Process Control Fundamentals ISA Standards

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................
Table of Contents
Performance Objective............................................................................................................................. 1
The Importance of Process Control ............................................................................................................... 1
Learning Objectives.................................................................................................................................. 1
The Importance of Process Control................................................................................................................. 2

Process...................................................................................................................................................... 2
Process Control........................................................................................................................................ 2
Reduce Variability............................................................................................................................. 2
Increase Efficiency ............................................................................................................................
3
Ensure Safety..................................................................................................................................... 3
Control Theory Basics .................................................................................................................................... 4
The Control Loop............................................................................................................................................. 5
Three Tasks...............................................................................................................................................5
Process Control Terms ....................................................................................................................................6
Process Variable.......................................................................................................................................6
Setpoint.....................................................................................................................................................6
Measured Variables, Process Variables, and Manipulated Variables.....................................................7
Error .........................................................................................................................................................
7
Offset.........................................................................................................................................................
8
Load
Disturbance
.....................................................................................................................................8
Control
Algorithm.....................................................................................................................................8
Manual and Automatic Control................................................................................................................9
Closed and Open Control Loops ..............................................................................................................10
Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology...................................................................................... 11
Control Loop Equipment and Technology....................................................................................................... 12
Primary Elements/Sensors........................................................................................................................
12
Transducers
and
Converters..................................................................................................................... 13
Transmitters.............................................................................................................................................. 13
Signals ......................................................................................................................................................
14
Pneumatic Signals ............................................................................................................................. 14
Analog Signals...................................................................................................................................
14
Digital Signals................................................................................................................................... 15
Indicators.................................................................................................................................................. 15
Recorders.................................................................................................................................................. 16
Controllers................................................................................................................................................ 16
Correcting Elements/Final Control Elements.......................................................................................... 18
Actuators...................................................................................................................................................
18
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Fundamentals of Control
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ISA Symbology.................................................................................................................................................19
Symbols................................................................................................................................................... 20
Pumps .............................................................................................................................................. 21
Piping and Connections .................................................................................................................. 22
Identification Letters............................................................................................................................... 23
Tag Numbers........................................................................................................................................... 23
ISA Symbology Review ........................................................................................................................... 26
Controller Algorithms and Tuning ...............................................................................................................27
Learning Objectives.................................................................................................................................27
Controller Algorithms.....................................................................................................................................28
Discrete Controllers ................................................................................................................................28
Multistep Controllers................................................................................................................................29
Continuous Controllers ............................................................................................................................29
Why controllers need tuning?...........................................................................................................................31
Gain ..........................................................................................................................................................31
Proportional Mode ..........................................................................................................................................33
Proportional Gain ....................................................................................................................................33
Proportional Band....................................................................................................................................33
Limits of Proportional action ...................................................................................................................34
Determining the Controller Output..........................................................................................................34
Proportional Action- Closed Loop........................................................................................................... 35
.
Integral Mode ................................................................................................................................................. 37
Integral Action........................................................................................................................................
37
Open
Loop
Analysis................................................................................................................................ 37 Closed
Loop Analysis ............................................................................................................................. 38
Reset Windup.......................................................................................................................................... 39
Summary................................................................................................................................................. 40
Derivative Mode .............................................................................................................................................. 41
Derivative Action.................................................................................................................................... 41
Rate Summary......................................................................................................................................... 44
Process Control Loops.....................................................................................................................................46
Learning Objectives..................................................................................................................................46
Single Control Loops .......................................................................................................................................47
Feedback Control .....................................................................................................................................47
Examples Of Single Control Loops..................................................................................................................48
Pressure Control Loops............................................................................................................................49
Flow Control Loops..................................................................................................................................49
Level Control Loops .................................................................................................................................50
Temperature Control Loops .....................................................................................................................51
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Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops ......................................................................................................52
Multivariable Loops .................................................................................................................................52

Feedforward Control................................................................................................................................53
Feedforward plus Feedback.....................................................................................................................54
Cascade Control..................................................................................................................................... 55
Batch Control ......................................................................................................................................... 56
Ratio Control.......................................................................................................................................... 56
Selective Control..................................................................................................................................... 57
Fuzzy Control ......................................................................................................................................... 57
iv
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Introduction
Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process. Precise control
of level, temperature, pressure and flow is important in many process applications. This module
introduces you to control in process industries, explains why control is important, and identifies
different ways in which precise control is ensured.
The following five sections are included in this module:
The importance of process control
Control theory basics
Components of control loops and ISA symbology
Controller algorithms and tuning
Process control systems
As you proceed through the module, answer the questions in the activities column on the right side
of each page. Also, note the application boxes (double-bordered boxes) located throughout the
module. Application boxes provide key information about how you may use your baseline
knowledge in the field. When you see the workbook exercise graphic at the bottom of a page, go to
the workbook to complete the designated exercise before moving on in the module. Workbook
exercises help you measure your progress toward meeting each
sections learning objectives.
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVE
After completing this module, you will be able to determine needed control loop components in
specific process control applications.
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Table of Contents
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The Importance of Process Control

Refining, combining, handling, and otherwise manipulating fluids to profitably produce end
products can be a precise, demanding, and potentially hazardous process. Small changes in a
process can have a large impact on the end result. Variations in proportions, temperature, flow,
turbulence, and many other factors must be carefully and consistently controlled to produce the
desired end product with a minimum of raw materials and energy. Process control technology is
the tool that enables manufacturers to keep their operations running within specified limits and to
set more precise limits to maximize profitability, ensure quality and safety.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to:
Define process
Define process control
Describe the importance of process control in terms of variability, efficiency, and
safety Note: To answer the activity questions the Hand Tool (H) should be
activated.
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PROCESS
Process as used in the terms process control and process
industry, refers to the methods of changing or refining raw
materials to create end products. The raw materials, which
either pass through or remain in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry
(a mix of solids and liquids) state during the process, are
transferred, measured, mixed, heated or cooled, filtered,
stored, or handled in some other way to produce the end
product.
octane components. As a result,

customers would receive a higher
grade and more expensive gasoline
than they paid for, and the refinery
would lose money. The opposite
situation would be customers
receiving a lower grade at a higher
price.
Process industries include the chemical industry, the oil and

gas industry, the food and beverage industry, the
pharmaceutical industry, the water treatment industry, and
the power industry.
PROCESS CONTROL
Process control refers to the methods that are used to control

process variables when manufacturing a product. For
example, factors such as the proportion of one ingredient to
another, the temperature of the materials, how well the
ingredients are mixed, and the pressure under which the
materials are held can significantly impact the quality of an
end product. Manufacturers control the production process
for three reasons:
Reduce variability
Increase efficiency
Ensure safety
Activities
1. Process is defined as the
changing or refining of raw
materials that pass through or
remain in a liquid, gaseous, or
slurry state to
to create end products.
Reduce Variability
Process control can reduce variability in the end product,
which ensures a consistently high-quality product.
Manufacturers can also save money by reducing
variability. For example, in a gasoline blending process, as
many as 12 or more different components may be blended
to make a specific grade of gasoline. If the refinery does
not have precise control over the flow of the separate
components, the gasoline may get too much of the high 2006 PAControl.com
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2. Which of these industries are

examples of the process
industry?
Select all options that apply.
Table of Contents
1
2
3
4
5
Pharmaceutical
Satellite
Oil and Gas
Cement
Power
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Control Theory Basics

This section presents some of the basic concepts of control and provides a foundation from which
to understand more complex control processes and algorithms later described in this module.
Common terms and concepts relating to process control are defined in this section.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Define control loop
Describe the three tasks necessary for process control to occur:
Measure
Compare
Adjust
Define the following terms:
Process variable
Setpoint
Manipulated variable
Measured variable
Error
Offset
Load disturbance
Control algorithm
List at least five process variables that are commonly controlled in process measurement
industries At a high level, differentiate the following types of control:
Manual versus automatic feedback control
Closed-loop versus open-loop control
Note: To answer the activity questions the Hand Tool (H) should be activated.
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Table of Contents
The Control Loop

