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Structural Design Guidelines for Reinforced

Concrete Buildings

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Table of Contents
Introduction
Components of structural system
Selection of floor system
Selection of lateral load resisting system
Selection of foundation system
Design of ribs
Design of concealed beams
Design of drop beams
Design of one-way slabs
Design of two-way slabs
Design of hollow core slab floors
Design of prestressed concrete floor slabs
Design of columns
Design of shearwalls
Design of cores
Design of coupling beams
Design of isolated centered footings
Design of isolated eccentric footings
Design of combined footings
Design of tie-beams
Design of rafts
Design of pile foundations
Design of pile caps
Design of basement walls
Design of water tanks
Design against progressive collapse
Calculation of superimposed dead loads
Calculation of lateral wind loads
Calculation of lateral seismic loads
Calculation of vertical deflection in beams and ribs
Calculation of vertical deflection in two-way slabs
Calculation of drift due to lateral load

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Introduction
This document describes the procedure to be used in the design of the structural
elements of reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete buildings. The purpose of
the guidelines presented in this document is to speed up the design process, make it
more uniform across different engineers and less prone to mistakes and omissions. It
is not the purpose of this document to replace design codes, design courses or
engineering judgement.
The document briefly reviews the components of the structural system that have to
be designed, the possible alternatives for each component, and then describes the
design procedure for each component.
For each component, the design guideline lists the elements to be designed, the
checks to be performed, the typical extreme values of the design variables, detailing
hints, the relevant code sections and the relevant references for more detailed
information. The design code used in this document is the ACI318-05M and the
UBC97.
Components of structural system
The major components of the structural system of a building are three:
-The floor system.
-The lateral load resisting system
-The foundations system
For each of these components several alternatives are available; the selection of the
most appropriate choice is done based on several parameters listed below, with the
ultimate goal of achieving maximum economy over the useful life of the building
while meeting safety and serviceability requirements. The selection of the structural
system is done during the conceptual phase of the project by a senior engineer, in
coordination with the architect and the other disciplines (Electrical, Mechanical)
senior engineers.
Selection of floor system
In selecting a floor system, the following parameters are used in order of decreasing
importance:
Local availability of materials and skilled labor: The local availability of materials
(special forms) and skilled labor experienced in the construction of the system is
major factor in obtaining a construction of good quality within a reasonable time and
cost. Therefore, local availability of materials and skilled labor is a major comparison
parameter.
Cost: Since the floor system in a building constitutes the major part of the building
structure, its cost contributes the most to the cost of the structure. Therefore, the
unit cost per unit area of the floor system is a major comparison parameter.
Weight: Since the floor system in a building constitutes the major part of the building
structure, its weight contributes the most to the weight of the structure. Increased
weight leads to more seismic loads, larger column sizes and larger foundations.
Therefore the weight per unit area of the floor system is a major comparison
parameter.

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Depth: In many cases where the allowable height of the building is limited, or the
faade material is very expensive, limiting the floor depth to reduce the overall depth
of the building is a desirable objective. Therefore, the floor depth is a significant
comparison parameter, and may be a major one in high rise buildings where it may
allow increasing the number of floors for the same overall building height.
Speed of construction: The speed of construction is an important parameter that
ultimately affects the cost of the building, particularly in high rise buildings or in
buildings with large floor area. Therefore speed of construction is a significant
comparison parameter.
Shape of soffit: Some systems provide a flat soffit that can be exposed as is or with
minor plastering, others present a soffit that has cavities or other irregularities that
may have to be hidden by a false ceiling. If no false ceilings are planned and a flat
soffit is desired, then the systems with irregular soffit have to be ruled out.
Therefore, the shape of soffit is a significant comparison parameter.
Acoustic insulation: The acoustic insulation properties of a floor system become
important when the tiling to be used on top of it is inexistent or has poor acoustic
insulation properties, and the sound level between floors needs to be controlled.
Therefore, the acoustic insulation properties is a significant comparison parameter.
Thermal insulation: In these days of increasing energy cost and interest in
conserving energy (green initiatives), the thermal insulation of a floor system is in an
important consideration. However, floor systems generally separate regions of equal
temperature, and the concrete floor systems have comparable thermal insulation
properties. Therefore, the thermal insulation properties is a minor comparison
parameter.

Except for ground floor slabs, which should be of solid slab construction (to
resist a live load of 10Kpa and have a fire resistance of 4hr), the floor systems
generally available for consideration are the following:

Hourdi ribbed slabs: Hourdi blocks (hollow artificial bricks made of cement, sand and
stone) are placed in rows on a flat formwork. The voids between rows of blocks will
become the concrete ribs. Reinforcement cages are placed in the voids between
rows. Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement is placed above the blocks. Concrete
is poured to the required thickness. After the concrete has attained sufficient
strength, the formwork and shoring is removed. Reshoring may be needed to
support the next floor being constructed above.
Hourdi ribbed slabs require minimal amounts of steel (~25kg/m2). They cost from 85
to 95 $/m2 1 . They weigh from 0.96 to 1.22 t/m2. They can be economically used up
to a span of 9m for a floor thickness of 400mm. Lightweight blocks and expanded
polystyrene blocks are available to replace conventional Hourdi blocks, however they
are more expensive and less fire resistant than the Hourdi blocks.
T-form ribbed slabs: T-form ribbed slabs are similar in construction to Hourdi ribbed
slabs, except that the Hourdi blocks are replaced by removable forms. T-form ribbed
1

Based on assumed material costs only.

