International Journal of Educational Management

Leadership and the development of quality culture in schools

Geoff Berry

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Geoff Berry, (1997),"Leadership and the development of quality culture in schools", International Journal of Educational
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(2002),"TQM: a snapshot of the experts", Measuring Business Excellence, Vol. 6 Iss 3 pp. R.R. Lakhe, R.P. Mohanty, (1994),"Total Quality Management: Concepts, Evolution and Acceptability in Developing
Economies", International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 11 Iss 9 pp. 9-33
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Leadership and the development of quality culture in

schools

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Geoff Berry
Senior Education Officer, New South Wales Department of School Education,
Seven Hills, NSW, Australia
There is emerging evidence
that leadership is an indispensable element in the
process of initiating and
sustaining the development of
a quality culture in organizations. Such leadership is of
particular importance to
schools, where cultural,
political and organizational
factors make the management of quality problematic.
For leaders to make decisions
about the development of
quality culture within their
schools they require a thorough understanding of the
theoretical basis of current
approaches to quality management in education. In an
effort to contribute to this
theoretical understanding,
considers the paradigm of
total quality management
(TQM) as a broad philosophy
for the development of quality
culture in schools. Describes
how TQM is being identified
increasingly as a viable paradigm for the development of a
quality culture in school
education and has been the
focus for improvement efforts
in individual schools internationally and in school districts, particularly in the USA.

International Journal of
Educational Management
11,2 [1997] 5264
MCB University Press
[ISSN 0951-354X]

[ 52 ]

Introduction
The significance of leadership in the development of quality initiatives in organizations is
well documented in the quality management
literature. Many quality management models
clearly state the need for top management to
be the first to undertake quality management
training, or that a quality committee or a
quality champion should take the initiative
in establishing quality processes. Fox (1991,
p. 10), for example, identifies the need for a
TQM steering committee, which includes a
quality champion, a quality sponsor and
a TQM co-ordinator as part of the management commitment, and suggests that there
are four aspects to top management responsibility, which are to: develop a vision for the
future; set specific quality objectives; establish the budget for quality; and provide leadership. There is emerging evidence to suggest
that it is through the example and commitment to quality of senior management that
the whole organization is able to adopt a quality ethos. Ellis (1993), for example, argues that
such management commitment is demonstrated by:
generating the quality policy through consultation;
publicizing the quality policy;
allocating money and time to the quality
process;
attending quality team meetings;
talking with staff both informally and formally about quality;
modelling the quality culture;
valuing and respecting people;
insisting on clear quality requirements and
documented procedures.
This overall responsibility, outlined by Oakland (1989, p. 42), could include: encouraging
and facilitating quality improvement; monitoring and evaluating the progress of quality
improvement; promoting the partnerships in
quality between customers and suppliers;
planning, managing, auditing and reviewing
quality systems; as well as planning and providing quality training and counselling or
consultancy. It could also incorporate giving
advice to management in relation to the:

establishment of quality systems and

process control;
relevant statutory/legislative requirements
with respect to quality;
quality improvement programmes
necessary;
inclusion of quality elements in all job
instructions and procedures.
This paper will consider the significance of
leadership for the development of quality
management in school education and discuss
a theoretical framework which could assist
leaders to develop the conceptual understanding necessary for the development of a quality philosophy appropriate to their organizations.

Leadership for quality

management in school education
A number of research studies during the last
decade have established a key function of
educational leadership in the development of
school culture generally (Deal and Peterson,
1994; Grace, 1995; Leithwood and Jantzi, 1991;
Sashkin and Sashkin, 1990; Schein, 1985).
There is emerging evidence that leadership is
a significant factor in the development of
quality organizations (Blanton, 1991; Robinson, 1996; Scholtes and Hacquebord, 1988;
Senge, 1990; Tribus and Tsude, 1987). It is
argued by Gore (1993, pp. 357-8) for example
that, from the plethora of quality management approaches available to organizations,
leadership, vision and culture are essential in
schools if significant and permanent change
is going to be institutionalized. Aspin et al.
(1994, p. 20) argue that:
The functions and tasks that have been
identified as having to do with, and promoting quality in, education are, in a major way,
the responsibility of those who are charged
with the exercise of leadership and management of school and school systems.

The significance of leadership in the development of quality in school education is also

recognized by Paine et al. (1992, p. 40) who, in
discussing the concept of total quality education (TQE) as a model for schools, maintain
that:

Geoff Berry
Leadership and the
development of quality
culture in schools
International Journal of
Educational Management
11/2 [1997] 5264

Working on systems and processes with the

people who work in them requires more
than management. It requires leadership.
Schools using TQE to develop strategies to
bring about lasting and continuous
improvement must be led. Leadership is
also essential to develop a mission and
goals, and work constantly towards their
improvement.

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Similarly, Langford and Cleary (1995, p. 35)

suggest that:
In educational systems, the role of leadership is to sustain the vision of connectedness, so that students, teachers, administrators, parents and taxpayers all those who
receive the benefit of the system understand their roles with respect to the larger
systems of learning in which they operate.

