Chapter 14 Inductor Design

Chapter 14 Inductor Design
14.1
Filter inductor design constraints
14.2
A step-by-step design procedure
14.3
Multiple-winding magnetics design using the

Kg method
14.4
Examples
14.5
Summary of key points
Fundamentals of Power Electronics
Chapter 14: Inductor design
14.1 Filter inductor design constraints

Objective:
L
Design inductor having a given inductance L,

which carries worst-case current Imax without saturating,
i(t)
R
and which has a given winding resistance R, or, equivalently,

exhibits a worst-case copper loss of
Pcu = Irms2 R
Example: filter inductor in CCM buck converter
L
i(t)
i(t)
iL
DTs
Ts
Assumed filter inductor geometry

Core reluctance Rc
n
turns
Rc
i(t)
+
v(t)
Fc
Air gap
reluctance
Rg
ni(t)
(t)
Rg
Solve magnetic circuit:
lc
Rc =
c Ac
lg
Rg =
0 Ac
ni = R c + R g
Usually Rc < Rg and hence
ni R g
3
14.1.1
Constraint: maximum flux density
Given a peak winding current Imax, it is desired to operate the core flux
density at a peak value Bmax. The value of Bmax is chosen to be less
than the worst-case saturation flux density Bsat of the core material.
From solution of magnetic circuit:
ni = BA c R g
Let I = Imax and B = Bmax :
nI max = Bmax A c R g = Bmax
lg
0
This is constraint #1. The turns ratio n and air gap length lg are
unknown.
14.1.2 Constraint: inductance
Must obtain specified inductance L. We know that the inductance is

2
0 Ac n2
n
L=
=
lg
Rg
This is constraint #2. The turns ratio n, core area Ac, and air gap length
lg are unknown.
14.1.3 Constraint: winding area

Wire must fit through core window (i.e., hole in center of core)
core
Total area of
copper in window:
wire bare area

AW
core window
area WA
nA W
Area available for winding
conductors:
K uWA
Third design constraint:
K uWA nA W
The window utilization factor Ku

also called the fill factor
Ku is the fraction of the core window area that is filled by copper

Mechanisms that cause Ku to be less than 1:
Round wire does not pack perfectly, which reduces Ku by a
factor of 0.7 to 0.55 depending on winding technique
Insulation reduces Ku by a factor of 0.95 to 0.65, depending on
wire size and type of insulation
Bobbin uses some window area
Additional insulation may be required between windings
Typical values of Ku :
0.5 for simple low-voltage inductor
0.25 to 0.3 for off-line transformer
0.05 to 0.2 for high-voltage transformer (multiple kV)
0.65 for low-voltage foil-winding inductor
14.1.4 Winding resistance

The resistance of the winding is
R=
lb
AW
where is the resistivity of the conductor material, lb is the length of

the wire, and AW is the wire bare area. The resistivity of copper at
room temperature is 1.724106 -cm. The length of the wire comprising
an n-turn winding can be expressed as
l b = n (MLT )
where (MLT) is the mean-length-per-turn of the winding. The meanlength-per-turn is a function of the core geometry. The above
equations can be combined to obtain the fourth constraint:
n (MLT)
R=
AW
14.1.5 The core geometrical constant Kg

The four constraints:
nI max = Bmax A c R g = Bmax
2
0 Ac n2
n
L=
=
lg
Rg
lg
0
K uWA nA W
R=
n (MLT)
AW
These equations involve the quantities

Ac, WA, and MLT, which are functions of the core geometry,
Imax, Bmax , 0, L, Ku, R, and , which are given specifications or

other known quantities, and
n, lg, and AW, which are unknowns.
Eliminate the three unknowns, leading to a single equation involving
the remaining quantities.
Core geometrical constant Kg