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slabs are less tolerant of floor plan irregularities than Hourdi ribbed slabs; for
maximum efficiency, the column lines should be orthogonal. For both Hourdi and
ribbed slabs, column spacing normal to the rib direction should be significantly
smaller than the rib span.
T-ribbed slabs require minimal amounts of steel (~25kg/m2). They cost from 80 to
90 $/m2 (not including premium for reusable forms). They weigh from 0.79 to 0.96
t/m2. They can be economically used up to a span of 11m for a floor thickness of
470mm. They are inferior to Hourdi ribbed slabs in terms of sound insulation and fire
resistance.
A variant of T-ribbed slabs is the ribbed floor, where the ribs are spaced at 1m to
2m, and the slab in-between the ribs has a thickness of 110mm to 150mm. The ribs
are generally 500mm to 700mm deep and have an optimal span from 9m to 13m.
Solid slabs: Solid slabs may be supported by drop beams or drop panels around
columns (two-way slab) or may be supported directly by columns, widened by
capitals (flat plate). For maximum economy and speed drop beams and drop panels
should be eliminated, column sizes should be unified, and column lines should be
orthogonal and equally spaced in both directions.
Solid slabs require substantial amounts of reinforcement (30-70kg/m2). They cost
from 95 to 135 $/m2. They weigh from 0.88 to 1.25 t/m2. They can be economically
used up to spans of 12m each way for a floor thickness of 300mm.
Waffle slabs: Waffle slabs are similar to solid slabs in concept and construction,
except that removable square pans are used to create cavities in the bottom of the
slab. Waffle slabs are lighter than solid slabs but thicker; they are best used for long
spans in both directions.
Waffle slabs require moderate amounts of reinforcement (~30kg/m2). They cost
from 90 to 95 $/m2 (not including premium for reusable pan forms). They weigh
from 0.84 to 0.99 t/m2. They can be economically used up to spans of 14m each
way, for a floor thickness of 500mm.
Cast-in-place postensioned slabs: Cast-in-place postensioned slabs are similar to flat
plate slabs except that they can be thinner and they use less conventional reinforcing
steel thanks to the post-tensioning process. Post-tensioned slabs require special
materials (high tensile strength steel cables, galvanized ducts, non-shrinking grout or
grease, anchor blocs) specialized equipment (hydraulic jacks and gages) and
specially trained labor. For best results, the floor plan should be regular and
symmetric and the stiffest elements (shearwalls enclosing elevator and services core
should be centrally located). Perimeter columns should be flexible to accommodate
post-tensioning shrinkage and creep strains, or special construction precautions
should be taken (slowing down construction).
Precast pretensioned hollow core slabs: Precast hollow core slabs are prefabricated
under controlled factory conditions and placed on site on steel beams or reinforced
concrete beams. The structure is finally tied together by cast-in-place grout. This
system achieves floor weights ranging between 0.77 and 0.97 t/m2 for spans
ranging between 5.5 to 11.m for a slab thickness ranging between 20 and 40 0mm.
However, the total floor depth is larger when the supporting beam is included.

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Precast hollow core slabs have good sound insulation and fire resistance capacity.
They are quick to erect; they do not need formwork or shoring. They are best used
with regular floor plans, with few but large service shafts, parallel beam lines and
orthogonal column lines. Local precast hollow core manufacturers are available and
should be contacted to check for required order lead times.
Selection of lateral load resisting system
The lateral load resisting system is usually part of the vertical load carrying system
and has to fulfil the dual function of resisting both vertical and lateral loads. In
reinforced concrete buildings, the lateral load system consists of shear walls,
moment resisting frames or a combination of both (dual systems). The selection of
the lateral load resisting system in a building depends on several factors:
-magnitude of lateral loads
-building height
-building height to width ratio
-floor height
-bay width
Moment resisting frames: moment resisting frames may be used for low rise
buildings in highly seismic areas or for medium rise buildings in intermediate to low
seismic risk areas. (UBC97 Table 16.N). The use of moment resisting frames requires
the use of squarish columns, drop beams and ductile detailing in the beams, columns
and beam-column joint regions. They are most effective when the floor height and
the bay width are limited. An extreme variant of this structural system is the tube
and tube in tube, where moment resisting frames are used along the perimeter of
the building (tube) and in the center around the services core (tube in tube) where
each frame consists of closely spaced mullion columns connected by deep spandrel
beams. These systems may be used in high rise buildings of 40 (tube) to 80 stories
high (tube in tube).
Shear wall buildings: are braced laterally by shear walls acting individually or two-bytwo (connected by coupling beams) or grouped into cores. The use of shear wall
bracing in buildings gives the designer freedom in arranging the columns of the
vertical load carrying system. Sufficient shear walls should be placed along every
principal direction. In plan, the center of stiffness of the shear walls should be as
close as possible to the center of mass of the building to minimize torsional
excitations. To maximize torsional resistance, shear walls parallel to the faade,
should as close to the faade as possible (on the faade if possible). Shear wall cores
should be placed as close as possible to the center of mass of the floor plan. In
buildings with large plan dimensions, shear walls should be located near the middle
of the plan dimension and not at the ends to minimize thermal restraint forces. In
tall buildings with moderate to small plan dimensions, shear walls are best located
near the corners to maximize the resistance to overturning moments. For best
resistance against lateral loads, shear walls should carry a significant part of the
vertical load (otherwise they might uplift at the foundation, or have a limited flexural
capacity).
Dual systems: combine both moment resisting frames and shear walls in the same
structure. These are used when neither moment resisting frames or shear walls
alone are possible or sufficient to resist the applied lateral loads and to provide the
required lateral stiffness. Since the deformation characteristics of both systems are

