayer, 2000; Labus,
Mayer, Chang, Bolus, & Naliboff, 2007; Mayer, 2000). In a large group
of IBS patients, fatigue predicted both physical and mental aspects of
quality of life as measured by the SF 36 Health Survey (Spiegel et al.,
2004). That said, little is known about the different dimensions of
fatigue (e.g., frequency, impact) or how they relate to other aspects
of IBS such as GI symptoms, mental well-being, IBS specic quality
of life, interpersonal relationships (e.g., negative interactions with
others), cognitive style (e.g., anxiety sensitivity, catastrophizing) or
activity level. Nor is it clear what other factors predict excessive
fatigue in IBS patients. Understanding the predictors of a clinically
meaningful problem like fatigue is important because this information may help promote the development of more effective
behavioral symptom self-management strategies that, in the
absence of a satisfactory medical treatment, could relieve the day to
day burden of IBS.
A more complete understanding of the nature and clinical signicance of a nonspecic symptom like fatigue requires clarifying
whether it is a separate and distinct symptom or secondary to any
number of medical or mental disorders that are comorbid with IBS
and characterized by fatigue/loss of energy. It possible that complaints of fatigue are simply due to co-existing depression which
affects approximately 20% of IBS patients (Blanchard, 2000). If so,
then the magnitude of the observed relationship between fatigue
and depression (Asare et al., 2012) may reect the degree of statistical overlap (i.e., multicollinearity) between the items used to
measure both constructs and not a clinically meaningful phenomenon. Multicollinearity is an important but often overlooked
methodological issue that arises when two (or more) related variables provide redundant information; that is, constructs are
described as conceptually different but tap the same underlying
variable. A similar problem applies to the relationship between
fatigue and somatization. It is unknown whether unexplained fatigue is part of a set of medically benign symptoms that are reported by somatizing patients who express emotional distress in
the form of physical complaints. The aims of this study were to
examine the level of fatigue perceived by more severely affected IBS
patients and to explore the potential factors inuencing fatigue and
its relationship to other aspects of IBS.
Method
Participants
Participants included 176 consecutively evaluated IBS patients
recruited primarily through local media coverage and community
advertising and referral by local physicians to a tertiary care center
at 2 academic medical centers. To qualify, participants must have
met Rome III IBS diagnostic criteria (Drossman, Corazziari, Talley,
Thompson, & Whitehead, 2000) without organic gastrointestinal
disease (e.g., IBD, colon cancer, etc) as determined by a boardcertied study gastroenterologist. Rome criteria dene IBS as
recurrent abdominal pain or discomfort at least 3 days per month
over the last 3 months that is associated with at least 2 of the
following: 1) improvement with defecation, 2) onset associated
with a change in stool form, or 3) onset associated with a change in

the frequency of stool (Drossman, Corazziari, Talley, Thompson, &

Whitehead, 2006). Because this study was conducted as part of
a clinical trial for moderate to severely affected patients with IBS
(Lackner, Keefer, et al., 2012), participants must have also reported
IBS symptoms of at least moderate intensity, symptoms occurring
at least twice weekly for 6 months and causing life interference.
Institutional review board approval and written, signed consent
were obtained before the study began. This study was completed in
full compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki.
Procedure
After a brief telephone interview to determine whether participants were likely to meet basic inclusion criteria, participants were
scheduled for a medical examination to conrm IBS diagnosis
(Drossman, Corazziari, et al., 2000; Longstreth et al., 2006) and
psychometric testing, which for the purposes of this study included
the test battery described below.
Assessment measures
Fatigue
The primary unit of analysis for statistical analyses was based on
the vitality scale of the SF-12 Health Survey (Ware, Kosinski, &
Keller, 1996). The SF-12 contains 12 items from the SF-36 Health
Survey, a generic measure of quality of life that measures eight
domains of health: physical functioning, role limitations due to
physical health, bodily pain, general health perceptions, vitality,
social functioning, role limitations due to emotional problems and
mental health. The SF-12 vitality scale requires respondents to
indicate how much of the time during the past four weeks they had
a lot of energy. Possible responses ranged from 1 (all of the time) to
6 (none of the time) with lower score indicating higher vitality
(greater energy/lower fatigue).
In addition to measuring fatigue intensity, we were interested in
describing the clinical signicance of reported self-reported fatigue
as measured by the Patient Reported Outcomes Interview for the
Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders: IBS Module (IBS-PRO, Keefer,
Lackner, & Brenner, 2009). The IBS-PRO is a clinician administered
structured interview that assesses the frequency and impact of
individual IBS symptoms as specied by Rome criteria. For each
item, standardized questions and probes are provided. The measure
contains separate 0e4 frequency and impact scales. Consistent
with Rome criteria, the IBS PRO assesses symptoms over the past 3
months. The structure and format of the IBS-PRO is based on other
semi structured instruments (Blake et al., 1995) that gauges clinical
signicance with reference to specic dimensions that are regarded
as important to describing symptom severity (i.e., frequency, subjective distress, functional impairment). Frequency ratings are
based on the percent of time the symptom has occurred over the
past 3 months from the patients perspective. Frequency percentages correspond one of ve adjectival descriptors (e.g., 25% correspond with the sometimes descriptor) dened by previous IBS
researchers (Drossman, Corazziari, Delvaux, et al., 2006). A second
rating is made for the impact of symptom based on the patients
level of distress and/or impairment due to symptoms. Ratings are
made on a scale with brief descriptors attached to each of the ve
scale values. Symptoms can thus have individual scales ranging
from 0-0, 1-1, 1-2, 2-1, 2-2, 1-3, up to 4-4, with the rst digit of the
number pair representing the frequency and the second digit representing the impact of symptom. A symptom registers as clinically
meaningful if it meets the rule of three e that is, the sum of
frequency and impact yields a score of three or greater. IBS PRO data
were used for descriptive purposes and not included in analyses
(e.g., correlations, regression analyses).