Such leadership could include, for example,

developing a vision for the future, generating
the quality policy through consultation, modelling the quality culture, insisting on clear
quality procedures, setting specific quality
objectives and the allocation of resources.
Siegel and Byrne (1994, p. 113) point out that:
In designing successful quality implementation strategies, education leaders confront
two significant challenges that many companies do not. They must build for their people
an understanding of individual jobs and
professional expertise as the sum total of
connected work processes with a customer
at the end of each process. And they must
alter the organizational culture to support
people working together.

A model for leadership in quality

management
A recent review by Leithwood et al. (1994)
illustrated the complexity and depth of
research relating to school leadership which
has taken place during the last two decades.
While this review considers a number of
dimensions and frameworks for viewing
leadership in schools, the significance of
leaders having the ability to utilize expert
knowledge to transform organizational culture is a key theme emerging for future
school leadership.

...Leadership is considered to be a concept which describes actions

which yield social change and improvement, and is associated
with the development of community involvement and
participation on decision making...

achievement of shared outcomes. Leadership

is considered to be a concept which describes
actions which yield social change and
improvement, and is associated with the
development of community involvement and
participation on decision making, equality of
opportunity for student learning, the development of an aware and enlightened community, the management of educational change
and the development of processes which promote quality educational outcomes.
In this sense, leadership can be perceived as
a form of social action which supports a
shared vision for educational change. A fundamental responsibility of school leadership
is the development of a learning community
characterized by representative and democratic decision making, critical reflection and
dialogue, and a shared commitment to
achieve organizational outcomes. The notion
of a learning community assumes an organizational structure which ensures learning
opportunities for all members and the perception of all school members as learners. The
development of quality learning requires the
identification of learning needs, the identification of learning outcomes and an increasing degree of personal responsibility for the
achievement of these outcomes.
Leadership in schools has the function of
creating a shared organizational vision, but it
is also imperative that leaders have the
understanding, knowledge and skills that is
the expertise to lead the cultural change.
Such expertise is necessary in order to:
set the directions for the cultural change
which might be required;
develop a shared language for quality
improvement;
develop a set of shared beliefs about the
nature of quality within the organization;
provide a focus for introducing the quality
culture;
initiate training and development in quality management within the school community;
provide a platform for the review of emerging quality processes;
reinforce the commitment of the organizational leadership to a changing culture;
create the expectation that there will be
changes both of a philosophical and practical nature.

Leadership for quality schools

Within the context of this research, leadership is broadly described as a process by
which behaviours, values, beliefs and attitudes of members of a group, organization or
community are influenced in a way which
promotes collaborative action towards the

Leadership is required to articulate the quality policy to be developed within schools in

culturally appropriate ways so that notions of
quality reflect the unique aspirations of the
school community and be representative of
their values. The notion of a quality policy
implies the existence of a range of possible

[ 53 ]

Geoff Berry
Leadership and the
development of quality
culture in schools

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International Journal of
Educational Management
11/2 [1997] 5264

quality alternatives which need to be considered, and decisions need to be made in relation to the content and structure of quality
initiatives.
Such leadership is also necessary because
the notion of quality, quality management
and quality assurance are relatively new to
schools and may require those in leadership
positions to initiate strategies for a better
understanding of quality issues at the organizational level. It may be that someone, or a
group of organizational members, finds it
necessary to develop specific expertise before
quality processes can be attempted.
As there is no definite evidence that specific
quality strategies can be unproblematically
transferred from other industries to the educational context, leadership is required to
develop a shared understanding of quality
within the school or group of schools and to
grow such initiatives from existing practices.
The identification and further development of
a quality system in a school, for example,
would require a thorough knowledge of the
existing organizational processes within the
school, the skills to be able to identify the
various possible components of such a system
and the ability to manage it. This challenge
for leadership is described by Siegel and
Byrne (1994, p. 52) in the following way:
It is one thing for a leader to have the vision;
it is quite another for that vision to guide
the behavior of an entire organization.
Leaders in successful quality settings have
been able to conceptualize the theory in
ways that translate into practice, steer the
change process, and guide their people in
determining not only how to perform their
jobs, but even more importantly, what those
jobs should be.

This conceptualization process for leaders

needs to begin with an investigation of the
nature of quality in organizations and then to
consider the philosophical principles of existing quality management approaches.

The nature of quality

Central to the quality movement, which is
influencing public and private sector organizations worldwide, is the concept of quality
culture and the development of such culture
within organizations (Acker-Hocevar, 1996;
Gilbert, 1987; Kanter, 1987; Liberatore, 1993).
The emphasis on culture in the corporate
context reflects the holistic nature of organizational quality initiatives and incorporates
the notion of transformation from existing
commonly held assumptions, attitudes,
behaviour, values and beliefs towards the
development of an alternative paradigm.

[ 54 ]

Such a quality culture is described by Saraph

and Sebastian (1993, p. 73) in the following
way:
Quality culture is the total of the collective
or shared learning of the quality-related
values as the organization develops its
capacity to survive in its external environment and to manage its own internal affairs.

