GEOG 302

Introduction to Resource Analysis

LECTURE 4

FOOD RESOURCES

March 2013

GLOBAL PATTERNS OF FOOD AVAILABILITY

Food is one of the requirements of life and is a necessity that shapes peoples lives
around the globe. Food is the most fundamental of resources and yet its availability to
humans is sometimes inadequate. The population of the world is increasing at a pace
that food supply may not meet in poor regions. From 1800 to 1975, the worlds
population rose four times from 1 billion to 4 billion. Although there has been significant
advancement in technology, producing food to feed this population has not been
successful. Therefore we do not need to be convinced by the extreme Malthusian views
of possible famine to recognise the reality of this problem. In aggregate the food
available globally can feed the worlds population, but the reality is that millions starve
daily while others are awashed with grain and meat.
Food production and distribution varies in the different economic regions of the world.
Perhaps one of the most difficult tasks is gathering data to help estimate changes in
agricultural productivity owing to the subsistence nature of most of the worlds regions.
However, increasing incidence of famine, land disputes, and low crop yields in some
parts of the world can help us measure these changes.
Globally, food production has increased slightly in the 1970s by 3.4% per annum but
falling steadily from that to 2.6%, 2.5%, and 2.4% per annum in the 1960s, 1970s, and
1980s respectively (Gareth et al, 1997). This decline is worrying as a closer look at the
figures show low growth in poor countries with constant growth in the advanced world.
Cereals constitute a larger proportion of the worlds agricultural output.
Africa is one of the continents that have the lowest agricultural output and where most
countries face food shortages in most years. This has generally been due to higher
population growth against low farm output. Though Asia has witnessed increases in
cereal production (33%) in the early 1990s (Gareth et al, 1997), some countries there
also experience shortages. In the Americas, countries of Latin American origins and the
Caribbean increasingly also report food shortages. The developed world with
technology is able to increase agricultural productivity whereas the developing world is
stuck in a cycle of low productivity and low technology.
Consequently, many developing countries have become net food importers, increasing
their dependence on developed world exports. Sub-Saharan Africa for instance
received 73% of the worlds food aid in 2002. You are familiar with the array of
agricultural products such as rice, meat and tomatoes that have flooded the Ghanaian
market from the USA and the EU.
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There is certainly a world food problem, but its extent is a subject of debate. The
pessimists projected a 7% fall in per capita food production in the 1990s leading to an
absolute global shortage of food and widespread starvation and famine in developing
countries. They argue that the failure of the green revolution to continue to develop new
and higher yielding varieties and the real likelihood of droughts in the future will repeat
the 1972-4 world food crisis.
The optimist on the other hand believe the food situation is not deteriorating as the
number of undernourished people actually fell by 201 million between 1980 and 2001
despite significant increase in population. Famine has only been restricted to SubSaharan Africa. Cereal yields have levelled off in the advanced world due to
government control to prevent low prices. In developing countries, cereal yields still
experience increases due to green revolution technologies.

Food Consumption Patterns

To a large extent the global food consumption patterns is influenced by the availability
or the production capacity of the regions of the world. Available data shows distinct
patterns regarding developing countries and developed countries. The developing world
for example excluding china and India has little improvement in per capital food
availability between 1970 and 1955 and not better since (Gareth et al, 1997). Food
consumption is captured by levels of undernutrition. Societies with sufficient food have
low levels of undernutrition while those that lack food have high levels.

Incidence of undernutrition
Undernutrition results when an individual does not get enough food resulting in a
condition called protein-calorie malnutrition. Undernutrition in FAO terms is the
proportion of the population who on average during the course of the year did not have
enough food to maintain body weight and support light activity.
You may have heard reports in the media of deaths, famine, and conflicts resulting from
low availability of food. Perhaps prominent areas include Sudan, Chad, and in Somalia.
In 2007, the northern part of our country was hit with food crisis following the severe
flooding in the region. Such is the plight of many developing countries. In 1980, 730
million people in the developing world excluding China were malnourished (Daniels et
al, 2005). World statistics from the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) shows that
undernutrition is on the decline falling 786 million in 1990 to 693 in 2001. Undernutrition
in FAO terms is the proportion of the population who on average during the course of
the year did not have enough food to maintain body weight and support light activity.
However, we still have instances of undernutrition in developed countries but they are
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the tiny lower minority groups. The USA without good social welfare schemes has
higher numbers than the EU which has history of welfarism.

