ISHE ESSAY BRAINSTORM: "Your skin: a very adaptable

organ"
28 de novembro de 2014

21:29

Outline following points:

The structure and functions of the skin
What changes in skin physiology are associated with ageing
How these changes compromise the functions and the appearance of the skin

The Skin:
Referred referred to as the integumentary system (organ system)- accounts for about 16 percent of the
body's total weight.
Hold a surface area in between the values of 1.5-2m2 in area
Exposed to external factors such as microorganisms, environmental chemicals and sunlight
It is the body's first line of defense against an often hostile environment- where it meets external
environment.
Two major components of integumentary system:
1. Cuntaneous membrane (also known as skin)
2. Accesory Structures
Cuntaneous membrane
Divided into 2 components:
1. Epidermis (epi- above)/ superficial epithelium
2. Dermis- underlying tissue (bellow epidermis)
Accessory organs
Are predominantely found in the dermis yet, exted beyong the epidermis to the skin surface:
Include hair, nails and multicellular exocrine glands
The dermis is holds an extensive network of blood vessels in which sensory receptors which monitor
touch, pressure, temperature and pain provide valuable information to the central nervous system about
the state of the body.
A loose connenctive tissue rests just below the dermis, known as the hypodermis which is often referred
to as the subcutaneous layer or superficial fascia. Its function is to separate the intugument from the
deep fascia around other organs such as muscles and bones. This connective tissue is considered
separate from the integument yet it should be mentioned as its connective tissue fibers are interwoven
with those of the dermis.
General functions of the skin and hypodermis include the following:

Protection- to the underlying tissues and organs against: impact, abrasion, fluid loss and chemical attack
Excretion - of certain cmponents such as salts, water, and organic wastes by integumentary glands.
Maintenance- homeotatis; controlling and regulating body temperature through insulation or
evaporative cooling.
Production- certain components beneficial skin protection: melanin ( protects underlying tissue from UV
radiation) and keratin (protects against abrasion/ repels water).

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 Synthesis of vitamin D3- production of a steroid which is converted to calcitriol (hormone vital in
regulating calcium metabolism).
Storage- lipids in adipocytes in the dermis and in adipose tissue in the subcuntaneous layer.
Detection- of touch, pressure, pain and temperature stimuli, and the relaying of that information to the
nervous system.

Epidermis: Layers and Functions

Consists of a stratified squamous epithelium (which provides mechanical protection and protects body
from hamful microorganisms).
Is avascular, meaning that it does not hold any loca blood vessels; thus epidermal cells rely on the
diffusion of nutreitns and oygen from capillaries within the dermis- results in epidermal cells with highest
metabolic demands being located closer to the basement membrane so there is a short distance for
diffusion. Superficial cells which are located at the surface of the dermis- receive less oxygen and
nutrients which explains why they are dead.
Keratinocytes (body's most abundant epithelial cells) are located in several layers along the epidermis.
These hold large amounts of the protein- keratin.

Thin skin of the epidermis (covering most of the body's surface) contains four layers of keratinocytes
(0.08mm thickness) while thick skin (located on palms of the hands and soles of feet) contains one more
layer of skin compared to thin skin (stratum lucidum) which makes it thicker (0.5mm).
Stratum- layer (latin)
Epidermis consists of various layers packed together, ech of these holds the name of stratum (layer)
followed by their specific function/ appearance of layer.
From layers (stratum) from the basement to the skin surface are organized in the following order:
stratum basale, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum, surface of skin.
STRATUM BASALE
Innermost epidermal layer also recognized as the stratum germinativum.

The cells of this kayer are attached to the basement membrane (which separates the epidermis from the
aerolar tissue of the adjacent dermis) by hemidesmosomes.
The bond between the epidermis and dermis is intensified through the interlock between the stratum
basale and the underlying dermis as edpidermal ridges, formed by the stratum basale extend into the
dermis and are adjacent to dermal protections known as the dermal papillae which project into the
epidermis. The significance of the epidermal ridges and dermal papillae is due to the strength of
attachement being proportional to the surface area of the basement membrane as the more deeper the
folds, the larger the surface area becomes.
Contours of the skin follow the ridge patterns- vary from small conical pegs (thin skin) to the complex
whorls seen on the thick skin of the palms and soles.
Ridges on palms and soles increase surface area of skin and increase friction- ensures a secure grip. These
ridge shapes are genetically determined.