While the notion of a quality culture seems

educationally desirable in that schools are
concerned with cultural development and
change for the improvement of learning, it is
problematic because the concept has a specific meaning within the context of the quality movement. This meaning needs to be
explored through the analysis of the concept
of quality on which the notion of quality
culture is based. In maintaining that quality
is a slippery concept, Pfeffer and Coote
(1991, p. 31), however, highlight the difficulty
in reaching a common understanding or
universal definition of this term. Murgatroyd
(1991, p. 14), for example, associates the concept of quality with standards and values by
offering three definitions of quality:
1 Quality is defined in terms of some
absolute standard and evaluations are
based on the application of these standards
to the situations experienced across a
variety of organizations, irrespective of
their strategy of differentiated services
(established standards definition).
2 Quality is defined in terms of the objectives set for a specific programme or
process in a specific location at a specific
time (specific standards definition).
3 Quality is defined as fitness for use as
attested by the end-users on the basis of
their direct experience (fitness for use or
market-driven definition).
Similarly, Cuttance (1995) identifies two definitions of quality by making the distinction
between quality as the intrinsic values associated with a service or product and quality
as the meeting of customer requirements. In
this sense there is a need to meet customer
expectations in relation to the perceived
value or worth attached to a product or service, while also ensuring the product or service has intrinsic merit as defined by widely
held professional standards. Cuttance (1995,
p. 4) notes that it is the notion of quality as
value or worth in relation to customer
expectations that describes the nature of
quality as interpreted within the quality
management context:
The term quality is thus used in a different
way to that of its use in everyday language.
In particular the quality of a product or
service should be interpreted as its value
or worth as measured by the extent to
which it meets the needs of the customer.

Geoff Berry
Leadership and the
development of quality
culture in schools

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International Journal of
Educational Management
11/2 [1997] 5264

Within this notion of quality it is assumed

that most organizations produce a product or
service which is intended to satisfy the needs
of users or customers with quality, therefore,
being the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bears on its
ability to satisfy stated or implied needs
(British Standards Institute, 1992). This relativist notion of quality is supported by Sallis
(1993, p. 13), who perceives quality as: a philosophy or methodology which assists institutions to manage change, and to set their own
agendas for dealing with the plethora of new
external pressures. In this sense, quality is a
concept implying fitness for purpose, measuring up to specification as well as meeting
particular customer needs:
The relativist definition views quality not as
an attribute of a product or service, but as
something which is ascribed to it. Quality
can be judged to exist when a good or service meets the specification that has been
laid down for it. Quality is not the end in
itself, but a means by which the end product
is judged to be up to standard (Sallis, 1993,
p. 23).

Quality, therefore, can be perceived in relation to accepted quality standards associated

with a particular sphere of interest, appropriateness to purpose, through the ability
consistently to meet or exceed perceived
customer needs and an organizational capacity for continuous improvement of processes
and systems.

...equity, excellence, democracy and justice provide the dimensions

for a theory of quality for schools, which suggests that quality
schools need to communicate civilization, meet the personal needs
of students and ensure that students are responsive to the needs of
society...

While these notions of quality seem appropriate to organizations generally, they do not
necessarily meet all of the criteria for quality
in schools. Education is a process based on
broadly accepted ethical values which constitute the moral fibre of society. Ultimately,
educational quality cannot be isolated from
these values which relate to what is perceived
as culturally worthwhile in a society. These
values provide an ethically justifiable platform for determining and evaluating educational processes and outcomes which might
permeate the notion of quality culture in
schools. In discussing the nature of quality
schooling, Aspin et al. (1994, p. 44) suggest
that equity, excellence, democracy and justice
provide the dimensions for a theory of quality
for schools, which suggests that quality
schools need to communicate civilization,

meet the personal needs of students and

ensure that students are responsive to the
needs of society. Quality schooling, it is suggested (Aspin et al., 1994, p. 45):
is not so much about being equipped to
operate as a qualified functionary in society,
having the capacity to respond to economic
norms and to perform competently in various modes of economic production. It is
much more about the capacity of the individual to enhance and enrich the society of
which he or she is being educated to become
a part someone who is going to be a giver,
an enlarger and an enhancer, as well as an
inheritor and recipient. Quality schooling is
as much about the future of the society we
see for ourselves, even if at several generations hence removed; a world better and
richer than the one we currently inhabit.

In educational organizations quality can be

explained as a specific form of culture which
includes a long-term process of continuous
improvement towards perceived standards of
excellence within the context of core ethical
values, standards of excellence and a process
of continuous improvement. The process of
developing such an organizational culture
can be referred to as quality management,
and the most common approach to quality
management in many private and public
sector organizations is total quality management (TQM). The nature of this philosophy
and its emergence in school education will be
considered below.

