12th Maths - CH 5 & 6

BHARATHIDASANAR MATRIC HIGHER
SECONDARY SCHOOL
ARAKKONAM
XII MATHEMATICS
MATERIAL 5 &6 UNITS (6 MARKS & 10 MARKS)
Prepared by: P. Sivakumar, MSc., M.Ed
TH
BHARATHIDHASANAR MATRIC HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL ARAKKONAM-12 MATHS 6&10 MARKS
5. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
APPLICATIONS I
Example sums:
1.The length l metres of a certain metal rod at temperature C is
given by l = 1 + 0.00005+ 0.00000042.
Determine the rate of change of length in mm/C
when the temperature is (i) 100Cand (ii) 400C.
Solution:
The rate of change of length means
Since length l = 1 + 0.00005+ 0.00000042,
= 0.00005 + 0.0000008.
(i) when = 100C
= 0.00005 + (0.0000008) (100)
= 0.00013 m/C
= 0.13 mm/C
(ii) When = 400C
= 0.00005 + (0.0000008) (400)
= 0.00037 m/C
2
TH
= 0.37 mm/C
2. The luminous intensity I candelas of a lamp at varying voltage V is
given by:
I = 4 104V2. Determine the voltage at which the light is increasing at
a rate of 0.6 candelas per volt.
Solution: The rate of change of light with respect to voltage is given by
Since I = 4 104V2
= 8 104V.
When the light is increasing at 0.6 candelas per volt then
= + 0.6.
Therefore we must have + 0.6 = 8 10-4V, from which,

Voltage V =
0.6
810 4
= 0.075 104
= 750 Volts.
3.The distance x meters described by a car in time t seconds is
given by: x = 3t32 t2 + 4t 1. Determine the velocity and acceleration
when
(i) t = 0 and (ii) t = 1.5 s
Solution:
3
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Distance x = 3t32 t2 + 4t 1
Velocity v =
Acceleration a =
= 9t24 t + 4 m/s
2
2
= 18t 4 m/s2
(i) When time t = 0

Velocity v = 9(0)24(0) + 4 = 4 m/s and
Acceleration a = 18(0) 4 = 4 m/s2
(ii) When time t = 1.5 sec
Velocity v = 9(1.5)24(1.5) + 4 = 18.25 m/sec and
Acceleration a = 18(1.5) 4 = 23 m/sec2
4. Supplies are dropped from an helicopter and distance fallen in time t
1
seconds is given by x = gt2 where g = 9.8 m/sec2. Determine the

2
velocity and acceleration of the supplies after it has fallen for 2 seconds.
Solution:
1
Distance x = gt2
2
= (9.8) t2 = 4.9 t2m

2
Velocity v =
Acceleration a =
= 9.8t m/sec
2
=
9.8
m/sec
2
When time t = 2 seconds

Velocity v = (9.8)(2) = 19.6 m/sec and
Acceleration a = 9.8 m/sec2
4
TH
Which is the acceleration due to gravity.

5. The angular displacement radians of a fly wheel varies with time t
seconds and follows the equation = 9t22t3. Determine (i) the angular
velocity and acceleration of the fly wheel when time t = 1 second and
(ii) the time when the angular acceleration is zero.
Solution:
(i) angular displacement = 9t22t3 radians.
d
angular velocity = = 18t 6t2rad/s

dt
When time t = 1 second,

= 18(1) 6(1)2 = 12 rad/s
angular acceleration =
d2
dt 2
= 18 12t rad/s2
when t = 1, angular acceleration = 6 rad/ s2

(ii) Angular acceleration is zero 18 12t = 0, from which t = 1.5 s
6.A boy, who is standing on a pole of height 14.7 m throws a stone

vertically upwards. It moves in a vertical line slightly away from the
pole and
falls on the ground. Its equation of motion in meters and seconds is
x = 9.8 t 4.9t2 (i) Find the time taken for upward and downward
motions.
(ii) Also find the maximum height reached by the stone from the ground.
Solution:
5
TH
(i) x = 9.8 t 4.9 t2

At the maximum height v = 0
v=
= 9.8 9.8 t
v = 0 t = 1 sec
The time taken for upward
motion is 1 sec. For each position x,
there corresponds a time t. The
ground position is x = 14.7, since
the top of the pole is taken as x = 0.
To get the total time, put x = 14.7 in the given equation.

i.e., 14.7 = 9.8 t 4.9t2t = 1, 3
t = 1 is not admissible and hence t = 3
The time taken for downward motion is 3 1 = 2 secs
(ii) When t = 1, the position x = 9.8(1) 4.9(1) = 4.9 m
The maximum height reached by the stone = pole height + 4.9 = 19.6 m
7. A ladder 10 m long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the

ladder slides away from the wall at a rate of 1 m/sec how fast is the top
6
TH
of the ladder sliding down the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 6 m
from the wall ?
Solution:
We first draw a diagram
and lable it as in Fig.
Let x meters be the distance from the bottom of the ladder to the wall
and y meters be the vertical distance from the top of the ladder to the
ground.
Note that x and y are both functions of time t.
We are given that = 1 m/sec and we are asked
To find
When x = 6 m. Fig.
In this question, the relationship between x and y is given by the
Pythagoras theorem: x2 + y2 = 100
Differentiating each side with respect to t, using chain rule,
we have2x + 2y = 0and solving this equation for the derived rate we

obtain,
7
TH
When x = 6, the Pythagoras theorem gives, y = 8 and so substituting

these
values and = 1,
we get
6
8
1 = /
4
The ladder is moving downward at the rate of /

4
8. A car A is travelling from west at 50 km/hr. and car B is travelling

towards north at 60 km/hr. Both are headed for the intersection of the
two roads. At what rate are the cars approaching each other when car A
is 0.3kilometers and car B is 0.4 kilometers from the intersection?
Solution:
We draw Fig.
Where C is the intersection of the two roads. At a given time t,

Let x be the distance from car A to C,
Let y be the distance from car B to C and
Let z be the distance between the cars A and B
Where x, y and z are measured in kilometers.
We are given that = 50 km/hr and
= 60 km/hr.
8
TH
Note that x and y are decreasing and hence the negative sign.
We are asked
To find:
The equation that relate x, y and z is given by the Pythagoras

theorem z2 = x2 + y2
Differentiating each side with respect to t,
i.e., the cars are approaching each other at a rate of 78 km/hr.

9.A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base
radius 2 meters and height 4 meters. If water is being pumped into the
tank at a rate of 2m3/min, find the rate at which the water level is rising
when the water is 3m deep.
Solution:
We first sketch the cone and label it as in Fig.
Let V, r and h be respectively the volume of the water,

The radius of the cone and the height at time t,
Where t is measured in minutes. Fig.
9
TH
We are given that
We are asked to find
= 2m3/min. and
when h is 3m.
1
The quantities V and h are related by the equation V = r2h.

3
But it is very useful to express V as function of h alone.

In order to eliminate r we use similar triangles in Fig.
r
To write =
10. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve y = x3
at the point (1,1).
Solution:
We have y = x3;
Slope y= 3x2.
At the point (1,1), x = 1 and m = 3(1)2 = 3.
Therefore equation of the tangent is y y1 = m(x x1)
y 1 = 3(x 1) or y = 3x 2
1
The equation of the normal is y y1 = (x x1)
10
TH
y1=
1
3
(x 1) or y =
1
3
4
3
11. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve
y = x2 x 2 at the point (1, 2).
Solution:
We have y = x2 x 2;
Slope, m = = 2x 1.
At the point (1,2), m = 1

Hence the equation of the tangent is y y1 = m(x x1)
i.e., y (2) = x 1
i.e., y = x 3
1
Equation of the normal is y y1 = (x x1)
i.e., y (2) =
1
1
(x 1) or
Differentiating w.r.to x we get,
y +x = 0 or y = x 1
12. Find the equation of the tangent at the point (a, b) to the
curve x y = c2.
Solution:
The equation of the curve is x y = c2.

=
= ( )(,) =
Hence the required equation of the tangent is
y b = (x a)
11
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i.e., ay ab = bx + ab
bx + ay = 2ab or

+ =2

13. Find equations of the tangent and normal at =
to the curve
= + sin , = (1 + cos ).
Solution:
We have
= 1 + cos = 2 cos2
= sin = 2 sin cos
Then
= tan
= ( )= = tan = 1
Also for = , the point on the curve is
Hence the equation of the tangent at =

= 1
i.e. + =
1
2
+ , .
is
+1
1
+ 2 + 2 = 0
2
Equation of the normal at this point is

= 1
+1
Or = 0
2
14. Find the equations of tangent and normal to the curve

12
TH
16x2 + 9y2 = 144 at (x1,y1) where x1 = 2 and y1>0.

Solution:
We have 16x2 + 9y2 = 144
(x1, y1) lies on this curve, where x1 = 2 and y1>0
(16 4) + 9 12 = 144
or
9 12 = 144 64 = 80
12 =
1 =
80
9
80
80
. 1 > 0 1 =
3
3
1 , 1 =
80
3
2,
We have 16 2 + 9 2 = 144
Differentiating w.r.to
2,
=
32
18
80
=
3
16
9
2
80
3
16
9
80
2, 3
8
3 5
80
8

=
( 2)
3
3 5
On simplification we get 8x + 3 5y = 36
Similarly the equation of the normal can be found as
9 5x 24 y + 14 5 = 0
13
TH
15. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the ellipse
= cos =
Solution:
At = , 1 , 1 = cos , sin
cot
cot =
Thus the point of tangency is
The equation of the tangent is
and the slope is m =
or
+ 2 = 0
The equation of the normal is

or
2 2 2 = 0 .
16. Find equation of the tangent to the parabola, 2 = 20

Which forms an angle 45 with the .
Solution:
We have 2 = 20. Let (1 , 1 ) be the tangential point
10
Now 2yy= 20 y=
14
TH
ie., at (x1, y1) m =
10
1
----- (1)
But the tangent makes an angle 45with the x axis.

Slope of the tangent m=tan 45= 1 (2)
From (1) and (2)
10
1
= 1 1 = 10
But 1 , 1 2 = 20
12 = 201
100 = 20 x1 or
x1 = 5
i.e., (x1, y1) = (5,10)and

Hence the equation of the tangent at (5, 10) is
y 10 = 1(x 5)
y = x + 5.
17. Find the angle between the curves y = x2 and y = (x 2)2 at the
point of intersection.
Solution:
To get the point of intersection of the curves solve the equation
We get x2 = (x2)2
This gives x = 1. When x = 1, y = 1
The point of intersection is (1, 1)
Now = 2
= 2
1 =
15
=2
1,1
TH

= 2( 2)
2 =
= 2
1,1
= ( 2)2
If is the angle between them, then

tan =
= tan1
22
14
4
3
4
3
18. Find the condition for the curves ax2 + by2 = 1, a1x2 + b1y2= 1 to
intersect orthogonally.
Solution:
If (x1, y1) is the point of intersection,
Then ax12 + by12= 1; a1x12 + b1y12=1
, 12 =
1
1 1
, 12 =
1
1 1
(by cramers rule)
For ax2 + by2 = 1,

2 =
=
( 1 ,1 )
1
1`
For orthogonal intersection, we have m1m2 = -1.

This gives
16
TH
1
1
1 1
= 1
1 1
1 12
= 1
1 12
1 12 + 1 12 = 0
=> aa1
+bb1
1 1
1
1 1
=0
aa1 (b1 b) + bb1(a a1) = 0

=>
1
Or
1
1
1
1
1
1
=0
=0
Which is the required condition

19. Show that x2 y2 = a2 and x y = c2 cut orthogonally.
Solution:
Let (x1,y1) be the point of intersection of the given curves
x12 y12 = a2and x1y1 = c2
x2 y2 = a2
=>2 2
=>
=0
=
1 =
ie., 1 =
17
=
( 1 ,1 )
1
1
1
1
TH
xy = c => =
2 =
ie., m2 =
1 2 =
=>
( 1 ,1 )
2
2
2
12
2
12
12
2
1 1
2
2
= 1
The curves cut orthogonally

20. Prove that the sum of the intercepts on the co-ordinate axes ofany
tangent to the curve x = a cos4, y = a sin4, 0 is equal to a.