.
Activities
Imagine you are sitting in a cabin in front of a small fire on a cold

winter evening. You feel uncomfortably cold, so you throw another
logon thefire. Thisis an example
controlloop
ofa . Inthe
1 .The three tasks associated
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control loop, a variable (temperature) fell below the setpointcontrol
(your loop are measureme
comfort level), and you took action to bring the process backcomparison,
into the
and adjustmen
statement
true or false?
desired condition by adding fuel to the fire. The control loop
will
below your comfort level.
T HREETASKS
Control loops in the process control industry work in the same way,
requiring three tasks to occur:
Measurement
Comparison
Adjustment
Process Control Terms
Process
Control
Terms
In Figure7.1,
a level transmitter
(LT) measures the level in the tank
and transmits a signal associated with the level reading to a controller

( LIC). The controller compares the reading to a predetermined value,
in this case,
the maximum
tank level established by the plant
MEASURED
VARIABLES,
PROCESS
operator, and finds that the values are equal. The controller then
VARIABLES,
AND MANIPULATED
sends a signal to the device that can bring the tank level back to a
VARIABLES
lower levela valve at the bottom of the tank. The valve opens to let
some liquid out of the tank.
Activities
Many different
instruments and devices may or may not be used in
control loops (e.g.,
5. ____________________
is atransmitters, sensors, controllers, valves, pumps),
but the three tasks of measurement, comparison, and adjustment are
In the temperature control loop example, the measured
understood. Any error can be seen
always present.
as
having
three
major
variable is temperature, which must be held close to 100 C.
components.
These
three
In this example and in most instances, the measured variable
components are shown in the
is also the process variable. The measured variable is the
figure on the folowing page
condition of the process fluid that must be kept at the
designated setpoint.
LIC
Sometimes the measured variable is not the same as the

process variable. For example, a manufacturer may measure
LT
Maximum
flow into
and out of a storage tank to determine tank level. In
level
this scenario, flow is the measured variable, and the process
fluid level is the process variable. The factor that is changed
to keep the measured variable at setpoint is called the
manipulated variable. In the example described, the
manipulated variable would also be flow (Figure 7.2).
ASimple
Setpoint
ControlLoop
Process
Manipulate
d
variable or Controller
variable
variable measured
Magnitude
The magnitude of the error is
simply the deviation between the
values of the setpoint and the
process variable. The magnitude
of error at any point in time
compared to the previous error
provides the basis for determining
the change in error. The change in
error is also an important value.
sustained deviation of the
process variable from the
setpoint.
Variables
ERROR
Error is the difference between the measured variable and the
setpoint and can be either positive or negative. In the
temperature control loop example, the error is the difference
between the 110 C measured variable and the 100 C
setpointthat is, the error is +10 C.
The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or
eliminate error. Therefore, it is imperative that error be well
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6. A load disturbance is an
undesired change in one of the
factors that can affect the
setpoint. Is this statement true
or false?
Activities
As in any field, process control has its own set of common terms that
you should be familiar with and that you will use when talking about
control technology.
2 .A processvariableisa
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conditionthatcan change
the
process in some way.
P ROCESSVARIABLE
that can change the manufacturing process in some way. In the

example of you sitting by the fire, the process variable was
temperature. In the example of the tank in Figure7.1, the process
variable is level. Common process variables include:
Pressure
Flow
Level
Temperature
Control Theory
Basics
Density
3 .Imagine you are in a cabin in
Ph (acidity or alkalinity)
front of a small fire on a cold
Liquid interface (the relative amounts of different liquids that
winter
areevening. You feel
uncomfortably cold, so you
combinedin avessel)
throw another log into the fir
Mass
In this scenario, the process
Conductivity
variable is temperature. Is th
true or false?
S ETPOINT
Table of Contents
Thesetpoint isavaluefor aprocessvariablethat isdesiredtobe

maintained.Forexample, if a process temperature needs to kept
within 5C of100C, then the setpoint is 100 C. A temperature
sensorcanbeusedto helpmaintain the temperature at setpoint.
The sensoris insertedintothe process, and a contoller compares the
temperaturereadingfrom the sensor to the setpoint. If the temperature
reading is 110C,thenthecontroller determines that the process is
4 slightly
.Ifthelevelof aliquidin atank
abovesetpointandsignalsthe fuel valve of the burner to close
mustbemaintained
within 5 f
untiltheprocess coolsto 100 C. Set points can also be maximum or
of
50ft,
whatistheliquids
minimum values. For example, level in tank cannot exceed 20 feet.
setpoint?
1
2
3
4
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45ft
55ft
5 ft
50ft

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Duration
Duration refers to the length of time that an error condition has
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existed.
RateOfChange
Activities
Rate of Change of Error

Table of Contents
( Slope of Error )Plot
PV

Magnitude of Error
Duration
SP
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Components of Error
Components of Control Loops and ISA

Symbology
Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the
OFFSET
setpoint. In the temperature control loop example, if the control

This section
the instruments,
technologies,
and equipmenteven
used to
develop and maintain
system
helddescribes
the process
fluid at 100.5
C consistently,
though
process
control
In addition,
this
section
how process control equipment is
the
setpoint
is loops.
100 C,
then an
offset
ofdescribes
0.5 C exists.
represented in technical drawings of control loops.
LOADD ISTURBANCE
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
A load
disturbance
is
an undesired change in one of the factors that
can
affect
the process
variable.
control loop
After
completing
this section,
you willInbethe
abletemperature
to:
example,
adding
cold
process
fluid
to
the
vessel
would
bemethod
a loadof operation for
Describe the basic function of and, where appropriate, the basic
disturbance
because
it
would
lower
the
temperature
of
the
the following control loop components: Primary element/sensor process
fluid.
Transducer
Converter
C ONTROL
ALGORITHM
Transmitter
Signal algorithm
A control
is a mathematical expression of a control
function.
Indicator Using the temperature control loop example, V in the
equation
Recorder below is the fuel valve position, and e is the error. The
relationship
Controller in a control algorithm can be expressed as:
Correcting element/final control element
Actuator
List examples of each type of control loop component listed above
State the advantages of 420 mA current signals when compared with other
types of signals List at least three types of final control elements, and for each
one:
Provide a brief explanation of its method of operation
Describe its impact on the control loop
List common applications in which it is used
Given a piping and instrumentation drawing (P&ID), correctly label the:
Instrument symbols (e.g., control valves, pumps, transmitters)
Location symbols (e.g., local, panel-front)
Signal type symbols (e.g., pneumatic, electrical)
Accurately interpret instrument letter designations used on P&IDs
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Components of Control Loops and ISA

Symbology
The previous section described the basic elements of control

as measurement, comparison, and adjustment. In practice,
there are instruments and strategies to accomplish each of
these essential tasks. In some cases, a single process control
instrument, such as a modern pressure transmitter, may
perform more than one of the basic control functions. Other
technologies have been developed so that communication
can occur among the components that measure, compare,
and adjust.
and used to calculate the

fluids flow rate. With an
RTD, as the temperature of a
process fluid surrounding the
RTD rises or falls, the
electrical resistance of the
RTD increases or decreases a
proportional amount. The
resistance is measured, and
from this measurement,
temperature is determined.
PRIMARY ELEMENTS/SENSORS
In all cases, some kind of instrument is measuring changes
in the process and reporting a process variable measurement.
Some of the greatest ingenuity in the process control field is
apparent in sensing devices. Because sensing devices are the
first element in the control loop to measure the process
variable, they are also called primary elements. Examples of
primary elements include:
Pressure sensing diaphragms, strain gauges,
capacitance cells
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
Thermocouples
Orifice plates
Pitot tubes
Venturi tubes
Magnetic flow tubes
Coriolis flow tubes
Radar emitters and receivers
Ultrasonic emitters and receivers
Annubar flow elements
Vortex sheddar
Primary elements are devices that cause some change in
their
property with changes in process fluid conditions that can
then be measured. For example, when a conductive fluid
passes through the magnetic field in a magnetic flow tube,
the fluid generates a voltage that is directly proportional to
the velocity of the process fluid. The primary element
(magnetic flow tube) outputs a voltage that can be measured
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Activities
1.
Identify three examples of a

primary element/sensors in
process control? Select all
options that apply.
Resistance Temperature
Detectors
Thermocouples
Control Valve
Converter
Pitot tubes
2.
Primary elements will not

make direct contact with the
process fluid. Is this
statement true or false?
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Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology
Control Loop Equipment and Technology