The total quality management

paradigm
Defined in the broad sense, quality management has come to mean that aspect of the
overall management function that
determines and implements the quality
policy (intentions and directions) of the organization (Van Vught and Westerheijdan,
1992, p. 13). Quality management, as a quality
improvement process, can be perceived
within the context of planned organizational
change. The notion of organizational change
needs to be considered if quality management
is the be understood. For example, organizational change can be in the form of the
motion of the organization as a whole as it
relates to motion in its environment change
that is macro-evolutionary, historical, and
typically related to clusters or whole
industries.
Alternatively, change could describe the
motion of the parts of the organization in
relation to each other as the organization
grows, ages and progresses through its life
cycle change that is micro-evolutionary,
developmental and typically related to size or

[ 55 ]

Geoff Berry
Leadership and the
development of quality
culture in schools

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International Journal of
Educational Management
11/2 [1997] 5264

shape, resulting in co-ordination issues. Furthermore, change could be the result of struggles for power and control among individuals
or groups with a stake in the organization to
make decisions or enjoy benefits as an expression of their interests change that focuses
on political dimensions and involving revolutionary activity.
In this sense change is complex and continuous, with each aspect of the movement of
organizations having implications for the
kind of quality improvement processes
undertaken. Change is the result of circumstances beyond the control of the organization, as well as being the result of planning
and rational decision making within the
organization. Within this notion of organizational movement, the management of quality
relates to planned cultural change to enable
quality improvement processes to eventuate.
Although difficult to define, the concept of
culture can be perceived as being closely
associated with the notion of shared
attitudes, behaviours, values and assumptions. Within this context, Kroeber and
Klukhohn (1952) maintain that:
Culture consists of patterns ofbehavior
acquired and transmitted via symbols,
constituting the distinctive achievement of
human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core culture
consists of traditional (historically derived
and selected) ideas and especially attached
values; culture systems may, on the one
hand, be considered as products of action,
on the other as conditioning elements for
future action.

Quality management, therefore, is based on

change towards the development of quality
values which might include a customer focus,
teamwork, safety for all stakeholders, candour, total involvement, intimacy, integrity,
unity, consensus and excellence (Hart and
Shoolbred, 1993, p. 17). A quality culture
would incorporate components such as
shared values, commitment to getting it
right, open and explicit communication, time
for teamwork, training in quality, total
involvement, sensitivity to others needs
(Ellis, 1993, p. 31). Within this holistic framework for organizational change, quality management is a long-term change philosophy
requiring a cultural transformation within
an organization which could incorporate the
development of a shared vision for the future
of the organization, a professional development programme to equip stakeholders with
the required skills to achieve goals, a focus on
providing services which satisfy customer
needs and a process of review and evaluation
(Offner, 1993).

[ 56 ]

Unlike many organizations, however,

schools are complex in nature and their concern with a multitude of educational purposes, including human development, community growth and learning outcomes, makes
the management of quality problematic.

TQM in schools and school systems

Substantial interest in TQM in education has
begun to emerge (Sallis, 1993), although this
interest has been focused primarily on higher
education institutions (Coate, 1990; Cope and
Sherr, 1991; Cornesky, et al., 1991; Masters and
Leiker, 1992; Needham et al., 1992; Reynolds,
1992; Saunders and Walker, 1991; Sutcliffe and
Pollock, 1992; Tannock, 1991; Van Vught and
Westerheijden, 1992; Winter, 1991), technical
and further education (TAFE NSW, 1994, 1995)
and training institutions (Ellis, 1993; Shaw
and Roper, 1993). Other educational areas
where interest in TQM has been shown
include educational administration (Hough,
1993), vocational education (Laarnkard, 1992)
and curriculum development (Macchia, 1992).
This increasing interest in TQM in relation to
education generally is based on the perception of educational institutions as being predominantly service organizations where the
focus is on such factors as quality, delivery,
safety, cost, organizational responsibility,
infrastructure, external relationships, customer protection and compliance (Smith,
1993, p. 48).
The concept of TQM requires that schools
are perceived as service organizations
designed to fulfil the needs of their clients or
customers. Within the educational context,
services could include educational programmes, advice, care, information, opportunities to participate or specific skills training. In relation to schools, the emphasis for
TQM could be on transforming teaching,
curriculum, organizational and management
processes within educational institutions in a
way which serves student, parent and community interests. Murgatroyd (1991, p. 13)
explains the nature of such a quality management process in the following way:
The key task of a service organization, like a
school, is to build an effective chain of customers...To create a learning organization
dedicated to this requires the school to think
from the experience of the student backwards to educational design and structure.
Rather than see structure as a normalization of control systems, structure should
facilitate responsiveness to student needs in
the students own terms.

The relatively recent introduction of the TQM

philosophy to school education has been

Geoff Berry
Leadership and the
development of quality
culture in schools
International Journal of
Educational Management
11/2 [1997] 5264

perceived generally as a desirable undertaking for the school improvement process, even
though some attempts to implement the
process in schools have been unsuccessful
(Beavis, 1995). In arguing the benefits of TQM
to schools, Gore (1993, p. 335), for example,
maintains that TQM is very applicable to
education in that:

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The central concept of TQM, continuous

improvement, is fundamental to education.
Where else would the idea of a culture oriented to continuous improvement be more
appropriate than in institutions whose
purpose is to support improvement and
individual growth?