J.M. Lackner et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 51 (2013) 323e331

IBS symptom severity

The Irritable Bowel Syndrome Symptom Severity Scale (IBS-SSS;
Francis, Morris, & Whorwell, 1997) is a 5-item instrument used to
measure severity of abdominal pain, frequency of abdominal pain,
severity of abdominal distension, dissatisfaction with bowel habits,
and interference with quality of life, each on a 100-point scale. For
four of the items, the scales are represented as continuous lines
with endpoints 0% and 100%, with different descriptors at the
endpoints and adverb qualiers (e.g., not very, quite) strategically placed along the line. Respondents mark a point on the line
between the two endpoints reecting the extremity of their judgment. The proportional distance from zero is the score assigned for
that scale (hence scores range from 0 to 100). The endpoints for the
severity items are no pain and very severe, for satisfaction, the
endpoints are not at all satised and very satised, and for
interference they are not at all interferes to completely interferes. A nal item asks the number of days out of 10 the patient
experiences abdominal pain and the answer is multiplied by 10 to
create a 0 to 100 metric. The items are summed and thus the total
score can range from 0 to 500.
Quality of life
The IBS-QOL (Drossman, Patrick, et al., 2000) is a 34-item measure constructed specically to assess the subjective well-being of
patients with IBS. Each item is scored on a ve-point scale (1 not
at all, 5 a great deal) that represents one of eight dimensions
(dysphoria, interference with activity, body image, health worry,
food avoidance, social reaction, sexual dysfunction, and relationships). Items are scored to derive an overall total score of IBS related
quality of life. To facilitate score interpretation, the summed total
score is transformed to a zero to 100 scale ranging from zero (poor
quality of life) to 100 (maximum quality of life). IBS-QOL has good
reliability (Cronbachs alpha .95), convergent validity and
construct validity (Drossman, Patrick, et al., 2000) and sensitivity to
change following CBT of different dosages (Lackner et al., 2008).
Perceived Stress Scale (PSS)
The PSS measures the degree to which situations in ones life are
appraised as stressful (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983)). The 4
item version of the PSS (Cohen & Williamson, 1988) was used. Its
items are designed to tap the degree to which respondents nd their
lives uncontrollable, unpredictable and overloading. These three
factors have been consistently found to be central components of the
stress experience. Item are rated on a 5 point Likert scale ranging
from 0 (never) to 4. The PSS-4 shows adequate reliability with a
Cronbachs alpha of .85 as well as acceptable correlations with
measures of conceptually congruent constructs (Cohen et al., 1983).
Abdominal pain
Abdominal pain intensity over the previous 7 days was
measured with an 11-point numerical rating scale (PI-NRS), where
0 no pain and 10 worst possible pain (Turk et al., 2006). Patients circled the number from 0 to 11 that best described their
average abdominal pain over the past 7 days. This pain measure is
widely used and recommended in studies of patients with IBS(M. P.
Jensen, Karoly, & Braver, 1986).
Pleasant activities
The Pittsburgh Enjoyable Activities Test scale (PEAT) (Pressman
et al., 2009) is a 10 item scale that assesses the frequency of
involvement in a spectrum of leisure activities associated with
feelings of renewed energy, concentration and mental clarity. The
ten items include: spending quiet time alone; spending time unwinding; visiting others; eating with others; doing fun things with
others; club, fellowship and religious group participation;

325

vacationing; communing with nature; sports; and hobbies. These

activities are believed to enhance well-being by acting as breathers,
restorers and stress buffers. Instructions for the PEAT were: We are
interested in how often in the last month you were able to spend
time in activities that you enjoyed. Over the past month, how often
have you been able to spend time doing the following? Response
options ranged from Never (0 point) to Every Day (4 points) and
Not Applicable/Do Not Enjoy (0 point). The PEAT was scored as
the sum of all items (maximum 40).
Depression
Depressive symptoms were measured using the depression
scale of the 18 item version of the Brief Symptom Inventory
(Derogatis, 2000). The scale includes 5 items rated on a 5 point
scale (0- not at all, 1, a little bit, 3 quite a bit, 4 extremely) to
reect respondents distress about depressive symptoms (e.g.,
feeling lonely, blue, worthless, hopeless). The BSI has been used
extensively in IBS research (Dorn et al., 2007). Internal consistency,
testeretest reliability, and validity of the BSI-18 are well established
(Derogatis, 2000).
Somatization
Somatization was measured using the Screening for Somatoform Symptoms-7 (SOMS-7, Rief & Hiller, 2003). The SOMS includes
a total of 53 physical symptoms, drawn from the DSM-IV (American
Psychiatric Association, 1994) and the International Classication of
Diseases (ICD-10) denitions for somatization disorder and somatoform autonomic dysfunction. Subjects are instructed to report
only complaints for which physicians have found no currently
physical pathological cause. Respondents are asked (Rief & Hiller,
2003) to report the symptoms that have been present during the
past 7 days. The total number of endorsed symptoms yields a somatization symptom count which has been found to discriminate
patients with somatoform disorders from those with other forms of
mental disorders. To avoid collinearity problems, we excluded the
fatigue item when calculating the somatization. The SOMS-7 has
demonstrated high internal consistency (Cronbachs alpha .92),
reasonable test-retest reliability (r .76) and high associations with
a number of somatoform disorders (Rief & Hiller, 2003).
Anxiety
Trait anxiety was measured using the abbreviated Trait subscale
of the STAI (Spielberger, 1995). In responding to the 10 items of the
T-Anxiety scale, subjects indicate how they generally feel by rating
the frequency of their feelings of anxiety on a 4-point scale ranging
from 1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always). A wide body of research
supports the construct validity, testeretest reliability, and reliability of the STAI (Spielberger, 1989).
Interpersonal functioning
Interpersonal functioning was measured with the Negative Interactions Scale (NIS). The NIS assesses social encounters and interactions that are characterized by conict, excessive demands
and/or criticism (30, 31). Our version of the NIS includes 5 items
that assess the frequency (ranging from 1 never to 4 very often)
of negative social exchanges with a spouse, family members,
friends, neighbors, in-laws. The scale includes four items from the
original 4-tem scale developed and validated by Krause and one
additional item drawn from Schuster, Kessler, and Aseltine (1990)
(How often do they let you down when you are counting on
them?) and used in the MIDMAC (MacArthur Foundation Research
Network on Successful Midlife Development). Participants were
asked In the past month, how often have others. about exchanges such as . made too many demands on you?, .been
critical of you?, . pried into your affairs?, .taken advantage of

326

J.M. Lackner et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 51 (2013) 323e331

you? and .let you down when you were counting on them?
High scores suggest that respondents engage in negative interactions more frequently. The ve item NIS is part of the assessment battery for social/environmental burdens of the Pittsburgh
Mind Body Center, a joint research project of the University of
Pittsburgh and Carnegie Mellon University.
Pain catastrophizing
The two item version of the catastrophizing subscale of the
Coping Strategies Questionnaire (Jensen, Keefe, Lefebvre, Romano,
& Turner, 2003) asks patients to rate the frequency with which
they engage in thoughts that index catastrophizing during pain
episodes (e.g., When I am in pain, I feel I cant stand it anymore).
Respondents rate each item using a scale ranging from 0 (never do)
to 7 (always do).