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 Pattern of the epidermal ridges is unique and does not change during lifetime and the ones on the tips of
the fingers are the basis of fingerprints.
Innermost epidermal layer is dominated by basal cells (germinative cells) these are stem cells whose
divisions replace the more superficial keratinocyes lost or shed at the epithelial surface.
Specialized epithelial cells, known as Merkel cells are tactile cells which rest on skin surfaces which lack
hair. These are scattered among the cells of the stratum basale. They are sensitive to touch and thus
release chemicals that stimulate sensory nerve endings when compressed. Pigment cell, known as
melanocytes are located along the stratum basale and have the function of undergoing syntethic
acitvities which extend into more superficial layers and influence the tone of the skin.
STRATUM SPINOSUM
Consists of 8 to 10 layers of keratinocytes bound together by desmosomes.
The division of ste cells in the stratum basale result in one of the daughter cells being pushed into the
stratum spinosum- these can continue to divide and thus influence the increase of thickness of the
epithelium.
Dendritic (Langerhans) cells can also be found in this layer and paritcipate in the immune response by
stimulating a defense against microorganisms that manage to penetrate superficial layers of the
epidermis and superficial skin cancers.

STRATUM GRANULOSUM

Is the region superficial to the stratum spinosum, which is also referred to as the "grainny layer".
Cosists of 3 to 5 layers of keratinocytes derived from the stratum spinosum.
Cells which reach this layer have most likely already stopped dividing and have strated making large
amounts of protein (keratin) and keratohyalin.
Keratin- tough, fibrous protein which is the basic structural component of hair and nails in humans.
As keratin fibres develop, the cells grow thinner and flatter and their membranes thicken and become
less permeable.
Keratohyalin- forms dense cytoplasmic granules that promote dehydration of the of the cells as well as
aggregation and cross-linking of he keratin fibres.
Results in the desintegration of the nuclei and other organelles which leads to the death of the cell.
Further dehydration of the cells creates a tightly interlocked layer of cells that consist of keratin fibres
surrounded by keratohyalin.
STRATUM LUCIDUM
Is a clear layer which has the function of covering the stratum granulosum in the areas of the thick skin of
the palms and soles.

The cells in this layer are flat, densely packed together, free from organelles and full of keratin.
STRATUM CORNEUM

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 Located at the exposed surface of thick and thin skin.

Contains 15 to 30 layers of keratinized cells.
Keratinization/ cornification- formation of protective, superficial layers of cells filled with keratin.
Keratinization occurs on all exposed skin surfaces except the anterior surfaces of the eyes.
The dead cells in each layer of the stratum corneum remain tightly interconnected by desmosomes- the
connetions are so secure that keratanized cells are generally shed in large groups or sheets rather than
individually.
It takes 7-10 days for a cell to move from the stratum basal to the stratum corneum- the dead cells
generally remain in the exposed stratum corneum for an additioal two weeks before they are shed or
washed away- this arrangement places the deeper portions of the epithelium and underlying tissues
beneath a protective barrier of dead, durable, and expendable cells.
The surface of the stratum corneum is relatively dry which makes it unsuitable or the growht of many
microorganisms; maintenance of this barrier involves coating the surface with lipid secretions from
sebaceous glands.

Stratum corneum is water resistant yet not water proof.

Water from interstitial fluids slowly penetrates to the surface, to be evaporated into the surrounding air.
Process if known as insensible perspiration as humans are unable to see or feel the water loss.

Sensible prespiration- is produced by active sweat glands which is visible and therefore humans are
aware of it.
Damage to the epidermis can increase the rate of insensible prespiration- if damage breaks the
connnections between superficial and deeper layers of the epidermis, fluid will accumulate i pockets, or
blisters, within the epidermis.
If basement membrane is damaged, blisters can also form between the epidermis and dermis if the
basement membrane is damaged.