It is suggested by Gore (1993, p. 375) that,

although schools need to develop their own
approach, some aspects of TQM are very
relevant, these being:
the role of leadership;
the articulation and development of a
vision and the development of culture;
management by fact;
a focus on team building and processes that
cross functional boundaries;
management and enhancement of human
resources;
benchmarking;
cycle time reduction;
customer focus, satisfaction and measurement.
This belief that the TQM philosophy has a
logical application to school organizations is
supported by Murgatroyd (1993, p. 245), who
maintains that quality improvement is culturally located in that improving quality
becomes an over-riding mission for the
school. It is not a fad, or a game or a new
activity for a given academic year. It is an
essential part of the development strategy for
the school and is something that is everyones
responsibility. There is the belief that TQM
principles can enhance learning at the individual and organizational levels, that schools
need to become truly learning organizations and that schools can learn a great deal
about quality management from other kinds
of organizations.

A definition of TQM
TQM has emerged as the most well-known
approach to the development of organizational culture for quality management, representing a philosophical framework for the
management of quality in organizations
which claims to be applicable to both private
and public sector enterprises and institutions. Oakland (1989, p. 14) defines TQM in the
following way:
Total Quality Management (TQM) is an
approach to improving the effectiveness and

flexibility of businesses as a whole. It is

essentially a way of organizing and involving the whole organization; every department, every activity, every single person at
every level.

Within this definition, TQM is conducive to

the continuous improvement of quality
within all kinds of organizations and, as a
long-term change process, can contribute to
organizational growth and renewal. From
this perspective, TQM represents a quality
management process which is concerned
with people, systems and culture, incorporating processes such as leadership, systems
thinking, and employee empowerment continuously to improve an organizations capacity to meet current and future customer
needs. In suggesting that the outcomes of
TQM are improved quality, enhanced effectiveness and a change of institutional culture,
Smith (1993, p. 57) maintains that TQM is a
managed process that seeks organizationwide improvement through:
planning for new products and services;
innovation in existing services;
continuous improvement in all existing
service processes;
daily control of service processes.

The TQM philosophy

In TQM, every element of the organization is
involved in the enterprise of continuous
improvement, with each individual sharing
responsibility regardless of his or her position or status. It is maintained by Sallis (1993,
pp. 26-7) that TQM is a philosophy of organizational culture change which, through
employee participation and co-operation,
focuses on the satisfaction of customer expectations:
TQM is about creating a quality culture
where the aim of every member of staff is to
delight their customers, and where the
structure of their organization allows them
to do so. In the total quality definition of
quality the customer is sovereign...It is
about providing the customers with what
they want, when they want it and how they
want it. It involves moving with customer
expectations and fashions to design products and services which meet and exceed
their expectations.

TQM is based on the notion of organizations

as systems and sub-systems which function
as a unified whole, with emphasis on the
interface between the various elements of the
organization as much as on the nature of the
elements themselves. As a quality improvement philosophy based on systems thinking,
TQM has a range of characteristics which
distinguish it from other quality management processes such as those based on

[ 57 ]

Geoff Berry
Leadership and the
development of quality
culture in schools

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International Journal of
Educational Management
11/2 [1997] 5264

inspection, quality indicators or achievement

objectives. These key elements have been
interpreted by TQM enthusiasts and practitioners in a number of ways, although each
provides an insight into the TQM paradigm.
In defining TQM as a cooperative form of
doing business that relies on the talents and
capabilities of both labor and management to
continually improve quality and productivity
using teams, Jablonski (1991, p. 4) argues
that TQM is based on six principles which
include: developing a focus on customers,
processes as well as results, prevention
rather than inspection, mobilizing workforce
expertise, fact-based management and providing feedback for improvement. Within this
model, TQM requires participative management, continuous process improvement and
the use of teams. Similarly, Lamprecht (1993,
p. 24) emphasizes the function of process
improvement as a central factor in TQM and
defines total quality as having five components:
1 Employee participation.
2 Continuously improving all processes.
3 Monitoring your processes using appropriate statistical techniques.
4 Surveying your customers and benchmarking your competitors.
5 Innovation, in order to remain
competitive.
In defining customer service, continuous
improvement, systems thinking and leadership as fundamental elements, Bonstingl
(1992, pp. 6-7) maintains that there are four
pillars of total quality management:
1 The organization must focus, first and
foremost, on its suppliers and customers.
2 Everyone in the organization must be
dedicated to continuous improvement,
personally and collectively.
3 The organization must be viewed as a
system, and the work people do within the
system must be seen as ongoing processes.
4 The success of total quality management is
the responsibility of top management.
Fox (1991), in advocating the need for the
further development of TQM in Australian
organizations, suggests six sequential steps
for the development of a TQM culture in organizations. The steps Fox (1991, p. 8) suggests
are based on what is referred to as the TQM
trilogy, which includes the concepts of quality, quality systems and quality measurement. The six steps to TQM are:
1 Demonstrate top management commitment.
2 Establish the current state of quality.
3 Determine the quality strategies.
4 Educate management in TQM.
5 Raise quality awareness everywhere.
6 Institute never-ending improvement.