Data analyses plan

Data analyses were carried out in three steps. The rst step was
to characterize the sample using means, standard deviations or
percentages. At the second step, we conducted partial correlations
to describe the relationship between each clinical variable after
holding constant potentially confounding variables including age,
education, income, marital status, IBS subtype and duration of
symptoms. Because correlations do not account for overlap among
variables, the third step involved multiple regression analyses to
determine the proportion of variance in fatigue accounted for by a
combination of demographic, psychosocial, and somatic variables.
Results
Characteristics of the sample

Anxiety Sensitivity Inventory

The ASI (Peterson & Reiss, 1993) is a self-report measure that
reects fear of anxiety (e.g., It scares me when I am anxious),
arousal related bodily sensations (It scares me when my heart
beats rapidly) and their consequences (e.g., When I notice my
heart is beating rapidly, I worry that I might have a heart attack).
Each of the 16 items of the ASI is rated on a six point scale (0 very
little, 5 very much). In addition to a total score, the ASI yields
three empirically derived subscales relating to fear of publicly
observable anxiety reactions (e.g., fear of trembling arising from
beliefs that trembling will be negatively evaluated), fears of somatic
symptoms (e.g., It scares me when my heart beats rapidly, and
fears of cognitive dyscontrol (fear of concentration difculties
arising from beliefs that such difculties have catastrophic consequences). The ASI has demonstrated sound psychometric properties in both clinical and nonclinical samples, including high internal
consistency (a .80 to .90; (Peterson & Reiss, 1993; Taylor, 1999;
Telch, Shermis, & Lucas, 1989).
Medical comorbidity
Because poor physical health may impact energy/fatigue, nonpsychiatric medical comorbidity was assessed using a modied
version of the survey used in the National Health Interview Survey
(NHIS) to record the recency of commonly occurring chronic
conditions believed to be associated with substantial quality of life
impairment (Schoenborn, Adams, & Schiller, 2003). We have
adapted the NHIS checklist to characterize physical comorbidity of
IBS patients in three NIH funded clinical trials (Lackner et al.,
2006). The current version (Lackner, Brenner, & Keefer, 2009)
covers 112 medical conditions organized around 12 body systems
(musculoskeletal, digestive, kidney/genitourinary, endocrine, respiratory, circulatory, cardiovascular, oral, CNS, dermatological,
Ear Nose, Throat [ENT], cancer). Respondents were asked whether
a doctor had ever diagnosed them with a condition and, if so,
whether the condition was present in the past 3 months.
Persons were counted as current cases if the diagnosed condition
was reported as present in the last 3 months. The checklist was
constructed to capture information about the most common
comorbidities in the general population, those believed to occur
frequently in IBS patients, those regarded as most important to IBS
patients and those regarded as most important in existing comorbidity measures (Charlson, Pompei, Ales, & MacKenzie, 1987).
A total comorbidity score was based on the number of medical
comorbidities a patient reported as present over the previous 3
months. Evidence for the discriminant and convergent validity
comes from correlation analyses showing that number of medical
comorbidities is associated with physical (.41) but not mental
aspect of quality of life as assessed with the SF 36 Healthy Survey
(Lackner, Ma, et al., in press).

Table 1 displays the demographic and clinical characteristics of

the sample. The sample was predominately young, educated, female and chronically ill (average duration of IBS symptoms 16.5
years). The mean total score on the IBS-SSS for the sample
falls in the high moderate range of IBS symptom severity
Table 1
Demographic and clinical characteristics (N 176).
M (SD)
Age
Gender (% female)
Race (% white)
Education
High school or less
College degree
Post-college degree
Other
Income
< 15,000
15,001e30,000
30,001e50,000
50,000e75,000
75,001e100,000
100,001e150,000
>150,000
Dont know/Not sure
Prefer not to answer
Duration of sxs (years)
IBS Subtype
IBS-Constipation
IBS-Diarrhea
IBS-Alternating
IBS-SSS
IBS-QOL
Abdominal pain
# Medical comorbidities
PEAT
BSI-Depression
SOMS-7
STAI-Trait anxiety
NIS
Catastrophizing
PSS
ASI
Physical concerns
Psychological concerns
Social concerns
Fatigue

N (%)

41.0 (15.0)
138 (78.4%)
160 (90.9%)
36
75
51
13

(20.6%)
(42.9%)
(29.1%)
(7.4%)

14
21
35
30
11
15
20
9
20

(8.0%)
(12.0%)
(20.0%)
(17.1%)
(6.3%)
(8.6%)
(11.4%)
(5.1%)
(11.4%)

16.5 (14.3)
46 (26.1%)
76 (43.2%)
54 (30.7%)
284.7
56.0
5.0
4.3
31.7
4.5
7.7
20.7
10.3
2.6
7.1
24.9
14.7
7.3
7.2
4.1

(76.3)
(19.3)
(2.0)
(4.6)
(6.3)
(4.8)
(5.7)
(6.4)
(3.2)
(1.7)
(3.4)
(12.0)
(8.0)
(5.9)
(2.4)
(1.2)

Note: Duration sxs Duration of IBS symptoms; IBS-SSS IBS Symptom Severity
Scale; IBS-QOL IBS Quality of Life; # Medical Comorbidity Number of Medical
Comorbidities; PEAT Pittsburgh Enjoyable Activities Test; BSI-Depression Brief
Symptom Inventory-Depression Scale; SOMS7 Screening for Somatoform
Symptoms-7; STAI-Trait State-Trait Anxiety InventoryeTrait Scale;
NIS Negative Interaction Scale; Catastrophizing Pain Catastrophizing;
PSS Perceived Stress Scale; ASI Anxiety Sensitivity Index.

J.M. Lackner et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 51 (2013) 323e331

The Severity of Fatigue in Relation to IBS Symptoms

327

the SF 12 vitality scale) and clinical variables while controlling for

possible confounding variables (e.g., demographics, duration of IBS,
gender, etc). As shown in Table 2, all signicant correlations were in
the expected manner. Fatigue was positively associated with
both the global severity of IBS symptoms and the number of medically unexplained somatic complaints (i.e., somatization, and negatively associated with the quality of life impairment due to IBS
symptoms. Neither the average intensity of abdominal pain nor the
number of self-reported medical comorbidities corresponded with
fatigue. On the other hand, fatigue was consistently associated with
behavioral (participation in restorative leisure activities, PEAT),
cognitive (anxiety sensitivity, catastrophizing, perceived stress) and
emotional (anxiety, depression) variables. Of psychosocial factors,
the strongest correlations with fatigue were the PSS, BSI-Depression,
STAI-Trait and the PEAT. That is, patients with higher levels of fatigue
reported more stress, depression, and trait anxiety and less frequent
participation in pleasurable activities. Fatigue levels were positively
and signicantly associated with cognitive variables, including
anxiety sensitivity and catastrophizing, although the magnitude of
these correlations was slightly lower (range .22e.26) than those
with somatic and distress variables (range .28e.45). In general, individuals with greater fatigue perceived their somatic complaints
(pain, arousal symptoms) in a more catastrophic manner. With
respect to ASI subscales, fatigue was associated with both the fear of
physical catastrophe and fear of cognitive dyscontrol ( but not the
fear of publicly observable reactions scale.