If damage to the stratum corneum reduces its effectiveness as a water barrier, the rate of insensible
perspiration skyrockets, and a potentially dangerous fluid loss occurs.
When skin is immersed in water, osmotic forces may move water into or out of the epithelium. Water
moves into the epidermis due to fresh water being hypotonic (has fewer dissolved materials) compared
with body fluids. This causes the epithelial cells of the stratum corneum to swell up to four times of their
normal volume- a reaction which can be particularly noticed in the thickly keratinized areas of the palms
and soles.

Factors influencing skin color: Epidermal pigmentation and Dermal circulation

Pigments in the epidermis and blood flow in the dermis influence skin color
Epidermis contains vaiable quantities of two pigments: carotene and melanin
Carotene- an oragne-yelow pigment that normally accumulates in epidermal cells. It is most apparent in
the cells of the stratum corneum of light-sinned individuals, but it also accumulates in fatty tissues in the
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the cells of the stratum corneum of light-sinned individuals, but it also accumulates in fatty tissues in the
deep dermis and subcuntaneous layer.
Carotene can be converted ito vitamin A- required for both the normal maintenance of epithelia and the
synthesis of photoreceptor pigments in the eye.
Melanin- brown, yello-brown, or black pigment produced by melanocytes (pigment cells). Melanocytes
nvolved are lcated in the stratu basale, squeezed bewteen or deep to the epithelial cells.
Melanocytes manufacture melani from the amino acid tyrosine and package it in intracellular vesicles
called melanosomes- these vesicles travel within the processes of melanocytes and are transferred intact
to keratinocytes.
The transfer of pigmentation colors the keratinocyte temporarily, until the melanosomes are destroyed
by fusion with lysosomes. In individuals with pale skin, this transfer occurs in the stratu basale and
stratum spinosum, and the cells of more superficial layers lose their pigmentation. In dark-skinned
people, the melanosomes are larger and the transfer may occur in the stratum granulosum as well; skin
pigmentation is thus darker and more persistent.

The ratio of melanocytes to basal cells ranges between 1:4 and 1:20, depending on the redion of the
body.
The skin covering most areas of the body has about 1000 melanocytes per square millimeter. The cheeks
and forehead, the nipples and genital regio (the scrotum of males and the laba majora of femlas) have
higher concentrations (about 2000 per square millimeter).
The differences in skin pigmentation among individuals do not reflect different numbers of melanocytes,
but merely different levels of synthetic activity.

There can also be localized differences in the rated of melanin production by your melanocytes. Senile
lentigos, or liver sports, are variably pigmented areas that develop on sun-exposed skin on older
individuas with pale skin.
The melanin in keratinocytes protects the epidermis and dermis from harmful effects of sunlight, which
contains significant amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
A small amount of UV radiation is beneficial becuase it stimulates the epidermal production of a
compound required for calcium ion homeostasis. However, UV radiation can also cause severe damage
both to the epidermis and the dermis. Thus, the presence of pigment layers in the epidermis helps
protect both epidermal and dermal tissues.
Over time, cumulative damage to the integument by UV exposure can harm fibroblasts, causing impaired
maintenance of the dermis- the resulting structural alterations lead to premature wrinkling.

Limited exposure to light is beneficial to epithelial cells, although it can damage them.
When exposed to UV radiation, epidermal cells in the stratum spinosum and stratum basale convert a
cholesterol-related steroid into cholecalciferol or vitamin D3. The liver then converts cholecalciferol into
an intermediary product used by the kidneys to synthesize the hormone calcitriol. Calcitrol is essential for
the normal absorption of calcium and phosphorus by the small intestine; an inadequate supply leads to
impaired bone maintenance and growth.
The Dermis is the tissue layer thaat supports the epidermis
The dermis lies between the epidermis and the hypodermis, it has two major components:
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 The dermis lies between the epidermis and the hypodermis, it has two major components:
1. A superficial papillary layer
2. Depper reticular layer