2
Solution:
Take any point as (a cos4, a sin4,)
Now = 4a cos3sin ;
And = 4a sin3cos
sin 2
cos 2
Slope of the tangent at is

sin2
sin =
cos4
2
cos
4
Or sin2 + cos2 = sin2 cos2
cos 2
sin 2
=1
Hence sum of the intercepts = sin2 + cos2 =

21. Using Rolles Theorem find the value(s) of c.
18
TH
(i) f(x) = 1 2 , 1x 1
(ii) f(x) = (x a) (b x), a x b, a b.
1
(iii) f(x) = 2x35x24x + 3, x 3

2
Solution:
(i) The function is continuous in [1,1] and differentiable in (1,1).
f(1) = f (1) = 0 all the three conditions are satisfied.
f (x) =
1 2
2
1 2
1 2
f (x) = 0 x = 0.
(Note that for x = 0, denominator = 1 0) Thus the suitable point for
which
Rolles theorem holds is c = 0.
(ii) f(x) = (x a) (b x), a x b, a b.
f (x) is continuous on [a, b] and f (x) exists at every point of (a, b).
f(a) = f(b) = 0 All the conditions are satisfied.
f (x) = (b x) (x a)
+
f (x) = 0 2x = b a x =
The suitable point c of Rolles Theorem is c =
+
2
(iii) f(x) = 2x35x24x + 3, x 3

2
f is continuous on
1
2
, 3 and differentiable in
1
2
,3
f() = 0 = f(3). All the conditions are satisfied.

19
TH
f (x) = 6x210x 4
1
f (x) = 0 3x25x2 = 0 (3x + 1) (x 2) = 0 x = or x = 2.

3
= does not lie in
,3
x = 2 is the suitable c of Rolles Theorem

22. Verify Rolles Theorem for the following:
(i) f(x) = x33x + 3 0x 1
(ii) f(x) = tan x, 0x
(iii) f(x) = | x |, 1x1
(iv) f(x) = sin2x, 0x
(v) f(x) = ex sin x, 0x
(vi) f(x) = x (x 1) (x 2), 0x2
Solution:
(i) f(x) = x33x + 3 0x1
f is continuous on [0,1] and differentiable in (0,1)
f(0) = 3 and f(1) = 1 f (a) f (b)
Rolles theorem, does not hold, since f (a) = f (b) is not satisfied.
Also note that f (x) = 3x23 = 0 x2 = 1 x = 1
There exists no point c (0,1) satisfying f (c) = 0.
(ii) f(x) = tan x, 0x
f (x) is not continuous in [0,] as tan x tends to + at x =
20
TH
Rolles theorem is not applicable.

(iii) f(x) = | x |, 1 x 1
f is continuous in [1,1] but not differentiable in (1,1) since f (0) does
not exist.
Rolles theorem is not applicable.
(iv) f(x) = sin2x, 0 x
f is continuous in [0,] and differentiable in (0,). f(0) = f () = 0
(ie.,) f satisfies hypothesis of Rolles theorem.
f (x) = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x
f (c) = 0 sin 2c = 0 2c = 0, , 2, 3, ...
c = 0, , ,
, .
since c = (0,), the suitable c of Rolles theorem is c =

(v) f(x) = exsin x, 0 x
exand sin x are continuous for all x, therefore the product exsin x is
continuous in 0 x .
f (x) = exsin x + excos x = ex(sin x + cos x) exist in 0 <x <
f (x) is differentiable in (0,).
f(0) = e0sin 0 = 0
f() = esin = 0
f satisfies hypothesis of Rolles theorem
Thus there exists c(0, ) satisfying f (c) = 0 ec(sin c + cos c) = 0
21
TH
ec= 0 or sin c + cos c = 0

ec= 0 c = which is not meaningful here.
sin c = cos c
c =
3
2
sin
cos
=1 tan c = 1 = tan
3
2
is the required point.
(vi) f(x) = x (x 1) (x 2), 0 x 2,

f is continuous in [0,2] and differentiable in (0,2)
f(0) = 0 = f(2), satisfying hypothesis of Rolles theorem
Now f (x) = (x 1) (x 2) + x (x 2) + x (x 1) = 0
3x26x + 2 = 0 x = 1
1
3
1
The required c in Rolles theorem is 1 (0,2)

3
23. Apply Rolles theorem to find points on curve

y = 1 + cos x,
where the tangent is parallel to x-axis in [0, 2].
Solution:
f(x) is continuous in [0,2] and
differentiable in (0,2)
f (0) = 0 = f(2) satisfying hypothesis
of Rolles theorem.
22
TH
Now f (x) = sin x = 0 sin x = 0

x = 0, , 2, . . .
x = , is the required c in (0,2). At x = , y = 1 + cos = 2.
the point (,2) is such that at this point the tangent to the curve is
parallel to x-axis.
24. Verify Lagranges law of the mean for f(x) = x3 on [2,2]
Solution:
f is a polynomial, hence continuous and differentiable on [2, 2].
f(2) = 23 = 8 ; f (2) = (2)3 = 8
f (x) = 3x2f (c) = 3c2
By law of the mean there exists an element c (2, 2) such that
f (c) =
()
8(8)
3c2 =
=4
i.e., c2 = c =
3
2
3
The required c in the law of mean are
2
3
and as
3
both lie in [2, 2].
23
TH
25. A cylindrical hole 4 mm in diameter and 12 mm deep in a metal

block is rebored to increase the diameter to 4.12 mm. Estimate the
amount of metalre moved.
Solution:
The volume of cylindrical hole of radius x mm and depth 12 mm is given
by
V = f(x) = 12 x2
f (c) = 24c.
To estimate f(2.06) f(2) :
By law of mean,
f(2.06) f(2) = 0.06 f (c)
= 0.06 (24 c), 2 <c < 2.06
Take c = 2.01
f(2.06) f(2) = 0.06 24 2.01
= 2.89 cubic mm.
26. Suppose that f(0) = 3 and f (x) 5 for all values of x, how
large can f(2) possibly be?
Solution:
Since by hypothesis f is differentiable, f is continuous everywhere.
We can apply Lagranges Law of the mean on the interval [0,2].
There exist atleast one c(0, 2) such that
f(2) f(0) = f (c) ( 2 0)
24
TH
f(2) = f(0) + 2 f (c)

= 3 + 2 f (c)
Given that f (x) 5 for all x. In particular we know that f (c) 5.
Multiplying both sides of the inequality by 2, we have
2f (c) 10
f(2) = 3 + 2 f (c) 3 + 10 = 7
i.e., the largest possible value of f(2) is 7.
27. It took 14 sec for a thermometer to rise from 19C to 100C
when it was taken from a freezer and placed in boiling water. Show that
somewhere along the way the mercury was rising at exactly 8.5C/sec.
Solution:
Let T be the temperature reading shown in the thermometer at anytime t.
Then T is a function of time t. Since the temperature rise is continuous
and since there is a continuous change in the temperature the function is
differentiable too.
By law of the mean there exists a t0 in (0, 14)
such that
2 ( 1 )
2 1
= T (t0)
Here T(t0) is the rate of rise of temperature at C.

Here t2t1 = 14, T(t2) = 100 ; T(t1) = 19
T (t0) =
25
100+19
14
119
14
= 8.5C/sec
TH
28. Obtain the Maclaurins Series for

1) ex2) loge(1 + x) 3) arc tan x or tan1x
Solution:
(1) f(x) = ex; f(0) = e0 = 1
f (x) = ex;
f (0) = 1
f (x) = ex; f (0) = 1

.
.
.
1!
2!
f(x) = e = 1 + +
3
3!
+ holds for all x
(2) f(x) = loge(1 + x) : f(0) = loge1 = 0

f (x) =
1
1+
f (x) =
;f (0) = 1
1
1+ 2
; f (0) = 1
+1.2
f (x) =
1+ 3
f (x) =
1.2.3
4
; f (0) = 2!
;f (0) = (3!)
1!
2!
f(x) = loge(1 + x) = 0+
2
2
3
3
4
4
2! 3
3!
3! 4
4!
1 < 1.
(3) f(x) = tan1x ; f(0) = 0

26
TH
f (x) =
1
1+ 2
= 1 x2 + x4 x6. ;f (0) = 1 = 1!
f (x) = 2x + 4x3 6x5 . ;f (0) = 0

f (x) = 2 + 12x2 30x4 . ; (0) = 2 = (2!)
f iv(x) = 24x 120x3 . ;f iv(0) = 0
f v(x) = 24 360x2 . ;f v(0) = 24 = 4!
tan1x = 0 +
27
1
1!
0
2!
2
3!
3 +
0
4!
4 +
4!
5!
5 + .
TH
28
3
3
5
5
holds in | x | 1.
TH
29
TH
30
TH
31
TH
Therefore in the entire interval [0,1] the function f(x) is neither

increasing nor decreasing.
Example 5.40: Discuss monotonicity of the function
f(x) = sin x, x [0, 2]
32
TH
The points where the tangent to the graph of the function are parallel to
the x axis are given by f (x)= 0, ie., when x = 2, 3 Now f(2) = 29 and
f(3) = 28.
Therefore the required points are (2, 29) and (3, 28)
Example 5.44:
Prove that
ex> 1 + x for all x > 0.
Solution: Let f(x) = exx 1 f (x) = ex1 > 0 for x > 0
i.e., f is strictly increasing function. for x > 0, f(x) >f(0)
i.e., (exx 1) > (e00 1) ; ex>x + 1
Example 5.4:
Prove that the inequality (1 + x)n> 1+nx is true whenever x > 0 and
n > 1.
Solution: Consider the difference f(x) = (1 + x)n (1 + nx)
Then f (x) = n(1 + x)n1 n = n[(1 + x)n1 1]
33
TH
Since x > 0 and n 1 > 0, we have (1 + x)n1 > 1, so f (x) > 0.

Therefore f is strictly increasing on [0, ).
For x > 0 f(x) >f(0)
i.e., (1 + x)n (1 + nx) > (1 + 0) (1 + 0)
i.e., (1 + x)n(1 + nx) > 0 i.e., (1 + x)n> (1 + nx)
Example 5.46: Prove that sin x <x < tan x, x 0,

2
Solution:
Let f(x) = x sin x
f (x) = 1 cos x > 0 for 0 <x <
f is strictly increasing.
For x > 0, f(x) >f(0)
x sin x > 0 x > sin x (1)
Let g(x) = tan x x
g(x) = sec2x 1 = tan2x > 0 in 0,
g is strictly increasing
For x > 0, f(x) >f(0) tan x x > 0 tan x >x (2)
From (1) and (2) sin x <x < tan x
Example 5.47: Find the critical numbers of x3/5 (4 x)
Solution:
3
8
= 4 5 5
=
34
12
5
TH
=
5
5 (3
2)
3
Therefore f (x) = 0 if 3 2x = 0 i.e., if x = . f (x) does not exist when

2
x = 0.
3
Thus the critical numbers are 0 and .
2
Note that if f has a local extremum at c, then c is a critical number of f,
but
not vice versa.
To find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of a
continuous function f on a closed interval [a, b] :
(1) Find the values of f at the critical numbers, of f in (a, b).
(2) Find the values of f (a) and f(b)
(3) The largest of the values from steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum
value, the smallest of these values is the absolute minimum value.
Example 5.48: Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the
1
function. f(x) = x33x2 + 1 , 1 x 4
2
Solution: Note that f is continuous on 1 , 4

2
f (x) = x33x2 + 1
f (x) = 3x26x = 3x (x 2)
Since f (x) exists for all x, the only critical numbers of f are x = 0, x = 2.
1
Both of these critical numbers lie in the interval , 4 Value of f at

2
these critical numbers are f(0) = 1 and f(2) = 3.

The values of f at the end points of the interval are
35
TH
Comparing these four numbers, we see that the absolute maximum value
is f(4) = 17 and the absolute minimum value is f(2) = 3.
Note that in this example the absolute maximum occurs at an end point,
where as the absolute minimum occurs at a critical number.
Example 5.48(a): Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum
values of
f(x) =x 2sin x, 0 x 2.
Solution:
f(x) =x 2 sin x, is continuous in [0, 2]
f (x) = 1 2 cos x
The value of f at these critical points are
The values of f at the end points are f(0) = 0 and f(2) = 2 6.28
minimum and absolute maximum occurs at the critical numbers.