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different (shearwalls have larger interstory deformations at the top of the structure
rather at the base, while moment resisting frames have larger interstory
deformations at the base of the structure rather than at the top), the combination of
both systems in a single structure leads to structure stiffer than the sum of
stiffnesses of both systems alone. Dual systems are recommended for mid to high
rise buildings, particularly when outriggers are used to increase the coupling
between both systems.
Selection of foundation system:
The selection of a foundation system depends mainly on the nature of the soil under
the structure, and secondly on the type of structure, its height and its width. There
are four main types of foundations:
Shallow isolated footings: Each vertical load carrying element is connected to a
shallow isolated footing. Footings are connected to one another by tie-beamsto
restrain mainly differential horizontal movements, and to a certain extent differential
vertical movements. This system is used when the loads applied to the foundation
are light or the soil resistance at a shallow depth is high.
Raft foundation: A raft foundation consists of a single slab supporting all vertical
elements. A raft foundation is necessary when the lowest level of the structure is
below the water table. When the vertical loads on each footing are high enough, or
the soil resistance at shallow depth is weak enough, such that the sum of footings
area is more than 60% of the overall area of the building footprint, then a raft
foundation may be more economical to use than a set of shallow isolated footings.
Pile foundation: Piles consist mainly of vertical concrete elements cast in holes drilled
in the ground or of precast concrete elements driven into the soil, and connected to
the vertical load carrying elements of the structure by means of pile caps. Piles are
used when the soil resistance at a shallow depth is not sufficient to permit the use
shallow isolated footings or rafts (either because the resistance to failure is low, or
the expected settlements are high).
Raft on pile foundation: As the name implies, a raft on pile foundation is a raft
supported on piles. This type of foundation is used mainly for high rise buildings,
where the required bearing capacity under the raft cannot not be achieved by the
soil at shallow depth, or where the number of piles under each vertical element is so
large that the pile caps would run into each other.
Design of structural elements:
In the following, the design of each of the main structural elements of a building is
reviewed; listing the verifications to be done, the usual proportioning rules, the
range of practical dimensions and the relevant code sections.
Design of ribs: This item covers hourdi ribs (with in-fill blocks), T-form ribs and
ribbed floors. The design items for ribs are:

Overall thickness: The overall thickness of the rib is decided when

choosing the floor depth according to Table 9.5.6a of ACI318 based on the
largest panel dimensions, or according to the largest cantilever length.
Typically the floor depth is taken as the L/20 where is the longest rib span, or
Lc/10 where Lc is the largest rib cantilever span.

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Thickness of the flange: The flange thickness is determined from minimum

cover considerations (ACI318 Art. 7.7) and from fire resistance considerations
(Table 7-7-C-C UBC, 2hr fire resistance) and is never less than 60mm for
hourdi ribbed slabs and T-ribbed slabs and never less than 110mm for a
ribbed slab.

Width of the flange: The width of the flange is determined from the size of

the hourdi block for the hourdi ribbed slab, the size of the mold for the T-rib
slab, and from structural optimization for the ribbed slab.

Width of the rib: The width of flange is determined from minimum cover
considerations (ACI318-8.11.2) and is never less than 125mm for T-ribbed
slab and never less than 150mm for hourdi ribbed slabs and ribbed slabs.

Flexural reinforcement of the rib: Ribs may be designed as simply

supported or as continuous over the supporting beam. In either case no more
than 2 bars may be placed in one row at the top or bottom of the rib. No
more than 2 rows of bars should be used at the top or bottom of the rib. The
minimum bar size in a rib should be 10mm and the maximum bar size should
be 16mm in hourdi ribbed slab and T-rib slabs. For ribbed slabs, 20mm or
25mm bars may be used when the rib width is 200mm to 250mm
respectively. Moreover, for adequate development of the bottom flexural
reinforcement, the bottom bar size should not be more than L/200 where L is
the rib length between inflection points. The flexural reinforcement in the rib
shall be such that flexural failure occurs before shear failure.
Transverse reinforcement of the rib: Transverse reinforcement of the rib

generally consists of single stirrup of 8mm size at a spacing of at least

120mm. The maximum spacing of stirrups should not exceed d/2 or 200mm,
where d is the flexural depth of the rib. The 200mm spacing is applied
whenever the ultimate shear Vu is less than fVc (ACI318-11.1).