Papillary layer- consists of aerolar tissue, contains the capillaries lymphatics, and sensory neurons that
supply the surface of the skin.
Reticular layer- deep to the papillary layer, consists of an interwoven meshwork of dense irregular
connective tissue containing both collagen and eleastic fibres.
Bundles of collagen fibres extend superficially beyond the reticular layer to blend into those of the
papillary layer, so the boundary between two two layers is indistinct.
Collagen fibres of the reticular layer also extted into the deeper hypodermis.
In adition to extracellular protein fibers, the dermis contains all the cells of connetive tissue proper.
Accessory organs of epidermal origin, such as hair follicles and sweat glands, extend into the
dermis.
In addition, the reticular and papillary layers of the dermis contain network of blood vessels and
nerve fibers.

Collagen and elastic fibers give the dermis strength and elasticity. Collagen fibers are very strong
and resist streatching, but they are easily bent or twisted. Elastic fibres permit stretching and then
recoil to their original length.
The elastic fibres provide flexibility, and the collagen fibres limit that flexibility to prevent damage
to tissue.
The water content of the skin also helps maintain its flexibility and resilience, properties collectively
known as skin turgor. One of the signs of dehydration is the loss of skin turgor, revealed by pinching
the skin on the back of the hand- a dehydrated dermis will remain peaked when pinche, whereas a
hydrated skin will flatten out. Aging, hormones and the destructive effects of ultaviolet radiation
permanently reduce the amount of elastin in the dermis; the reusult is wrinkles and sagging skin.
Arteries supplying the skin form networks in the hypodermis along its border with the reticular
layer of the dermis- network is called the cutaneous plexus. Tributaries of these arteries supply
both the adipose tissues f the subcutaneous layer and the tissues of the integument.
As small arteries travel toward the epidermis, branches supply the hair follicles, sweat gland,and
other strucutres in the dermis.
On reaching the papilary layer, the small arteries form another branching network, the papillary
plexus which provides arterial blood to carpillary loops that follow the contours of the epidermisdermis boundary. These capillaries empty into a netwrok of small veins that form a venous plexus
deep to the papillary plexus- this netwrok is in turn connected to a larger venous plexus in the
hypodermis.
Integument is filled with sensory receptors- anything that comes in contact with the skin initiates a
nerve impulse that can reach our conscious awareness.
Nerve fibres in the skin control blood flow adjust gland secretion rates, and monitor sensory
receptors in the dermis and the deeper layer of the epidermis.

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 The deeper layer of the epidermis contain tactile cells; sensory terminals also known as tactile discs
monitor these cels.
The epidermis also contains the extensions of sensory neurons that provide sensations of pain and
temperature. The dermis contains similar receptors, as well as other, more specialized receptorsuch as receptros sensitive to light touch- tactile corpsuscles, located in the dermal papillae- and
receptors sensitive to deep presure and vibration- lamellated corpuscles, in the reticular layer.

The hypodermis is tissue beneath the dermis that connects it to underlying tissues
The connective tissue fibers of the reticular layer are extensively interwoven with those of the
hypodermis. The boundary between the two is generally indistinct.

Hair is composed of keratinized dead cells that have been pushed to the surface
Hair, hair follicles sebaceous and sweat gland, and nails- are considered accessory structures of the
integument.
Although located in the dermmis, they project through the epidermis to the integumary surface.
The hairs and hair follicles on your body have important functions: protect scalp from ultraviolet
radiation, help cushion light impacts to the head, and insulate the skull.

Hairs guarding the netrances to the nostrils and external ear canals help prevent the entry of
foreign particles and insects; eyelashes perfomr a similar function for the surface of the eye;
eyebrows are important as they keep sweat out of the eyes- yet hairs are also extremely important
as sensory receptors.
Each hair follicle opens onto the surface of the epidermis but extends deep into the dermis and
usually into the hypodermis - deep to the epidermis, each follicle is wrapped in a dense connective
tissue sheath. A root hair plexus of sensory nerves surrounds the base of each hair follicle- thus,
humans are able to feel the movement of the shaft of eben a single hair. This sensitivity provides an
early-warning system that may help prevent injury
A bundle of smooth muscle cells form the arrector pili muscle, which extends from the papillary
layer of the dermis to the connective tissue sheath surrounding the hair follicle. When stimulated,
the arrector pili muscle contracts, puling on the follice and forcing the hair to stay erect Contraction
ay be the result of emotional states, such as fear or rage, or a response to cold.
Each hair is a long, cylindrical structure that extends outward, past the epidermal surface. The hair
root- the portion that anchors the hair into the skin- begins at the base of the hair, at the hair bulb,
and extends distally to the point at which the internal organization of the hair is complete, about
halfway to the skin surface.