Let us now see how the second derivatives of functions help determining
the turning nature (of graphs of functions) and in optimization problems.
The second derivative test : Suppose f is continuous on an open interval
that contains c.
(a) If f (c) = 0 and f (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at c.
(b) If f (c) = 0 and f (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c.
36
TH
Example 5.49: Discuss the curve y = x4 4x3 with respect to local

extrema.
Example 5.50: Locate the extreme point on the curve y = 3x2 6x and
determine its nature by examining the sign of the gradient on either side.
Solution: Following the above procedure
Since the gradient (slope of the curve) changes its sign from negative to
positive (1, 3) is a minimum point.
Example 5.56: Show that the volume of the largest right circular cone
that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius a is827 (volume of the
sphere).
Solution: Given that a is the radius of the sphere and let x be the base
radius of the cone. If h is the height of the cone,
then its volume is
37
TH
For the volume to be maximum:
Example 5.57: A closed (cuboid) box with a square base is to have a

volume of 2000 c.c. The material for the top and bottom of the box is to
cost Rs. 3 per square cm. and the material for the sides is to cost Rs. 1.50
per square cm. If the cost of the materials is to be the least, find the
dimensions of the box.
Solution:
Let x, y respectively denote the length of the side of the square base and
depth of the box. Let C be the cost of the material
38
TH
Area of the bottom = x2

Area of the top = x2
Combined area of the top and bottom = 2x2
Area of the four sides = 4xy
Cost of the material for the top and bottom = 3(2x2)
Cost of the material for the sides = (1.5) (4xy) = 6xy
Total cost C = 6x2 + 6xy (1)
Volume of the box V = (area) (depth) = x2y=2000 (2)
Example 5.58:
A man is at a point P on a bank of a straight river, 3 km wide, and
wants to reach point Q, 8 km downstream on the opposite bank, as
quickly as possible. He could row his boat directly across the river to
point R and then run to Q, or the could row directly to Q, or he could
row to some point S between Q and Rand then run to Q. If he can row at
6 km/h and run at 8 km/h where should he
land to reach Q as soon as possible ?
39
TH
40
TH
Example 5.59:
Determine the domain of concavity (convexity) of the curve
y = 2 x2.
Solution: y = 2 x2
y= 2x and = 2 < 0 for x R
Here the curve is everywhere concave downwards (convex upwards).
Example 5.60:
Determine the domain of convexity of the function y = ex.
Solution : y = ex; = ex > 0 for x
Hence the curve is everywhere convex downward.
Example 5.61 : Test the curve y = x4
for points of inflection.
Therefore the curve is concave upward and does not change

signas y(x) passes through x = 0. Thus the curve does not admit any
point of inflection.
Note : The curve is concave upward in (, 0) and (0, ).
Example 5.62 : Determine where the curve y = x3 3x + 1 is cancave
upward, and where it is concave downward. Also find the inflection
points.
Solution :
f(x) = x33x + 1
f (x) = 3x23 = 3(x21)
Now f (x) = 6x
Thus f (x) > 0 when x > 0 and f (x) < 0 when x < 0.
The test for concavity then tells us that the curve is concave downward
on (, 0) and concave upward on (0, ). Since the curve changes
41
TH
from concave downward to concave upward when x = 0, the point (0,

f(0)) i.e., (0, 1) is a point of inflection.
Note that f (0) = 0
Example 5.63 :
Discuss the curve y = x44x3 with respect to concavity and points
of inflection.
Solution :
f(x) = x4 4x3 f (x) = 4x3 12x2
f (x) = 12x2 24x = 12x (x 2)
Since f (x) = 0 when x = 0or 2, we divide the real line into three
intervals.
(, 0), (0, 2), (2, ) and complete the following chart.
Example 5.64 : Find the points of inflection and determine the intervals
of convexity and concavity of the Gaussion curve y = ex2
Solution:
y= 2xex2; y= 2ex2(2x21)
(The first and second derivatives exist everywhere). Find the
values of x for which y= 0
The second derivative changes sign from positive to negative when

passing
42
TH
43
TH
Example 5.66 :
Test for points of inflection of the curve y = sinx, x (0, 2)
Solution : y= cosx
= sinx = 0 x = n, n = 0, 1, 2, ...
since x (0, 2), x = corresponding to n = 1.
Now y(.9) = sin (.9) < 0 and
y(1.1) = sin (1.1 ) > 0 since sin (1.1) is negative
The second derivative test confirms that (, f()) = (, 0) is a point of
inflection.
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS-APPLICATION-I
EXERCISE SUMS:
Exercise 5.1
(1) A missile fired from ground level rises x meters vertically upwards in
T seconds and x = 100t -
25 2
t
2
. Find
(i) The initial velocity of the missile,

(ii) The time when the height of the missile is a maximum
(iii) The maximum height reached and
44
TH
(iv) The velocity with which the missile strikes the ground.
Given (known) :
x (t) = x 100t (i)
upward displacement in time t sec

25 2
t
2
Initial velocity =
Now
dx
dxt
dx
dt t =0
dx
i. e .,
dt
at t = 0
= 100 25t
initial velocity = 100 25 x 0 = 100m/s

(ii)
At the maximum height velocity,
dx
dt
= 0
100 25 = 0. = 4
(iii) maximum height reached = height at t
=
x (4)
= 100 x 4 =
= 4
25
2
x 16
400 200 = 200
Hence the maximum height reached =
height at t = 4
(iv) When the missile reaches the ground, the height x = 0

This implies 100t -
25 2
t
2
=0
This gives the value of t = 0 or 8

t = 0 is not admissible
Taking t = 8sec., velocity of the missile when it reaches the ground is
dx
dt
45
= 100 25 x 8 = 100 m/s

t=8
TH
(2) A particle of unit mass moves so that displacement after t secs is

given by
x = 3 cos (2t 4). Find the acceleration and kinetic energy at the end of
2 secs.
K. E =
1
2
mv 2 , m is mass
Given: Displacement of a particle after t sec,

x(t) = 3cos (2t - 4)
Mass of particle m = 1
Velocity v =
dx
= 6 sin(2t 4)
dt
Acceleration a =
Velocity at the end of 2sec. =
Kinetic energy K. E
=
=
1
2
1
2
1
2
d2x
dt 2
dx
dt t=2
= -12 cos (2t - 4)

= 12 cos 4 4
= 12
x mass x square of velocity
m x v2
x 1 x 0 = 0
(3) The distance x meters traveled by a vehicle in time t seconds after

the brakes are applied is given by : x = 20 t 5/3t 2 . Determine
(i) The speed of the vehicle (in km/hr) at the instant the brakes are
applied and
(ii) the distance the car travelled before it stops.
given : The distance travelled by the car after the brakes are applied
46
TH
x(t) = 20t t 2
3
(i)
At the instant when the brakes are applied t = 0

dx
required velocity =
Now
dx
dt
= 20
dt t=0
10
3
t = 20 at t = 0
The speed of the vehicle when the brakes are applied = 20 m/sec
20 x 3600
1000
(ii)
= 72 /
When the vehicle stops velocity = 0

This implies 20 -
10
3
= 0
This gives t = 6sec

Thus the vehicle stops at the end of 6 seconds
The distance travelled before it stops is
x(6) = 20 x 6 -
5
3
x 62 = 60m
(4) Newtons law of cooling is given by =0 ekt
where the excess of
temperature at zero time is0 C and at time t seconds isC. Determine

the rate of change of temperature after 40 s, given that
0 = 16 C and
k = 0.03.
[e1.2 = 3.3201)
Given: temperature at t sec. 0 ekt

0 = 16c
k = - 0.03
Rate of change of temperature is
47
= 0 ekt
TH
= 0.03 x 16 x e 0.03
t =40
x 40
= 0.48 x e1.2 = 0.48 3.3201 = 1.5936

(5) The altitude of a triangle is increasing at a rate of 1 cm / min while
the area of the triangle is increasing at a rate of 2 cm2 / min. At what rate
is the base of the triangle changing when the altitude is 10 cm and the
area is
100 cm2 .
Solution : let b cm and h cm respectively denote the base and altitude
of given triangle ABC at time t min . then the area of triangle is
1
=
dh
Given:
bh
= 1cm /
dt
= 2 cm2 /.
dt
=?
Initially when h = 10 and = 100 we have

1
100 =
x b x 10
b = 20cm
d
Now
h
dt
db
db
dt
=
=
=
48
dh
= 2x
dt
Or
dt
d
dt
2 d
h dt
2
10
4
10
+ h
b
-
db
dt
dh
dt
b dh
h dt
x 2
20
10
20
10
x 1
- 1.6
TH
The base of the triangle is decreasing at the rate of 1.6 cm / min.

(6) At noon, ship A is 100 km west of ship B. Ship A is sailing east at 35
km/hr and ship B is sailing north at 25 km/hr. How fast is the distance
between the ships changing at 4.00 p.m.?
solution:
The given situation is described a=in the fig. 5.2 and 5.3
let P and Q be the initial positions of the ships A and B
respectively
After 4 hours,
Let x be the distance between Q and A , Y be the distance between
Q and B and z be the distance between the ships (i.e., AB)
Now z 2 = x 2 + y 2
2z =
dz
dt
= 2x
We know that
dy
dt
dx
dt
dx
dt
dy
dt
= speed of ship A = 35
= speed of ship B = 25
When t = 4, x = 40, y = 100

and z =
(1) 20. 9
dz
dt
dz
dt
2 + 2
402 + 1002
= 40 x 35 + 10 x 25
195
29
i.e., the distance between the ships changing at the rate of
49
= 20 9
TH
195
29
km hr
(7) Two sides of a triangle are 4m and 5m in length and the angle
between them is increasing at a rate of 0.06 rad/sec. Find the rate at
which the area of the triangle is increasing when the angle between the
sides of fixed length is /3.
solution :
Given triangle be ABC. Then we have b = 5cm, c = 4cm
Let be the angle between AB and AC in radians at time t.
We are also given
d
dt
0.6 rad sec. If be the area of triangle at time t . To find

=
d
dt
when
We know that area of ABC

=
d
dt
d
dt = 3
1
2
x 5 x 4 xcos
bc cos
d
dt
x (0.06)
= 0.3m2 sec.
(8) Two sides of a triangle have length 12 m and 15 m. The angle
between them is increasing at a rate of 2/min. How fast is the length of
third side increasing when the angle between the sides of fixed length is
60 ?
solution :
50
TH
If AB and BC are the given sides then we have

AB = c = 12m and
BC = a = 15m
let be the angle between AB and BC in time t minutes
d
Then
To find
db
dt
= 2 min =
90
rad min
when = 60
dt
We know that b2 = c 2 + a2 2ac cos

2b
db
dt
db
dt
= 0 + 0 2ac sin
d
dt
ac sin d
b
dt
When a = 15, c = 12 and = 60,

b2 = 122 + 152 2 x 15 x 12 x cos 60
= 369 180
= 189
db
dt
180 x
=60
63
x
2
90 m min
189
m min
(9) Gravel is being dumped from a conveyor belt at a rate of 30 ft3/min

and its coarsened such that it forms a pile in the shape of a cone whose
base diameter and height are always equal. How fast is the height of the
pile increasing when the pile is 10 ft high?
Solution :
51
TH
Let r, h respectively denote the base radius and height of a cone of

volume V, at time t min . Then we are given that 2r = h
To find
dh
dt
when h = 10 ft and
dv
= 30 ft 3 min.
dt
Volume of cone V = r 2 h
3
=
dv
dt
dh
dt
dh
dt
1
3
12
h 2
2
.h =
32
12
(h3 )
dh
dt
dv
4 dt
h 2
4 x 30
x 100
12
10
6
5
ft min.
The height of the cone is increasing at the rate of
6
5
ft min.
EXERCISE 5.2
1. Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curves
Solution:
Equation of the tangent and normal at (1 , 1 ) are
1 = ( 1 )
1
1 = ( 1 )
2
Given : = 4 5 ; = 2
= (2)2 4 2 5 = 7
(1 , 1 ) = (2, 7)
52
TH

= 2 4
= 2 2 4 = 8
(2,7)
7 = 8( + 2)
i.e., 8 + + 9 = 0
1
Equation of the normal is 7 = ( + 2)

8
i.e., + 8 58 = 0
8 + 58 = 0
ii) we have = sin cos =
=
(1 , 1 ) =
sin . cos
2
2
2
2 2
To find the equations of the tangent and normal at
2 2
= 1 cos = 1 1 = 2

, is
2 2
=2
2
2
2 = 0
2
=
Equation of the normal is =
Or + 2
53
3
2
=0
TH
iii) = 2 sin2 3 =
= 2 sin2
(1 , 1 ) =
= 2 =
6
6
, 2
= 6 sin 6
,2
6
=0
In this case the given curve has a horizontal tangent with

= 2 (since y=y1 )
and
The equation normal is

=
(since x=x1 )
(iv) =
1+sin
cos
, =
1 + sin
4
=
= 2+1
cos
4
= sec , tan + sec 2
4 , 2+1
= 2. 1 + 2 = 2 + 2
Equation tangent is
54
TH
2+1 2+ 2
=0
4
2+1 = 2+ 2
2+ 2 x+
Equation of normal is
2+1 =
1
2+ 2
(2) find the point of 2 2 = 2 at which the slope of the tanget is 2.