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Note. N = 175. We converted frequency and impact scores into a dichotomous measure of
severity which regards a symptom as significant if its frequency Sometimes (or about 25% of
the time)/ Intensity Moderate distress clearly present but still manageable; some disruption of
specific daily activities

Fig. 1. The severity of fatigue in relation to IBS symptoms.

(moderate 176e300; severe > 300). Patients average abdominal

pain intensity for seven days prior to testing was 5.0 using an 11
point numerical rating scale (0 No Pain, 10 Worst Pain Possible).
The group mean for the IBSQOL was 56.0 which suggest that our
cohort had signicant quality of life impairment due to IBS symptoms (Patrick, Drossman, & Frederick, 1997). Twenty percent of
subjects had a T score of 63 or higher (on the community norm) on
the General Severity Index which summarizes overall level of
psychological distress based on responses to the Anxiety, Depression, and Somatization subscales of the BSI.
Based on responses to the IBS-PRO, fatigue was a common, distressing, and disabling somatic complaint. On the IBS-PRO, 70.5% of
patients reported fatigue that occurred at least 50% of the time over
the previous 3 months. Sixty one percent of the patients indicated
that fatigue was at least a moderate (i.e., distress clearly present but
still manageable with some disruption of specic daily activities due
to fatigue) source of distress and/or life interference. Fatigue registered as a clinically meaningful (i.e., satised the rule of three) in
60.8% of our patients (N 107). Of 14 symptoms, fatigue was the third
most severe symptom. Fig. 1 presents the severity of symptomatic
fatigue in relation to other IBS symptoms assessed with the IBS-PRO.

Clinical predictors of fatigue

We conducted multiple linear regressions to identify predictors
of fatigue as measured by the SF-12 while controlling for potentially confounding variables. In order to limit the number of variables in the models, only variables that were signicantly
correlated with fatigue were entered as predictor variables. We also
assessed multicollinearity statistics [variance ination factors (VIF)
and tolerance] for the regression analyses because of the strong
correlations among many of the predictor variables. Although
multicollinearity would not affect the reliability of the whole
regression model or blocks of variables entered, it would call into
question the validity of the results of individual predictors. VIF
values above 10 and tolerance values below .10 usually indicate
problems of multicollinearity (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson,
2009). Our results showed that the highest VIF was 3.03 and the
lowest tolerance value was .33, suggesting that multicollinearity
did not compromise the interpretability of the results of the present
study since all values well within an acceptable range.

Associations between clinical variables and fatigue

We conducted a series of partial correlations to assess the
magnitude of the relationships between fatigue (as measured with

Table 2
Partial correlations between fatigue and independent variables (controlling for confounding variables).

1. Fatigue
2. IBS-SSS
3. IBS-QOL
4. Abd. Pain
5. MedCo
6. PEAT
7. BSI-Dep
8. SOMS-7
9. STAI-T
10. NIS
11. Catast
12. PSS
13. ASI

10

11

12

13

e
.33
-.40
.12
.11
-.33
.43
.28
.34
.31
.22
.45
.26

e
-.44
.52
.14
-.16
.27
.24
.17
.16
.42
.23
.30

e
-.26
-.23
.19
-.45
-.38
-.45
-.33
-.46
-.45
-.44

e
.14
-.14
.11
.14
.09
.22
.27
.16
.17

e
-.21
.28
.43
.18
.25
.11
.27
.21

e
-.24
-.18
-.22
-.16
-.13
-.34
-.08

e
.41
.75
.62
.37
.67
.61

e
.30
.33
.31
.33
.41

e
.51
.38
.66
.58

e
.20
.53
.41

e
.33
.45

e
.49

Note: Numbers that are bolded are signicant at p < .05.IBS-SSS IBS Symptom Severity Scale; IBS-QOL IBS-Quality of Life; Abd. Pain Abdominal Pain; Med Co Number
of Medical Comorbidities; PEAT Pittsburgh Enjoyable Activities Test; BSI-Dep Brief Symptom Inventory-Depression Scale; SOMS7 Screening for Somatoform Symptoms7; STAI-Trait State-Trait Anxiety InventoryeTrait Scale; NIS Negative Interaction Scale; Catast Pain Catastrophizing; PSS Perceived Stress Scale; ASI Anxiety
Sensitivity Index.

328

J.M. Lackner et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 51 (2013) 323e331

Table 3
Results of multiple linear regressions with fatigue as dependent variable.

Step 1
Age
Gender
Race
Education
Income
Duration Sx
Step 2
Age
Gender
Race
Education
Income
Duration Sx
IBS-SSS
IBS-QOL
Step 3
Age
Gender
Race
Education
Income
Duration Sx
IBS-SSS
IBS-QOL
PEAT
SOMS7
NIS
Castast.
PSS
ASI
STAI-Trait
BSI-Dep

Estimate

SE

.01
.01
.10
.16
.03
.02

.01
.21
.31
.05
.04
.01

.11
.01
.03
.28
.08
.23

.01
.07
.12
.11
.02
.02
.02
.02

.01
.20
.30
.04
.03
.01
.01
.01

.06
.02
.03
.18
.04
.19
.24
.21

.01
.14
.15
.07
.01
.01
.02
.01
.03
.02
.03
.05
.06
.02
.01
.04

.01
.19
.29
.04
.03
.01
.01
.01
.01
.02
.03
.06
.04
.01
.02
.03

.13
.05
.04
.12
.02
.13
.17
.09
.16
.09
.08
.07
.19
.22
.01
.16

R2

DR2

Adj. DR2

.127

.127

.096

.229

.102

.091

.416

.187

.154

Note: Numbers that are bolded are signicant at p < .05. Duration Sx Duration of
IBS symptoms; IBS-SSS IBS Symptom Severity Scale; IBS-QOL IBS Quality of Life;
PEAT Pittsburgh Enjoyable Activities Test; SOMS7 Screening for Somatoform
Symptoms-7; NIS Negative Interaction Scale; Catast. Pain Catastrophizing;
PSS Perceived Stress Scale; ASI Anxiety Sensitivity Index; STAI-Trait StateTrait Anxiety InventoryeTrait Scale; BSI-Dep Brief Symptom InventoryDepression Scale.