[ 58 ]

Characteristics of TQM
It is apparent from the models discussed
above that the philosophy of TQM is longterm, large-scale and all-embracing, incorporating all organizational members and activities into the quality improvement process,
rather than being focused on limited aspects
of the organization. This includes the internal interrelationships among the various
components of the organization as well as its
relationships with customers. TQM is about
developing a new culture in the form of quality-based decision making permeating all
aspects of the organization. This notion of
quality is based on the well documented W.
Edwards Demings 14 points which form the
philosophical platform of the quality movement. These points are:
1 Create constancy of purpose for improvement of product and service.
2 Adopt a new philosophy.
3 Cease dependence on mass inspection.
4 End the practice of awarding business on
price-tag alone.
5 Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service.
6 Institute training.
7 Institute leadership.
8 Drive out fear.
9 Break down barriers between staff
areas.
10 Eliminate slogans, exhortations and
targets for the workforce.
11 Eliminate numerical quotas.
12 Remove barriers to pride of workmanship.
13 Institute a vigorous programme of education and re-training.
14 Take action to accomplish the
transformation.
These, and other essential characteristics of
TQM, are summarized below.

Customer-driven process
The methods and processes of the organization are designed and managed to meet both
internal and external customer expectations.
Suppliers and customers are viewed as partners in the quality initiative.

Emphasis on teamwork
Teamwork could be described as the primary
element of the TQM approach to quality organizations and represents the organizational
structure on which the quality improvement
process is based. Participation is achieved
primarily through the establishment of crossfunctional and/or cross-departmental, problem-solving teams in the form of quality
improvement teams or quality circles.

Geoff Berry
Leadership and the
development of quality
culture in schools
International Journal of
Educational Management
11/2 [1997] 5264

Continuous improvement

Perceived barriers to TQM in schools

The TQM process is based on the principle

that widespread cultural change can be best
achieved through the incremental process of
gradual, small-scale, achievable projects
incorporating the use of statistical tools and
techniques (expressed in the Japanese notion
of kaizen) rather than on radical structural
reorganization. The performance of similar
processes in different parts of the organization is compared through internal benchmarking.

Although the TQM process seems compatible

with the school improvement process, there
is a range of issues which emerge in relation
to TQM as a philosophy for quality improvement in schools, and these may form barriers
to the intended change process, some of
which are considered below.

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Problem prevention
Quality is built in at the design and processing stage rather than being inspected out as
defects in the end product. The organization
rewards quality work and suggestions for
improvement, usually through non-pecuniary means.

Participation in decision making

TQM is based on the notion of participation
through a total involvement approach
which requires continuous, first-hand
involvement of top management as well as the
participation of all organizational members
in the development and implementation of
quality management strategies.

Management by fact
Management decision making is based on
qualitative and quantitative data from feedback about the performance of processes and
products. Gut feelings and intuition are considered inadequate bases for decision
making.

Individual responsibility
In order that TQM be successful as a process
of quality improvement, each organizational
member is required to take responsibility for
the quality of their own performance. Organizational members are perceived as interdependent on one another within the customer/
supplier relationship. Rather than depending
in an external authority structure to enforce,
coerce or induce desired behaviours, TQM is
concerned with moving the focus of control
from outside the individual to within.

Commitment to staff training

All organizational members require education and training in ways of working in a
quality environment, practising error prevention rather than detection, as well as the
use of problem-solving techniques and tools.
Senior management requires education in
relation to the philosophy of TQM and the
implications for organizational change associated with a TQM culture. All organizational
members require skills in relation to team
membership and the use of techniques for
problem solving.

Philosophical barriers
The TQM philosophy is not a panacea for the
development of quality schools and cannot be
seen as the only means through which a
school or school system can achieve improved
quality. Other instructional or organizational
reforms, such as effective schools, essential
schools, co-operative learning, accelerated
learning and outcome-based education also
need to be considered.

Application to improved student learning

The emphasis on organizational culture,
which is fundamental to the TQM philosophy,
is an approach to quality improvement which
is new to schools as organizations. It could be
that this emphasis lacks credibility within
the teaching profession which is more concerned with the practicalities of the teaching/learning process. The linkage between
TQM and improved learning outcomes may
not be clear if, in fact, it exists.

Difficulties with statistical analysis

TQM requires that information for problem
solving and decision making be generated
through the use of statistical techniques. This
approach may be relevant to industrial or
product-oriented enterprises where outcomes
are directly observable and measurable. The
introduction of such techniques in schools for
decision making and policy development may
be inappropriate or culturally removed from
the accepted intuitive and professional judgements, as well as the political process, that
permeate educational policy.