Elimination of n, lg, and AW leads to
L 2I 2max
A 2c WA
2
(MLT) B max RK u
Right-hand side: specifications or other known quantities
Left-hand side: function of only core geometry
So we must choose a core whose geometry satisfies the above
equation.
The core geometrical constant Kg is defined as
A 2c WA
Kg =
(MLT)
10
Discussion
L 2I 2max
A 2c WA
Kg =
2
(MLT) B max RK u
Kg is a figure-of-merit that describes the effective electrical size of magnetic
cores, in applications where the following quantities are specified:
Copper loss
Maximum flux density
How specifications affect the core size:
A smaller core can be used by increasing
Bmax use core material having higher Bsat
R allow more copper loss
How the core geometry affects electrical capabilities:
A larger Kg can be obtained by increase of
Ac more iron core material, or
WA larger window and more copper
11
14.2 A step-by-step procedure

The following quantities are specified, using the units noted:
Wire resistivity

(-cm)
(A)
Peak winding current
Imax
Inductance
L
(H)
Winding resistance
R
()
Winding fill factor
Ku
Core maximum flux density Bmax
(T)
The core dimensions are expressed in cm:
(cm2)
Core cross-sectional area
Ac
Core window area
WA
(cm2)
Mean length per turn
MLT
(cm)
The use of centimeters rather than meters requires that appropriate
factors be added to the design equations.
12
Determine core size

L 2I 2max
Kg 2
10 8
B max RK u
(cm 5)
Choose a core which is large enough to satisfy this inequality

(see Appendix D for magnetics design tables).
Note the values of Ac, WA, and MLT for this core.
13
Determine air gap length

0 LI 2max 4
lg = 2
10
B max A c
(m)
with Ac expressed in cm2. 0 = 4107 H/m.

The air gap length is given in meters.
The value expressed above is approximate, and neglects fringing flux
and other nonidealities.
14
AL
Core manufacturers sell gapped cores. Rather than specifying the air
gap length, the equivalent quantity AL is used.
AL is equal to the inductance, in mH, obtained with a winding of 1000
turns.
When AL is specified, it is the core manufacturers responsibility to
obtain the correct gap length.
The required AL is given by:
2
max
2
max
10B
AL =
LI
L = A L n 2 10 9
2
c
(mH/1000 turns)
Units:
Ac
cm2,
L
Henries,
Bmax Tesla.
(Henries)
15
Determine number of turns n
LI max
n=
10 4
Bmax A c
16
Evaluate wire size
AW
K uWA
n
(cm 2)
Select wire with bare copper area AW less than or equal to this value.
An American Wire Gauge table is included in Appendix D.
As a check, the winding resistance can be computed:
n (MLT)
R=
Aw
17
()
14.3 Multiple-winding magnetics design

using the Kg method
The Kg design method can be extended to multiplewinding magnetic elements such as transformers and
coupled inductors.
This method is applicable when
Copper loss dominates the total loss (i.e. core loss is
ignored), or
The maximum flux density Bmax is a specification rather than
a quantity to be optimized
To do this, we must
Find how to allocate the window area between the windings
Generalize the step-by-step design procedure
18
14.3.1 Window area allocation

Given: application with k windings
having known rms currents and
desired turns ratios
v1(t) v2(t)
n1 = n2 =
n1 : n2
rms current
rms current
I1
I2
v (t)
= nk
k
Core
Window area WA
rms current
Ik
Core mean length

per turn (MLT)
: nk
Wire resistivity
Fill factor Ku
19
Q: how should the window

area WA be allocated among
the windings?
Allocation of winding area

Winding 1 allocation
1WA
2WA
{
{
Total window
area WA
etc.
0 < j < 1
1 + 2 +
20
+ k = 1
Copper loss in winding j

Copper loss (not accounting for proximity loss) is
Pcu, j = I 2j R j
Resistance of winding j is
lj
Rj =
A W, j
with
l j = n j (MLT )
length of wire, winding j
WAK u j
A W, j =
nj
wire area, winding j
Hence
Rj =
n 2j i 2j (MLT )
Pcu, j =
WAK u j
n 2j (MLT )
WAK u j
21
Total copper loss of transformer

Sum previous expression over all windings:
Pcu,tot = Pcu,1 + Pcu,2 +
(MLT)
+ Pcu,k =
WAK u
j=1
n 2j I 2j
j
Need to select values for 1, 2, , k such that the total copper loss
is minimized
22
Variation of copper losses with 1