Solution :
Given 2 2 = 2; slope m = 2
Let (1 , 1 ) be the point on the curve such that
Now 2 2
=2
1 ,1
=0
= 2 =>
1 ,1
1
=2
1
1 = 21
1 , 1 lies on 2 2 = 2
12 12 = 2
21
y12 = 2
Or y12 =
2
3
y1 =
55
2
3
TH
When
1 =
When
1 =
,1 = 2
2
3
The point are 2
,1 = 2
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
3. Find at which points on the circle

2 2 = 13 the tangent is parallel to the line 2 + 3 = 7
Solution:
Given: 2 2 = 13
Let (1 , 1 ) be the point such that the tangent is parallel to 2 +
3 = 7 .
Then
Now 2x+2y
1 ,1
2
3
=0
dy
=
dx
1
1
=-
This lies on 2 2 = 13
2
1= 1
3
12 12 = 13
2
2
y1 + 12 = 13
3
1312 = 9 13
y1= 3
56
TH
The point are (2,3)and(-2,-3)

4. At what points on the curve 2 + 2 2 4 + 1 = 0 the
tangent is parallel to (i) x-axis, (ii) y-axis.
Solution:
Given: 2 + 2 2 4 + 1 = 0 (1)
Diff.w.r.t x,
2 + 2
24
=0
=1
1
=
2
given that tangent is parallel to x-axis
=>
=0
1
= 0 => = 1
2
When x = 1 (1)=> 2 4 = 0
=> 4 = 0
=> = 0 = 4
Therefore the points are (1, 0) and (1, 4)
given that tangent is parallel to y-axis
57
2
= 0 =>
= 0 => = 2
1
TH
When y=2, (1) => 2 2 3 = 0

=> 3 + 1 = 0
=> = 3 = 1
Therefore the points are (3, 2) and (-1, 2)
5. Find the equations 0f those tangents to the circle 2 + 2 = 52,
when are parallel to the straight line 2 + 3 = 6.
Solution:
Given circle : 2 + 2 = 52
Diff.w.r.t.x,
2 + 2
=0
Let (1 , 1 ) be the tangential point.

At (1 , 1 ), slope of the tangent is 1 =
Slope of the line 2 + 3 6 = 0 2 =
(1)
2
3
.(2)
Since the tangent is parallel to the line, 1 = 2

From (1) & (2)
1
1
2
3
. . , 1 =
12
31
2
912
+
= 52
4
1312 = 208
58
TH
=> 12 = 16
=> 1 = 4
At 1 = 4y1 =
3(4)
2
= 6
The points are (4, 6) and (-4, -6)

Therefore slope of tangent is =
2
3
Equation the tangent at (4, 6) is 6 =
2
3
( 4)
3 18 = 2 + 8
2 + 3 26 = 0
Equation the tangent at (-4, -6) is + 6 =
2
3
( + 4)
3 + 18 = 2 8
2 + 3 + 26 = 0
6. Find the equation of a normal to y=x3-3x that is parallel to
2 + 18 9 = 0
Solution:
given curve: y=x3-3x ..(1)
Diff.w.r.t.x,
= 3 2 3
Let (1 , 1 ) be the tangential point.

At (1 , 1 ), slope of the tangent is 1 =
= 312 3 .(2)
Slope of the line 2 + 18 9 = 0 2 =

59
=
TH
1
9
(3)
Since the tangent is parallel to the line, 1 = 2

From (1) & (2)
1
3 12 3
1
9
=> 3 12 1 = 9
12 1 = 3
12 = 4
1 = 2
When 1 = 2,
1 = 8 6 = 2
2 = 2,
2 = 8 + 6 = 2
The points are (2, 2) and (-2, -2)
Equation of normal at (2, 2) is 2 =
1
9
( 2)
9 18 = + 2
+ 9 20 = 0
Equation of normal at (-2, -2) is + 2 =
1
9
+2
9 + 18 = 2
+ 9 + 20 = 0
7. let P be a point on the curve = 3 and suppose that tangent line
at P
60
TH
Intersects the curve again at Q. prove that the slope at Q is four times
the slope at P.
Solution:
Let P (t, t3) be any point on the curve = 3
= 1 =3t 2
Equation of tangent at P (t, t3) is 1 = ( 1 )
3 = 3 2 ( ) (1)
It passes through Q (t , t13 )
13 3 = 3 2 1
(1 ) (t12 + t1 t + t 2 ) = 3t 2 (1 )
(1 ), t12 + t1 t + t 2 = 3t 2
t12 + t1 t + t 2 = 0
1 1 + 2 = 0
1 = 2 [1 ]
Slope of tangent at
Q = m2 = 3t12
= 3 2t
= 4 3t 2
m2 = 4m1
The slope at Q = 4 slope at P
8. prove that the curves 2 2 + 4 2 = 1and 2 2 + 4 2 = 1cut each
other at right angles.
61
TH
Solution:
We have 2 2 + 4 2 = 1 and 2 2 + 4 2 = 1
Let (1 , 1 ) be the point of intersection.
Now (1 , 1 ) lies on both the curves
212 + 412 = 1
612 1212 = 1
Before equation solving we get,
412 = 1612
12
12
=4
. (1)
Differentiate the two equations.

Now 4 + 8
=0

=
2
Now 1 =
( 1 ,1 )
Now 12 24
1
21
=0
=
2
Now 2 =
62
( 1 ,1 )
1
21
TH
Therefore of their slopes

1 . 2 =
=
1
41
21
21
= 4 = 1 [ 1 ]
4
The two curves cut at right angles.

9. at what angle do the curves = and = intersect (ab).
Solution:
given = =
let P(1 , 1 ) be the point of intersection of the given curves.
1 = 1 1 = 1
=> 1 = 1
=> 1 log = 1 log
1 log log = 0
=> 1 = 0
=> 1 = 0
1 , 1 = (0, 1)
=
= log
1 =
63
1 ,1
TH
= 0 log
= log
=
= log
2 =
1 ,1
= 0 log
= log
If be the angle between them then
tan =
=
1 2
1 + 1 2
log log
1 + log log
= tan1
log log
1 + log log
10. show that the equation of the normal to the curve = cos3
= sin3 at is cos sin = cos 2.
Solution:
Take the any point as ( cos3 , sin3 )
At , = cos3
= sin3
64
= 3 cos2 sin
= 3 sin2 cos
TH
At , slope of the tangent is =
3 sin2 cos
=
3 cos2 sin
=
sin
cos
Equation of normal at ( cos3 , sin3 ) is

1 =
sin3 =
1
( 1 )
sin
( cos3 )
cos
sin sin4 = cos cos 4

cos sin + sin4 cos 4 = 0
cos sin + sin2 cos 2 = 0
cos sin = cos 2.
11. if the curve y2=x and xy=k are orthogonal then prove that 8k2=1
Solution:
y2=x; xy=k
Solving these two equations we have the point of intersection as
(k 2 3 , k 1 3 )
y2=x=> 2
65
=1
TH
=>
i.e., at (k 2
, k 1 3 ), 1 =
1
=
2
1
2 1 3
= => =
=>
At (k 2
, k 1 3 ), 2 =
= 2
1
1 3
But they are orthogonal and therefore and therefore 1 2 = 1
2 2
1
2 1 3
1
2 2 3
1
1 3
= 1
=1
=1
=> 8 2 = 1.
Exercise 5.3
1. verify Rolles theorem for the following functions :
(i) f (x) = sin x , 0
(ii) f(x) = x2 ,
0 1
(iii) f(x) = 1 , 0 2
3
(iv) f(x) = 4x3-9x,

Solution:
(i) f (x) = sin x , 0
66
TH
We have f (x) = sin x , 0 . f(x) is continuous on [0, ] and

Differentiable on (0, ). Also , (0) = f(). Thus f satisfies all the
conditions of Rolles Theorem.
Therefore, there exists c (0, ) such that f (c) = 0,
Now f (x) = cos x
= 0
=> = 0
=> = 2 + 1
But the c that lies in (0, ) is which corresponds to n=0. Therefore the
2
suitable c of Rolles theorem is

(ii) f(x) = x2 ,
0 1
f(x) being a polynomial function, it is continuous on [0, 1] and

differentiable in (0, 1) .
but f(0) 1 .
Therefore Rolles theorem is not applicable to the given function.
(iii) f(x) = 1 , 0 2
This function is continuous on [0, 2] but not differentiable at x=1
(0, 2). However f satisfies f(0) = 1= f(2). Because, f fails to satisfy the
differentiability condition of Rolles theorem, it cannot be applied to the
given function.
3
(iv) f(x) = 4x3-9x,
67
TH
3 3
f(x) being a polynomial function, it is continuous on ,
2 2
3 3
differentiable on ,
. And
2 2
=0=
3
2
and
. Thus f satisfies
all the three conditions of Rolles theorem and hence there exist a
3 3
= ,
2 2
satisfying = 0
now f(x) =12 x2-9

= 0
12c2-9 =0
C2 =
3
4
=
Note that both
3
2
and
3
2
3 3
lie in ,
2 2
3
2
. Therefore both
3
2
and
Are the suitable values of c .

2. using Rolles theorem find the points on the curve = 2 + 1 ,
2 2 where the tangent is parallel to x- axis.
Solution:
= 2 + 1 , 2 2
= = 2 + 1 being a polynomial function.
It is continuous On [-2, 2] and differentiable on (-2, 2).
Now f(-2) = 5 f(2).
68
TH
3
2
Since f(x) satisfies all the three conditions of Rolles theorem, there exist
a c satisfying f (c) = 0. That is the tangent to the curve is parallel to
the x- axis.
Now = 2 + 1
f(x) = 2x
= 0 =>2c =0
C= 0 [ -2, 2]
When c = 0 , f(0) = 1

= 2 + 1 (0, 1)
Exercise 5.4
1. Verify Lagranges law of mean for the following functions:
(i) = 1 2 , [0, 3]
Solution:
We have = 1 2 , [0, 3]
being a polynomial, it is continuous in[0, 3] and differentiable on
(0,3), therefore by the law of the mean, there exists at least one point c
belongs to (0, 3) such that
f(c) =
i.e., -2c =
69
()
3 (0)
30
81
3
= 3
TH
3
2
(0, 3)
This verifies LaGranges law of the mean.
(ii) =
, [1, 2]
Solution:
=
is continuous on [1, 2] and differentiable on
(1,2)Therefore by LaGranges law of the mean,

there exists at least one c (1, 2) satisfying
f (c) =
i.e.,
2 (1)
21
= -1=
1
2
or c2 = 2 or = 2
Clearly 2 (1, 2) but 2 (1, 2), therefore the suitable
value of c is 2.
(iii) f(x) = 2x3+x2-x-1,[0,2]
f(x) being polynomial, it is continuous 0n [0,2] and
differentiable on (0,2)
f(x) =6x2 +2x -1
by LaGranges law of the mea , there exists at least one c (0,2)
such that
f (c) =
70
2 (0)
20
17+1
2
=9
TH
i.e., 6c2 +2c -1 = 9

or 6c2+2c-10 = 0
3c2+c-5 = 0
=
1 61
6
1+ 61
6
0, 2 =
1 61
6
This verifies Lagranges law of the mean with =
0, 2 .
1+ 61
6
(iv) f(x) = 3 ,[-2, 2]

2
f(x) is continuous on [-2,2] but f(x) =

3
which does not exists for x = 0

since f(x) is not differentiable in (-2,2) and in this case Lagranges law
of the mean is not applicable and hence cannot be verified.
(v) f(x) = x3 -5x2 -3x, (1,3)
f(x) being polynomial, it is continuous on (1,3) .
Therefore by LaGranges law of the mean , there exists at least
one c belongs to (1, 3) such that
f (c) =
3 (1)
31
27+7
2
= 10
i.e., 3c2-10c-3 =10

3c2 -10c+7 =10
(c - 1)(3c-7) = 0
c =1 or c = 7/3
71
TH
now 1 (1, 3) but c =7/3 (1,3).