Demographic variables were entered into the regression equation in the rst step; somatic variables were entered in the second
step; and the third step introduced psychosocial (cognitive,
emotional) variables. Entering the variables in steps allows us to
determine the incremental variance attributed to each conceptually
distinct block of variables. The results of the regression analyses are
shown in Table 3. In step 1, being more educated and having more
chronic IBS symptoms were signicantly related to greater fatigue.
As a set, these variables accounted for 12.7% of the variance in fatigue (F 3.63, p < .01). In Step 2, the somatic illness variables
explained an additional 10.2% of the variance in fatigue (F 9.70,
p < .01). More severe IBS symptoms and greater QOL impairment
due to IBS symptoms (emerged as signicant predictors of fatigue
at step 2. The addition of cognitive and emotional variables at Step 3
explained an additional 18.7% of the variance in fatigue (F 3.67,
p < .01). This nal model explained 41.6% of the variance in fatigue
scores with signicant predictors including anxiety sensitivity,
perceived stress, IBS symptom severity, restorative activities (PEAT)
and depression. The proportion of variance accounted for by education level, duration of symptoms, and IBS-QOL was not signicant
in the nal model.
Conclusion
The present study sought to assess the psychosocial correlates
and predictors of fatigue in a sample of patients with moderate to

severe IBS patients treated in the context of an NIH funded clinical

trial of CBT for IBS. Our data underscore the importance of fatigue as
a major somatic complaint of IBS patients. As Fig. 1 shows, when we
applied the rule of three for determining the clinical signicance
of a symptom, fatigue as measured by the IBS-PRO was reported by
60.8% of the patients at baseline assessment. By comparison, 5e20%
of the general population suffers from symptomatic fatigue. The
percentage of study patients who reported symptomatic fatigue
was comparable to those with loose bowels and was only exceeded
by the proportion of patients reporting abdominal pain/discomfort.
Because our sample included a greater proportion (43%) of patients
with diarrhea predominant IBS, it is possible that the rate of
symptomatic loose bowels reects the composition of our sample.
If so, fatigue rivals abdominal pain as one of the more symptoms of
IBS. Fatigue was positively and signicantly associated with a range
of somatic, cognitive, and emotional variables. IBS patents with
greater fatigue reported more severe IBS symptoms, greater quality
of impairment due to IBS symptoms, more distress (anxiety,
depression) and more negatively skewed cognitions than patients
with lower levels of fatigue. The two variables unrelated to fatigue
were average abdominal pain intensity (past 7 days) and number of
medical comorbidities. Psychological factors that predicted fatigue
included a combination of behavioral (frequency of participation in
restorative activities), cognitive (anxiety sensitivity), emotional
(depression) and somatic (severity of IBS symptoms) variables.
These ndings underscore the multidimensional nature of fatigue.
Our data are consistent with the broader health literature
highlighting the importance of fatigue as a biobehavioral marker of
health. Indeed, the World Health Organization identies energy
and fatigue as an integral part of general health and determinant
of overall quality of life (WHOQOL Group, 1997). The importance of
fatigue is echoed by studies (Andersen & Lobel, 1995) that indicate
fatigue is one of 4 variables that people use to describe their health
status. This nding is important because self-ratings of health are
stronger than physician ratings at predicting outcomes such as
mortality (Idler & Benyamini, 1997). It is worth considering
whether individuals may be more accurate than physicians in
judging their health status because of the importance they attach to
fatigue (Hewlett et al., 2005; Yorkston, Johnson, Boesug, Skala, &
Amtmann, 2010).
There are several reasons why fatigue is overlooked. First,
because fatigue is a subjective experience, its presence relies on
self-report which may be dismissed as a perceptual abnormality.
Second, while fatigue is experienced by patients with a range of
conditions (e.g., renal disease, diabetes, MS, arthritis, cancer, heart
disease, back pain) it is with few exceptions (e.g., Chronic Fatigue
Syndrome) a nonspecic complaint. This means that fatigue is
typically subordinated to the core symptom(s) that prompt patients
to seek treatment. Because conventional modes of practice subscribe to disease-specic protocols, background symptoms like
fatigue are often ignored. Even when fatigue is symptomatic of a
given disorder (e.g., depression), it is not typically the focus of
treatment. Neither cognitive nor behavioral therapy for depression
explicitly targets relief of fatigue. Behavioral models target feelings
of dysphoria (Lewinsohn & Amenson, 1978), while cognitive
models target self-denigrating thoughts (Beck, Rush, Shaw, &
Emery, 1979). Both models presume that relief of the complexion
of depression symptoms (e.g., fatigue) will follow changes in mood
(sadness, pessimism, dissatisfaction), vegetative symptoms (e.g.,
changes in sleep, appetite) or cognitive symptoms (guilt worthlessness). While CBT for depression is, in fact, associated with signicant changes in fatigue (Mohr, Hart, & Goldberg, 2003), the
magnitude of the effect size is rather modest and could be
improved by developing more roust behavioral strategies that
directly tackle fatigue and its disabling effects. For this to happen,

J.M. Lackner et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 51 (2013) 323e331

clinicians and researchers need to elevate the importance of fatigue

to the level that patients do. Third, unlike somatic symptoms like
headaches or abdominal pain, fatigue is neither specic to a class of
medical diseases nor a specialty within a branch of medicine (e.g.,
gastroenterologists, neurologists). The ubiquity of fatigue means
that it is the complaint of many and the focus of few. Last, because
levels of fatigue are tied to lifestyle factors (e.g., long work days,
high-paced lifestyles, overscheduled social calendars, family obligations), it is oftentimes dismissed as a normal part of life much like
sleepiness and tiredness. The behavioral, cognitive, and emotional
correlates of fatigue in patients of our study suggest that fatigue is
hardly a normative experience. It is a clinically meaningful health
problem that is for IBS patients in our sample very common,
disabling and distressing.
The observed relationship between pleasant activities and fatigue is an interesting nding. An emphasis on pleasurable events is
hardly new to the behavioral literature. The behavioral model of
depression (Hopko, Lejuez, Ruggiero, & Eifert, 2003) assumes that
low rates of reinforcement lead to low rates of initiating behaviors,
which in turn led the person to become sad and depressed. Because
of the emphasis behavioral models of depression place on reinforcement contingencies, behavioral techniques emphasized the
implementation of behavioral-activation procedures (e.g., pleasant
events scheduling) aimed at increasing patient activity and access
to reinforcement. We are not inclined to believe that reinforcement
factors satisfactorily account for the observed relationship between
pleasant activities and fatigue in our sample. For reinforcement
factors to play a key role, we would have expected more than 19% of
the sample to suffer from what is regarded as clinical levels of
depression (BSI Depression T Score > 63).
An intriguing alternative model, attention restoration theory
(ART, Kaplan, 1995), comes from the environmental psychology
literature ART and suggests that the relationship between pleasant
activities and health outcomes is mediated cognitively by attentional processes. Drawing on William Jamess notion of voluntary
attention (James, 1892), Kaplan emphasizes two type of attention:
involuntary attention and directed attention (Berman, Jonides, &
Kaplan, 2008). According to ART, directed attention is a mechanism by which individuals purposefully expend mental effort
executing tasks. If the demand for directed attention is prolonged, it
can become depleted which can cause stress and fatigue. Because
indirect attention is held automatically, it is neither inherently
stressful nor does it cause the (mental) fatigue associated with
prolonged directed attention. Stimuli vary in the extent to which
they capture and hold attention effortlessly. Those stimuli that
support the experience of involuntary attention are experienced as
more restorative and therefore more pleasurable. Activities are
more pleasurable because they attract involuntary attention and
thus permit depleted attention capacity recovery so that fatigue is
reduced.
ART initially focused on activities (e.g., walking or sitting outdoors in more natural surrounding such as a park, garden or near
water, tending plants, gardening, bird watching, wildlife, and caring
for pets) in the natural environment because it is endowed with
four properties deemed inherently restorative or stress-reducing.
However, restorative experiences are not necessarily conned to
natural surroundings. A number of creative, social, physical, spiritual, reective, and travel activities have restorative properties
(Jansen & von Sadovszky, 2004). Whether the participation in these
restorative activities is associated with measures of positive psychological and physical well-being has received limited attention
(Pressman et al., 2009). Our data contributes to the literature by
showing that individuals, who participate more frequently in
pleasurable activities having restorative qualities report lower
levels of fatigue, perceive their lives as less stressful (i.e.,