For 1 = 0: wire of
winding 1 has zero area.
Pcu,1 tends to infinity
For 1 = 1: wires of
remaining windings have
zero area. Their copper
losses tend to infinity
cu,
3
Pcu,tot
u,
2
P cu,1
+..
.+
cu,k
Copper
loss
Pc
1 1
23
There is a choice of 1
that minimizes the total
copper loss
Method of Lagrange multipliers

to minimize total copper loss
Minimize the function
Pcu,tot = Pcu,1 + Pcu,2 +
(MLT)
+ Pcu,k =
WAK u
j=1
n 2j I 2j
j
subject to the constraint
1 + 2 +
+ k = 1
Define the function
f ( 1, 2,
, k, ) = Pcu,tot( 1, 2,
where
g( 1, 2,
, k) = 1
, k) + g( 1, 2,
, k)
j=1
is the constraint that must equal zero

and is the Lagrange multiplier
24
Lagrange multipliers
continued
Result:
Optimum point is solution of

the system of equations
(MLT)
=
WAK u
f ( 1, 2, , k,)
=0
1
f ( 1, 2, , k,)
=0
2
m =
j j
= Pcu,tot
nI
j j
An alternate form:
m =
V mI m
VI
n=1
nI
j=1
n mI m
n=1
f ( 1, 2, , k,)
=0
k
f ( 1, 2, , k,)
=0
25
j j
Interpretation of result
m =
V mI m
VI
n=1
j j
Apparent power in winding j is

V j Ij
where
Vj is the rms or peak applied voltage

Ij is the rms current
Window area should be allocated according to the apparent powers of

the windings
26
Example
PWM full-bridge transformer
i1(t)
n1 turns
i2(t)
}
}
n2 turns
n2 turns
n2
I
n1
i1(t)
i3(t)
Note that waveshapes

(and hence rms values)
of the primary and
secondary currents are
different
n2 I
1
i2(t)
I
0.5I
0.5I
0
i3(t)
Treat as a threewinding transformer
0.5I
0.5I
0
0
27
DTs
Ts
Ts +DTs
2Ts t
Expressions for RMS winding currents

n2
I
n1
i1(t)
I1 =
1
2Ts
2T s
i 21(t)dt =
n2
I D
n1
0
n
n2 I
1
I2 = I3 =
1
2Ts
2T s
0
i 22(t)dt = 12 I 1 + D
i2(t)
I
0.5I
0.5I
0
see Appendix A
i3(t)
I
0.5I
0.5I
0
0
28
DTs
Ts
Ts +DTs
2Ts t
Allocation of window area:
m =
V mI m
VI
n=1
j j
Plug in rms current expressions. Result:
1 =
1+
1
1+D
D
1
2 = 3 = 12
1+
Fraction of window area

allocated to primary
winding
D
1+D
29
Fraction of window area

allocated to each
secondary winding
Numerical example
Suppose that we decide to optimize the transformer design at the
worst-case operating point D = 0.75. Then we obtain
1 = 0.396
2 = 0.302
3 = 0.302
The total copper loss is then given by
2
(MLT) 3
Pcu,tot =
n jI j
WAK u j
=1
(MLT)n 22 I 2
=
1 + 2D + 2 D(1 + D)
WAK u
30
14.3.2 Coupled inductor design constraints

Consider now the design of a coupled inductor having k windings. We want
to obtain a specified value of magnetizing inductance, with specified turns
ratios and total copper loss.
n1 : n2
i1(t)
+
v1(t)
Magnetic circuit model:

+
iM (t)
i2(t)
Rc
v2(t)
LM
R1
R2
+
n1iM (t) +
(t)
Rg
ik (t)
vk(t)
: nk
Rk
31
Relationship between magnetizing

current and winding currents
n1 : n2
i1(t)
iM (t)
v1(t)
v2(t)
LM
R1
R2
Solution of circuit model, or by use of

Amperes Law:
n2
i M (t) = i 1(t) +
i 2(t) +
n1
i2(t)
nk
+
i k(t)
n1
32
ik (t)
vk(t)
: nk
Rk
Solution of magnetic circuit model:

Obtain desired maximum flux density
Assume that gap reluctance is much
larger than core reluctance:
Rc
n1iM (t) +
(t)
n 1 i M (t) = B(t)A c R g
Rg
Design so that the maximum flux density Bmax is equal to a specified value
(that is less than the saturation flux density Bsat ). Bmax is related to the
maximum magnetizing current according to
n 1 I M,max = Bmax A c R g = Bmax

33
lg
0
Obtain specified magnetizing inductance

By the usual methods, we can solve for the value of the magnetizing
inductance LM (referred to the primary winding):
n 21
A
LM =
= n 21 0 c
lg
Rg
34
Copper loss
Allocate window area as described in Section 14.3.1. As shown in that
section, the total copper loss is then given by
(MLT )n 21 I 2tot
Pcu =
WAK u
k
with
I tot =
j=1
nj
n1 I j
35
Eliminate unknowns and solve for Kg

Eliminate the unknowns lg and n1:
(MLT)L 2M I 2tot I 2M,max

Pcu =
B 2max A 2c W A K u
Rearrange equation so that terms that involve core geometry are on
RHS while specifications are on LHS:
2 2 2
A 2c W A L M I tot I M,max
=
(MLT)
B 2max K u Pcu
The left-hand side is the same Kg as in single-winding inductor design.

Must select a core that satisfies
L 2M I 2tot I 2M,max
Kg
B 2max K u Pcu
36
14.3.3 Step-by-step design procedure:

Coupled inductor
The following quantities are specified, using the units noted:
Wire resistivity

(-cm)
k n
Total rms winding currents I tot = n j I j (A) (referred to winding 1)
j=1
Peak magnetizing current

Desired turns ratios
Magnetizing inductance
Allowed copper loss
Winding fill factor
Core maximum flux density
(A) (referred to winding 1)

IM, max
n2/n1. n3/n2. etc.
LM
(H) (referred to winding 1)
Pcu
(W)
Ku
Bmax
(T)
The core dimensions are expressed in cm:

Core cross-sectional area
Ac
(cm2)
Core window area
WA
(cm2)
Mean length per turn
MLT
(cm)
The use of centimeters rather than meters requires that appropriate factors be added to the design equations.
37
1. Determine core size

L 2M I 2tot I 2M,max 8
Kg
10
2
B max P cu K u
(cm 5 )
Choose a core that satisfies this inequality. Note the values of Ac, WA,
and MLT for this core.
The resistivity of copper wire is 1.724 106 cm at room
temperature, and 2.3 106 cm at 100C.
38
2. Determine air gap length

0 L M I 2M,max 4
lg =
10
B 2max A c
(m)
(value neglects fringing flux, and a longer gap may be required)

The permeability of free space is 0 = 4 107 H/m
39
3. Determine number of turns

For winding 1:
L M I M,max 4
n1 =
10
Bmax A c
For other windings, use the desired turns ratios:
n2
n2 =
n
n1 1
n3 =
n3
n1
n1
40
4. Evaluate fraction of window area

allocated to each winding
n1 I 1
1 =
n 1 I tot
n2 I 2
2 =
n 1I tot
1WA
2WA
{
{
Total window
area WA
etc.
nk I k
k =
n 1 I tot
0 < j < 1
1 + 2 +
41
+ k = 1
5. Evaluate wire sizes

1 K uW A
A w1
n1
2 K uW A
A w2
n2
See American Wire Gauge (AWG) table at end of Appendix D.
42
14.4 Examples
14.4.1 Coupled Inductor for a Two-Output Forward
Converter
14.4.2 CCM Flyback Transformer
43
14.4.1
Coupled Inductor for a Two-Output

Forward Converter
n1
i1
+
v1
vg
Output 1
28 V
4A
n2 i2
turns
fs = 200 kHz
+
v2
Output 2
12 V
2A
The two filter inductors can share the same core because their applied
voltage waveforms are proportional. Select turns ratio n2/n1
approximately equal to v2/v1 = 12/28.
44
Coupled inductor model and waveforms
vM
i1
iM L
M
i2
vM(t)
DTs
v2
0
V1
Secondary-side circuit, with coupled

inductor model
iM
IM
v1
n1 : n 2
Coupled
inductor
model
iM(t)
Magnetizing current and voltage

waveforms. iM(t) is the sum of
the winding currents i1(t) + i2(t).
45
Nominal full-load operating point

