NonLinSys NSJ MCT
NonLinSys NSJ MCT
NonLinSys NSJ MCT
Figure 6.1
A nonlinear system, when excited by a sinusoidal input, may generate several harmonics
in addition to the fundamental corresponding to the input frequency. The amplitude of
the fundamental is usually the largest, but the harmonics may be of significant amplitude
in many situations.
Another peculiar characteristic exhibited by nonlinear systems is called jump
phenomenon. For example, let us consider the frequency response curve of spring-massdamper system. The frequency responses of the system with a linear spring, hard spring
and soft spring are as shown in Fig. 6.2(a), Fig. 6.2(b) and Fig. 6.2(c) respectively. For a
hard spring, as the input frequency is gradually increased from zero, the measured
response follows the curve through the A, B and C, but at C an increment in frequency
results in discontinuous jump down to the point D, after which with further increase in
frequency, the response curve follows through DE. If the frequency is now decreased, the
response follows the curve EDF with a jump up to B from the point F and then the
response curve moves towards A. This phenomenon which is peculiar to nonlinear
systems is known as jump resonance. For a soft spring, jump phenomenon will happen as
shown in fig. 6.2(c).
Fig. 6.2(a)
Fig. 6.2(b)
When excited by a sinusoidal input of constant frequency and the amplitude is increased
from low values, the output frequency at some point exactly matches with the input
frequency and continue to remain as such thereafter. This phenomenon which results in a
synchronisation or matching of the output frequency with the input frequency is called
frequency entrainment or synchronisation.
Liapunovs Method for Stability: The analytical solution of a nonlinear system is rarely
possible. If a numerical solution is attempted, the question of stability behaviour can not
be fully answered as solutions to an infinite set of initial conditions are needed. The
Russian mathematician A.M. Liapunov introduced and formalised a method which allows
one to conclude about the stability without solving the system equations.
Figure 6.3
Backlash: Another important nonlinearity commonly occurring in physical systems is
hysteresis in mechanical transmission such as gear trains and linkages. This nonlinearity
is somewhat different from magnetic hysteresis and is commonly referred to as backlash.
In servo systems, the gear backlash may cause sustained oscillations or chattering
phenomenon and the system may even turn unstable for large backlash.
Figure 6.4
Relay: A relay is a nonlinear power amplifier which can provide large power
amplification inexpensively and is therefore deliberately introduced in control systems. A
relay controlled system can be switched abruptly between several discrete states which
are usually off, full forward and full reverse. Relay controlled systems find wide
applications in the control field. The characteristic of an ideal relay is as shown in figure.
In practice a relay has a definite amount of dead zone as shown. This dead zone is caused
by the facts that relay coil requires a finite amount of current to actuate the relay. Further,
since a larger coil current is needed to close the relay than the current at which the relay
drops out, the characteristic always exhibits hysteresis.
Multivariable Nonlinearity: Some nonlinearities such as the torque-speed characteristics
of a servomotor, transistor characteristics etc., are functions of more than one variable.
Such nonlinearities are called multivariable nonlinearities.
Chapter 7
Where
and
are either linear or nonlinear functions of the
state variables x1 and x2 respectively. The state plane with coordinate axes x1 and x2 is
called the phase plain. In many cases, particularly in the phase variable representation of
systems, take the form
The plot of the state trajectories or phase trajectories of above said equation thus gives an
idea of the solution of the state as time t evolves without explicitly solving for the state.
The phase plane analysis is particularly suited to second order nonlinear systems with no
input or constant inputs. It can be extended to cover other inputs as well such as ramp
inputs, pulse inputs and impulse inputs.
These equations may then be solved for phase variables x1 and x2. The time response
plots of x1, x2 for various values of damping with initial conditions can be plotted. When
the differential equations describing the dynamics of the system are nonlinear, it is in
general not possible to obtain a closed form solution of x1, x2. For example, if the spring
force is nonlinear say (k1x + k2x3) the state equation takes the form
Where both
and
are analytic.
Dividing the above equations we get the slope of the state trajectory in the x1-x2 plane as
which is a straight line in the x1-x2 plane. We can draw different lines in the x1-x2 plane
for different values of M; called isoclines. If draw sufficiently large number of isoclines
to cover the complete state space as shown, we can see how the state trajectories are
moving in the state plane. Different trajectories can be drawn from different initial
conditions. A large number of such trajectories together form a phase portrait. A few
typical trajectories are shown in figure given below.
Figure 7.1
The Procedure for construction of the phase trajectories can be summarised as
below:
1. For the given nonlinear differential equation, define the state variables as x1 and x2
and obtain the state equations as
2. Determine the equation to the isoclines as
zone as nonlinear element, draw the phase trajectory originating from the initial condition
(3,0).
where u is given by
Since the input is zero, e = r c = -c and the differential equation in terms of error will be
Defining the state variables as x1 = e and x2 =
We can identify three regions in the state plane depending on the values of e = x1.
Region 1:
Here u = 1, so that the isoclines are given by
or
For different values of M, these are a number of straight lines parallel to the x-axis.
M
1/3
1/2
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-1.5
-2
0.5
-0.2
-0.25
-0.33
-0.5
Region 2:
or
These are also lines parallel to x axis at a constant distance decided by the value of the
slope of the trajectory M.
M
1/3
-5
-4
-3
-2
0.75
0.5
1/3
0.25
-0.25
-0.33
-0.5
-1
, plot the
When x2 = 0,
When M = 2,
When M = 4,
When M = 8,
When M = -2,
When M = -4,
When M = -6,
When M = -10,
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Figure 7.3
The isoclines are drawn as shown in figure. The starting point of the trajectory is marked
at (-1,0). At (-1,0), the slope is , ie., the trajectory will start at an angle 90o. From the
next isoclines, the average slope is (8+4)/2 = 6, ie., a line segment with a slope 6 is drawn
(at an angle 80.5o).The same procedure is repeated and the complete phase trajectory will
be obtained as shown in figure.