329

overwhelming, uncontrollable), and experience less psychological

distress (i.e., anxiety, depression).
The nding that anxiety sensitivity (AS) predicted fatigue is
notable. AS is a dispositional, trait-like cognitive characteristic that
helps explain why people respond differently to similar anxiety
stimuli. AS theory (Taylor, 1999) states that individuals high in AS
respond fearfully to anxiety-related bodily sensations associated
with autonomic arousal because of their beliefs about the dangerousness of these sensations. For example, a person high in AS fears
that a racing heart beat means s/he is likely to have a heart attack.
The high AS individual is likely to experience elevated levels of
anxiety and to be at greater risk for a panic attack and other
symptoms of autonomic hyperarousal (e.g., racing heart beat).
Empirical support for the AS construct (Olatunji & Wolitzky-Taylor,
2009) has prompted other researchers to explore whether the
explanatory value of AS extends to anxiety-mediated physical
problems (Asmundson, Kuperos, & Norton, 1997; Carr, Lehrer,
Rausch, & Hochron, 1994; Labus et al., 2004). Because of its focus,
relatively few efforts have linked AS to physical problems that are
not mediated by anxiety or hyperarousal. One exception comes
from Fairholme, Carl, Farchione, and Schonwetter (2012) who
studied the relationship between AS and fatigue and obtained two
important ndings relevant to the present study. First, they found
that AS was positively and signicantly correlated with fatigue such
that individuals with more fatigue tended to catastrophize about
the consequences of anxiety/arousal symptoms (i.e., high AS).
Second, AS moderated the relationship between fatigue and
severity of insomnia such that the magnitude of the association
between fatigue and insomnia was highest for high AS individuals. These are important ndings because fatigue is neither a
problem of anxiety nor hyperarousal and therefore it would not
necessarily be expected to correlate with AS. It is possible that IBS
patients with a strong fear of anxiety/arousal symptoms (higher AS)
may contribute to, or amplify, the intensity of somatic sensations
(e.g., fatigue) that are not necessarily related to autonomic nervous
system arousal (e.g., heart palpitation, shortness of breath). This
would differ from anxiety disordered patients (e.g., panic) whose
attentional bias for somatic perturbations is specic to autonomic
sensations (Pilkington, Antony, & Swinson, 1998). It is also possible
that fatigue like other negative moods (Chepenik, Cornew, & Farah,
2007) affects cognitive processes such as anxiety sensitivity.
Drawing from the principles of attention restoration theory
(Kaplan, 1995), overuse of the capacity to direct attention can
distort ones ability to perceive and interpret information. If this
includes internal somatic cues, fatigue may increase the likelihood
of drawing catastrophic interpretations of benign bodily sensations
(i.e., increased anxiety sensitivity).
Results should be interpreted in light of study limitations.
Because our data are cross sectional, we do not intend to suggest
that the ndings demonstrate causal relationships between clinical
variables such as restorative experiences, AS or fatigue. At best, our
data can be construed as suggestive of a possible causal relationship
that could be conrmed through longitudinal analyses with a larger
sample. Fatigue intensity was assessed using a single question. A
stronger study of a complex construct like fatigue would have used a
multi-item instrument in part because they better estimate
internal-consistency than single item ones. Single item measures
are also problematic because they are rather crude indices of complex constructs like fatigue. While 61% of patients report symptomatic fatigue, it is unclear which aspects of fatigue patients
experience. We have discussed our ndings in terms of mental fatigue. It is possible that our patients suffered from physical fatigue
(as well or instead). Given the proportion (20%) of patients who
reported comorbid low back pain, it is possible that they suffered
from muscle fatigue. Future research should disentangle fatigue as a

330

J.M. Lackner et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 51 (2013) 323e331