Design for CCM
operation with
D = 0.35
iM = 20% of IM
n1
i1
+
v1
vg
Output 1
28 V
4A
n2 i2
turns
fs = 200 kHz
fs = 200 kHz
+
v2
Output 2
12 V
2A
DC component of magnetizing current is

n2
I
n1 2
= (4 A) + 12 (2 A)
28
= 4.86 A
IM = I1 +
46
Magnetizing current ripple

V DT s
i M = 1
2L M
iM(t)
iM
IM
To obtain
iM = 20% of IM
0
vM(t)
choose
DTs
V1DT s
LM =
2i M
(28 V)(1 0.35)(5 s)
=
2(4.86 A)(20%)
= 47 H
0
V1
This leads to a peak magnetizing

current (referred to winding 1) of
I M,max = I M + i M = 5.83 A
47
RMS winding currents

Since the winding current ripples are small, the rms values of the
winding currents are nearly equal to their dc comonents:
I1 = 4 A
I2 = 2 A
Hence the sum of the rms winding currents, referred to the primary, is
n2
I tot = I 1 + n I 2 = 4.86 A
1
48
Evaluate Kg
The following engineering choices are made:
Allow 0.75 W of total copper loss (a small core having
thermal resistance of less than 40 C/W then would have a
temperature rise of less than 30 C)
Operate the core at Bmax = 0.25 T (which is less than the
ferrite saturation flux density of 0.3 ot 0.5 T)
Use fill factor Ku = 0.4 (a reasonable estimate for a lowvoltage inductor with multiple windings)
Evaluate Kg:
(1.724 10 6 cm)(47 H) 2(4.86 A) 2(5.83 A) 2 8

Kg
10
2
(0.25 T) (0.75 W)(0.4)
= 16 10 3 cm 5
49
Select core
It is decided to use a ferrite PQ core. From
Appendix D, the smallest PQ core having
Kg 16 103 cm5 is the PQ 20/16, with Kg =
22.4 103 cm5 . The data for this core are:
A1
Ac = 0.62 cm2
WA = 0.256 cm2
2D
MLT = 4.4 cm
50
Air gap length

0 L M I 2M,max 4
lg =
10
2
B max A c
(4 10 7H/m)(47 H)(5.83 A) 2 4
=
10
2
2
(0.25 T) (0.62 cm )
= 0.52 mm
51
Turns
L M I M,max 4
n1 =
10
Bmax A c
(47 H)(5.83 A)
4
=
10
(0.25 T)(0.62 cm 2)
= 17.6 turns
n2 =
n2
n1
n1
12
=
(17.6)
28
= 7.54 turns
Lets round off to

n1 = 17
n2 = 7
52
Wire sizes
Allocation of window area:
n1 I 1
(17)(4 A)
=
= 0.8235
n 1 I tot (17)(4.86 A)
n I
(7)(2 A)
2 = 2 2 =
= 0.1695
n 1I tot (17)(4.86 A)
1 =
Determination of wire areas and AWG (from table at end of Appendix D):
1 K uW A (0.8235)(0.4)(0.256 cm 2)
A w1
=
= 4.96 10 3 cm 2
n1
(17)
use AWG #21
2 K uW A (0.1695)(0.4)(0.256 cm 2)
A w2
=
= 2.48 10 3 cm 2
n2
(7)
use AWG #24
53
14.4.2 Example 2: CCM flyback transformer

iM(t)
iM
IM
Transformer model
n1 : n2
i1
Vg
iM
LM
vM
+
D1
C
0
i1(t)
IM
i2
Q1
0
i2(t)
n1
n 2 IM
0
vM(t)
0
54
Vg
DTs
Specifications
Input voltage
Output (full load)
Switching frequency
Magnetizing current ripple
Duty cycle
Turns ratio
Copper loss
Fill factor
Maximum flux density
Vg = 200V
20 V at 5 A
150 kHz
20% of dc magnetizing current
D = 0.4
n2/n1 = 0.15
1.5 W
Ku = 0.3
Bmax = 0.25 T
55
Basic converter calculations