This verifies the LaGranges law of mean with c=7/3
(2) If f(1)=10 and f(x) >2 for 1<x< 4 how small can f(4) possibly be?
Solution:
We have f(1) =10 and f (x) >2,1<x<4
The condition f(x) > 2 reveals that f(x) exists for all x (1, 4) and hence
f(x) is differentiable on (1, 4) and continuous on [1, 4].
There we can apply lagranges law of the mean on [1, 4]. Hence there
exists c belongs to (1, 4) such that
f (c) =
4 (1)
41
4 10
41
( 1 = 10)
f(4)=3f (c)+10
f(4)> 6+10
i.e., f(4) >16.This say that f(4) must be atleast 16.
(3) At 2.00 pm a cars speedometer reads 30 miles/hr., at 2.10 pm it
reads 50 miles/hr. show that sometime between 2.00 and 2.10 the
acceleration is exactly 120 miles/hr2.
Solution:
Let V be the velocity reading shown in the speedometer at any
time t Then the velocity function .
72
TH
V is a continuous function of t on (2, 2.10) and is differentiable

on (2, 2.10)
Now V (2) =30 miles/hr.
V(2.10)= 50 miles/hr.
By LaGranges law of the mean there exists c belongs to
(2, 2.10) such that
V c =
V c =
5030
10 60
V 2.10 V 2
2.102
miles/hr.
=120 miles/hr.
Note that V is velocity and V(t) is the acceleration at c in between 2pm
and 2.10 pm.
Exercise 5.5
1. Obtain the McLaurins series expansion for :
(i) Let f(x) = e2x
f (x) =e2x;
f(x) = 2e2x ;
f (0) =22
f (0) = 23
f (x) = 22e2x ;
f (x) = 23e2x ;
f(0) =1
f(0) =2
The McLaurins series expansion for e2x is

(0)
(0) 2 (0) 3
2
= 0 +
+
+
+
1!
2!
3!
=1+
73
2
1!
22
2!
23
3!
3 +
TH
2 (2)2 (2)3
=1+
+
+
+
1!
2!
3!
(ii) Let cos2

f (x) =cos2x ;
f(0) =1
f (x) = -sin 2x;
f (0) = 0
f (x) = 2 cos 2x; f (0) = - 2
f (x) = +4 sin 2x; f (0) = 0
fiv(x)= 8 cos 2x ;
f iv (0) =8
(0)
(0) 2 (0) 3
cos = 0 +
+
+
+
1!
2!
3!
2
= 1
2
=1 +
2 2
2!
4
3
(8) +
4!
(iii) let =
1
1+
;
1
1+
2
1+ 3
74
0 = 2
6
1+
0 = 1
1+ 2
0 =1
0 = 6
TH
1
(0)
(0) 2 (0) 3
= 0 +
+
+
+
1+
1!
2!
3!
2 2 6 3
=1+
+
2!
3!
= 1 + 2 3 +
(iv) lettan
= tan ;
0 =0
= sec 2 ;
0 =1
f(x)= 1+tan2 = 1 + 2 ()
= 2 . ;
0 = 0 0 = 0
= 2[ . + . ]
0 = 2[ 0 . 0 + 0 . (0)] = 2
i.e., 0 = 2
= 2[ . + . + 2 ]
0 = 2[ 0 . 0 + 0 . 0 + 2 0 0 ]
tan = 0 +
75
(0)
1!
(0)
2!
2 +
(0)
3!
TH
3 +
=0++0+
tan = +
3
3
3
3!
2 +0+
Exercise -5.6
Evaluate the limit for the following if exists.
Solution:
(1)
lim2
,
cos cos 2
lim
=
=
2
1
1
(2)
lim
0
tan 0
,
= lim0
= lim
2 1 0
1cos
2 2 tan
sin
= lim0 (2 3 ) = 2 1 = 2
(3)
lim0
sin 1

76
TH
1
2
sin
1
lim
= lim 1 = lim
=1
0
0
0 1 2
1
1
(4)
(5)
lim
2 2
lim
0
0

2
1
lim
= lim
= 21
2 2
2
1
1/
1
Put = 0
lim
2
= lim sin 2 0
1
0
sin
= lim
(6)
2 cos 2
=2 1 =2
1
=
Now 0
1
1 1
2
tan
2 2 tan1
2
lim
= lim
1
77
TH
= lim
2
1+ 2
= 0 = 2
1
(7)
lim
lim
(8)
log 0
log
lim0
1/
= lim
cot
=0
cot 2
tan 2 0
= lim
0 cot 2
0 tan
0
lim
= lim
2 2 2
(9)
2.1
1
=2
0 + 2 log
=
0 +
0 +
78
log
1
2
2
3
0 + 2
=
0 +
TH
2
2
=0
(10) lim1
1
1
1
=
log =
1
(1)
lim log = lim
log
log 0
1 1
= lim
1 1
1
1
=1
i.e., lim log = 1

1
By composite function theorem, we have

1
1= lim log = log lim = log lim 1

1
=> lim 1 =
1
(11)
lim
cos
( )
Let = (tan )cos

log = cos log(tan )
lim
log =
lim (cos ) log(tan )
= lim

79
log (tan )
sec
TH
2
tan
= lim

sec tan
= lim

sec
2
= lim
(cos . 2 ) = 0.1 = 0

By composite function theorem,

0= lim
log = log

lim
lim
= 0 = 1

(12) 00
0 +
=
log = log
log = log
0 +
0 +
log
0 +
0 +
1
2
= = 0
0 +

0 = log = log
0 +
80
0 +
TH
= 1
0 +
1/
(13) cos
= cos
log =
1
log cos
lim (log ) = lim
lim
tan
1
1/
log cos 0
( )
=0
0 = lim log = lim
0
lim = 0 = 1
0
i.e., lim cos
1/
=1
Exercise - 5.7
1. prove that e x is strictly increasing function on R.
solution:
() =
81
= > 0 => 0
TH
() =
2.Prove that log x is strictly increasing function on (0,)

solution :
= , (0, )
1
= > 0
() (0, )
3. which of the following functions are increasing or decreasing on the
interval given?
= 2 1 ,0 2
= 2 0 0 2
() = 2 1 (0,2)
(i)
() = 2 2 + 3 ;
1
2
= 4 + 3 > 0
1
2
1
1
2
2
() = 2 2 + 3
(ii)
1 1
,
2 2
() = , 0 < < 1
() = < 0, 0 1
() = is strictly decreasing on [0, 1]
82
TH
(iii)
() = ( 1) ( + 1) , [2, 1]
= 1 + 1 + + 1 + ( 1)
= x2-1+x2+x+x2-x
= 3 2 1 > 0 2 1
() = ( 1) (+1) [2, 1]
(iv)
= sin ; 0
= cos + sin
0 0
= sin 0,
4. Prove that the following function are not monotonic in the intervals
given.
(i)
() = 2 2 + 5, 1 0
1
() = 4 + 1 = 0 =
4
1
=
2

1
2
= 1 < 0
. . , () 1,

83
1
4
1
0
4
TH
1
8
1
>0
8
()
1
,0
4
1,0
= 1 + 1 , 0 2
(ii)
() < 0 < <
1
3
= 3 2 1 = 0
1
=> =
Take any value between 0 and
1
3
say =
1
2
1
3
= 1<0
2
4
0 0
0,
84
1
3
1
3
TH
> 0
1
3
0,
1
1
3
,2
Hence () is not monotonic on [0, 2]

() = , < <
(iii)
= cos + sin
Now f is not monotonic if has different signs at
different points. So let us check the signs at 0,
(0) = 0.1 + 0 = 0
+
= . 0 + > 0
2
2
2
2
2
= + = + 0 = < 0
[0, ]
(iv) = tan + cot , 0 < <
85
=4
4
>0
3
TH

4
= 4 <0
6
3
,
0,
5. Find the intervals on which is increasing or decreasing.

= 20 2
(i)
= 1 2 ; = 0 => =
1
2
Ploy this point on the real line

1 2
We have two intervals

,
1
,
2
1
2
-(1+2x)
()
>0
1
,
2
(, ]
1
2
Increasing
St. increasing
1
,
2
<0
1
,
2
[ , )
decreasing
St. decreasing
= 3 3 + 1
(ii)
86
TH
= 3 2 3
= 0 => = 1
Plot this point on the real line
We have three intervals
(-, 1), (-1, 1), (1, )
-(3x2-3)
- -1 1
()
, 1
/
(, 1]
, 1
>0
St. increasing
1, 1
(1, )
[1, 1]
1, 1
<0
>0
Increasing
St. decreasing
decreasing
(1, )
[1, )
St. increasing
increasing
= 3 + + 1
(iii)
= 3 2 + 1 > 0
. .
(iv) = 2 sin ; 0, 2
= 1 2 cos ; = 0 => =
87
TH
5
,
3 3
These two points divide the interval 0, 2
Into 0, ) ,
,(
5
3
, 2
0
1-2cos x
()
[0, )
3
5
,
3
3
<0
[0, )
[0, ]
St. decreasing
decreasing
5
,
3
3
>0
5
3
, 2]
5
(
, 2]
3
<0
increasing
St. increasing
(
[ ,
St. decreasing
5
, 2 ]
3
decreasing
(v) = + cos , 0
= 1 sin ; = 0 => 1 sin = 0 =

2
divides the interval [0, ] into [0, ), ( , ]
1-sin x
()
88
/
TH
[0, )
2
>0
St. increasing on
[0, ]
2
[0, ),
Increasing
( , ]
2
( , ]
2
>0
[ , ]
2
St. increasing
increasing
= sin4 + cos4 ; [0, ]
(vi)
= 4 sin3 cos 4 cos3 sin

= 4 sin cos ( sin2 cos2 )
= 2. sin 2 ( cos 2)
= sin 4
= 0 => sin 4 = 0 => 4 = 0 => = 0,
4 2

,
4 2
The values of x divide the interval [0, ] into (0, ), ( , )
-sin 4x
()
(0, )
4
89
<0
(0, )
[0, ]
TH
St. decreasing

( , )
4 2
decreasing

( , )
4 2

[ , ]
4 2
St. increasing
increasing
>0
Exercise 5.8
1.prove the following inequalities :
i) cos > 1
2
2
, > 0
solution:
let f(x) = cos 1 +
2
2
, > 0
= sin +
2
= sin + > 0 > 0
2
() is strictly increasing for all x>0

f(x) > f(0) for x > 0
2
(cos 1 + ) > 1 1 + 0
2
2
(cos 1 + ) > 0
2
ii) sin >
3
6
, > 0
let f(x) = sin +

90
2
=> cos > 1
2
3
6
, > 0
TH
2
= cos 1 + 3
6
2
= cos 1 +
> 0 > 0
6
> 0
> 0 > 0
3
sin +
> sin 0 0 + 0 > 0
6
sin +
3
6
>0
i.e., sin >
3
6
iii) tan1 < > 0

let = tan1
1
1+
1=
2
2
1+ 2
< 0 > 0
> 0
< 0 > 0
(tan1 ) < (tan1 0 0)
tan1 < 0 for x>0
tan1 < > 0
iv) log 1 + < > 0
let = log 1 +
1=
< 0 > 0
1+
1+
> 0
91
TH
< 0 > 0
i.e., [ log 1 + ] < [log 1 + 0 0]
log 1 + < 0
log 1 + < > 0
Exercise 5.9
1.Find the critical numbers and stationary
functions.
points of each of the following
Solutions:
= 2 3 2
i)
we have = 2 3 2
= 2 6
1
1
1
=2 3
3
3
9
1
3
1
1 1
= ,
=
3 3
is the stationary point.
ii) f(x) = x3-3x+1

We have f(x)=x3-3x+1
f (x)=3x2-3=0 for x= 1
The critical numbers are -1 and +1
Now f(1) = 2 - 3 = -1
92
TH
f(-1)= -1+3+1 = 3
The stationary points are (-1, 3) and(1, -1)
iii) = 4
= 4
4
= 4 5 2 4 + 1
5
= 1
4 [ 2 +
2 1
=
5
=
= 0 = 4 =
4
4 ]
5
4 5 + 2 8
( 4)(7 8)
not exist for x = 0.
the critical numbers are 0 , 4 and
8
7
8
8
4 = 0,
=
7
7
8
=
7
4 5
20
7
4 5
8
4
7
8
7
4 5
20
7
+1
2 ++1
we have =
93
8
4, 0
,
7
iv) =
2
5 1
8
+1
2 ++1
TH
( 2 + + 1).1 + 1 (2 + 1)
=
2 + + 1 2
2 2
=
2 + + 1
=
( + 2)
( 2 + + 1)2
Now = 0 = 0 = 2
the critical numbers are 0 and -2.
Also , 0 = 1 2 =
1
3
Therefore the critical numbers are (0, 1) and 2,
1
3
v) = sin2 2 , 0
= 2 sin 2 . 2 cos 2
= 2 sin 4 = 0 4 = 0, , 2, 3, 4