manifestation of exhausted feelings of physical exertion in the

content of poor physical tness and/or psychological demands in
the context of poor coping. Our decision to focus on fatigue was
based on a consistent clinical observation across multiple assessors
of different disciplines (psychology, medicine) at two sites of an NIH
trial that patients reported self-reported fatigue at a level that
rivaled core GI symptoms during baseline screening. This was an
unexpected nding and one that merited empirical evaluation with
the measurement tools available to us. We believe that that the
novelty and clinical importance of our study offsets the methodological imperfections of our fatigue measure. Future research
combining the strengths of the present study (e.g., formally diagnosed IBS patients, sample size, psychometric soundness of testing
battery, sound statistical approach) with a more sophisticated fatigue instrument is needed to build on what we think are promising
data about an understudied problem. Because of the relative demographic homogeneity of our select sample of patients enlisted in
a behavioral trial (mostly white, female, chronically ill and educated
patients seeking non drug treatment), our results may not be
generalized to a broader, more diverse population.
In conclusion, excessive fatigue in a sample of severely affected
IBS patients was common and associated with signicant distress
and life interference. These ndings suggest that fatigue is a clinically important somatic complaint whose frequency and impact is
comparable to (abdominal pain) and exceeds (e.g., stool frequency)
core symptoms of IBS. Further research is needed to understand
more clearly just how fatigue impactse and is impacted bye the
day to day burden of IBS.
Acknowledgments
This study was funded by NIH Grant DK77738.
References
Adams, P. F., & Benson, B. (1990). Current estimates from the National health
interview survery. InVital Health Stat 10, Vol. 83, (pp. 92e1509). Hyattsville: US
Dept of Health and Human Services.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (4th ed.). Washington. D. C.: American Psychiatric Association.
Andersen, M., & Lobel, M. (1995). Predictors of health self-appraisal: whats
involved in feeling healthy? Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 16, 121e136.
Asare, F., Bjorkman, I., Wilpart, K., Jakobsson Ung, E., Bjornsson, E., Trnblom, H.,
et al. (2012). Factors of importance for fatigue in patients with irritable bowel
syndrome. Gastroenterology, 142.
Asmundson, G. J. G., Kuperos, J. L., & Norton, G. R. (1997). Do patients with chronic
pain selectively attend to pain-related information? Preliminary evidence for
the mediating role of fear. Pain, 72, 27e32.
Beck, A. T., Rush, A., Shaw, B., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression.
New York: Guilford Press.
Berman, M. G., Jonides, J., & Kaplan, S. (2008). The cognitive benets of interacting
with nature. Psychological Science, 19, 1207e1212.
Blake, D. D., Weathers, F. W., Nagy, L. M., Kaloupek, D. G., Gusman, F. D.,
Charney, D. S., et al. (1995). The development of a clinician-administered PTSD
scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 75e90.
Blanchard, E. B. (2000). Irritable bowel syndrome: Psychosocial assessment and
treatment. Washington: APA.
Carr, R. E., Lehrer, P. M., Rausch, L. L., & Hochron, S. M. (1994). Anxiety sensitivity and
panic attacks in an asthmatic population. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32,
411e418.
Charlson, M. E., Pompei, P., Ales, K. L., & MacKenzie, C. R. (1987). A new method of
classifying prognostic comorbidity in longitudinal studies: development and
validation. Journal of Chronic Diseases, 40, 373e383.
Chepenik, L. G., Cornew, L. A., & Farah, M. J. (2007). The inuence of sad mood on
cognition. Emotion, 7, 802e811.
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived
stress. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 24, 385e396.
Cohen, S., & Williamson, G. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the
United States. In S. Spacapam, & S. Oskamp (Eds.), The social psychology of
health: Claremont symposium on applied social psychology). Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.
Derogatis, L. R. (2000). Brief symptom inventory (BSI) 18. Minneapolis: National
Computer System.

Dorn, S. D., Palsson, O. S., Thiwan, S. I., Kanazawa, M., Clark, W. C., van Tilburg, M. A.,
et al. (2007). Increased colonic pain sensitivity in irritable bowel syndrome is
the result of an increased tendency to report pain rather than increased
neurosensory sensitivity. Gut, 56, 1202e1209.
Drossman, D. A., Corazziari, E., Delvaux, M., Spiller, R. C., Talley, N. J.,
Thompson, W. G., et al. (2006). Rome III diagnostic questionnaire for the adult
functional GI disorders. In D. A. Drossman (Ed.), Rome III: The functional
gastrointestinal disorders). McLean, VA: Degnon Associates.
Drossman, D. A., Corazziari, E., Talley, N. J., Thompson, W. G., & Whitehead, W.
(2000). Rome II. The functional gastrointestinal disorders. Diagnosis, pathophysiology and treatment: A multinational consensus (2nd ed.). McLean, VA: Degnon
Associates.
Drossman, D. A., Corazziari, E., Talley, N. J., Thompson, W. G., & Whitehead, W.
(2006). Rome III. The functional gastrointestinal disorders: Diagnosis, pathophysiology and treatment: A multinational consensus (2nd ed.). McLean, VA: Degnon
Associates.
Drossman, D. A., Patrick, D. L., Whitehead, W. E., Toner, B. B., Diamant, N. E., Hu, Y.,
et al. (2000). Further validation of the IBS-QOL: a disease-specic quality-of-life
questionnaire. American Journal of Gastroenterology, 95, 999e1007.
Fairholme, C. P., Carl, J. R., Farchione, T. J., & Schonwetter, S. W. (2012). Transdiagnostic processes in emotional disorders and insomnia: results from a
sample of adult outpatients with anxiety and mood disorders. Behaviour
Research and Therapy, 50, 522e528.
Francis, C. Y., Morris, J., & Whorwell, P. J. (1997). The irritable bowel severity scoring
system: a simple method of monitoring irritable bowel syndrome and its
progress. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 11(2), 395e402.
Gralnek, I. M., Hays, R. D., Kilbourne, A., Naliboff, B., & Mayer, E. A. (2000). The
impact of irritable bowel syndrome on health-related quality of life. Gastroenterology, 119, 654e660.
Grandjean, E. (1968). Fatigue: its physiological and psychological signicance. Ergonomics, 11, 427e436.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2009). Multivariate data analysis
(7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hewlett, S., Cockshott, Z., Byron, M., Kitchen, K., Tipler, S., Pope, D., et al. (2005).
Patients perceptions of fatigue in rheumatoid arthritis: overwhelming, uncontrollable, ignored. Arthritis & Rheumatism, 53, 697e702.
Hopko, D. R., Lejuez, C. W., Ruggiero, K. J., & Eifert, G. H. (2003). Contemporary
behavioral activation treatments for depression: procedures, principles, and
progress. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 699e717.
Idler, E. L., & Benyamini, Y. (1997). Self-rated health and mortality: a review
of twenty-seven community studies. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 38,
21e37.
James, W. (1892). Psychology: The briefer course. New York: Holt.
Jansen, D. A., & von Sadovszky, V. (2004). Restorative activities of communitydwelling elders. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 26, 381e399. discussion
400e384.
Jensen, M. P., Karoly, P., & Braver, S. (1986). The measurement of clinical pain intensity: a comparison of six methods. Pain, 27, 117e126.
Jensen, M. P., Keefe, F. J., Lefebvre, J. C., Romano, J. M., & Turner, J. A. (2003). One- and
two-item measures of pain beliefs and coping strategies. Pain, 104, 453e469.
Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative beneftis of nature e toward an integrative
framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169e182.
Keefer, L., Lackner, J. M., & Brenner, D. M. (2009). Patient reported outcome interview e IBS Module (PRO-IBS). In Patient reported outcome interviews for the
functional GI diseases). Buffalo: University at Buffalo.
Labus, J. S., Bolus, R., Chang, L., Wiklund, I., Naesdal, J., Mayer, E. A., et al. (2004). The
Visceral Sensitivity Index: development and validation of a gastrointestinal
symptom-specic anxiety scale. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 20,
89e97.
Labus, J. S., Mayer, E. A., Chang, L., Bolus, R., & Naliboff, B. D. (2007). The
central role of gastrointestinal-specic anxiety in irritable bowel syndrome:
further validation of the visceral sensitivity index. Psychosomatic Medicine,
69, 89e98.
Lackner, J. M., Brenner, D. M., & Keefer, L. (2009). IBSOS medical comorbidity inventory in Buffalo.
Lackner, J. M., Gudleski, G.,D., Haroon, M., Krasner, S., Katz, L. A., Firth, R. S., et al.
(2012). Proactive screening for psychosocial risk factors in moderate to severe
patients with irritable bowel syndrome: the predictive validity of the Rome III
psychosocial alarm questionnaire. Neuroenterology, 1, 1e7.
Lackner, J. M., Gudleski, G. D., Zack, M. M., Katz, L. A., Powell, C., Krasner, S., et al.
(2006). Measuring health-related quality of life in patients with irritable bowel
syndrome: can less be more? Psychosomatic Medicine, 68, 312e320.
Lackner, J. M., Jaccard, J., Krasner, S. S., Katz, L. A., Gudleski, G. D., & Holroyd, K.
(2008). Self-administered cognitive behavior therapy for moderate to severe
irritable bowel syndrome: clinical efcacy, tolerability, feasibility. Clinical
Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 6, 899e906.
Lackner, J. M., Keefer, L., Jaccard, J., Firth, R., Brenner, D., Bratten, J., et al. (2012). The
irritable bowel syndrome outcome study (IBSOS): rationale and design of a
randomized, placebo-controlled trial with 12 month follow up of self- versus
clinician-administered CBT for moderate to severe irritable bowel syndrome.
Contemporary Clinical Trials, 33, 1293e1310.
Lackner, J. M., Ma, C. -X., Keefer, L. A., Brenner, D. M., Gudleski, G. D., Satchidanand,
N., et al. Type, rather than number, of mental and physical comorbidities increases the severity of symptoms in patients with irritable bowel syndrome.
Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology, in press.