Components of magnetizing
current, referred to primary:
RMS winding currents:
n2 1 V
IM =
= 1.25 A
n 1 D R
I1 = IM D
i M = 20% I M = 0.25 A
n
I 2 = 1 I M D
n2
i M
1+ 1
3 IM
i M
1+ 1
3 IM
= 0.796 A
2
= 6.50 A
I M,max = I M + i M = 1.5 A
I tot = I 1 +
Choose magnetizing inductance:
n2
I = 1.77 A
n1 2
Vg DT s
LM =
2i M
= 1.07 mH
56
Choose core size

L 2M I 2tot I 2M,max 8
Kg
10
2
B max Pcu K u
6
1.724 10 -cm 1.07 10

0.25 T
1.77 A
1.5 W 0.3
1.5 A
10 8
= 0.049 cm 5
The smallest EE core that satisfies

this inequality (Appendix D) is the
EE30.
57
Choose air gap and turns

0 L M I 2M,max 4
lg =
10
2
B max A c
=
4 10 7H/m 1.07 10 3 H 1.5 A

0.25 T
1.09 cm 2
10 4
= 0.44 mm
n1 =
=
L M I M,max 4
10
Bmax A c
n2 =
1.07 10 3 H 1.5 A
0.25 T 1.09
cm 2
10
n2
n
n1 1
= 0.15 59
= 8.81
= 58.7 turns
Round to
n2 = 9
n 1 = 59
58
Wire gauges
1 =
0.796 A
I1
=
= 0.45
I tot
1.77 A
2 =
9 6.5 A
n2 I 2
=
= 0.55
n 1 I tot
59 1.77 A
1 K uW A
3
=
1.09
10
cm 2
n1
K W
A W2 2 n u A = 8.88 10 3 cm 2
2
A W1
59
use #28 AWG

use #19 AWG
Core loss
CCM flyback example
B-H loop for this application:
The relevant waveforms:
B(t)
B(t)
Bsat
Bmax
Bmax
Hc(t)
vM(t)
Minor BH loop,
CCM flyback
example
B
Vg
n1 A c
Vg
DTs
BH loop,
large excitation
B(t) vs. applied voltage,

from Faradays law:
dB(t) vM (t)
=
n1 A c
dt
60
For the first

subinterval:
Vg
dB(t)
=
n1 A c
dt
Calculation of ac flux density

and core loss
Solve for B:
2 59 1.09
cm 2
Hz
z
100k
Hz
150k
kHz
200
Hz
10 4
0.1
20k
B =
200 V 0.4 6.67 s
50kH
Plug in values for flyback

example:
400
Vg
B =
DT s
n1 A c
kHz
Power loss density,

Watts/cm3
= 0.041 T
0.04
W/cm3
From manufacturers plot of core

loss (at left), the power loss density
is 0.04 W/cm3. Hence core loss is
P fe = 0.04 W/cm 3 A c l m
0.01
= 0.04 W/cm 3 1.09 cm 2 5.77 cm
0.01
= 0.25 W
61
0.041
0.1
0.3
B, Tesla
Comparison of core and copper loss
Copper loss is 1.5 W

does not include proximity losses, which could substantially increase
total copper loss
Core loss is 0.25 W
Core loss is small because ripple and B are small
It is not a bad approximation to ignore core losses for ferrite in CCM

filter inductors
Could consider use of a less expensive core material having higher
core loss
Neglecting core loss is a reasonable approximation for this
application
Design is dominated by copper loss

The dominant constraint on flux density is saturation of the core,
rather than core loss
62
14.5 Summary of key points

1.
A variety of magnetic devices are commonly used in switching

converters. These devices differ in their core flux density
variations, as well as in the magnitudes of the ac winding
currents. When the flux density variations are small, core loss can
be neglected. Alternatively, a low-frequency material can be used,
having higher saturation flux density.
2.
The core geometrical constant Kg is a measure of the magnetic

size of a core, for applications in which copper loss is dominant.
In the Kg design method, flux density and total copper loss are
specified.
63

Chapter 14 Inductor Design

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Chapter 14 Inductor Design

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Chapter 14 Inductor Design

Filter inductor design constraints

A step-by-step design procedure

Multiple-winding magnetics design using the

Summary of key points

Fundamentals of Power Electronics