REASONS FOR HUNGER AND UNDERNUTRITION

Given your experience of the situation in your region, district and village, you can
provide some reasons why people are hungry. These reasons can be applied to the
country and global levels. lets attempt an explanation for undernutrition. Generally,
people are hungry because they have not produced enough food to meet their
requirements or do not have enough money to buy from from the market. Several
factors account for these two reasons including population growth, increase in
cultivation of export crops instead of food crops, and increasing taste for foreign food,
environmental degradation, technological constraints, and increasing poverty.
Population growth has out-spaced the rate of increase in food production in most Least
Developed Countries (LDCs). It is estimated that about 30% of food is imported into
these countries to be able to meet the national requirements. Since most people
depend on agriculture which is not doing well, they are not able to purchase imported
food thereby becoming undernourished.
Globalisation has increased demand for cash crops which makes farmers divert
productive land for this purpose to the neglect of food crops which are essential for local
food security. Most poor farmers are not involved in cash crop farming so only a small
group of farmers and transnational corporations gain while majority work on degraded
lands.
Wealthier groups of the society in LDCs increasingly are developing taste for foreign
foods such as wheat, rice, butter and many more to the neglect of local food crops. This
often results in low patronage for local foods with spin-offs on the adoption of highyielding technologies. Local food crop sector continues to be uncompetitive with high
prices which affect the basket of food people can procure for their households.
Finally, environmental degradation, especially soil infertility has led to low farm
productivity in most LDCs. Closely associated with this factor is technological
constraints. Most farmers in LDCs are smallholder cultivators and lack machinery and
farm inputs that will help them increase their output. Research into high yielding
varieties of crops is poor or non-existent in these countries. A new green revolution is
needed to increase crop yields in these countries.

We cannot end this discussion without mentioning the role of poverty in making people
hungry. The poor macro economic situation in most LDCs means that jobs are limited
with most people resorting to informal small-scale activities that hardly produce enough
income for household sustenance. Also, the position of the rural inhabitant has
worsened over the years because of urban-biased policies that sidelined agriculture and
rural related activities.
Summary
Food is one of the basic resources of life. The developed world produces and consumes
more than the developing world. Undernutrition which is caused by inadequate food
intake is higher in LDCs with pockets in developed countries. Poor agricultural
productivity and increasing poverty account for undernutrition in the developing world.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION USING INTENSIFICATION

Agricultural intensification involves the use of technology, biotechnology, efficient
skills in land and soil management, and irrigation to increase crop production on existing
farmlands. Today, there has been increasing demand on land resources than ever
before and more land in rural societies is being cultivated for food. Increasingly more
people now fear that Malthus prediction about land-food scarcity is becoming a reality.
Consequently, efforts are made at increasing food output on limited lands. Almost all of
Europes extra food has come from intensification on declining arable area in recent
times. The developed world of Europe and North America achieved better yield on
probably poorer lands due to intensification rather than bringing more land into
cultivation. Average grain yields in Europe are close to four times those in Africa and
50% greater than in Asia (see table 2).

Table 1. Average grain yields (kg per ha) in world regions, 1974-6 to 1990-2

Region
1974-6
1988-90
1990-2
Africa
1,005
1,198
1,168
N and C
America
2,895
3,565
4,040
South
America
1,641
2,062
2,182
Asia
1,822
2,713
2,854
Europe
3,178
4,240
4,295
FSU
1,466
1,925
1,779
Oceania
1,420
1,688
1,733
World
1,953
2,638
2,757
Source: Jones and Hollier 1997, page 161

% increase
1974-6 to
1990-2
16
40
33
57
35
21
22
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METHODS OF AGRICULTURAL INTENSIFICATION

From the experience of the developed world, it is most likely that agricultural
intensification in developing countries would increase food productivity. Agricultural
intensification of some sought already goes in your community. The compound farming
system in the Upper East Region of Ghana, shallot farming in the Volta Region and
various rice valleys in Ghana use some form of intensification. Intensification generally
uses green revolution methods involving high yielding varieties of crops (HYVs), farm
machines, fertilisers, increased labour inputs, and irrigation. All these methods allow the
continuous use of a parcel of land without falls in levels of fertility and output. We
examine these techniques individually below.