J.M. Lackner et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 51 (2013) 323e331

Levy, R. L., Von Korff, M. R., Whitehead, W. E., Stang, P., Saunders, K., Jhingran, P.,
et al. (2001). Costs of care for irritable bowel syndrome patients in a health
maintenance organization. American Journal of Gastroenterology, 96, 3122e3129.
Lewinsohn, P. M., & Amenson, C. S. (1978). Some relations between pleasant and
unpleasant mood-related events and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 644e654.
Longstreth, G. F., Thompson, W. G., Chey, W. D., Houghton, L. A., Mearin, F., &
Spiller, R. C. (2006). Functional bowel disorders. Gastroenterology, 130, 1480e
1491.
Lovell, R. M., & Ford, A. C. (2012). Global prevalence of and risk factors for irritable
bowel syndrome: a meta-analysis. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 10,
712e721. e714.
Mayer, E. A. (2000). The neurobiology of stress and gastrointestinal disease. Gut, 47,
861e869.
Mayer, E. A. (2008). Clinical practice. Irritable bowel syndrome. The New England
Journal of Medicine, 358, 1692e1699.
Mohr, D. C., Hart, S. L., & Goldberg, A. (2003). Effects of treatment for depression on
fatigue in multiple sclerosis. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65, 542e547.
Olatunji, B. O., & Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B. (2009). Anxiety sensitivity and the anxiety
disorders: a meta-analytic review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 135,
974e999.
Patrick, D. L., Drossman, D. A., & Frederick, I. O. (1997). A quality of life measure for
persons with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS-QOL): Users manual and scoring
Diskette for United States version. Seattle, Washington: University of
Washington.
Peterson, R. A., & Reiss, S. (1993). Anxiety sensitivity index: Revised test manual.
Worthington, OH: IDS Publishing Corporation.
Pilkington, N. W., Antony, M. M., & Swinson, R. P. (1998). Vigilance for autonomic and
non-autonomic bodily sensations across the anxiety disorders and in non-clinical
volunteers. Washington, DC: Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy.
Pressman, S. D., Matthews, K. A., Cohen, S., Martire, L. M., Scheier, M., Baum, A., et al.
(2009). Association of enjoyable leisure activities with psychological and
physical well-being. Psychosomatic Medicine, 71, 725e732.
Rief, W., & Hiller, W. (2003). A new approach to the assessment of the treatment
effects of somatoform disorders. Psychosomatics, 44, 492e498.
Schoenborn, C. A., Adams, P. F., & Schiller, J. S. (2003). Summary health statistics for
the U.S. population: National Health Interview Survey, 2000. Vital and Health
Statistics, 10, 1e83.

331

Schuster, T. L., Kessler, R. C., & Aseltine, R. H., Jr. (1990). Supportive interactions,
negative interactions, and depressed mood. American Journal of Community
Psychology, 18, 423e438.
Simren, M., Abrahamsson, H., Svedlund, J., & Bjornsson, E. S. (2001). Quality of life in
patients with irritable bowel syndrome seen in referral centers versus primary
care: the impact of gender and predominant bowel pattern. Scandinavian
Journal of Gastroenterology, 36, 545e552.
Spiegel, B. M. (2013). Burden of illness in irritable bowel syndrome: looking beyond
the patient. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 11, 156e157.
Spiegel, B. M., Gralnek, I. M., Bolus, R., Chang, L., Dulai, G. S., Mayer, E. A., et al.
(2004). Clinical determinants of health-related quality of life in patients with
irritable bowel syndrome. Archives of Internal Medicine, 164, 1773e1780.
Spielberger, C. D. (1989). State-trait anxiety inventory: Bibliography (2nd ed.). Palo
Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Spielberger, C. D. (1995). State-trait personality inventory (STPI). Redwood City: Mind
Garden.
Tanaka, Y., Kanazawa, M., Fukudo, S., & Drossman, D. A. (2011). Biopsychosocial
model of irritable bowel syndrome. Journal of Neurogastroenterology and
Motility, 17, 131e139.
Taylor, S. (1999). Anxiety sensitivity: theory, research, and treatment of the fear of
anxiety. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Telch, M. J., Shermis, M. D., & Lucas, J. A. (1989). Anxiety sensitivity: unitary
personality trait or domain-specic appraisals? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 3,
25e32.
Turk, D. C., Dworkin, R. H., Burke, L. B., Gershon, R., Rothman, M., Scott, J., et al.
(2006). Developing patient-reported outcome measures for pain clinical trials:
IMMPACT recommendations. Pain, 125, 208e215.
Ware, J., Jr., Kosinski, M., & Keller, S. D. (1996). A 12-item short-form health survey:
construction of scales and preliminary tests of reliability and validity. Med Care,
34, 220e233.
Whitehead, W. E., Palsson, O. S., Levy, R. R., Feld, A. D., Turner, M., & Von Korff, M.
(2007). Comorbidity in irritable bowel syndrome. American Journal of Gastroenterology, 102, 2767e2776.
WHOQOL Group. (1997). WHOQOL: Measuring quality of life). Geneva: World Health
Organization.
Yorkston, K. M., Johnson, K., Boesug, E., Skala, J., & Amtmann, D. (2010).
Communicating about the experience of pain and fatigue in disability. Quality of
Life Research, 19, 243e251.