Variation s in hair color reflect differences in structure and variations in the pigment produced by
melanocytes at the hair papilla.
These structural and biochemical characterisitics are generticlly determinded, but hormonal and
environmental factors aso influence the conditio of your hair- a pigment production decreases with
age, hair color lightens. White hair results from the combiation of a lack of pigment and the
presence of air bubbles in the medulla of the hair shaft. As the proportion of white hair increases,
the individual's overall hair color is described as gray. Because hair itself is dead and inert, any
changes in its coloraton are gradual.
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Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are exocrine gland found in the skin
Sebaceous glands or oils glands, are holocrine glands that discharge an oily lipid secretion into hair
follices.
Produce large quantities of lipds as they mature- lipid product is released through holocrine
secretion, a process that involves the rupture of the secretory cells.
The arrector pili muscles that erect the hair then contract, squeezing the sebaceous gland and
forcing the lipids into the hair follice and onto the surface of the skin- the secreted lipid product,
called sebum, is a mixture of triglycerides, cholesterol , proteins, and electrolytes.

Sebum inhibits the growth of bacteria, lubricates and protects the keratin of the hair shaft, and
conditions the surrounding skin. Keratin is a tough protein, but dead, keratinized cells become dry
and brittle once exposed to the environment.
Sebaceous follicles are large sebaceous gland that are ntot associated with hair follicles; their ducts
discharge sebum directly onto the epidermis- they are located on the face, back, chest and external
genitalia.
The skin contains two types of sweat glands/sudoriferous glands: aporine sweat glands and
merocrine sweat glands.
Aprocrine sweat glands ( armpits [axilae], aorund nipples, pubi region)- secrete their products into
hair folllicles. These coiled, tubular glands produce a sticky cloudy and potentially odourous
secretion.
> The sweat produced is a nutrient source for bacteria, which intensify its odor.
> Surrounding the secretory cells in these glands are special muoepithelial cells- contract and
squeeze the gland, causing the accumulated sweat to discharge into the air follicles.

> The secretory activities of the gland cells and the contactions of myoepithelial cells are
controlled by the nervous system ad by circulating hormones.
Merocrine/ eccrine sweat glands- are coiled, tubular glands tha discharge their secretions directly
onto the surface of the skin.
> Are far more numerous and widely distributed than aprocrine sweat glands.
> The adult integument contains 2-5 million merocrine sweat glands, whichb are smalled than
apocrine sweat glands and do not extend as deeply into the dermis.

> Sweat produced by merocrine sweat glands is called sensible perspiration- sweat is 99%
water, contains some electrolytes (chiefly sodium chloride), a number of organic nutrients, a
peptide with antibiotic properties, and various waste products.
> Functions:
1. Cooling the surface of the skin to reduce body temperature- primary fynction f sensible
perspiration. The degree of secretoy activity is regulated by neutral and hormonal
mechanisms; when all the merocrine sweat glands are working at their maximm, the
rate of perspiration can exceed a gallon per hour.
2. Excreeting water and electrolytes- salts (mostly sodium chloride), a number of
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2. Excreeting water and electrolytes- salts (mostly sodium chloride), a number of

metabolized drugs and water are excreted.
3. Providing protection from environmental hazards- sweat dilutes harmful chemicals in
contact with the skin as discourges the growth of microorganisms in two ways:

a) By either flushing them by surface or making it difficult for them to adhere to the
epidermal surface.
b) Through the action of dermidicin- a small peptide that has powerful antibiotic
properties.

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