Technology and Biotechnology

Technology can best be seen as the application of science to solving and improving on
the challenges we confront in life. Application of technology such as: the use farm
machinery; application of agrochemicals like fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides; and
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soil management techniques, can help a farmers increase farm yields without
necessarily increasing farm sizes. Farm machinery can help prepare land in time for
cultivation, spray pesticides to all parts of the farm faster, and harvest crops with
efficiency. A farmer with better machinery will be better off in controlling a locust
infested farm than one without. Agro-chemicals increase the soil fertility level and
control diseases and pest from destroying crops. Also, farmers with appropriate farm
skills can check soil erosion. Households can concentrate their labour on a small piece
of land by producing enough manure, providing good care to soil, crops and animals in
ways that is not possible with big farms. Though most of these innovations are on the
market, farmers are unable to purchase them due to poverty and poor attention for crop
farming by national governments.
Biotechnology is another way of increasing agricultural production. Biotechnology
enables the biological engineering of crops in order to produce high yielding varieties.
Biotechnology helps farmers with high yielding, pest and drought resistant and early
maturing variety crops. These attributes as you will agree with me are exactly what we
need in Ghana to overcome the problems of increasing crop yields. Poor linkages
between research institutions and farmers currently prevent the benefits of
biotechnology from reaching our farmers. Also, most of the research institutes lack
modern equipment and skilled manpower to produce these innovations needed.

Irrigation
Irrigations can help solve two basic problems often faced by farmers. One is to increase
farmland and the other is by helping to convert seasonal lands into all year cultivation.
We shall look at the former in the next section. In the mean time let us examine how
irrigation can increase farm yields on the same piece of land. In dry climates where
rainfall is low and often seasonal, crop cultivation can only be possible in some seasons
of the year. Irrigation can enable farmers to make good use of land during the offseason to produce crops. In this case the total yield harvested yearly on the same piece
of land increases. Irrigation enables the use of technology such as farm equipment,
chemicals and HYVs since farmers are sure of expected yields without fear of weather
vagaries. Most of the successes of the Green Revolution in Asia were due to the
suitable conditions for irrigation. The failure of the Green Revolution in Sub-Saharan
Africa is attributable to poor irrigation development.

Labour Intensification
All the interventions we have discussed so far may best be placed under capital inputs.
Labour intensification is surely another factor that distinguishes agriculture in the
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developed world from that of the developing world. Every farmland may require certain
number of labourers. Labour intensification may leads to efficiency in farmland use by
being able to implement agronomical practices needed for increasing yields. In poor
countries of Africa and Asia it is unrealistic to advocate adoption of same levels of
technology as the developed countries, so it makes sense to substitute labour for
machines which are not produced in these regions.
Summary
One of the two ways of increasing food production is agricultural intensification.
Intensification is costly but can be adapted to developing world conditions by using
more labour instead of machinery. The major methods used to increase crop yields on
same land area include farm machinery, HYVs, agro-chemicals and more labour per
unit area.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION USING AGRICULTURAL

EXTENSIFICATION
According to Gareth et al. (1997) the historical response to growing demands for food
has been to extend areas under cultivation. Right from the period of hunting and
gathering through the development of great civilizations in the world, extensification
perhaps has been the major contributor to the supply of food for man. The least of
farmers in Africa will mention increasing farm sizes as the first option in increasing
yields. .
Agricultural extensification involves all techniques geared towards increasing land
area put to agricultural use in an attempt to increasing farm yields. Of the 13 billion
hectors of world land, only 25% (Pierce) or 30% (World Resource Institute, 1986) can
potentially be cultivated. However certain obstacles such as ice cover, desert lands, too
sloppy and rocky surfaces with little soils cover have contributed to further limiting
possible cultivated lands. Development in technology may cause a break through to
these challenges mentioned above but fears are that this may not be sustainable or cost
effective is real. Therefore this long practice of increasing food output to meet growing
demands may be in serious threat considering the pace at which world population is
growing, and this may even be more serious if we consider this on regional basis.
Degrading and cutting down of forest resources can cause serious long lasting
problems relating to deforestation, desertification, and soil erosion which may in turn
affect the climate. Extensification has also been attacked for contributing global
warming. Let us go further now to explain the ways in which agricultural extensification
is practised around the world.
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APPROACHES TO EXTENSIFICATION
Various civilizations often considered ways by which they could extend the sphere of
cultivation. Research reveals that between 1961-3 and 1988-90, increase in yields in
developing countries attributed to extensification, perhaps largely by deforestation was
8%. But on regional basis, Sub-Sahara African recorded 47%, and in Latin America
30% as compared to those in high income countries of 2%. Generally, agricultural lands
can be extended by expanding the agricultural frontier through deforestation, irrigation
in drier areas, and conversion of grass lands to food crop cultivation.