The customer/supplier relationship

As well as requiring students, parents, community members and other stakeholders to
be considered as customers, TQM is based
largely on an internal linear customer/supplier relationship which requires that each
person within the organization be both customer to other organizational members,
while at the same time supplying services to
other personnel. This customer/supplier
relationship may not be an appropriate concept to describe the long-term, close and emotional relationship that teachers develop with
students, colleagues and parents within the
context of their professional role. Moreover,
even if appropriate, the customer/supplier
relationship may be more complex in
educational organizations where roles and

[ 59 ]

Geoff Berry
Leadership and the
development of quality
culture in schools
International Journal of
Educational Management
11/2 [1997] 5264

responsibilities are complex and multi-functional.

through these stages, in that they are ongoing

and permanent establishments.

The right first time (RFT) philosophy

Need for some inspection processes in

schools

One aim of the TQM process is to establish an

organizational culture which is error-free in
that the quality system assures that mistakes
are eliminated. While this may be a
commendable objective in many industrial
contexts, its possibility and value are debatable in educational organizations. Experimentation and the examination of alternative
ideas and processes seem to be requirements
of the learning process and, subsequently, a
desirable aspect of the educational process.

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The customer-defined quality concept

TQM requires that the notion of quality is
customer-driven, in that the fulfilment of
customer needs is the ultimate definition of
quality. This perception of quality may be
unrealistic in relation to the value-laden
environment of schools, with quality being
more a negotiated phenomenon drawing on
student, parent, professional and department
expectations and aspirations.

The industrial culture in education

TQM is predominantly an industrial or manufacturing organizational culture which
assumes that the organizational structure is
hierarchical in nature and that organizational personnel have clearly defined roles
and responsibilities. Schools are more flexible in their role definitions and the identification of a schools quality system may be much
more difficult.

Perceived lack of a teaching/learning

focus
Quality strategies for focusing on operations
and administrative functions at the microlevel may be relevant to the support structure
for the delivery of services, resources and
programmes to schools. They may not be
applicable to the improvement of schools
primary work, which is the theory and practice of teaching and learning, or to the evaluation of performance at the system level.

Introduction processes
The introduction of TQM requires that top
management be committed to the philosophy
of TQM and be prepared to undertake initial
TQM education and training in order that
they can take a central role in its implementation. The complex nature of schools and the
demanding role of school executives could
well prevent or restrict this initial phase to
take place satisfactorily.

Stages of organizational development

TQM may be more appropriate to organizations at particular stages of their development. Schools do not necessarily pass

[ 60 ]

TQM requires the concept of built-in quality

rather than the use of quality control or
inspection processes. Within schools, the
processes of assessment, appraisal and testing are recognized as legitimate and necessary processes to ascertain accountability
and measure improvement, and their
removal may cause community concern.
However, despite these perceived barriers,
there are a number of advantages relating to
the existence of TQM in school education,
and these benefits have provided an incentive
for some individual schools and school systems to initiate TQM approaches.

Perceived advantages of TQM in school

education
TQM has a number of characteristics which
make it philosophically compatible with the
development of educational organizations,
provided that TQM initiatives can be linked
with the core educational purpose of schools.
From the experience of some schools and
school systems it is evident that the TQM
philosophy can provide a conceptual framework for educational organizations to develop
the culture relevant to their individual purposes. The TQM process could be compatible
with school organizations for a number of
reasons, which include the following:
Theoretical compatibility. Schools are
already undertaking processes which
reflect the TQM philosophy. These include
the use of curriculum development teams,
the relatively high level of responsibility
which teachers have for educational decision making in their classrooms and the
use of school-based strategic planning
processes. As a generic philosophy of quality improvement, TQM allows for the development of models for quality improvement
which serve the specific needs of the
organization.
Educational compatibility. The TQM
process values people and their achievements, therefore reflecting compatibility
with the developmental purposes of the
educational process.
Equity principles. TQM requires education
and training of all organizational personnel
a philosophy which is compatible with the
purposes of schooling. Moreover, individuals are given the opportunity to contribute
on an equal basis through team structures.
Ethically comparable. TQM is based on
responsibility, commitment and trust

Geoff Berry
Leadership and the
development of quality
culture in schools

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International Journal of
Educational Management
11/2 [1997] 5264

which are values widely held as being ethically worthwhile.

Compatible with existing organizational
structures. TQM does not necessarily advocate structural change to educational organizations or educational systems, which in
a large enterprise like school education
could be difficult to achieve and counterproductive as a strategy for change and
improvement.
Long-term commitment to improvement.
TQM is a long-term approach to quality
improvement based on organizational selfactualization. This philosophy seems compatible with school education as long-term
personal, organizational, cultural and societal development.
These advantages have led to the development
of a range of TQM initiatives in a number of
educational systems worldwide, as well as a
developing literature based on quality management in education. There is emerging but
limited research into quality management in
schools or school systems to support school
leaders in developing quality philosophies for
their organizations. In the USA, where most
research has been undertaken, such research
exists in the form of philosophical analyses of
the value of quality principles to student
learning (Langford and Cleary, 1995), analyses of the development of TQM within and
between school systems (Horine et al., 1994)
and comparative case studies between business and school organizations (Siegel and
Byrne, 1994). Research in Great Britain and
Australia is less prevalent and includes an
investigation of the potential of TQM in
British schools (Greenwood and Gaunt, 1994),
the implementation of TQM to secondary
schools in Australia (Beavis, 1995; Paine et al.,
1992) and the development of TQM in primary
schools (Robinson, 1996). This research has
concentrated on both quality management at
the individual school level and at the school
systems level, with a number of quality management models emerging within these levels.