Flange reinforcement: Flange reinforcement is determined from shrinkage

reinforcement considerations (ACI318-7.12). In hourdi ribbed slabs and Tribbed slabs it generally consists of one 8mm bar in the longitudinal direction
in each flange and one 8mm every 200mm in the transverse direction. In
ribbed floor slabs, the transverse reinforcement may be determined from
flexural considerations.

Rib framing plan: Generally the rib is oriented along the longest direction

of the floor panel in which it is located, unless cantilever balcony ribs require
a different orientation of the ribs in the interior panel adjacent to the balcony.
Double ribs, parallel to the ribs are placed along lines connecting columns,
and cross-ribs are placed in the middle of floor panels over 6m long.

The verifications to be done are:

Flexural strength: Ribs may be designed as simply supported or as
continuous over the supporting beam. The effective span length is taken as
either distance from centreline to centreline of the supporting concealed
beams or the clear distance between supporting drop beams plus one floor
depth on each end. In case of continuous ribs, moment redistributions up to

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10% may be used to optimize the reinforcement scheme, provided the

maximum reinforcement ratio and the compression reinforcement ratio satisfy
the requirements of ACI318-7.11.

Shear strength: The effective span length is calculated as for flexural

strength calculation. Whenever the rib depth is less than twice the stirrup
spacing (d<240mm), the shear strength of the rib may be taken either equal
to the concrete shear strength, or may be calculated by strut-and-tie
(ACI318-8.3.4). In the latter case the bottom reinforcement needs to be fully
developed at the support.
Deflection under service load: The effective span length is calculated as

for flexural strength calculation. If the span to depth ratio of the rib exceeds
the limit in table 9.5a of ACI318, the deflection under service load needs to
be calculated according to sections 9.5.2.2 to 9.5.2.6 of ACI318. A camber to
the formwork needs to be provided to compensate for the permanent load
immediate and long term deflections.

Crack width under service load: The allowable crack width under service
load is obtained from ACI318-Appendix A-9 or BS8110 section 21.904
depending on the type of exposure. To minimize the crack width, the smallest
possible bar size must be used.
Design of concealed beams:
The design items for concealed beams are:
Beam depth: The overall thickness of the concealed beam is decided when
choosing the floor depth according to Table 9.5a of ACI318 based on the
largest panel dimensions, or according to the largest cantilever length.
Typically the floor depth is taken as the L/20 where is the longest concealed
beam span, or Lc/8 where Lc is the largest concealed beam cantilever span.

Beam width: The beam width should not exceed 4 times the beam depth,
and should be such that the center-to-center spacing of longitudinal bars is
not less than 120mm.
Flexural reinforcement: The minimum bar size in a concealed beam

should be 12mm and the maximum bar size should be 25mm. Moreover, for
adequate development of the bottom flexural reinforcement, the bottom bar
size should not be more than L/200 where L is the concealed beam length
between inflection points.

Shear reinforcement: Transverse reinforcement of the concealed beam

generally consists of multiple stirrups of 8mm to 10mm bar diameter at a

spacing of at least 120mm. The stirrups should generally engage all the
longitudinal bars in the beam. The maximum spacing of stirrups should not
exceed d/2 or 200mm, where d is the flexural depth of the concealed beam.
The 200mm spacing is applied whenever the ultimate shear Vu is less than
fVc (ACI318-11.5.5).
The verifications to be done are:
Flexural strength: The effective span length is taken as either distance
from centreline to centreline of the supporting concealed beams or the clear

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distance between supporting drop beams plus one floor depth on each end.
The amount of tensile flexural reinforcement or of compression reinforcement
may be increased in order to limit deflections under service load. The flexural
reinforcement in the concealed beam shall be such that flexural failure occurs
before shear failure. The fraction of bottom reinforcement developed at the
support should satisfy the requirements of table 12.11 of ACI318, and strut
and tie requirements for shear resistance at the support. The fraction of top
reinforcement extending at midspan should satisfy the requirements of table
12.12 of ACI 318. Moment redistributions up to 10% may be used to optimize
the reinforcement scheme, provided the maximum reinforcement ratio and
the compression reinforcement ratio satisfy the requirements of ACI318-7.12.

Shear strength: The effective span length is calculated as for flexural

strength calculation. Whenever the concealed beam depth is less than twice
the stirrup spacing (d<240mm), the shear strength of the beam may be
taken either equal to the concrete shear strength, or may be calculated by
strut-and-tie (ACI318-8.3.4). In the latter case the bottom reinforcement
needs to be fully developed at the support.
Deflection under service load: The effective span length is calculated as

for flexural strength calculation. If the span to depth ratio of the concealed
beam exceeds the limit in table 9.5a of ACI318, the deflection under service
load needs to be calculated according to sections 9.5.2.2 to 9.5.2.6 of
ACI318. A camber to the formwork needs to be provided to compensate for
the permanent load immediate and long term deflections.