= 0 = 0, , , ,
4 2 4

the critical numbers are 0, , , ,

4 2 4
Now 0 = 0 ;
=1;
=0;
Therefore the stationary points are (0, 0) ,
3
4
= 1 = 0
,1 ,
, 0 ,
3
4
, 1 ( , 0)
vi) = + sin , 0 2
= 1 + cos = 0 =
Therefore the critical number is and
94
TH
The stationary point is (, )

2. find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of f on the given
interval :
Solution:
i) = 2 2 + 2 , [ 0, 3]
f is continuous in [0, 3]
= 2 2 = 0 = 1 which belongs to [0, 3]
= 1 .
= 0, = 3
= 1, = 0 = 3 1 , 0 3 .
i.e., 1, 2, 5
the absolute maximum is 5 and absolute minimum values is 1
ii) = 1 2 2 ; [4, 1]
f is continuous in [4, 1] ;
= 2 2 = 0 = 1 which belongs to [4, 1]
= 1 .
The end points are = 4, = 1
The values of the function at these points are
1 , 4 1 . .,
2, 7,
2.
The absolute maximum is 2 and absolute minimum values is -7

iii) = 3 12 + 1 ; 3, 5
95
TH
3,
= 3 2 12 = 0 = 2 [3,
5]
= 2, = 2
The values of function at these points are 2 , 2 , 3 , 5
i.e., 8 + 24 + 1, 8 24 + 1, 27 + 36 + 1, 125 60 + 1
i.e., 17, -15, 10 and 66
The absolute maximum is 66 and absolute minimum values is -15
iv) = 9 2 ; [1, 2]
the function is continuous on [-1, 2]
1
= 9 2
2
2 =
9 2
= 0 = 0 [1, 2]
= 0
The values of function at these points are 0 , 1 2
. . , 3, 2 2 5
The absolute maximum is 3 and absolute minimum values is
(v) f(x) =
+1
; [1,2]
The function is continuous on [1,2]

=
+1 .1.1
+1
1
+1 2
0 1,2
.
96
TH
The end points are x = 1, x = 2.

1 2
The values of function at these points are 1 , 2 . . , ,
2 3
The absolute maximum is and absolute minimum values is .

(vi) = sin + cos ; 0,
The function is continuous on 0,
= cos sin = 0 =
0,
4
3
=
The end points are = 0, =
The values of function at these points are

. . ,
1
2
1
2
, 1,
3
2
1
2
i.e., 2 , 1,
, 0
3+1
2
The absolute maximum is 2and absolute minimum values is 1.

(vii) = 2 cos ; ,
The function is continuous on ,
5
= 1 + 2 sin = 0 = ,
,
6
6
5
,
6
6
The end points are = , =
The values of function at these points are
i.e., 3,
97
5
6
3, + 2 , + 2
TH
The absolute maximum is + 2 and absolute minimum values is 3.

6
3. Find the local maximum and minimum values of the following functions:
Solution:
= 3
(i)
= 3 2 1
= 0 => 3 2 1 = 0 => =

1
3
1
3
1
= 6
1
, < 0
1
=> =
1
3
=
1
3
1
1
3
2
3 3
, > 0
=> =
1
3
98
1
3
1
3
1
3
2
3 3
TH

min
3 3
2
3 3
(ii) = 2 3 + 5 2 4
= 6x2+ 10x- 4
= 0 =>6x2+ 10x 4 = 0 => x =
1
3
or 2
2,
1
3
= 12 + 10
= 2, < 0
=> = 2
2 = 12
=
1
, > 0
3
=> =

1
3
1
2
5 4
19
=
+ =
3
27 9 3
27
12
min
19
27
= 4 6 2
iii)
= 4 3 12
= 0 => 4 2 3 => = 0, 3
99
TH
0,
= 12 2 + 12
= 0, < 0
=> = 0
0 = 0
=
3, > 0
=> =

3 = 9
= 3, > 0
=> = 3
3 = 9
iv) = ( 2 1)3
= 3( 2 1)2 . 2
= 0 => 6( 2 1)2 . = 0 => = 0, 1
The critical points are 0, 1
= 6
2 1 2 . 1 + . 2 2 1 2
= 6 2 1 (5 2 1)
= 0, > 0
=> = 0
0 = 1
At = 1, = 0
=> the second derivative test gives no information about the extreme nature of
100
TH
at = 1 and hence extreme values are not known.

= sin2 [0, ]
v)
= 2 sin cos = sin 2

= 0 => sin 2 = 0 => 2 = 0, , 2
=> = 0, ,
2
The critical points are 0, ,

2
= 2 cos 2
=

, = 2(1) < 0
2
=> =

=1
2
At = 0, the local min /max do not exist since they are end points of the
interval.
vi) = + cos
= 1 sin
= 0 => 1 sin = 0
= 4 + 1
= cos
= 4 + 1
, = 0
Since the second derivative vanishes for = 4 + 1
The extreme nature of f is not known at the critical numbers.
101
TH
Exercise 5.10
1. find two numbers whose sum is 100 and whose product is a maximum.
Solution:
Let P denote their product =
To maximize the product, write the product in single variable.
= 100
= 1 + 100 . 1 = 100 2
= 2
For max/min, = 0 => 100 2 = 0 => = 50
When = 50, = 2< 0

When = 50, the product is maximum.
Thus the numbers are 50, 50
2. Find two positive numbers whose product is 100 and whose sum is
minimum.
Solution:
Let x and y be the two positive numbers.
= 100
Let S denote their product
=+ =+
= 1
100
100
200
3
For max/min, = 0 => 2 100 = 0 => = 10

But x is positive and hence x = 10
102
TH
When = 10, > 0 0

is maximum When = 10
= 10
Thus the numbers are 10 , 10
3. Show that of all the rectangles with a given area the one with smallest
perimeter is a square.
Solution:
Let x and y be the length and breadth of the rectangle.
Let the given area be A.
`
Let L be the perimeter of the rectangle

= 2 + 2
= 2 + 2
= 2 1
4
3
For max/min, = 0 => =

Since A is the area , is not possible. =
When = , the perimeter is minimum.
Thus = =
Hence, rectangle of given area with least perimeter must be a square.
4. show that of all the rectangles with a given perimeter the one with the greatest
area is a square.
103
TH
Solution:
Let x and y be the length and breadth of the rectangle.
Let L be the perimeter (given)
= 2 + 2
Let A be the area
=
=
2
2
. note that L is constant
1
4
2
= 2
For max/min = 0 => 4 = 0 => = 4
When = 4, = 2 < 0
i.e., When = 4, the area is maximum.
i.e., 2 + 2 = 4 => =
i.e., the rectangle is a square when area is maximum .
5. find the dimensions of the rectangle of largest area that can be inscribed in a
circle of radius r.
Solution:
Let us take the circle to be a circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r and PQRS be the
rectangle inscribed in it. Let P(x, y) be the vertex of the rectangle that lies on the
first quadrant. Let be the angle made by OP with the x- axis.
=
= sin
Now the dimensions of the rectangle are 2 = 2 cos ;
104
TH
2 = 2 sin ,
Area of the rectangle = 4 2 sin cos = 2 2 sin 2

We want to maximize = 2 2 sin 2
Now = 4 2 cos 2 = 0 =
= 8 2 1 = 8 2 < 0
4
=
4
, 2 = 2
1
2
= 2
1
2 = 2
= 2
The dimensions of the rectangle are 2 and 2

5
6. Resistance to motion, F, of a moving vehicle is given by , = + 100.
Determine the minimum value of resistance.

Solution:
5
` = + 100
5
+ 100
2
10
3
For minimum, = 0 => 100 2 5

=
105
1
20
TH
20
is not admissible
20
When =
1
20
= 5 2 5 + 100
1
2 5
= 10 5+10 5
= 20 5
Exercise 5.11
Find the intervals of concavity and the points of inflection of the following
functions:
1
1. = ( 1)3
1
we have = ( 1)3
now = ( 1)
3
1
1
3
= ( 1)
3
2
3
2
5
2
2
= ( 1)31 = ( 1)3 > 0 < 1 . . , (, 1)
9
9
And < 0 > 1 . . , (1, )

Therefore the second derivative test confirms that , f(x) is concave downward
on (1, ) and concave upward on (, 1) note that both the first and second
order derivatives do not exist at x=1 but (1, f(1)) i.e., (1, 0) is a point of inflection.
2. = 2
We have = 2
= 2 1
106
TH
= 2 > 0 (, )
= 2 is a concave upward on (, ).
Since f(x) does not turn from concave upward to concave downward,
f(x) has no point of inflection.
3. = 2 3 + 5 2 4
We have = 2 3 + 5 2 4
= 6 2 + 10 4
= 12 + 10
= 0 => =
5
6
< 0 ,
5
> 0 ,
6
5
6
Therefore f is concave upward on , and

6
concave downward on ,

5
6
5
125 125 20 610 305
=
+
+
=
=
6
108 36
6
108
54
5
Therefore the point of inflection is ,
5 305
i.e., ,
6
54
4. = 4 6 2
We have = 4 6 2
= 4 3 12
= 12 2 12`
107
TH
= 0 => 12 2 1 = 0 => = 1
The points divide , , 1 , 1, 1 (1, )
Now > 0 < 1 > 1 . ., , 1
and
(1, )
i.e., () is concave upward on , 1 (1, )

and < 0 for (-1, 1)
i.e., () is concave downward on (-1, 1) and the points of inflection are
1, 1 , 1, 1 i.e., 1, 5 (1, 5)
5. = sin 2 (0, )
We have = sin 2 (0, )
= 2 2 ;
= 4 sin 2
= 0 => 2 = 0, , 2
i.e., = 0, ,
2
but 0, (0, )
=
Here divide (0, ) into 0,
(0, )
2
, . < 0 0,
0 > 0
Hence is concave downward on 0,
And
. . ,
,0
,
2
and concave upward on
6. = 12 2 2 3 4
We have = 12 2 2 3 4
108
TH
= 24 6 2 4 3
= 24 12 12 2
= 12( 2 2)
= 12 1 + 2
Now = 0 =>
= 2 = 1
< 0 , 2 1, And
> 0 2,
Hence f is concave downward on , 2 1,
and
f is concave upward on 2, 1 and

the points of inflections are 2, 2 , 1, 1
. ., (2, 48)
and (1, 9).
109
TH
6. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
APPLICATIONS-II
Example sums:
1.If y = x3 + 2x2
(i) Find dy
(ii) Find the value of dy when x = 2 and dx = 0.1
Solution:
(i) If f(x) = x3 + 2x2,
then f (x) = 3x2 + 4x, so dy = (3x2 + 4x) dx
(ii) Substituting x = 2 and dx = 0.1,
we get dy = (3 22+ 4 2)0.1 = 2.
2. Compute the values of y and dy if y = f(x) = x3 + x2 2x + 1
Where x changes (i) from 2 to 2.05 and (ii) from 2 to 2.01
Solution:
(i) We have f(2) = 23 + 222(2) + 1 = 9
f(2.05) = (2.05)3 + (2.05)22(2.05) + 1 = 9.717625.
and y = f(2.05) f(2) = 0.717625.
In general dy = f '(x) dx = (3x2 + 2x 2)dx
When x = 2, dx = x = 0.05 and
dy = [(3(2)2+2(2)2] 0.05 = 0.7
(ii) f(2.01) = (2.01)3(2.01)22(2.01) + 1 = 9.140701
y = f(2.01) f(2) = 0.140701
110
TH
When dx = x = 0.01, dy = [3(2)2 + 2(2) 2]0.01 = 0.14

3
3. Use differentials to find an approximate value for 65 .

Solution:
Let y = f(x) =
1
1
3
Then dy = 3 dx
3
Since f(64) = 4. We get x = 64 and dx = = 1

This gives dy =
1
3
64
2
3
1 =
65 = 64 + 1 = 4 +
1
48
1
3(16)
4
48
4.021
4. The radius of a sphere was measured and found to be 21 cm with

a possible error in measurement of atmost 0.05 cm. What is the
maximum error in using this value of the radius to compute the
volume of the sphere ?
Solution:
4
If the radius of the sphere is r, then its volume is V = r3.