T
RANSDUCERSAND
C ONVERTERS
Activities
A transduceris a device that translates a mechanical signal into

3 an
.A ____________ is a device
electrical signal. For example, inside a capacitance pressure device, a
that translates a mechanical
transducer converts changes in pressure into a proportional change in
into an electrical signal.
capacitance.
A converteris a device that converts one type of signal into another
type of signal. For example, a converter may convert current into
voltage or an analog signal into a digital signal. In process control, a
converter used to convert a 420 mA current signal into a 315 psig
pneumatic signal (commonly used by valve actuators) is called a
current-to-pressure converter.
T RANSMITTERS
A transmitter
is a device that converts a reading from a sensor
or transducer into a standard signal and transmits that signal
4 . A transmitter is a device that
to a monitor or controller. Transmitter types include:
a reading from a transducer in
Pressure transmitters
standard signal and transmits
Flow transmitters
to a monitor or controller. Is t
Temperature transmitters
Level transmitters
Analytic (O
2 [oxygen], CO [carbon monoxide], and pH)
transmitters
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Is this statement true or false?
human action to make adjustment.

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SIGNALS
wires. The
current signal
There are three kinds of

signals that exist for the
process industry to transmit
the process variable
measurement from the
instrument to a centralized
control system.
is a kind of
gauge in
which
4 mA
represents the
lowest
possible
measurement,
or zero, and
20 mA
represents the
highest
possible
measurement.
1.Pneumatic signal
2.Analog signal
3.Digital signal
Pneumatic Signals
Pneumatic
signals
are
For example,
signals
produced
by
imagine a
changing the air pressure in a
operations
involvethat
signal control
pipe in proportion
to that process
must be
the measured change in a
maintained at
process
variable.
The
100 C. An
common industry standard
RTD
pneumatic signal range is 3
15 psig. The 3 corresponds
temperature
to the lower range value
sensor and
(LRV)
and
the
15
transmitter
corresponds to the upper
are installed
range
value
(URV).
in the process
Pneumatic signalling is still
vessel, and
common. However, since the
the
advent
of
electronic
transmitter is
instruments in the 1960s, the
set to produce
lower costs involved in
a 4 mA signal
running electrical signal wire
when the
through a plant as opposed to
process
running pressurized air tubes
temperature is
has made pneumatic signal
at 95 C and a
technology less attractive.
20 mA signal
when the
Analog Signals
process
temperature is
The most common standard
at 105 C.
electrical signal is the 420
The
mA current
transmitter
signal. With this signal, a
will transmit a
transmitter sends a small
12 mA signal
current through a set of
18
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when the temperature is at
the 100 C setpoint. As the
sensors resistance property
changes in response to
changes in temperature, the
transmitter outputs a 420
mA signal that is
proportionate to the
temperature changes. This
signal can be converted to a
temperature reading or an
input to a control device,
such as a burner fuel valve.
Other common standard
electrical signals include the
15 V (volts) signal and the
pulse output.
Activities
5. Identify the signal types
that are used in the process
control industry? Select all
options that apply.
1
2
3
4
5
Hydraulic signals
Digital signals
Analog signals
Pneumatic signals
Electro-magnetic signals
Symbology
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Fundamentals
The
fuel valve po
of Control
negative) of the e
Summing
block
Process
variable
Al
Control algorithm
more complex co
complex control
be opened or clos
How long should
processvariable
M ANUALAND
A UT
Before process au
many of the proce
might have watch
reachedthesetpo
action to make an
Conversely, con
required, such a
controller, are calle
au
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Compon
ents of
Control
Loops
and ISA
Symbolo
gy
Digital Signals
20
Digital signals
are the most recent addition to pr
technology. Digital signals are discrete levels
combined inspecific ways torepresentprocess
other information, such as diagnostic informa
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protocol. Open protocols are those that anyon

control device can use. Proprietary protocols
companies and may be used only with their p
protocols include the HART
(highway addressable
OUNDATION
transducer) protocol, F
Fieldbus, Profibu
and the Modbus

protocol.
Control Loop Equipment and

Technology
(See Module
8:CommunicationTechnologies
formore i
on digital communication protocols.)
R ECORDERS
IANDICATORS
recorder isa devicethatrecordsthe outputof a
devices.
Many
process manufacturers
requ
While most
instruments
are connectedare
to a
co
process history
agencies, andon
m
sometimes
needtotoregulatory
check a measurement
recorders
to help
meet
regulatory
requi
measurement
point.
Anthese
indictor
makes this
re
manufacturers
often
use
recorders
to
gather
indicator is a human-readable device that displd
By recording
the readings
critical
measurem
the
process. Indicators
mayofbe
as simple
as a
comparing
those
readingssuch
overastime
with the
gauge or more
complex,
a digital
read
the
process simply
can bedisplay
improved.
indicators
the measured variab
control
buttons
that display
enable operators
to chang
Different
recorders
the data they
colle
recorders list a set of readings and the times th

others create a chart or graph of the readings.
charts or graphs are called
chart recorders.
ONTROLLERS
A controlleris a device that receives data from a

instrument, compares that data to a programm
necessary, signals a control element to take c
Localcontrollers
areusuallyone of the three types
electronic or programmable. Contollers also c
in a digital control system.
Computer-based
centralcontroller
Pneumatic, elect
programmable loca
DCS
Transmitter Single-loop
controller
Power
supply
Controller
( CPU)
I/Ocard
Controllers
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Activities
Activities
Controllers may perform complex mathematical functions to compare
a set of data to setpoint or they may perform simple addition11.

or_______________ is a part final
subtraction functions to make comparisons. Controllers always
have of
9 .Which
the that
following
control
device
causes ahave the
an ability to receive input, to perform a mathematical functionability
with
to
receive
input,
physical change in the
final to perform
the input, and to produce an output signal. Common examplesa of
mathematical
function
control device when signaled with
to do the
controllers include:
input, and produce an output signa
so.
Programmable logic controllers
(PLCs)PLCs are usually
computers connected to a set of input/outputSmart
(I/O) devices. The
1
Transmitter
Actuators
computers are programmed to respond to inputs by sending
2
Transmitters
outputs to maintain all processes at setpoint.
3
Transducers
Distributed control systems
(DCSs)DCSs
are controllers that,
Smart Transmitter
4
Controllers
Digital
Valve Controller
in addition
to performing control functions, provide readings of
(Provides PID Output)
the
status of the process, maintain databases and advanced
(Smart Positioner)
man-machine-interface.
Types of Process Controllers
CORRECTING ELEMENTS/FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

The correcting or final control element is the part of the control
system that acts to physically change the manipulated variable. In
most cases, the
final control element is a valve used to restrict or cut
Setpoint
off fluid flow, but pump motors, louvers (typically used to regulate
I
D other devices can also be final control
air flow),P solenoids,
and
elements.
Pipestand Controller
10 . Which of the following is the mos

common final control element in
process control industries?
Analog Rack Mount Controller 1
Final( control
elements
are typically used to increase or decrease
fluid
Pneumatic
or Electronic)
(Electronic)
flow. For example, a final control element may regulate the flow of
fuel to a burner to control temperature, the flow of a catalyst into a
reactor to control a chemical reaction, or the flow of air into a boiler
to control boiler combustion.
2
3
4
In any control loop, the speed with which a final control element
reacts to correct a variable that is out of setpoint is very important.
Many of the technological improvements in final control elements
are related to improving their response time.
ACTUATORS
An actuator
the Digital
part of Converter
a final control device thatDistributed
causes a physical
Single is
Loop
Control System
( Electronic)
change
in the final control device when signalled to )do(Electronic
so. The most
common example of an actuator is a valve actuator, which opens or
22
Types of Process Controllers
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Agitator
Pump motor
Valve
Louver
closes a valve in response to control signals from a controller.