Extensification by Deforestation
Until recent times deforestation for the purpose of farming was probably the single most
important way of extensification. This method often referred to as moving from forest to
farmland may therefore seem the only way to extensification, and indeed in most
developing countries this is the only option available to farmers since they could not
afford the technology and skills needed for intensification.
Forest areas have rich soils due to humus accumulated over years of leave decay. In
the past the practice of shifting cultivation enabled these fertile lands to be exploited.
Today, modern man is doing the same by converting forest land to agricultural land.
Unfortunately as you know, these lands lose their fertility after three to four years of
cultivation, which demands further extensification or fallowing if possible.
Poverty is the main driver of extensification in many countries as people cannot afford
the high cost of intensification. Also, in some instances it may be cost effective to
extend cultivated land where land is abundant. This is called a low-input agricultural
system. Mechanisms such as fallowing, allowing scattered trees on farms and shifting
from one place to the other enable efficiency and sustainability.

Extensification by Irrigation
Irrigation as explained earlier refers to the provision of water for farming either than
reliance on natural rainfall. I have said that in areas where rainfall is seasonal, farming
can only be done in the raining season, however by using irrigation the farmer can
cultivate crops on the same piece of land they cultivate during the dry season thereby
increasing the total yield for the year. This form of irrigation is considered as
intensification. However, an even more prominent and widely practiced irrigation system
involves the constructions of channels, exploiting of aquifers, extending oasis, dams
and rivers to arid lands such as barren deserts. This irrigation involves using lands
hitherto not cultivated and so is regarded as a form of extensification. Some countries in
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the Middle East, such as Saudi Arabia, Israel, and Libya in northern Africa have good
examples of these irrigation schemes that have made it possible for them to extend the
farmland. The advantage this factor has over deforestation is that it improves the microclimate of the area by bringing it back to life. However, irrigation schemes have their
own problems such as salinization or the process whereby salt deposits destroy the
soils suitability for farming. In addition, underground aquifers, oasis and other sources of
water have often been depleted and the prospects of sustaining such grand schemes
have often been a source of worry.
Irrigation schemes can be very expensive as it involves so much capital in construction
of channels, water pumping machinery, sprinklers, drilling tools, farm inputs and so
forth. These investments sometimes may be more costly than the needs of
intensification. This accounts for the low number of such projects in poor countries
especially Sub-Saharan Africa.

Extensification by Conversion of Unfavourable Land to Farmland

When people in a particular region are presented with fewer options, the likelihood that
they may resort out of desperation to marginal lands is high. When the population of a
region exceeds the level at which each farmer can afford the minimum farmland for
survival farmers in coastal regions are likely to exploit soils that are saline, muddy, and
perhaps too sandy for cultivation of food crops. Likewise, in the hinterland farmers may
convert barren grassland, rocky surfaces and extremely hard and clay soils to cultivable
ones. This form of extensification may seem a last resort in developing countries after
which farmers may be forced to migrate as the next option. This is not a good way of
increasing output since it is not borne out of conscious efforts at that but out of
desperation.

Extensification and Environmental Concerns

The world is losing more forest especially in the tropical regions to the extensification
process. There are increasing reports of land degradation due to deforestation. As you
know when the forest is cleared it exposes the top soil to raindrops which easily washes
it away. Deforestation is also blamed for reducing transpiration necessary for cloud
formation and subsequent drought. The climate change experienced globally is partly
due to the accumulated effects of worldwide deforestation.
Extensification into hitherto unused lands destroys tropical biodiversity. The number of
plant and animal species reduces as a result of alteration of the habitats. The
ecotourism potential of these areas is lost. I hope you know that ecotourism is an
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important source of revenue in many regions of the world.