3
If the error in the measured value of r is denoted by dr = r,

Then, the corresponding Error in the calculated value of V is V.
which can be approximated by the differential dV = 4r2dr.
When r = 21 and dr=0.05,
111
TH
This becomes dV = 4 (21)2(0.05 ) 277.

The maximum error in the calculated volume is about 277 cm3.
5. The time of swing T of a pendulum is given by T = k where k is a
constant. Determine the percentage error in the time of swing if the
length of the pendulum l changes from 32.1 cm to32.0 cm.
Solution:
1
2
If T = k = k()
Then
1
2
1
2
and
dl = 32.0-32.1= -0.1 cm
Error in T = approximate change in T.
=
Percentage error =
100% =
0.1
2
0.1
100% =
0.1

100%
0.1
2(32.1)
100%
= -0.156%
Hence the percentage error in the time of swing is a decrease of
0.156%
6. A circular template has a radius of 10 cm ( 0.02). Determine the
possible error in calculating the area of the templates. Find also the
percentage error.
112
TH
Solution:
Area of circular template A = r2,
Hence = 2r,
Approximate change in area A (2r)dr.

When r = 10 cm and dr = 0.02
A = (210) (0.02) 0.4cm2
i.e, the possible error in calculating the template area is
approximately 1.257 cm2
Percentage error
0.4
(10)2
100
= 0.4%
7. Show that the percentage error in the nth root of a number is
1
Approximately times the percentage error in the number .
Solution:
1
Let x be the number. Let y = f(x) = ()

1
Then log y = log x
Taking differential on both sides,

1
we have dy =
i.e.,
113
1 1
= .
100
100
TH
= times the percentage error in the number.
8. Find the approximate change in the volume V of a cube of side x

meters caused by increasing the side by 1%
Solution:
The volume of the cube of side x is,
V = x3;dV = 3x2dx
When dx = 0.01x, dV = 3x2(0.01x) = 0.03 x3m3.
9. Trace the curve y = x3 + 1
Solution:
(1) Domain, Extent, intercepts and origin:
The function is defined for all real values of x and hence the
domain is the entire interval (, ). Horizontal extent is
<x < and vertical extent is <y <.
Clearly x = 0 yields the y intercept as + 1 and y = 0 yields the
x intercepts as 1. It is obvious that the curve does not pass
through (0,0).
(2) Symmetry Test: The symmetry test shows that the curve does
not possess any of the symmetry properties.
(3) Asymptotes: As x c (for c finite) y does not tend to and
vice versa. Therefore the curve doest not admit any asymptote.
(4) Monotonicity: The first derivative test shows that the curve is
increasing throughout (,) since y0 for all x.
114
TH
(5) Special points: The curve is concave downward in (, 0)

And concave upward in (0, )
Since y= 6x < 0 for x < 0
y= 6x > 0 for x > 0 and
y= 0 for x = 0 yields (0,1)as the inflection point.
10. Trace the cure y2 = 2x3.

Solution:
(1) Domain, extent, Intercept and Origin :
When x 0, y is well defined. As x , y ,
The curve exists in first and fourth quadrant only
The intercepts with the axes are given by :
x = 0, y = 0 and when y = 0, x = 0
Clearly the curve passes through origin.
(2) Symmetry: By symmetry test, we have, the curve is symmetric
about x axis only.
(3) Asymptotes: As x + , y , and vice versa.
115
TH
the curve does not admit asymptotes.

(4) Monotonicity: For the branch y = 2x3/2 of the curve is
increasing since > 0 for x > 0 and the branch y = 2x3/2 of the
curve is decreasing since < 0 for x > 0
(5) Special points: (0,0) is not a point of inflection.

This curve is called a semi cubical parabola.
11. Discuss the curve y2 ( 1 + x) = x2 (1 x)

for (i) existence (ii) symmetry (iii) asymptotes (iv) loops
Solution:
(i) Existence: The function is not well defined when x >1 and
x 1 and the curve lies between 1<x 1.
(ii) Symmetry: The curve is symmetrical about the x axis only.
(iii) Asymptotes: x = 1 is a vertical asymptote to the curve
parallel toy axis.
(iv) Loops: (0,0) is a point through which the curve passes twice
and hence aloop is formed between x = 0 and x = 1.
116
TH
12. Discuss the curve a2 y2 = x2 (a2x2), a > 0

Solution:
(i) Existence:
The curve is well defined for (a2x2) 0 i.e., x2a2
i.e., x a and x a
(ii) Symmetry: The curve is symmetrical about x-axis, y axis,
and hence about the origin.
(iii) Asymptotes: It has no asymptote.
(iv) Loops: For a <x < 0 and 0 <x <a, y2> 0
y is positive and negative
a loop is formed between x = 0 and x = a and another loop is
formed between x = a and x = 0.
117
TH
13. Discuss the curve y2 = (x 1) (x 2)2.

Solution:
(i) Existence:
The curve is not defined for x 1< 0,
ie., whenever x < 1, the R.H.S. is negative
y2 < 0 which is impossible.
The curve is defined for x 1.
(ii) Symmetry: The curve is symmetrical about x-axis.
(iii) Asymptote: The curve does not admit asymptotes.
(iv) Loops: Clearly a loop is formed between (1, 0) and (2, 0).
14. Determine:
2 2
2,
2,
if u(x,y) = x4 + y3 + 3x2y2 + 3x2y

Solution:
2
2
2
2
= 4x3 + 6xy2 + 6xy

= 3y2 + 6x2y + 3x2
= 12x2 + 6y2 + 6y
= 6y + 6x2
2

2

= 12 xy + 6x
= 12xy + 6x
118
TH
Note that
due to continuity of u and its first order
partial derivatives.
15. If u = log (tan x + tan y + tan z), prove that sin 2x = 2
Solution :
sec 2
tan +tan +tan
2 sin cos . sec 2

sin 2
=
tan + tan + tan
=
2 tan
tan +tan +tan
Similarly,
sin 2
2 tan
=
tan + tan +tan
sin 2
tan + tan +tan
L.H.S= sin 2
2( tan +tan +tan )

tan +tan +tan
= 2 = . .
16. If U =(x y) (y z) (z x)
then show that Ux+ Uy+ Uz= 0
Solution:
Ux= (y z) {(x y) (1) + (z x).1}
= (y z) [(z x) (x y)]
119
TH
Similarly
Uy= (z x) [(x y) (y z)]
Uz= (x y) [(y z) (z x)]
Ux+ Uy+ Uz= (y z) [(z x) (z x)] + (x y) [(y z) (yz)]
+ (z x) [(x y) (x y)]
Ux+ Uy+ Uz = 0
2
17. Suppose that z = y where = 2 = log ,

Find
Solution:

=
+

= y 2;
= 2;
= 1
= y 2 2 + (1)
2
= 4
= 4 [ 8 1 1 ]
= 4 (8 8 2 1)
18. If = 2 =
Find
120
= log ,
TH
Solution:
We know
and
= 2 ;
= 2 ;
=
=
;
;
= log ;
=
+ 2
= 2 2 + 2 log
2
3
(2 + )
[ log 2]
19. = + 2 + 2 and = cos ; = sin ; = .

Find
Solution:
We know
=1;
= sin
=2;
= cos
121
TH
= 2 ;
=1
=1( sin ) + 2 cos + 2z

= sin + 2 cos + 2t
1
20. Verify Eulers theorem for f(x, y) =
2 + 2
Solution:
1
f( t x, t y) =
2 2 + 2 2
, = 1 (, )
f is a homogenous function of degree 1 and

By Eulers theorem,
Verification:
=
3
( 2 + 2 ) 2
( 2 + 2 ) 2
Similarly,
=
( 2 + 2 ) 2
+ =
2 + 2
3
( 2 + 2 ) 2
1
2 + 2
= .
Hence Eulers theorem is verified.

21. If u is a homogenous function of x and y of degree n,
prove that
2
2
= ( 1)
Solution:
Since U is a homogeneous function in x and y of degree n,
122
TH
Uy is homogeneous function in x and y of degree n 1.

Applying Eulers theorem for Uy
we have,
x (Uy)x+ y (Uy)y= (n 1) Uy
i.e., xUyx+ y Uyy = (n 1) Uy
= ( 1)
22. Using Eulers theorem, prove that
1
2
tan
If = sin1
Solution:
R.H.S.is homogeneous and hence define
= sin =
f is homogenous of degree
1
2
By Eulers theorem,
123
1
2
1
sin + .
sin = sin
1
cos + .
cos = sin
1
2
tan
TH
6. DIFFERNTIAL CALCULUS
APPLICATION-II
Exercise sums
EXERCISE 6.1
1. Find the differential of the functions
y = x5
(i)
(iv) =
(iii) y = 4 + 2 + 1
(ii) y=
(v) y = sin 2x
2+3
(vi) y= x tan x
Solution :
(i) y = f(x) = x5
f (x) = 5x4 => dy = 5x4 dx
(ii) y = f(x) = x
1 3
1 3
4
= => = . 4
4
4
(iii) y = f(x) = (x4+x2+1) 1/2

1
f (x) = ( 4 + 2 + 1) 2 (4x3+2x)
2
4 3 + 2
2 4 + 2 + 1
(iv) = =
+1
2
2+3
=
124
1
2
(2 2 + 1)
2 + 3 . 1 2 . 2
2 + 3 2
TH
=
=
7
(2 + 3)2
7
(2 + 3)2
(v) y = f(x) = sin 2x

f (x) = 2 cos 2x
===> dy = 2 cos 2x . dx
(vi)y = f(x) = x tan x

f (x) = x.sec2x + tan x.1
=> dy = (x sec2x + tan x) dx
2. Find the differential dy and evaluate dy for the given values of x and
dx.
y = 1-x2,
(i)
x=5,
dx =
1
2
(ii) y = x 3x + x-1, x=2, dx = 0.1.

(iii) y = (x2 + 5)3,
x = 1, dx = 0.05
(iv) y = 1 ,
x = 0 , dx = 0.02
(v)
x = , dx = 0.05
y = cos x,
Solution :
(i)
125
dy = f (x)dx
TH
y = f(x) = (1 x2)
dy = -2x dx
When x = 5, dx = 1/2;
dy = -2 5
1
2
= -5
(ii)
y = f(x) = x4 3 x3 + x 1
dy = (4x3 9x2 + 1) dx
When x = 2, dx = 0.1;
dy = (4 8 9 4 + 1) (0.1)
= - 0.3
(iii)
y = f(x) = (x2+5)3
dy = 3(x2 + 5)2 2x dx
= 6(x2 + 5)2 x dx
When x = 1, dx = 0.05,
dy = 6(1+5)2 (1) (0.05)

= 10.8
(iv)
y = f(x) = (1-x)1/2
dy =
126
1
2
(-1) dx
TH
1
2 1
dx
When x = 0, dx = 0.02;
dy = -
1
2
(0.02)
= - 0.01
(v)
y = f(x) = cos x
dy= - sin x dx
When x = ,dx = 0.05 ;

6
dy = -sin x 0.05 = - 0.025

6
3. Use differentials to find an approximate value for the given number

36.1
(i)
(ii)
(iii) y =
10.1
1.02+ 1.02
(iv) (1.97)6
Solutions:
(i) Let y = f(x) = x 12
Take x = 36, dx = = 0.1
dy =
=
=
2
1
2
1
2
36
0.1
12
dx
1
0.1
=0 .0083
f(x + ) = y + dy = f(36) +0.008 = 6 + 0.008

127
TH
36.1 6.008
(ii)
Let y = f(x) =
Take x = 10, dx = = 0.1

dy =
=-
1
2
dx
x 0.1
100
= - 0.001
f(x + ) = y + dy = f(10)- 0.001
=
1
10
- 0.001
= 0.099
1
10.1
0.099
(iii)
Let y = f(x) = 3
Take x = 1 ; dx = = 0.02
2
dy = 13 3 .dx
= 13 (1) (0.02)
= 0.0066
f(x+)= y + dy
128
TH
= f(1) + 0.0066
= 1 + 0.0066
1
(1.02)3 = 1.0066
1
Again, let y = f(x) = 3

Here x = 1, dx = = 0.02
3
dx = 14 4 dx
1
= (1) (0.02)
4
= 0.005
f(x+)= y + dy = f(1) + 0.005 = 1.005
1
4
(1.02) = 1.005
1
3
1
4
(1.02) +(1.02) = 1.0066 + 1.005