Actuators are often powered pneumatically, hydraulically, or
electrically. Diaphragms, bellows, springs, gears, hydraulic pilot
valves, pistons, or electric motors are often parts of an actuator system.
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ISA Symbology
Activities
The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society (ISA) is one of

the leading process control trade and standards organizations. The ISA
has developed a set of symbols for use in engineering drawings
and
12 .Whatdoestheacronym
P&ID
designs of control loops (ISA S5.1 instrumentation symbol
stand for?
specification). You should be familiar with ISA symbology so that you
can demonstrate possible process control loop solutions on paper to
yourcustomer. Figure7.5 shows acontrolloopusingISA symbology.
1
Piping and Instrument Designin
Drawings of this kind are known
piping
as and instrumentation
2
Piping and Instrumentation
drawings(P&ID).
Drawing
3
FIC
123
SP
TIC
123
TY
123
YIC
123
TT
123
FT
123
PipingandInstrumentationDrawing
( P&ID)
24
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Process Control and Installation

Drawing
Proportional, Intergral and
Derivative control
ISA Symbology
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ISA Symbology Activities

15. Which of the following is a symbol of
a controller located behind a
panel?
Activities
Fundamentals
of Control
S YMBOLS
25
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13 . Which of the following is a sym

In aP&ID, a circlerepresentsindividualmeasurementinstruments,
a transmitter in an auxiliary
such as transmitters, sensors, and detectors (Figure7.6).
LOCATION
location?
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1
Control Room
Field
Auxiliary
Not Accessible
Figure 7.6: Discrete Instruments

2
A single horizontal line running across the center of the shape
indicates that the instrument or function is located in a primary
location (e.g., a control room). A double line indicates that the
3
function is in an auxiliary location (e.g., an instrument rack). The
absence of a line indicates that the function is field mounted, and a
dotted line indicates that the function or instrument is inaccessible
4
( e.g., located behind a panel
). board

Asquare withacircleinsiderepresents instrumentsthat
both display
measurement readings and perform some control function
( Figure7.7). Many modern transmitters are equipped with
microprocessors thatperformcontrolcalculationsandsend control
outputsignalsto finalcontrolelements.
DISPLAY AND CONTROL TYPES
Control Room
Field
14 . Which of the following is a sym

a field-mounted control/display
element?
Flow/
Square
Root
Not Accessible
SharedControl/DisplayElements
2
A hexagon represents computer functions, such as those carried
out
by a controller (Figure7.8).
Control Types
4
Control Room
Auxiliary
Field
Not Accessible
ComputerFunctions(Controllers)
A square with a diamond inside represents PLCs (Figure7.9).

PLC Types
16. The symbol displayed below deno

a PLC in a primary location.
26
Control Room
Auxiliary
Field
Not accessible
PLCs
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above the valve (Figure7.10).

Pneumatic valve
Manual valve
Electric valve
Components of
Loops
Symbology
17Control
. Which
of and
theISA
following
is a symbo
of a pneumatic valve?
ISA Symbology
Valves
Activities
Piping and Connections

Pumps
Piping and connections are represented with several different
symbols
218 .The symbols displayed below re
( Figure7.12):
Directional
arrows showing the flow direction represent a pump
a data link and a process conne
( Figure7.11).
A heavy solid line represents piping
A thin solid line represents process connections to instruments
3
( e.g., impulse piping
)
A dashed line represents electrical signals (e.g., 420 mA
connections)
4
A slashed line represents pneumatic signal tubes
A line with circles on it represents data links
Pumps
Other connection
symbols include capillary tubing for filled systems
( e.g., remote diaphragm seals), hydraulic signal lines, and guided
electromagnetic or sonic signals.
Piping
Process
connection
Electrical
signal
Pneumatic
signal
Data
link
Capillary tubing for

filled systems
Hydraulic
signal line
Guided
electromagnetic
or sonic signal
Piping and ConnectionSymbols
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ISA Symbology
Activities
23
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I DENTIFICATION
L ETTERS
Identification letters on the ISA symbols (e.g., TT for temperature

19 .The initial letter on an ISA symbo
transmitter) indicate:
indicates the measured variable.
The variable being measured (e.g., flow, pressure, temperature)
this statement true or false?
The devices function (e.g., transmitter, switch, valve, sensor,
indicator)
Some modifiers (e.g., high, low, multifunction)
Table7.1 on page26 shows the ISA identification letter designations.
The initial letter indicates the measured variable. The second letter
indicates a modifier, readout, or device function. The third letter
usually indicates either a device function or a modifier.
For example, FIC on an instrument tag represents a flow indicating

controller. PT represents a pressure transmitter. You can find
identificationlettersymbologyinformation ontheISAWeb siteat
http://www.isa.org.
20 . What does the third letter on an I
symbol indicate?
TAGN UMBERS
Numberson P&IDsymbolsrepresentinstrumenttagnumbers.
Often
1
Device function or a modifier
these numbers are associated with a particular control loop (e.g., flow
2
Measured variable
transmitter 123). See Figure7.13.
3
Readout
4
Identification
Type of process fluid
Tag number
FIC
123
letters
IdentificationLettersandTagNumber
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Measured Variable
Modifier
Readout
D
e
v
ice Function
Modifier
A Analysis of Control Loops

Alarm
Components
and ISA Symbology
B Burner,
combustion
Users
choice
C Users
choice
ISA
Symbology
D Users
Differential
choice
E Voltage
F Flow rate
Urs choice
s
e
Ctrol
o
n
Activities
Sensor
(primary
element)
Ration
(fraction)
G Users
choice
Glass,
viewing
device
H Hand
I Electrical
Current
J Power
High
Indication
Scan
K Time, time Time rate

schedule of change
L Level
M Users
choice
N Users
choice
O Users
choice
P Pressure,
vacuum
Q Quantity
Light
Low
Middle, intermediate
Users
choice
Urs choice
s
e
Users choice
Orifice,
restriction
Point, test
connection
Integrate,
totalizer
Record
Safety
T Temperatur
e
U Multivariabl
e
Vibration,
V mechanical
analysis
WWeight,
force
X Unclassifie axis
d
Event,
state, or
Y presence
Ctrol station
o
n
Momentary
R Radiation
S Speed,
frequency
Users choice
Y axis
Z Position,
Z axis
dimension
S ch
w
it
Tnsmit
r
a
Multifunctio Mifunction
Multifunction
n
ul
t
V
e, damper,
al
louver
v
Well
Unclassifie Ulassified
Unclassified
d
n
c
R
el
ay, compute,
c
vert
o
n
Der, actuator
ri
v
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ISA Identification Letters
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30
ISA Symbology
Activities
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ISA Symbology
Activities
Controller Algorithms and Tuning