Extensive cultivation without fallow periods to allow the land to regain nutrients may
lead to desertification. There are already fears are that the northern parts of most West
African countries like Ghana, Nigeria, Togo are already engulfed in the process of
desertification. For these reasons it is generally viewed that agricultural extensification
may in the long run cause environmental problems that are far more costly and difficult
to manage.
Summary
Agricultural extensification include all methods of increasing farm land aimed at
increasing farm output. The traditional approach of extensification is clearing forest for
farmland and so its nick name from forest to farmland. Extensification has been the
major way people attempt to increase their food production in the developing world.
Other ways of extensification include irrigation of unused land and cultivation of
marginal lands. However, there are increasing environmental concerns regarding the
adopting extensification methods in attempts to increase food output.

GLOBALISATION AND FOOD REGIMES

In the course of your studies, you may have heard of such terms as internationalisation,
globalisation, global village, and cosmopolitan society. Well in recent times, increasing
cooperation among nations, global networking, increased communication, and general
improvement in technology which has facilitated transportation has broken the
boundaries that segregated the different cultures of the world. Markets are now global in
nature and investments are footloose. You can for example buy items from the internet
and they will be shipped to you. This sounds amazing, does it not?
Globalisation is primarily an economic phenomenon, involving the increasing
interaction, or integration, of national economic systems through the growth in
international trade, investment and capital flows. Internationalisation refers to the initial
phase of interaction between nations and continents basically through trade. It is a
transition to the global world. It was a period in which multinational corporations
dominated the landscape of colonies and transacted business on behalf of capital in
their various countries of origin. Internationalisation is the end result of colonialism
which dotted transnational corporations all over the world to serve the commodity needs
of advanced countries.
Undoubtedly one of the major challenges in developing countries is their inability to
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produce sufficient food. Our country Ghana imports large amounts of cereals every year
to meet domestic food needs. However, a great deal of raw materials for major
industrial products in the world such as cocoa, coffee, sugar, cotton, and some fruits
come from LDCs to advanced countries. Most governments in these developing
countries often place much importance on these cash crops than local staples. The
cocoa industry in Ghana receives more support from the government than other food
crops. Global forces acting on food supply and production therefore are more important
than we can imagine. Food production is increasingly coordinated within globalized
networks of institutions, constituting an agro-food system. An example is cocoa beans
produced in Ghana using investments by Dutch farmers, which is sold to German
processors who in turn sell cocoa powder to Chinese food industries for the production
of chocolate products that are sold worldwide including in Ghana.

FOOD REGIMES OF THE WORLD SINCE THE 1870S

Agriculture and industry have had an intimate relationship since the industrial revolution.
Industry has impacted significantly on agriculture just as agriculture has on industry. As
you are aware, due to climate variation, the production of certain food for industry can
occurs in specific regions. Whilst industrial development has been much successful in
Europe and North America, the production of raw materials such as cocoa, coffee to
feed those industries over the years has been in the tropical countries most of whom
are developing countries. The relationship between agriculture and industry has
historically been global in nature. Following patterns of global food supply and
consumption Liberty (2005) identified three global food regimes since the 1870s. These
include the pre-industrial, industrial, and the post-industrial food regimes.
The first regime: Pre-industrial phase (1870s-1920)
The first is also referred to as pre-industrial phase and occurred between 1870s1920s. Settler colonies supplied unprocessed foods and materials to the metropolitan
core of North America and Western Europe. It was characterised by extensive forms of
capital accumulation, the main products being grains and meat. The regime
disintegrated as agricultural production in developed countries competed with cheap
imports and trade barriers were erected. As you can see, the situation today is a
complete reversal of the past when our grandfathers fed the developed world.

The second regime: Industrial phase (1920s-1970s)