Crack width under service load: The allowable crack width under service
load is obtained from ACI318-Appendix A-9 or BS8110-21.9.04 depending on
the type of exposure. To minimize the crack width, the smallest possible bar
size must be used.
Design of drop beams:
Drop beams are used in four cases:
When the applied gravity loads are too large to be resisted by a concealed
beam.
When supporting a two-way solid slab.
When supporting a precast hollow core slab, T or double T slab elements.
Within the context of a moment resisting frame.
The design items for a drop beam are as listed below, and the requirements differ
significantly depending on the function of the drop beam:

Beam depth: The beam depth may be determined from the requirements of

table 9.5a of ACI318 to satisfy deflection requirements, or it may determined

from shear requirements (shear stress tu ~3 f vc such that stirrup spacing
s<d/4) in conjunction with a determination of the beam width. Moreover, the
flexural capacity of the beam at the beam-column connection in a moment
resisting frame should be such that flexural yielding occurs in the beam
rather than in the column. For beams supporting two-way slabs, the beam
moment of inertia should be larger than the supported slab moment of inertia
(ACI318-13.6).

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Beam width: The beam width B must satisfy the following requirements:

B<L/50 where L is the beam span between inflection points.

B > 250mm for beams in ductile moment resisting frames (ACI318-21.5.1.3).
B > 200mm for proper support of precast elements.
B > H/8 where H is the beam depth.
B< Bc+D in moment resisting frames where Bc is the width of the column
supporting the beam and D is the floor slab depth, when B>Bc.
B<Bc-10 when B<Bc and Bc is the width of the supporting column.
Moreover, B should be such that the minimum center-to-center spacing
between top bar is 120mm and between bottom bars is 70mm.

Flexural reinforcement: The minimum bar size in a drop beam should be

12mm and the maximum bar size should be B/10 where B is the beam width.
Moreover, for adequate development of the bottom flexural reinforcement,
the bottom bar size should not be more than L/200 where L is the concealed
beam length between inflection points. For beams in moment resisting
frames, the longitudinal bar size at the support should be such that the bar
may be developed within the length of the beam-column joint (ACI31821.5.4).

Skin reinforcement: Longitudinal skin reinforcement is needed in beams

more than 600mm deep and in beams resisting torsional moments. The
maximum spacing of longitudinal skin reinforcement should be 300mm.
Shear reinforcement: Transverse reinforcement of the drop beam

generally consists of stirrups of 8mm to 16mm bar diameter at a spacing of

at least 120mm. The stirrups should generally engage all the longitudinal bars
in the beam. The maximum spacing of stirrups should not exceed d/2 or
600mm, where d is the flexural depth of the concealed beam. The minimum
stirrup bar diameter increases with beam depth to avoid buckling of the
stirrup during construction under construction loads (see table 1 below). For
beams in seismic moment resisting frames or beams resisting torsional
moments, the stirrup should be terminated by a 135 or 180 degree hook.

Table 1 maximum section depth for vertical bar diameter (construction

considerations)
Bar size (mm)
Maximum section depth (mm)
8
540
10
700
12
1000
14
1400
16
1800
20
2800

Beam-column joint size: in moment resisting frames needs to satisfy the

requirements of ACI318-21.7 for ductile moment resisting frames.
The verifications to be done are:
Flexural strength: The effective span length is taken as either distance
from centreline to centreline of the supporting columns or the clear distance
between supporting columns plus one beam depth on each end. The amount

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of tensile flexural reinforcement or of compression reinforcement may be

increased in order to limit deflections under service load. The flexural
reinforcement in the drop beam shall be such that flexural failure occurs
before shear failure (ACI318-21.3.2). The fraction of bottom reinforcement
developed at the support should satisfy the requirements of table 12.11 of
ACI318, and strut and tie requirements for shear resistance at the support.
The fraction of top reinforcement extending at midspan should satisfy the
requirements of table 12.12 of ACI 318. The amount of compression
reinforcement at the beam-column joint should be such that the required
flexural ductility is realized (ACI318-7.12).

Shear strength: The effective span length is calculated as for flexural

strength calculation. There is a minimum amount of shear reinforcement to
be provided (ACI318-11.5.5,11.8.4-5), and for seismic applications, the shear
failure load should be larger than the flexural failure load (ACI318-21.3.4).
For ductile moment resisting frames where severe load reversal may occur at
the beam-column joint, it is recommended to provide horizontal bars at beam
mid-height to resist the shear load by shear-friction.
Torsional strength: Torsional resistance of drop-beam subjected to

torsional moments is calculated according to ACI318-11.6.3.6-7 and involves

transverse closed stirrups and longitudinal bars distributed at the corners of
the section and along its sides.