7.3.2 Delta Method:
The delta method of constructing phase trajectories is applied to systems of the form
Where
may be linear or nonlinear and may even be time varying but must be
continuous and single valued.
With the help of this method, phase trajectory for any system with step or ramp or any
time varying input can be conveniently drawn. The method results in considerable time
saving when a single or a few phase trajectories are required rather than a complete phase
portrait.
While applying the delta method, the above equation is first converted to the form
In general,
depends upon the variables x, and t, but for short intervals the
changes in these variables are negligible. Thus over a short interval, we have
, where is a constant.
Let us choose the state variables as x1 = x;
, then
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With known at any point P on the trajectory and assumed constant for a short interval,
we can draw a short segment of the trajectory by using the trajectory slope dx 2/dx1 given
in the above equation. A simple geometrical construction given below can be used for
this purpose.
1. From the initial point, calculate the value of .
2. Draw a short arc segment through the initial point with (-, 0) as centre, thereby
determining a new point on the trajectory.
3. Repeat the process at the new point and continue.
Example 7.3: For the system described by the equation given below, construct the
trajectory starting at the initial point (1, 0) using delta method.
Let
then
Figure 7.4
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, we obtain
The figure shows the phase trajectories of the system for > 0 and < 0. In case of > 0
we observe that for large values of x1(0), the system response is damped and the
amplitude of x1(t) decreases till the system state enters the limit cycle as shown by the
outer trajectory. On the other hand, if initially x1(0) is small, the damping is negative, and
hence the amplitude of x1(t) increases till the system state enters the limit cycle as shown
by the inner trajectory. When < 0, the trajectories moves in the opposite directions as
shown in figure.
Figure 7.5
A limit cycle is called stable if trajectories near the limit cycle, originating from outside
or inside, converge to that limit cycle. In this case, the system exhibits a sustained
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oscillation with constant amplitude. This is shown in figure (i). The inside of the limit
cycle is an unstable region in the sense that trajectories diverge to the limit cycle, and the
outside is a stable region in the sense that trajectories converge to the limit cycle.
A limit cycle is called an unstable one if trajectories near it diverge from this limit cycle.
In this case, an unstable region surrounds a stable region. If a trajectory starts within the
stable region, it converges to a singular point within the limit cycle. If a trajectory starts
in the unstable region, it diverges with time to infinity as shown in figure (ii). The inside
of an unstable limit cycle is the stable region, and the outside the unstable region.
7.5 Analysis and Classification of Singular Points:
Singular points are points in the state plane where
. At these points the slope
of the trajectory dx2/dx1 is indeterminate. These points can also be the equilibrium points
of the nonlinear system depending whether the state trajectories can reach these or not.
Consider a linearised second order system represented by
Using linear transformation x = Mz, the equation can be transformed to canonical form
Where, 1 and 2 are the roots of the characteristic equation of the system.
The transformation given simply transforms the coordinate axes from x1-x2 plane to z1-z2
plane having the same origin, but does not affect the nature of the roots of the
characteristic equation. The phase trajectories obtained by using this transformed state
equation still carry the same information except that the trajectories may be skewed or
stretched along the coordinate axes. In general, the new coordinate axes will not be
rectangular.
The solution to the state equation being given by
Based on the nature of these eigen values and the trajectory in z 1 z2 plane, the singular
points are classified as follows.
Nodal Point:
Consider eigen values are real, distinct and negative as shown in figure (a). For this case
the equation of the phase trajectory follows as
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Figure 7.7
Focus Point:
Consider a system with complex conjugate eigen values. The canonical form of the state
equation can be written as
15
The slope
We get,
This is an equation for a spiral in the polar coordinates. A plot of this equation for
negative values of real part is a family of equiangular spirals. The origin which is a
singular point in this case is called a stable focus. When the eigen values are complex
conjugate with positive real parts, the phase portrait consists of expanding spirals as
shown in figure and the singular point is an unstable focus. When transformed into the
x1-x2 plane, the phase portrait in the above two cases is essentially spiralling in nature,
except that the spirals are now somewhat twisted in shape.
Figure 7.8
Centre or Vortex Point:
Consider now the case of complex conjugate eigen values with zero real parts.
ie., 1, 2 = j
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Figure 7.9
Example 7.4:
Determine the kind of singularity for the following differential equation.
Let the state variables be
The corresponding state model is
At singular points,
and
or
2 + 3 + 2 = 0
1, 2 = -2, -1. Since the roots are real and negative, the type of singular point is stable
node.
Example 7.5: For the nonlinear system having differential equation:
find all singularities.
Defining the state variables as
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At singular points,
So that the singular points
The singularities are thus at (0,0) and (-1,0).
Linearization about the singularities:
The eigen values are complex with positive real part. The singular point is an unstable
focus.
Linearization around (-1,0)
Therefore 2 0.1 - 1 = 0
1, 2 = 1.05 and -0.98. Since the roots are real and one negative and another positive, the
singular point is a saddle point.
Example 7.6:
Determine the kind of singularity for the following differential equation.
Let the state variables be
The corresponding state model is
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At singular points,
So that the singular points
The singularities are thus at (0,0) and (-2,0).
Linearization about the singularities:
Therefore 2 + 0.5 - 2 = 0
1, 2 = 1.19 and -1.69. Since the roots are real and one negative and another positive, the
singular point is a saddle point.
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