The second regime referred to as the industrial phase saw the development of agroindustrial complex based on grain-fed livestock production and fats/durable foods. This
marks the beginning of the productivist phase of agricultural change focused on North
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America. The productivist as the term implies refers to intensive forms of capital
accumulation which incorporated developed and developing nations into commodity
production systems. The colonialists were interested in raw materials such as cocoa for
their industries and at the same time an outlet for selling their manufactured goods. The
use of intensive technologies such as fertilisers and irrigation and monocropping
systems soon led to environmental disbenefits which undermined the productivist
agriculture in the 1970s.
The third regime: post-industrial (1980s onwards)
The crisis associated with the disbenefits of the productivist phase led to a new regime
which stressed the production of fruits and vegetables for the global market. It also
involves the reconstitution of food through industrial and biotechnological processes and
the supply of inputs for elite consumption. Developing countries now export special
products such as salads and organic mangos to the very rich in advanced countries
who want to avoid the chemical laden fruits from productivist agriculture. This phase is
characterised by a flexible form of capital accumulation typified by restructuring of
activities of agribusiness Transnational Corporations and corporate retailers. Policies of
developing countries as you know in Ghana gives priority to farmers to produce these
new foreign exchange earners while enabling new retailers to set up and buy these
products in their countries.
Summary
Globalisation is the interconnection among people throughout the world. The global food
regimes that have transpired since the 1870s include the pre-industrial, the industrial,
and the post industrial global food regimes. These characterise the relationship
between the developed and the developing countries in terms of exchange of
commodities and production systems.

REORIENTATION OF AGRICULTURE IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD

Subsistence to Plantation
As you already know, the majority of people in the developing world live in rural areas
where agriculture has been subsistence in nature. Farmers produced crops to cater for
their families with little surplus for local markets.
During colonial era, the Europeans made attempts to increase raw material base for
their industries by encouraging the cultivation of cocoa, coffee, tea and other cash crop
using the plantation system. In Ghana for example local farmers were encouraged to
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cultivate extensive cocoa plantations. In Eastern Africa, most of the plantation farms
usually cultivated tea, sugar, bananas, and coffee, which were mostly foreign owned.
When most of the countries gained independence, their new governments saw
increasing need to motivate local farmers to continue cultivating cash crops to earn
foreign exchange. While in West Africa, indigenous cultivation was encouraged, in East
and Southern Africa settler communities took over the function of production. In the
case of South Africa an apartheid system ensued while a long period of colonisation
awaited Zimbabwe.
Most of these countries depend so much on these cash crops that a slight change in the
world price of such crops is often reflected in their respective local economies. The over
dependence on export crops for government revenue has been partly responsible for
the neo-colonialism so much talked about. This is the situation where developing
countries still depend on and are controlled by their former colonial or new masters.
Transnational Corporations (TNCs) have also contributed to this shift from subsistence
to plantation agriculture by establishing large farms. Out-grower schemes were
encouraged by these companies to draft the local small scale farmer into the global
commodity markets. Today most of these companies have withdrawn from direct
cultivation and have become big retailers and manufacturers with substantial control
over the production system.

Export Crops Instead of Food Crops

Since most farmers cannot afford to cultivate plantations and yet have to survive in the
modern economy that demands cash, they resort to the cultivation of cash crops
encouraged by government subsidies to the neglect of food crops. Most of these cash
crops are usually export crops including traditional and non-traditional varieties.
Traditional varieties are those crops developing countries have been exporting since the
colonial era while the non-traditional exports are newly introduced crops to the export
market. In Ghana, fruits such as banana, mangoes mushrooms and pineapple are nontraditional exports. From the definition, banana would not be a non-traditional export for
East African countries since it is one of their earlier exports.
Subsistence farmers usually produce more local food crops whereas commercial
farmers produce more cash crops. Trained agricultural extension officers are often
deplored by government to focus on training cash crop farmers neglecting food crop
subsistent farmers. Agricultural policy in most developing countries was focused on
export crops with a neglect of food staples. This discrimination leads to differences in
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farmers income. Farmers who are involved in cultivating cash crops are far better off in
income levels than those engaged in producing local staples.
The classical export commodities (cocoa, coffee, sugar, tea) have been complemented
by high valued foods including fruits, vegetables, and poultry to meet the taste of the
wealthy group in developed countries. The increased value placed on export crops in
the 1980s and 1990s reflect technical changes in the food industry and the introduction
of agricultural trade liberalisation through the policies of Structural Adjustment
Programs. The changing diets of people in the developed world have been influential in
dictating recent cropping patterns in the developing world. The move to healthy living
necessitating consumption of vegetables and fruits has opened new opportunities for
local farmers and their governments.