= 2.0116
Let y = f(x) = x6
(iv)
Take x = 2, dx = = - 0.03
dy = 6x5 dx
= 6 25 (-0.03)
= - 5.76
129
TH
f(x+)= y + dy = f(2) 5.76

= 26 -5.76 = 58.24
(1.97)6 = 58.24
4. The edge of a cube was found to be 30 cm with a possible error in
measurement of 0.1 cm. Use differentials to estimate the maximum
possible error in computing (i) the volume of the cube and (ii) the
surface area of cube.
Solution:
Volume of the cube v = a3 =>
(i)
=3a2
Approximate change in the volume 3a2 da

= 3 30 30 0.1 = 270 cm3
The maximum possible error in volume is 270 cm3
(ii)
Surface area of the cube S = 6a2
= 12a
Approximate change in the surface area

= 12a da
= 12 30 0.1
= 36 cm2
The maximum possible error in the surface area = 36cm2
5. The radius of a circular disc is given as 24 cm with a maximum error
in measurement of 0.02cm.
(i)
(ii)
130
Use differentials to estimate the maximum error in the

calculated area of the disc
Compute the relative error?
TH
Solution:
Area of the disc A= r2
(i)
= 2r
Approximate change in the area 2r dr

= 2(24) (0.02) = 0.96 cm2
The maximum error in the area = 0.96 cm2
A= r2
Talking log on both sides,
(ii)
log A = log + 2 log r

Talking differential on both sides,
1
dA = 2. dr
The relative error in A

i.e.,
= dA = 2. dr
= 2.
1
24
x (0.02)
= 0.0017
The relative error in A is approximately 0.0017
`EXERCISE 6.2
1. Truce the curve y = x3
Solution :
(i)
131
Domain, extent, intercepts and origin

TH
The function is defined for all real values of x and hence the
domain is
(-, ) . The horizontal extent is - < x < and the vertical
extent is
- < y < . Clearly it passes through the origin since (0,0)
satisfies
the equation.
(ii)
Symmetry
It is symmetrical about the origin.
(iii) Asymptotes
The curve does not admit any asymptote.
(iv) Monotonicity
Since y 0 for all x, the curve is increasing in (- , ).
(v)
Special points
Since y = 6x, the curve is convcave upward in (0, ) and
convex upward in (-, 0)
y = 0 for x = 0 yields (0,0) as the point of infiection.
Discuss the following curves for
(i)
Existence (ii) Symmetry
(iii)Asymptotes (iv) loops
2.y2 = x2 (1-x2)
Solution :
(i)
Existence
The curve is defined only for (1 x2) 0 i.e., x 1 and
132
TH
x -1
(ii)
Symmetry
The curve is symmetrical about x-axis and y-axis and hence
about the origin.
(iii) Asymptotes
It has no asymptotes
(iv) Loops :
(0,0) is a point through which the curve passes twice.
For 1 < x < 0 and 0 < x < 1, y2> 0 ie., y is positive and
negative.
Two loops are formed between x = -1 and x = 0; x = 0 and
x = 1.
3. y2 (2 + x) = x2 (6-x)
Solution:
(i) Existence
The function is well defined only for x 6
and x > -2 i.e., the curve lies between -2 < x 6
(ii) Symmetry
The curve is symmetrical about x axis.
(iii) Asymptotes
When x = -2, y2 becomes infinite i.e., y
x = -2 is a vertical asymptote.
133
TH
(iv) Loops: (0, 0) is a point through which the curve passes

twice
and hence a loop is formed between x = 0 and x = 6.
(4) y2 = x2 (1-x)
Solution:
(i) Existence
The curve is defined only for (1-x) 0 i.e., x 1
(ii) Symmetry
(iii) Asymptotes
It has no asymptotes.
(iv) Loops
(0, 0) is a point through which the curve passes twice and
hence a loop is formed between x = 0 and x = 1.
5.y2 = (x - a) (x b)2
a, b > 0, a>b,
Solution:
(i) Existence
The curve is defined only for x = b and x a. for x = b,
we have a point only.
(ii) Symmetry
(iii) Asymptotes
It has no asymptotes.
134
TH
(iv) Loops
There is no loop
EXERCISE 6.3
1. verify
for the following functions:
(i) = 2 + 3 + 2 (ii) =
(iii) = sin 3 cos 4
(iv) = tan1
Solution:
(i) = 2 + 3 + 2
= 2 + 3;
= 3 + 2
=3;
(ii) =
=3
3
=
2 (-2).
= .(-2).
1
2
2 +
2
3
2
3
=
1
2
3 +2 3
3 2
3 +2 3
2 3

2
2
2
2
= 3+ 3;
= 3 + 3.1

135
TH
(iii) = sin 3 cos 4
= cos 4 . cos 3 . 3 = 3 cos 3 cos 4
= sin 3 sin 4 . 4 = 4 sin 3 sin 4

= 4 sin 4 cos 3 . 3 = 12 cos 3 3 sin 4

= 3 cos 3 sin 4 . 4 = 12 cos 3 sin 4

(iv) = tan1
1
1+
1
1+
2.
2 .
= 2
+ 2
1
2
2 + 2

2 + 2 . 1 . 2
2 2
=
= 2

2 + 2 2
+ 2 2

2 + 2 . 1 . 2
2 2
=
= 2

2 + 2 2
+ 2 2
2

136
2

TH
2. (i) if u = 2 + 2 ,
(ii) if u= sin + cos ,
=0
Solution :
u = 2 + 2
1 2
= + 2
2
2 =
1 2
= + 2
2
1
2
2 =
+
=
2
2
2
2
2 + 2
2 + 2
=
2 + 2 =
+
=
(ii) the given function is homogeneous and therefore it is easy to prove

buy Eulers theorem.
u=
, =
sin + cos
sin + cos = ,
degree of u is 0
By Eulers theorem,
137
TH

3. Using chain rule find
+
= = 0. = 0
for each of the following:
(i) w =exy where x=t2, y=t3

(ii) w = log(x2+y2) where x=et, y=e-t
(iii) w =
where x=cos t, y= sin t.
( 2 + 2 )
(iv) = + where x=cos t, y=sin t,z=t

Solution:
W=exy
(i)
= . . 2 + . . 3 2
5
= 3 . 2 + 2 . 3 2 = 5 4 = 5 4
(ii)
=
=
(iii)
2 +
2 . 2 +
2
2 + 2
2 + 2 2
1
2 + 2 2
2 + 2
. 2( )
[ 2 2 ]
2 + 2 .1.2
. sin +
0.2
2 + 2 2
(cos )
[( 2 2 ) sin 2 cos ]
= [ sin2 cos2 sin 2 cos sin cos ]

1
138
TH
= sin [ sin2 + cos2 2 cos2 ]

= sin
(iv)
= . sin + . (cos ) + 1.1

= sin2 + cos2 + 1 = 2 cos1
4. (i) find
= log 2 + 2 = cos , =
sin
(ii)
= 2 + 2
= 2 2 , = 2
(iii)
= sin1
Where = + , = .
Solution:
(i)
1
2 + 2
2
2
. 2(cos ) +
1
2 + 2
. 2. sin
cos2 + sin2 =
+
1
1
= 2
.
2(
)
+
. 2. ( cos )
+ 2
2 + 2
139
TH
=
2
2
[ sin + sin ]
2
[ sin cos + sin cos ] = 0
(ii) = 2 + 2
= 2. 2 + 2. 2
= 4 2 2 + 2.
= 4 3 + 2 = 4[2 + 2 ]
= 2. 2 + 2. (2)
= 4[ 2 2 2. ]
= 4[2 3 22 ]
= 4 3 + 2 = 4[2 + 2 ]
(iii) = sin1 Where = + , = .
1( )
140
. . 1 +
2
1( )2
=
=
1
1( )2
. . 1
2
1( 2 2 )2
TH
1
1( )
. . 1 +
2
1( )2
. . (1)
1 2
2
1( 2 2 )2
5. using Eulers theorem prove the following:

(i) if =
3
3
1 +
tan
Show that
(ii) = 2 sin
Show that
= sin 2.
,
+
= 3.
(iii) if u is a homogeneous function of ,

2 2 2
2
, ,
,
,
2 2

2
2
=
(
1)
2

(iv) if = +

+
= + + .
Solution: (i)
. tan .
= tan =
3 + 3
2.
141
TH
By eulers theorem
+
= 2
(tan ) +
(tan ) = 2 tan
. sec 2 .
+ . sec 2 .
= 2 tan
2 tan
+
=
= 2 sin cos = sin 2.
sec 2
(ii) = 2 sin
,
, = 3 2 sin
3.
By eulers theorem
+
= 2
(iii) since U is a homogeneous function of degree n,

is a homogeneous function of degree 1.
. ( ) + ( ) = ( 1)( )
. ( ) + ( ) = ( 1)
i.e., .
2
2
= ( 1)
(iv) = +
142
= . + . + + .
TH
= . + . + + .
+
= + + + .
+ .
= + + +

+
=
+
= + ( + + )
= + +
END
143
TH

12th Maths - CH 5 & 6

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BHARATHIDASANAR MATRIC HIGHER

Prepared by: P. Sivakumar, MSc., M.Ed

BHARATHIDHASANAR MATRIC HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL ARAKKONAM-12 MATHS 6&10 MARKS

Since length l = 1 + 0.00005+ 0.00000042,

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= 0.00005 + (0.0000008) (400)

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When the light is increasing at 0.6 candelas per volt then

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BHARATHIDHASANAR MATRIC HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL ARAKKONAM-12 MATHS 6&10 MARKS

(i) When time t = 0

seconds is given by x = gt2 where g = 9.8 m/sec2. Determine the

= (9.8) t2 = 4.9 t2m

When time t = 2 seconds

BHARATHIDHASANAR MATRIC HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL ARAKKONAM-12 MATHS 6&10 MARKS

Which is the acceleration due to gravity.

angular velocity = = 18t 6t2rad/s

When time t = 1 second,

when t = 1, angular acceleration = 6 rad/ s2

6.A boy, who is standing on a pole of height 14.7 m throws a stone

BHARATHIDHASANAR MATRIC HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL ARAKKONAM-12 MATHS 6&10 MARKS

(i) x = 9.8 t 4.9 t2

To get the total time, put x = 14.7 in the given equation.

7. A ladder 10 m long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the

BHARATHIDHASANAR MATRIC HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL ARAKKONAM-12 MATHS 6&10 MARKS

We are given that = 1 m/sec and we are asked

we have2x + 2y = 0and solving this equation for the derived rate we

BHARATHIDHASANAR MATRIC HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL ARAKKONAM-12 MATHS 6&10 MARKS

When x = 6, the Pythagoras theorem gives, y = 8 and so substituting

The ladder is moving downward at the rate of /

8. A car A is travelling from west at 50 km/hr. and car B is travelling

Where C is the intersection of the two roads. At a given time t,

We are given that = 50 km/hr and

BHARATHIDHASANAR MATRIC HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL ARAKKONAM-12 MATHS 6&10 MARKS

The equation that relate x, y and z is given by the Pythagoras

i.e., the cars are approaching each other at a rate of 78 km/hr.

Let V, r and h be respectively the volume of the water,

BHARATHIDHASANAR MATRIC HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL ARAKKONAM-12 MATHS 6&10 MARKS

We are given that

We are asked to find

The quantities V and h are related by the equation V = r2h.

But it is very useful to express V as function of h alone.

The equation of the normal is y y1 = (x x1)

BHARATHIDHASANAR MATRIC HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL ARAKKONAM-12 MATHS 6&10 MARKS

At the point (1,2), m = 1

Equation of the normal is y y1 = (x x1)

Differentiating w.r.to x we get,

Hence the required equation of the tangent is

BHARATHIDHASANAR MATRIC HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL ARAKKONAM-12 MATHS 6&10 MARKS

= sin = 2 sin cos

Also for = , the point on the curve is

Hence the equation of the tangent at =

Equation of the normal at this point is

14. Find the equations of tangent and normal to the curve

BHARATHIDHASANAR MATRIC HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL ARAKKONAM-12 MATHS 6&10 MARKS

16x2 + 9y2 = 144 at (x1,y1) where x1 = 2 and y1>0.

BHARATHIDHASANAR MATRIC HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL ARAKKONAM-12 MATHS 6&10 MARKS

Thus the point of tangency is