Deflection under service load: The effective span length is calculated as

for flexural strength calculation. If the span to depth ratio of the drop-beam
exceeds the limit in table 9.5a of ACI318, the deflection under service load
needs to be calculated according to sections 9.5.2.2 to 9.5.2.6 of ACI318. A
camber to the formwork needs to be provided to compensate for the
permanent load immediate and long term deflections.

Crack width under service load: The allowable crack width under service
load is obtained from ACI318 Appendix A-9 or BS8110 Section 21.9.04
depending on the type of exposure. To minimize the crack width, the smallest
possible bar size must be used.
Design of one-way slabs:
One-way solid slabs are used mainly in attics and in ribbed slabs (between widely
spaced ribs). The design items for a one-way solid slab are:

Slab thickness: The slab thickness is determined from shear strength

requirements (provided solely by the concrete), punching shear strength (in

case of concentrated loads) and deflection requirements, which may be
satisfied either by conforming to the requirements of table 9.5a of ACI318, or
by conducting a deflection analysis.

Slab longitudinal reinforcement: Shallow one-way slabs are generally

designed as simply supported. The bottom flexural reinforcement needs to be
fully developed at the supports by 180 degree hooks either in the vertical
plane (if the depth of the slab allows it) or in the horizontal plane (the bar
spacing then cannot be less than the width of the hook). The amount of
flexural reinforcement at the support should be sufficient to develop the

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strut-and-tie shear resistance mechanism, and the amount of flexural

reinforcement should be limited such that flexural failure occurs before shear
failure. The minimum bar size should be 10mm and the largest bar size
should not exceed T/10 or L/200 where T is the slab thickness and L is the
slab span length between inflection points. The minimum bar spacing
compatible with the hook width, mentioned above, should be used in order to
minimize crack width at service.
The verifications to be done are:
Flexural strength: One way slabs may be designed as simply supported or
as continuous over the supporting element. The effective span length is taken
as either distance from centreline to centreline of the supporting element or
the clear distance between supporting elements plus one floor depth on each
end.

Shear strength: The shear strength in the one-way slab is provided solely
by the concrete (ACI318-11.3.1,11.5.5), and is a way of determining the
required slab thickness. For additional safety, the bottom reinforcement at
the support should be sufficient to develop the required shear strength by
strut-and-tie action.
Punching shear strength: is checked according to ACI 318-11.12.12.1 and
may control the slab thickness in presence of heavy concentrated loads.
Deflection under service load: The effective span length is calculated as
for flexural strength calculation. If the span to depth ratio of the one way slab
exceeds the limit in table 9.5a of ACI318, the deflection under service load
needs to be calculated according to sections 9.5.2.2 to 9.5.2.6 of ACI318. A
camber to the formwork needs to be provided to compensate for the
permanent load immediate and long term deflections.
Crack width under service load: The allowable crack width under service

load is obtained from ACI318-Appendix A-9 or BS8110 Section 21.9.04

depending on the type of exposure. To minimize the crack width, the smallest
possible bar size must be used.
Design of two-way slabs
Two-way slabs include flat plates, flat slabs with drop panels and two-way slabs on
drop beams. The design elements of two-way slabs include the following:

Slab thickness: The minimum slab thickness to satisfy deflection

requirements may be determined from ACI318-9.5.3. Punching shear
considerations in presence of concentrated heavy loads may also determine
the slab thickness.

Drop panel thickness and extent: When heavy distributed loads or long

spans are involved, it may be more economical to provide drop panels. The
minimum depth and extent of drop panel are set in ACI318-13.3.7. Additional
considerations may be the punching shear or flexural moment at the support
column. The minimum drop panel depth is T/4 (ACI318-13.3.7.2) and the
maximum drop panel depth is 0.7T (flexural strength considerations), where
T is the slab thickness away from the drop panel. The extent of the drop

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panel should not be less than L/3, where L is the span length between
column centrelines (ACI318-13.3.7.3).

Slab punching shear reinforcement: When punching shear requirements

at the slab-column connection are not met, punching shear reinforcement in

the form of stud rails or transverse reinforcement elements (ACI318-11.5.6.2)
may be used.

Column capital extent: Alternatively, when punching shear requirements

at the slab-column connection are not met, a local enlargement of the
interface by means of a column capital (ACI318-10.11.3.2,13.7.4) may be
used.

Drop-beam dimensions: The drop beam dimensions in a two way slab

system need to satisfy the proportioning rules of ACI318-13.2.4 and torsion

stress requirements for edge beams.

Slab flexural reinforcement: The minimum bar size should be 10mm and
the maximum bar size should be T/10, where T is the slab thickness. The bar
spacing needs to satisfy the requirements of ACI318-13.3.2, but should not
be less than 120mm on-centers to allow proper placement and vibration of
concrete. A maximum bar spacing of 300mm would allow the addition of
intermediate bars for extra reinforcement while maintaining the minimum bar
spacing requirement in the additional bars region. Only one layer of
reinforcement in each direction should be used along each face of the slab.
The verifications specific to the two-way slabs are as follows (drop-beams and
columns are treated elsewhere):

Flexural strength: The calculation of moments and the required flexural

strength may be done using the direct design method, the equivalent frame
method or the finite elements method. In the first two methods middle strips
and column strips are defined (ACI318-13.6.1,13.7.2) and assigned design
moments. Additional reinforcement needs to be placed at the slab-column
connection to transmit the vertical load from the slab to the column (ACI31813.5.3).