BOX: THE CASE OF KENYA

Kenya is one of the countries labelled as newly agriculturalizing country. I want you to
study Kenyas case in the box below
Between 1991 and 1996, Kenyan exports of horticulture produce increased 58 per cent to
reach a total output of 84,824 tonnes; by the year 2003, this was expected to rise to over
120,000 tonnes (HCDA 1997). Huge investments have been made in industry mainly to
attract British supermarket chains. Supermarket chains have taken over Kenyas
horticultural products accounting for 70 per cent as compared to traditional wholesale
trade. Intensive productivist farming systems have been employed in farming horticultural
products in Kenya and export and freight companies to fast track exportation.
Supermarket retailers are the most powerful actors in this lengthening agro-food system
and they exert their powerful influence and act as if they remote control farmers. It is
only when inspected and approved by retailers quality control systems that produce will
be accepted and paid for. Therefore horticulture exports are increasingly concentrated in
the hands of large highly capitalised producers and strong checking and control has
marginalised small-scale producers and yet instead of producing much needed staple
products for indigenous population they attempt to participate in the export sector. The
real paradox of the whole system is that it has embraced intensive productivist methods
to satisfy the demands from new consumers in regions of the developed world rather than
internal demands for more staple foods.
Source: Adopted from Daniels et al. 2005, page 175-177.

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The discussion of Kenyas sketch above has helped clarify the nature of agricultural
reorientation in developing countries. Agriculture has been automated and is
increasingly a global business chain linking people and capital in different countries.
Quality control is the new catch-word which ensures competition and efficiency into the
agricultural system.
Reorientation of developing world agriculture has basically to satisfy the needs of the
developed world where the rich demand designer foods such as organic mangoes and
pesticide free vegetables. Large amounts of resources and labour is used in developing
countries to produce these products to the neglect of food crops which in turn increases
the inability of these populations to afford adequate and nutritious food. Only people
involved in the most lucrative processes of the commodity chain such as retailers and
freight companies make all the profit while the toiling farmers make just enough to feed
their families.
There has been agricultural reorientation in the developing world. There has been a
shift from subsistence and food crop production to commercial and cash crop
production. Governments have implemented polices that have neglected food crops in
favour of export crops. The case of Kenya, presents a clear example of agricultural
reorientation in the developing world.
IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON AGRICULTURE IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD
We must accept the fact that globalisation provides the platform for strengthening trade
among economies and creates the opportunity for accessing foreign markets.

Increase in foreign Exchange

Have you ever reflected on how the government of your country gets its income?
Surely, you are aware that governments get their income from taxation. An important
source of income to most developing countries is the exportation of raw materials to
developed countries. Cash crops such as cocoa, coffee, tea, bananas, oil palm, and
sugar cane are sold to foreign countries to earn revenue that is used for local
development. Globalisation which may increase trade between countries therefore
increases the foreign exchange earning capacity. It also leads to investment in
developing programmes by capital from developed country business. This enables local
farmers access to innovations for increasing output.

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Creation of Employment
In the process of growing cash crops labour is often required from the stage of planting
to harvesting and to shipment of these commodities. The cocoa industry in Ghana
provides employment to many people especially in the rural areas. This explains why
the cocoa producing towns in Ghana have remain major destination places for migrants
from northern part of the country and even from neighbouring countries like Burkina
Faso. With increasing support from government the cash crop industry provides
employment to farmers and other labourers who would otherwise be jobless and this is
credited to increasing globalisation.

Intensive Cultivation Techniques

When I discussed intensification with you in section 2, I mentioned that one reason why
its adaption in the developing world has been slow is that it involves a lot of capital
investment which is costly for these rather poor countries. Increasingly, interest in cash
crop production and new developments especially in plantation owned by TNCs offers
the opportunity for some of these developing countries to find a breakthrough in
intensive agricultural techniques. This will as it has in developed countries increase farm
yields.

Alleviate Poverty
Globalising food production in the long run can be linked to alleviating poverty. Of
course increase in foreign exchange, creation of employment for the local people, and
successful intensification of agriculture as discussed above are all ways of empowering
people and placing them at a more comfortable position to be able resist economic
stress and shocks thereby reducing their vulnerability level.