The previous sections of this module described the purpose of control, defined individual elements within
control loops, and demonstrated the symbology used to represent those elements in an engineering drawing.
The examples of control loops used thus far have been very basic. In practice, control loops can be fairly
complex. The strategies used to hold a process at setpoint are not always simple, and the interaction of
numerous setpoints in an overall process control plan can be subtle and complex. In this section, you will be
introduced to some of the strategies and methods used in complex process control loops.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Differentiate between discrete, multistep, and continuous controllers
Describe the general goal of controller tuning.
Describe the basic mechanism, advantages and disadvantages of the following mode of controller action:
Proportional action
Intergral action
Derivative action
Give examples of typical applications or situations in which each mode of controller action would be
used.
Identify the basic implementation of P, PI and PID control in the following types of loops:
Pressure loop
Flow loop
Level loop
Temperature loop
32
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Controller Algorithms
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Activities
M ULTISTEPC ONTROLLERS
Multistep controllers
are controllers that have at least one other2 . A controller with three or more
possible position in addition to on and off. Multistep controllers
set positions is called a continuous
operate similarly to discrete controllers, but as setpoint is approached,
controller. Is this statement true or
the multistep controller takes intermediate steps. Therefore, the
false?
oscillation around setpoint can be less dramatic when multistep
controllers are employed than when discrete controllers are used
( Figure7.16).
Process variableaction
Control action
Figure7.16:Multistep ControlProfile
C ONTINUOUS
C ONTROLLERS
Controllers automatically comparethe valueofthe PV to the SPto
determine if an error exists. If there is an error, the controller adjusts
its output according to the parameters that have been set in the
controller. The tuning parameters essentially determine:
How muchcorrection should bemade?The
magnitude
ofthe
correction( change in controller output) is determined by the
proportional mode of the controller.
Howlong shouldthecorrectionbeapplied?
duration
The ofthe
adjustment to the controller output is determined by the integral mode
of the controller
Howfast shouldthecorrectionbeapplied?The
speedatwhicha
correction is made is determined by the derivative mode of the
controller.
29
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Activities
When there is an error, the controller SP
PV
makes a change in its output.

It determines:
How much?Proportional Mode
How long? Integral Mode
How fast? Derivative Mode
Setpoint
LIC
I/P
P
Controller
LT
PV
SP
Load
Automatic Feedback Control
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Why Controllers Need Tuning?
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Activities
Controllers are tuned in an effort to match the characteristics of the

control equipment to the process so that two goals are achieved:
3 . The change in the controller output
is the foundation of process control measurement in that electricity:
divided by the change in the input t
The system responds quickly to errors.
controller is known as __________ .
The system remains stable (PV does not oscillate around
the SP).
GAIN
Controller tuning is performed to adjust the manner in which a control
valve (or other final control element) responds to a change in error.
In particular, we are interested in adjusting
gainof the
the controller
such that a change in controller input will result in a change in
controller output that will, in turn, cause sufficient change in
valve position to eliminate error, but not so great a change as
to cause instability or cycling.
Gain is defined simply as the change in output divided by the change
in input.
Examples:
Change in Input to Controller - 10%
Change in Controller Output - 20%
Gain = 20% / 10% = 2
Change in Input to Controller - 10%
Change in Controller Output - 5%
Gain = 5% / 10% = 0.5
convey measurements and instructions to other instruments in a
control loop to maintain the highest level of safety and efficiency.
The next three sections in this module discuss electricity, circuits,
transmitters, and signals in greater detail so you can understand the
importance of electricity in process control.
Why Controllers Need Tuning?
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Gain Plot - The Figure below is simply another graphical way of

representing the concept of gain.
4. Fast or slow processes have no impact
Gain=2
on
Gain Kc = Output % /
Input %
controller gain settings. Is this
Gain=1
100
Output %
50
Gain=0.5
0
0
50
100
Input %
Graphical Representaion of Gain Concept
LIC
LT
I/P
LIC
I/P
LT
Examples - The following examples help to illustrate the purpose of

setting the controller gain to different values.
Small volume liquid process
Controllers May be Tuned to Help

Match the Valve to the Process
Fast Process May Require Less
Gain To Achieve Stability
Slow Process May Require Higher Gain To Achieve Responsiveness
Large volume gas process
Fast and Slow Processes May Require Different Controller Gain Settings
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Activities
PROPORTIONAL ACTION
The proportional mode is used to set the basic gain value of the
controller. The setting for the proportional mode may be
expressed as either: 1. Proportional Gain
2. Proportional Band
5. Identify the major disadvantage

of proportional action.
PROPORTIONAL GAIN
In electronic controllers, proportional action is typically expressed

as proportional gain. Proportional Gain (Kc) answers the question:
"What is the percentage change of the controller output relative to
the
percentage change in controller input?"
Proportional Gain is expressed as:
Gain, (Kc) = Output% /Input %
3
4
Tends to leave an offset

Reset Windup during shutdown
Possible overshoot during
startup
Can cause cycling in fast
process by amplifying noisy
signals
PROPORTIONAL BAND
Proportional Band (PB) is another way of representing the same
information and answers this question:
"What percentage of change of the controller input span will cause
a 100% change in controller output?"
PB = Input (% Span) For 100%Output
Converting Between PB and Gain
A simple equation converts gain to proportional Band:
added.
PB = 100/Gain
Also recall that:
Gain = 100%/PB
Proportional Gain, (Kc) = Output% / Input %
PB= Input(%Span) For 100%Output
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100
Gain=2
Gain=1
Gain=0.5
PB= 50%
PB=100%
PB=200%
6. If proportional gain
is 0.5, and a level
reading is 5%
above setpoint, a
proportional
controller
will
signal the outflow
control valve to
open by <1 / 2.5 /
5> % of its full
range.
Output %
50
50
100
150
200
Input %
Relationship of Proportional Gain and Proportional Band
L IMITSOF P ROPORTIONAL
A CTION
action responds
Responds Only to a Change inProportional
error onlyto achange in the magnitude
of the error.
Proportional
actionnot
will
Does Not Return the PV to Setpoint
return the PV to setpoint. It will, however, return the PV to a value
that is within a defined span (PB) around the PV.
D ETERMINING
THE C
ONTROLLER
O UTPUT
In a
Controller Output
- proportional only controller, the output is a
function of the change in error and controller gain.
Output Change, % = (Error Change, %) (Gain)
Example: If the setpoint is suddenly changed 10% with a proportional
band setting of 50%, the output will change as follows:
Calculating Controller Output
Controller Output
Input,
=
% X Gain
Gain = 100%/PB
EXAMPLE
Input = 10%
PB = 50%, so Gain = 100%/50% = 2
Controller Output = Input X Gain

Controller Output = 10% X 2 = 20%
Expressed in Units:
Controller Output Change =
(0.2)(12 psi span) = 2.4 psi OR
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(0.2)(16 mA span) = 3.2 mA
Low Gain Example - In the

example below, the proportional
band is high (gain is low). The
loop is very stable, but an error
remains between
PROPORTIONAL ACTION - CLOSED LOOP
Loop Gain - Every loop has a critical or natural frequency. This is

the frequency at which cycling may exist. This critical frequency is
determined by all of the loop components. If the loop gain is too high
at this frequency, the PV will cycle around the SP; i.e., the process
will become unstable.
Activities
SP and PV.
10
9
8
7
SP
5
4
PV
3
2
IVP
PB= 200%
Time
0
0
10
Proportional Control Closed Loop - Low Gain Example
High Gain Example - In the example, the proportional band is

small resulting in high gain, which is causing instability. Notice
that
the process variable is still not on set point.
10
9
87.
What will be the result if the

gain is set too high?
6Select all options that apply.
7proportional
%5
32
23
Large offset
Minimized offset
Possible cycling 14 Stable loop
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IVP
SP
0TIME
0
5
10
PV
1
6
2
7
3
8
4
9
Proportional Control Closed Loop High Gain example
PB=10%
Proportional Summary - For the proportional mode, controller

output is a function of a change in error. Proportional band is
expressed in terms of the percentage change in error that will cause
100% change in controller output. Proportional gain is expressed as
the percentage change in output divided by the percentage change in
input.
PB = (Input, % / Output, % ) x 100 = 100/Gain
Gain= Input % / Output %
Controller Output = (Change in Error)(Gain) 1.
Proportional Mode Responds only to a change in error
2. Proportional mode alone will not return the PV to SP. Advantages
- Simple
Disadvantages - Error
Settings - PB settings have the following effects:
Small PB (%)
High Gain (%)
Minimize Offset
Possible cycling
Large PB (%)
Low Gain
Large Offset
Stable Loop
Tuning - reduce PB (increase gain) until the process cycles

following a disturbance, then double the PB (reduce gain by 50%).
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Integral Mode
Activities
INTEGRAL ACTION
OPEN LOOP ANALYSIS
Duration of Error and Integral Mode - Another component of

error is the duration of the error, i.e., how long has the error
existed?
The controller output from the integral or reset mode is a function of
Purpose- The purpose of integral

action is to return the PV to SP. This
is accomplished by repeating the
action of the proportional mode as
long as an error exists. With the
exception
of
some
electronic
controllers, the integral or reset mode
is always used with the proportional
mode.
Setting - Integral, or reset action,
may be expressed in terms
of: Repeats Per Minute How many times the
proportional
action
is
repeated each minute.
Minutes Per Repeat - How
many minutes are required for
1 repeat to occur.
8. _____________ action is the type of
control algorithm that eliminates
offset.
PV
SP
Duration
the duration of the error.