Models for TQM in schools

One focus for TQM initiatives in schools has
been on the individual school as a system.
Those who advocate TQM efforts in individual schools (Glasser, 1986, 1990, 1993; Gore,
1993; Greenwood and Gaunt, 1994; Murgatroyd, 1993; Paine et al., 1992) argue that TQM
has implications for the improvement of
student learning outcomes and maximizing
the potential of the school to support student
learning. This approach maintains that
individual schools incorporate quality

management processes into their existing

culture in a way which supports identified
organizational learning needs. Two models
for school-based quality management are
discussed below.

The quality marketing model

The quality marketing model (Murgatroyd,
1991, 1993) for the quality management
process in schools is based on a competitive
philosophy, which sees individual schools
competing against one another in an open
market for students and resources. Quality is
sustained through each school establishing a
particular niche in its educational philosophy and policies. TQM is equated with the
notion of customer-driven quality, although
the complementary processes of contract
conformance and quality assurance (equated
with quality control) are perceived as being
necessary but of lesser importance to the
quality process.

The quality learning model

The quality learning model (Glasser, 1990,
1993; Gossen and Anderson, 1995; Langford
and Cleary, 1995) for the quality management
process in schools concentrates on the relationship between the student and the teacher
in the learning process. In this model, students are encouraged to accept responsibility
for the quality of their work, with the teacher
ensuring that the emotional, physical and
psychological conditions for learning are in
existence. Quality is equated with the continuous improvement of learning outcomes and
the ability of students to take responsibility
for this improvement.

TQM in school systems

A second focus for TQM initiatives in schools
has been directed at the improvement of educational systems, that is, school districts
composed of a cluster of individual schools
making up the system. Those who advocate
TQM at the district or school system level
(AASA, 1992; Horine et al., 1994; Langford and
Cleary, 1995; Rhodes, 1990; Siegel and Byrne,
1994; Weller and Hartley, 1994) argue that all
organizations, regardless of their differences
in purpose and structure, share a common
quality language and similar quality concepts can apply to all organizations. A further
argument is that school improvement initiatives can be undertaken more efficiently and
effectively at a district level where all schools
are part of the improvement process and that
school systems need to be restructured in
order to meet emerging global economic and
societal futures. This approach has two key
characteristics which have implications at
the school level:

[ 61 ]

Geoff Berry
Leadership and the
development of quality
culture in schools

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International Journal of
Educational Management
11/2 [1997] 5264

1 Organizational networks. The fundamental assumption underlying district-based

approaches is that the process of developing TQM in schools and non-school organizations can be undertaken within a similar conceptual and methodological framework. Quality, it is argued, can be
enhanced in any organization through the
sharing of inter-organizational information and practices, and the development of
mutual support networks. Quality is
dependent on a range of business and
public sector organizations functioning as
a unit for the mutual benefit of all
involved. Individual schools have the
advantage of sharing the knowledge and
expertise of a range of TQM organizations,
therefore becoming part of a larger TQM
system.
2 Resource optimization. The district
approach requires that a number of
schools within a specified district function
as part of a common quality improvement
structure, which is non-competitive and
collaborative in nature. It is argued by the
American Association of School Administrators (1992) that TQM can be thought of
as content-free, applicable to any instructional or structural reform, and that the
limited resources available to educational
systems can be utilized within a district to
maximize advantages within each school.

Conclusion
Leadership needs to undertake a fundamental role in the development of organizational
systems to generate and sustain cultural
change in schools. The development of a quality culture in schools requires school leaders
to develop a thorough understanding of, and
commitment to, a quality philosophy as a
means of school improvement, and expertise
in quality management processes and techniques for the establishment of organizational quality systems.

...organizational and political factors influence decision-making

processes, and render planning and management processes problematic...
This is a difficult undertaking in organizations like schools where cultural, organizational and political factors influence decisionmaking processes, and render planning and
management processes problematic. Regardless of the existence of theoretical models
and the emerging positive research relating
to quality management in schools, cultural
change is a challenge for leadership,

[ 62 ]

especially in schools where strong cultural

traditions may have been developed over
time. The cultural change process may need
to begin within the existing cultural platform
of the school. There may well be cultural,
psychological or attitudinal barriers to the
intended change process, as well as the more
practical concerns of school change, requiring strong and sustained leadership if quality
management is to permeate the school culture.
As a long-term process of cultural change,
however, TQM seems valuable as a whole
school approach for continuous improvement
in that it provides leaders with a paradigm
from which they can develop a quality philosophy conducive to the needs of their organization.

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Leadership and the
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Leadership and the
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culture in schools

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