Economic Diversification and Liberalisation of World Agricultural trade

Ideally globalising food production opens doors for local farmers to expand their
cultivation to meet the increasing global demand for their products. This may offer them
the chance of getting the best prices for their commodities and hence making them
better off and alleviating their poverty. Rather than depending on just a few crops for
subsistence farmers diversify their range of income sources. This is important in
reducing their vulnerability to contingencies such as droughts and pests. If export crops
fail they have some food crops to feed their families while the reverse can be abated by
using income from cash crops. Similarly, governments now have a range of crops to
rely on for foreign exchange rather than traditional exports and minerals whose prices
are more volatile than food resources.
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NEGATIVE IMPACT OF GLOBALISING FOOD PRODUCTION

Critics of the trend and processes have cited environmental and socio-economic
concerns against what they perceive as one way modernisation of agriculture (See Box
below)

Box: Summary criticisms against globalising food production

.
There is little doubt that large-scaled agribusinesses and corporate retailers have
successfully linked regional economies and crop sectors of Least Developed Countries to
a global system of food production and consumption. However, their behaviour has
attracted a number of criticisms as regards the economic, social and environmental
impacts on host countries. some of these criticisms include:
They contribute to shape inequalities in income, productivity and technology
compared to the sector producing domestic staples.
Labour saving innovations by agribusiness mean that numbers employed are
reduced, part-time or seasonal. Specialist export experts are often brought in.
The benefits of intensive agriculture accrue disproportional to foreign investors and,
in the case of nationally owned estates, to urban-based people and local elite
groups.
Large estates, especially those agribusiness and TNCs often take the best land for
export crops. This land absorbs the most inputs, investment and expenditure, even
though it occupies only a small proportion of the total agricultural area. Unable to
compete, localized agricultural production often begins to break down.
Many of the agricultural practice of agribusiness TNCs are unsustainable. Environmental
degradation is the real problem and there are reported instances of groundwater depletion
and agribusinesses moving on to new areas when soils have become depleted.
Source: Adopted from Daniel et al 2005, page 174
It is clear that the current trend affects local people negatively especially when they are
not in control of the production process and high-value chains such as freight
forwarding. Since the best lands are used for these special crops most poor farmers are
forced to move onto marginal lands which increases their poverty and destroys the
environment.
The new lands used by these agribusinesses are a form of extensification so all the
problems we discussed earlier associated with extensification applies. There is
reduction of biodiversity due to the deforestation. Also, the mono-cropping systems
reduce crop diversity and necessitate total removal of vegetation to make way for
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machines. Intensive methods used after the initial extensification introduces all the
problems of intensification such as chemical pollution of soils and water bodies.
On the socio-economic level, the displacement of people leads to more poverty. Many
of these farms typify a modern day slavery whereby low wages and hard work are
inimical to the living conditions and health of the workers. Land tenure systems allow
the rich to buy out the poor thereby making them destitute. The exploitation of middle
men or buying agencies makes profitability low for the small-scale farmer. The social
consequences are social upheavals demanding land redistributions, producer prices
and anti-foreign sentiments leading to xenophobic attacks as experienced in Zimbabwe
and South Africa.
The impacts of globalisation on the developing worlds agriculture are both positive and
negative. Some of the positive impacts include increased foreign exchange earnings,
alleviation of poverty, introduction of intensive farming techniques, and creation of
employment. The negative impacts of global forces on agriculture in third world
countries include environmental degradation and creating sharp inequalities and
exploitation between the rich and the poor
Summary
Food is one of the requirements of life and is a necessity that shapes peoples lives
around the globe. The production and consumption patterns of food vary across
economic regions. Whereas the developed world produces and consumes more, the
developing countries produce and consume less. There are two major ways to increase
food production: intensification and extensification. Intensification may help reduce
pressure on the environment, but it is costly and only the developed world has been
able to adopt it. On the other hand extensification is much cheaper and widely practiced
in the developed world but it may lead to more environmental degradation. Globalisation
is the interconnection among people throughout the world. There have been three food
regimes since the 1980s. These include the pre-industrial, industrial and the post
industrial. Owing to globalisation, agriculture has undergone reorientation in the
developing world. Global forces are now acting on local farmers choices of crops
dictated by choices of the developed world. There are both positive and negative
impacts of globalisation on food production in the developing world. However, the
balance of the two sides is dependent on the extent of control of the production process
by national and local farmers rather than international agents. An equitable production
system leads to benefits of globalisation accruing to all in society while an unequal
system breads income inequalities and social upheavals.

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Review Questions

Examine the arguments for extensification and intensification for solving the food
crisis in developing countries

Discuss the impacts of globalization on the current status and future of

agriculture in developing countries

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