100
90
80
70
60
%50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
INTEGRAL(RESET)
45
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Integral Mode
Activities
CLOSED LOOP ANALYSIS
40
Closed Loop With Reset - Adding reset to the controller adds one
more gain component to the loop. The faster the reset action, the
greater the gain.
Slow Reset Example - In this example the loop is stable
because the total loop gain is not too high at the loop critical
frequency.
Notice thatthe process variable does reach set point due to the reset
20
30
10
0TIME
0
2
7
3
8
4
9
10
SLOW RESET, CLOSED LOOP
Fast Reset Example - In the example

the rest is too fast and the PV is cycling
around the SP.
SP
100
PV
90
80
70
IVP
60
PB=80%
50
%
40
Repeat=2.0 Repeats/min
action.
30
100
20
90
80
10
70
TIME
0
6
60
50
%
1
7
2
8
3
9
5
10
FAST RESET, CLOSED LOOP
9. Which of the following are

integral or reset actions expressed
in terms of?
Select all options that apply.
SP
PV
IVP
PB=80%
Repeat=10 Repeats/min
46
Repeats per setting

Repeats per minute
Repeats per loop
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Integral Mode
Activities
4
Minutes per repeat
therefore this large error will drive the
RESET WINDUP
Defined - Reset windup is described as a situation where the controller10. Identify the major disadvantages
output is driven from a desired output level because of a large of integral action. difference between the set
point and the process variable.Select all options that apply.
100
output to one extreme.
1
100
Input %
ARW
2
3
4
0
Shutdown
Input(Error)
Startup
Reset Windup - Shutdown

and Startup
Output%
IVP
Startup - At start up, large process

variable overshoot may occur because
the reset speed prevents the output
from reaching its desired value fast
enough.
0
INPUT(ERROR)
Reset Windup - Ant-Reset Windup
Shutdown - Reset windup is common on shut down because the

process variable may go to zero but the set point has not
changed,
SP
Anti Reset Windup Controllers can be modified

with an anti-reset
Tends to leave an offset
Reset windup during shutdown
Possible overshoot during start up Can
cause cycling in fast process by
amplifying noisy signals
windup
(ARW)
PV
ARW
47
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Integral Mode
Activities
device. The purpose of an anti-reset option is to allow the output to
desired value quicker, therefore minimizing the overshoot.
reach its
SUMMARY
Integral (Reset) Summary - Output is a repeat of the proportional
long as error exists. The units are in terms of repeats per minute or
per repeat.
Advantages - Eliminates error
Disadvantages - Reset windup and possible overshoot
Fast Reset
(Large Repeats/Min.,Small Min./Repeat)
1.High Gain
2.Fast Return To
3.Possible Cycling
Slow Reset
1.Low Gain
(Small Repeats/Min.,Large Min./Repeats) 2.Slow Return To
3.Stable Loop
Trailing and Error Tuning - Increase repeats per minute until the
cycles following a disturbance, then slow the reset action to a value
is 1/3 of the initial setting.
48
action as
minutes
Setpoint
Setpoint
PV
that
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Derivative Mode
Activities
DERIVATIVE ACTION
Derivative Mode Basics - Some large and/or slow process do
not respond well to small changes in controller output. For
example, a large liquid level process or a large thermal
process (a heat exchanger) may react very slowly to a small change
in controller output. To improve response, a large initial change in
controller output may be applied. This action is the role of the
derivative mode.
The derivative action is initiated whenever there is a change in the
rate of change of the error (the slope of the PV). The magnitude of
the derivative action is determined by the setting of the derivative .
The mode of a PID controller and

the rate of change of the PV. The
Derivative setting is expressed in
terms of minutes. In operation, the
the controller first compares the
current PV with the last value of the
PV. If there is a change in the slope
of the PV, the controller
11. ___________ action is a control
algorithm that is tied to the rate
of change in the error.
etermines what its output would be at a future point in time 12.
Which of the following are
derivative or (the future point in time is determined by the value of
the derivative
terms of?
setting, in minutes). The derivative mode immediately

the output by that amount.
rate actions expressed in
increases
1
Repeats per minute

100
Slope= Rate of Error Change(Y/X)
Hours
90
PV
Seconds
80
Minutes
SP
70
Milliseconds
60
50
%
40
30
20
10
0TIME
0
10
Derivative Action is based on the rate of change in Error (Y/X)

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Derivative Mode
Example -Let's start a closed loop example by looking at a
Activities
temperature control system. IN this example, the time scale has been
13. The
lengthened to help illustrate controller actions in a slow process.
addition of
Assume a proportional band settingof 50%. There is no reset at
derivative
this time. The proportional gain of 2 acting on a 10% change in set
or rate
pint results in a change in controller output of 20%. Because
alone to a
temperature is a slow process the setting time after a change in error
close loop
is quite long. And, in this example, the PV never becomes equal to
control can
the SP because there is no reset.
cause the
Rate EffectTo
- illustrate the effect of rate action, we will add the
are mode with a setting of 1 minute. Notice the very large controller
output at time 0. The output spike is the result of rate action. Recall
that the change in output due to rate action is a speed
function of the
( rate) of change of error,
which in a step is nearly infinite. The
addition of rate alone will not cause the process variable to match the
set point.
100
process
variable to
match the
set point. Is
this
statement
true or
false?
90
80
IVP
70
60
SP
50
40
PV
30
20
PB=50%
Reset=0
10
Rate=0
TIME
100
200
300
400
100
IVP
90
80
70
60
PV
SP
50
40
PV
30
20
10
PB=50%
Reset=0
Rate=1 min
50
TIME
100
200
300
400
No Rate, Small Rate examples, Closed Loop
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Let's
Effect of Fast Rate
- now increase the rate setting to 10 minutes.
The controller gain is now much higher. As a result, both the IVP
( controller output) and the PV are cycling. The point here is that
increasing the rate setting will not cause the PV to settle at the SP.
Derivative Mode
100
Activities
IVP
SP
PV
PB= 50%
Reset=0
Rate= 10 min
0
TIME
100
200
300
400
P+D, High Rate Setting, Closed Loop Analysis
It is now
clear that reset must be added to
Need for Reset Action
bring process variable back to set point.
this component of the controller output is
ApplicationsBecause
dependent on speed
the of change
of the input or error, the output
will be very erratic if rate is used on fast process or one with noisy
signals. The controller output, as a result of rate, will have the
greatest change when the input changes rapidly.
Many
controllers,
Controller Option to Ignore Change
in SP
especially digital types, are designed to respond to changes in the PV
only, and to ignore changes in SP. This feature eliminates a major upset
upset that would occur following a change in the setpoint.
90
80
70
60
50
40
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Derivative Mode
Activities
30
20
10
0
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Derivative Mode
Activities
SUMMARY
Derivative (Rate) Sumary - Rate action is a function of the speed
of change of the error. The units are minutes. The action is to
apply an immediate response that is equal to the proportional plus
reset action that would have occurred some number of minutes I
the future.
Advantages - Rapid output reduces the time that is required to
return PV to SP in slow process.
Disadvantage - Dramatically amplifies noisy signals; can cause
cycling in fast processes.
Settings
Large (Minutes)
Small (Minutes)
1.High Gain
2.Large Output Change
3.Possible Cycling
1.Low Gain
2.Small Output Change
3.Stable Loop
Trial-and-Error Tuning
Increase the rate setting until the process cycles following a
disturbance, then reduce the rate setting to one-third of the initial
value.
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Process Control Loops