Shear strength: Normally, two-way slabs satisfying the requirements of

ACI318 table 9.5.c should have sufficient shear strength. Concrete beam
shear can be checked for the longest column strip and middle strip; no shear
reinforcement is used in two-way slabs.
Punching shear strength: Punching shear strength needs to be checked

under concentrated loads and at the slab-column connection (ACI31811.12.12.2).

Deflection under service load: Two way slabs satisfying the requirements
of ACI318 table 9.5.c should have satisfactory deflection under service loads.
Otherwise, the effective long term deflection shall be calculated using the
appropriate spreadsheet.

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Crack width under service load: The allowable crack width under service

load is obtained from ACI318-Appendix A-9 or BS8110 Section 21.9.04

depending on the type of exposure. To minimize the crack width, the smallest
possible bar size must be used.
Design of hollow core slab floors:
The design elements of a hollow core slab floor include the following items:

Selection of framing plan: Hollow core slab floors are best used with

rectangular regular floor bays without cantilevers. Since the slab support
beam is a drop beam, it may not be necessarily more advantageous to have
the beam spanning in the short direction, and the slab spanning in the long
direction. Hollow core slabs should meet the support at an angle as close to
right angle as possible (skew support lines need to be avoided because they
may lead to splitting of the slab). Shafts in hollow core floor slabs can occur
only between slab elements or within concrete cores (service, elevator, stairs)

Selection of slab depth: is done from manufacturers catalogues given the

superimposed service load (additional dead load and service live load), the
span length, the required fire resistance (normally 2hr), the screed thickness
(and whether it is structural or not). The catalogue gives the required depth
and number of pretensioned prestressed 7 wire strands.

Design of supporting drop beam: The supporting drop beam may be

entirely located under the hollow core slab, or it may have its top at the same
level as the slab top and extend partially below the slab soffit. In that case,
the slab is supported on a ledge projecting from the drop beam. The design
of the support ledge is done according to the procedure described in PCI
Design Handbook 6.14.
The specific verifications to be performed are (in addition to those for drop beams):

Slab support ledge: The design of the slab support ledge is done according

to the procedure described in PCI Design Handbook 6.14 and involves

determining the following parameters:
Ledge width: based on minimum bearing stress and slab length
tolerance.
Ledge depth: based on shear, flexure and reinforcement
arrangement; it is never less than 200mm.
Ledge reinforcement: based on flexure, shear and shear-friction.
Cumulation of ledge reinforcement with that of beam shear and
torsion reinforcement (consideration of partial load to maximize
torsion on beam).

Diaphragm action: Is the transfer of in-plane seismic or wind forces from

the floor slab (seismic) or the loaded faade (wind) to the lateral load
resisting (shearwall or moment resisting frame). The beams supporting the
hollow core slab act as tension or compression struts. The hollow core slabs
and the screed on top of them transfer shear by in-plane shear stresses.
Refer to UBC97-1630.1 to 1630.6 to calculate the seismic in-plane forces, and
to UBC97-1633.2.9 for flexible diaphragm force calculations.

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Design of prestressed concrete floor slabs:

The design elements of a cast-in-situ prestressed concrete floor slab include the
following items:

Selection of framing plan: Cast-in-situ prestressed concrete floor slabs

include several variants: flat-plate, ribbed slab, waffle slab, slab with bandbeams (listed in order of increasing span length and floor depth). Based on
the governing bay dimension, the most appropriate variant is selected, the
direction of the distributed tendons and the direction of the banded tendons,
and hence the framing plan is set.

Selection of slab thickness: Once the appropriate variant is selected, the

slab thickness is selected based on ACI318 table 9.5.4, the concept of load
balancing, and an average final prestress ranging from 0.9 Mpa (ACI31818.12.4) to 3.5 Mpa (ACI318-21.5.2.5).
Selection of prestressing system: meaning the choice of the strands

diameter, and whether bonded or unbonded strands will be used. Compared

to unbonded tendons, bonded tendons require more workmanship due to
subsequent grouting, but they have superior ultimate flexurals strength, and
are more accommodating for future remodelling (they can be cut to open
new shafts). Unbonded tendons are easier and faster to use than bonded
tendons and are therefore often preferred by contractors. Strand diameter
and number of strands per tendon is decided based on the maximum
prestress force needed, the minimum and maximum tendon spacing, and the
available anchorage types (monostrand for unbonded tendons, 4 or 5 strands
for bonded tendons).