In this section, you will learn about how control components and
create a process control system. Because in some processes many
each variable can have an impact on the entire system, control
53
control algorithms are integrated to

variables must be controlled, and
systems must be designed to respond
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Derivative Mode
Activities
to disturbances at any point in the system and to mitigate the effect of those disturbances throughout the
system.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain how a multivariable loop is different from a single loop.
Differentiate feedback and feedforward control loops in terms of their operation, design, benefits, and
limitations
Perform the following functions for each type of standard process control loop (i.e., pressure, flow, level,
and temperature):
State the type of control typically used and explain why it is used
Identify and describe considerations for equipment selection (e.g., speed, noise)
Identify typical equipment requirements
Diagram the loop using ISA symbology
Explain the basic implementation process, including a description of equipment requirements and
considerations, for each of the following types of control:
Cascade control
Batch control
Ratio control
Selective control
Fuzzy control
Describe benefits and limitations of each type of control listed above
Give examples of process applications in which each type of control described in this section might be
used
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Derivative Mode
Activities
Single Control Loops
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.
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Examples of Single Control Loops
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Activities
While each application has its own characteristics, some general

statements can be made about pressure, flow, level, and temperature
loops.
2 .How does a high-volume pressu
controlloopreact as compared t
small-volume pressure control
P RESSUREC ONTROLLOOPS
Pressure control loops vary in speedthat is, they can respond to
changes in load or to control action slowly or quickly. The speed
1
Same rate
required in a pressure control loop may be dictated by the volume
of
Quicker
2
the process fluid. High-volume systems (e.g., large natural gas
storage
3
Slower
facilities) tend to change more slowly than low-volume systems
4
Extremely fast
( Figure7.21).
Pneumatic
controller
Relief
valve
Pressure
transmitter
Process
fluid
Fluid
pump
APressure Loop
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FLOWC ONTROLLOOPS
Generally, flow control loops are regarded as fast loops that

3 respond
.Flow control loops are generally
to changes quickly. Therefore, flow control equipment must have
fast
considered
to be slow respondin
sampling and response times. Because flow transmitters tend loops.
to be Is this statement true or
rather sensitive devices, they can produce rapid fluctuations or noise
in the control signal. To compensate for noise, many flow transmitters
have a damping function that filters out noise. Sometimes, filters are
added between the transmitter and the control system. Because the
temperature of the process fluid affects its density, temperature
measurements are often taken with flow measurements and
compensation for temperature is accounted for in the flow
calculation. Typically, a flow sensor, a transmitter, a controller, and a
valve or pump are used in flow control loops (Figure7.22).
Pneumatic
controller
Flow
transmitter
Valve
Process
fluid
Fluid
pump
AFlowLoop
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.
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Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops

ActivitiesCONTROL
FEEDFORWARD
Feedforward control is a control system that anticipates load

7. What type of control loop disturbances and controls
ary controller
6 .A multivariable control loop
to a controller
of a they
themcontains
before
impactand
the process
anticipates and controls load variable. For feedforward control to work,
a can
primary
f the primarysecondary
loop.
controller assigned
the user must
disturbances before they can mathematical understanding of how the manipulated variables will
e the temperature
ofhave a
to differentprocess
variables? Is
(a pressurized
thissteam
statement
true
or
false?
impact the process variable?
mary variable
impact the process variable. Figure 7.19 shows a feedforward loop in which a flow
nals the secondary
transmitter opens or closes a hot steam valve based on how much cold fluid passes
e. The primary
through the
ondary controller
toflow sensor.
1 Feedback control loop
process variable
2 Feedforward control loop
Flow
transmitter
Controller
Ratio control loop

Single variable loop
Cold process fluid
Steam valve
ve
e into account the

cedure is to tune the
Feedforward Control
cause adjustments
advantage of feedforward control is that error is prevented, rather than corrected.
uning theAn
primary
However, it is difficult to account for all possible load disturbances in a system
through feedforward control. Factors such as outside temperature, buildup in pipes,
consistency of raw materials, humidity, and moisture content can all become load
disturbances and cannot always be effectively accounted for in a feedforward system.
In general, feedforward systems should be used in cases where the controlled
variable has the potential of being a major load disturbance on the process variable
ultimately being controlled. The added complexity and expense of feedforward
control may not be equal to the benefits of increased control in the case of a
variable that causes only a small load disturbance.
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8. A controller with a summing functiontotals the input from both the feedforward loop and the feedback loop and sends a
unified signal to the final control element. This is how a single control signal is sent to the final control element in a
feedforward plus feedback system. Is this statement true or false?
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9. Ratio control is the term used todescribe a system in which the controller of the primary loop determines the setpoint of
a secondary loop. Is this statement true or false?
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BATCH CONTROL
Batch processes are those processes that are taken from start to finish in
batches. For example, mixing the ingredients for a juice drinks is often a
batch process. Typically, a limited amount of one flavor (e.g., orange drink
or apple drink) is mixed at a time. For these reasons, it is not practical to
have a continuous process running. Batch processes often involve getting
the correct proportion of ingredients into the batch. Level, flow, pressure,
temperature, and often mass measurements are used at various stages of
batch processes.
A disadvantage of batch control is that the process must be frequently
restarted. Start-up presents control problems because, typically, all
measurements in the system are below setpoint at start-up. Another
disadvantage is that as recipes change, control instruments may need to be
recalibrated.
RATIO CONTROL
Imagine a process in which an acid must be diluted with water in the
proportion two parts water to one part acid. If a tank has an acid supply on
one side of a mixing vessel and a water supply on the other, a control
system could be developed to control the ratio of acid to water, even
though the water supply itself may not be controlled. This type of control
system is called ratio control (Figure 7.26). Ratio control is used in many
applications and involves a contoller that receives input from a flow
measurement device on the unregulated (wild) flow. The controller
performs a ratio calculation and signals the appropriate setpoint to another
controller that sets the flow of the second fluid so that the proper
proportion of the second fluid can be
Ratio Control
Activities
10. Which term describes a control
system in which controlled flow is
added proportionately to an
uncontrolled flow?
Selective control
Cascade control
Ratio control
Fuzzy control
added.
Ratio control might be used where a continuous process is going on and an
additive is being put into the flow (e.g., chlorination of water).
Water flow
Acid flow
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Module 7: Workbook Exercises

EXERCISE
EXERCISE 7.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF PROCESS CONTROL
1. Which of the following options best represents the reasons to control a process?
(Select three options that apply)
(1) Reduce variability
(2) Increase productivity
(3) Increase efficiency
(4) Reduce cost
(5) Ensure safety
2. Process is defined as the method of changing or refining raw materials to create end
products. Is this statement true or false?
(1) True
(2) False
3. Which of the following are advantages of reducing variability in a process application?
(1) Helps ensure a consistently high-quality end product.
(2) Helps ensure an increase in the reaction rate of the process.
(3) Helps ensure increase in efficiency of the process.
(4) Helps ensure safety
7.2 CONTROL THEORY BASICS

1. Which of the following tasks is associated with process control? (Select three options
that apply)
(1) Measurement
(2) Comparison
(3) Quality Analysis
(4) Adjustment
(5) Calculation
2. Which of the following variables are commonly measured or monitored in process
control applications? (Select three options that apply)
(1) Pressure
(2) Viscosity
(3) Nitrogen content
(4) Flow rate
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(5) Temperature
3. A process liquid level needs to be held within 5 ft of 150 ft in a large tank. A pressure
transmitter monitors the liquids level using a pressure reading and sends the result to
a controller. The controller compares the level reading to the set point and opens or
closes an inflow or outflow pipe depending on the liquid level. Keeping in mind the
given scenario, match the terms in Column A with their values in Column B.
(1) Inferred process variable
(2) Manipulated variable
(3) Measured variable
(C)
(4) Set point
(A)
150 ft
(B)
Pressure
Flow of liquid to the tank
(D)
Level
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4. Match each term to its correct definition.

(1) Load disturbance
(2) Control algorithm
(3) Manual control
(4) Manipulated variable
(5) Set point
(A)
The factor that is changed to keep a measured variable at set point. (B)
An undesired change in a factor that can affect the process variable.
(C) A value or range of values for a process variable that must
be maintained to keep the process running properly.
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EXERCISE
(D) A control operation that directly involves human action. (E)
A mathematical expression of a control function
5. Match each term to its correct description.
(1) Closed-loop, automatic control _____
(2) Closed-loop, manual control
_____
(3) Open-loop, automatic control
_____
(A) An operator turns off the heater coil when the temperature transmitter outputs
a certain reading.
(B) A controller turns off the heater coil at set intervals, regardless of the process
temperature.
(C) A temperature sensor measures process temperature, sends the result to a
controller to compare to the setpoint, and the controller turns off the heater coil.
6. __________ is a deviation from set point due to load disturbance.
(1) Error
(2) Offset
(3) Rate of change
7. __________ is a continuing error due to the inability of a control system to keep the
measured variable at set point.
(1) Load disturbance
(2) Offset
(3) Pressure
7.3 COMPONENTS OF CONTROL LOOPS AND ISA SYMBOLOGY

1. The basic function of a __________ is to convert a reading from a transducer into a
standard signal and transmit that signal to a controller or computer monitor.
(1) recorder
(2) transmitter
(3) converter
2. 420 mA is the most common standard analog signal used in the process control
industry today. Is this statement true or false?
(1) True
(2) False
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3. Match the signal type in Column A with its example/application in Column B.
(1) Analog signal
(2) Pneumatic signal
Profibus and Modbus
(3) Digital signal
and 1 5 V
(A)
(B)
3 15 psig
Fieldbus,
(C)
4-20 mA
4. A customer would use __________to read the temperature of a process fluid on a

display.
(1) an indicator
(2) a volt-meter
(3) an actuator
5. Match each control loop equipment to its correct description.
(1) Recorder
(2) Controller
(3) Final control element
(4) Actuator
_____
_____
_____
_____
6. A pump motor is the most commonly used final control element. Is this statement true
or false?
(1) True
(2) False
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7. Match the ISA symbols in Column A with its respective description in Column B.
(1) (A)
Programmable logic control
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EXERCISE
(2) (B)
Temperature transmitter
(3) (C)
Pneumatically actuated valve
(4) (D)
Electrically actuated valve
7.4 CONTROL ALGORITHMS AND TUNING

1. Match each term to its correct definitions.
(1) Proportional band
(2) Proportional/integral (PI) control
(3) Proportional control
(4) Derivative control
(5) Integral control
(A) A type of control that corrects error and eliminates offset.
(B) A type of control that produce erratic output in noisy applications.
(C) The percent change in error that will cause a 100% change in controller output.
(D) A type of control that is prone to leaving an offset.
(E) A type of control that repeats the action of the proportional mode as long as an
error exists.
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2. Identify the two effects on a process variable if the proportional gain (Pgain) is set too
high? (Select all that apply)
(1) Minimize offset
(2) Large offset
(3) Stable loop
(4) Possible cycling
3. Derivative gain (Dgain) is typically set to zero in flow applications since flow
applications are usually noisy and derivative control will react to readings that are in
fact noise, thus preventing the process from holding set point. Is this statement true or
false?
(1) True
(2) False
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EXERCISE 7.5 PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS

1. Which control system anticipates load disturbances and controls them before they can
impact the process variable?
(1) Selective control
(2) Fuzzy control
(3) Feed forward control
(4) Cascade control
2. Match the component label in Column A to its ISA symbol representation in Column B.
(1) Flow transmitter
(A)
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EXERCISE
(2)
Temperature transmitter
(B)
(3)
Flow controller
(C)
(4)
Valve
(D)
3. If R1 = 60 :, R2 = 100 :, and R3 = 100 :, what is the equivalent resistance (Req) in the

circuit?
(1) slow
(2) fast
(3) variable speed
- Answers
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Exercise 7.1 The Importance of Process Control
1. 1, 3, 5
2. 1
3. 1
Exercise 7.2 Control Theory Basics
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1, 2, 4
1, 4, 5
D, C, B, A
B, E, D, A, C
C, A, B
1
2
Exercise 7.3 Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
2
1
C, A, B
1
C, D, B, A
2
B, C, D, A
Exercise 7.4 Control Algorithms and Tuning

1. C, A, D, B, E
2. 1, 4
3. 1
Exercise 7.5 Process Control Loops
1. 3
2. B, C, D, A
3. 1
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EXERCISE
Page 65
Module 7: Activity Answers

1.
2.
3.
True
1,3,5
1,2,4
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
True 2.
True
True
4
3
False
False
2,4
1.

1,2,5
2.
False
3.
4.
True
5.
2,3,4
6.
7.
1,4
8.
9.
10.
11.
1
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12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
True
17.
18.
True
19.
True
20.
21.
3
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Module 7: Activity Answers

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
1,2,3,4
False
2
False
1
2.5
2,3
3
2,4
2,3
2
4
False
3
1.

4
2.
3
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EXERCISE
3.
False
4.
True
5.
6.
True
7.
8.
True
9.
False
10.
11.
12.
1
Activity Answers
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Process Control Fundamentals ISA Standards

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What are the main components of a control loop?

What are the main components of a control loop?

What are the three main tasks of process control?

What are the three main tasks of process control?

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................

The Importance of Process Control................................................................................................................. 2

Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops ......................................................................................................52

Multivariable Loops .................................................................................................................................52

The Importance of Process Control

The Importance of Process Control

The Importance of Process Control

octane components. As a result,

Process industries include the chemical industry, the oil and

Process control refers to the methods that are used to control

2. Which of these industries are

The Importance of Process Control

The Importance of Process Control

Control Theory Basics

After completing this section, you will be able to:

The Control Loop

Control Theory Basics

Imagine you are sitting in a cabin in front of a small fire on a cold

below your comfort level.

Process Control Terms

and transmits a signal associated with the level reading to a controller

Sometimes the measured variable is not the same as the

that can change the manufacturing process in some way. In the

Thesetpoint isavaluefor aprocessvariablethat isdesiredtobe

Process Control Terms

Control Theory Basics

Rate of Change of Error

Process Control Terms

Components of Control Loops and ISA

setpoint. In the temperature control loop example, if the control

Components of Control Loops and ISA

The previous section described the basic elements of control

and used to calculate the

Identify three examples of a

Primary elements will not

Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology

Control Loop Equipment and Technology

A transduceris a device that translates a mechanical signal into

Is this statement true or false?

human action to make adjustment.

Control Loop Equipment and Technology

There are three kinds of

Control Loop Equipment and Technology

Control Loop Equipment and Technology

protocol. Open protocols are those that anyon

and the Modbus

Control Loop Equipment and

recorders list a set of readings and the times th

A controlleris a device that receives data from a

Control Loop Equipment and Technology

a set of data to setpoint or they may perform simple addition11.

CORRECTING ELEMENTS/FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

10 . Which of the following is the mos

Analog Rack Mount Controller 1

Types of Process Controllers

Components of Control Loops and ISA Symbology