Design of prestressing cables profile and spacing: The minimum

concrete cover is set based on ACI318-7.7.2 for the required fire resistance
(usually 2hr). Then, the tendon profile and spacing are calculated to achieve
the required load balancing ratio and average prestress force.
The specific verifications to be performed are:

Checking of stresses during the various phases: The main phases for

which the top and bottom slab flexural stresses must be checked are: initial
prestressing under self-weight only (may be partial prestress), final
prestressing under self-weight and some or all superimposed dead load,
prestress after occurrence of all time-dependant losses and in presence of all
permanent loads (self weight and superimposed dead loads), and finally
prestress after occurrence of all time-dependant losses and in presence of all
loads (permanent and live). The flexural stresses must be within the
allowable limits for tension and compression stress (ACI318-18.3.3 and
18.4.1 to 18.4.4).

Calculation of passive reinforcement: passive reinforcement is calculated

based on two criteria; ultimate flexural strength (ACI318-18.8.2) and total
tensile service force (ACI318-18.9.3.2). Moreover, in the case of unbonded
tendons, there is a minimum amount of passive reinforcement to be provided
(ACI318-18.9).

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Calculation of punching shear reinforcement: prestressed concrete

slabs are often quite thin and punching shear becomes a critical item. At least
two tendons need to cross over each column in each direction, to prevent
catastrophic failure (ACI318-18.12.6). Punching shear check and punching
shear reinforcement are calculated as per ACI318-11.12.2.2.

Calculation of anchor zone reinforcement: the reinforcement of the

anchor zone consists of surface reinforcement, bursting reinforcement and

diffusion reinforcement (ACI318-18.13, AASHTO-LFD-9.21.7).

Design of columns:
The design elements of a cast-in-situ reinforced concrete column include the
following items:

Section shape: The column section shape is generally rectangular or circular

(but other shapes may occur) and is generally agreed upon with the
architect. No drainage pipes should be allowed inside columns.

Section dimensions: are determined based on the column length, required

fire resistance and column design loads. The transition in dimensions from
one floor to the next should be such that the maximum deviation in
longitudinal bars does not exeed 1/6 (this is equivalent to 1/3 of the floor
thickness as maximum dimension change).

Longitudinal reinforcement: is determined based on the column design

loads. The reinforcement ratio should range between 0.8% and 4%.
Moreover, the minimum bar size should be 12mm. The center-to-center bar
spacing should range between 120mm and 150mm.

Transverse reinforcement: is determined based on the column design

loads. The minimum tie diameter is 10mm. The maximum spacing of ties is
the minimum of half the column dimension (for shear resistance), eight times
the smallest longitudinal bar diameter (to avoid longitudinal bar buckling) or
300mm (ACI318-21). The tie spacing is reduced in the potential plastic hinge
region, which extends at least one sixth the column height, largest column
dimension, or 450mm (ACI318-21.12.5.2). Outside the plastic hinge region,
spacing of transverse reinforcement should conform to ACI318-7.10 and
11.5.4.1. The spacing of tie legs should not exceed 350mm (ACI31821.6.4.2), and should not be much smaller than this value to allow easy
access for the concreting tremie. The transverse ties should be continued
through the beam-column joint (ACI318-21.12.5.5 and 11.11.2).
The specific verifications to perform are:

Minimum dimensions: to satisfy fire resistance (UBC-Tables 7) and seismic

resistance (UBC-1921).

Column slenderness: and the attendant moment magnification.

Flexural strength: is calculated using PCACOL or similar programs.

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Shear strength: is calculated for the applied loads and may take advantage
of the shear strength enhancement due to compression caused by axial loads
(gravity load cases). Alternatively, a capacity approach may be taken such
that the shear strength is larger than the maximum shear that can be caused
by the flexural moment strength (fVn > (Mntop+Mnbot)/H, ACI318-21.6.5.1).

Curvature ductility: In ductile moment resisting frames, the strength

reduction factor R implies a displacement ductility factor md = R or (R1)^2/(2R). A curvature ductility mm = ecu/x is necessary to achieve the
displacement ductility md.
Design of shearwalls
The design elements of a shearwall include the following items:
Wall length: wall length is mainly determined from architectural
considerations in coordination with structural requirements.
Wall thickness: wall thickness is mainly determined from structural
requirements based on required fire resistance, minimum slenderness,
required structural strength (compression, flexure, shear) and stiffness.
Boundary elements: that consist of specially reinforced or thickened
regions at the ends of the wall section may be required in walls subjected to
severe seismic loading.
Longitudinal reinforcement: needs to be calculated based on axial load
and flexural load requirements.
Transverse reinforcement: needs to be calculated based on shear loads.
The specific verifications to perform are:
Minimum dimensions: to satisfy fire resistance (UBC-Tables 7) and seismic
resistance (UBC-1921).
Wall slenderness: and the attendant moment magnification.
Flexural strength: is calculated using PCACOL or similar programs.
Shear strength: is calculated for the applied loads and may take advantage
of the shear strength enhancement due to compression caused by axial loads
(gravity load cases).
Curvature ductility: In ductile shearwall buildings, the strength reduction
factor R implies a displacement ductility factor md = R or (R-1)^2/(2R). A
curvature ductility mm = ecu/x is necessary to achieve the displacement
ductility md.
Design of cores:
The design elements of cores are identical to those of shearwalls. The specific
verifications to perform are (in addition to those done for shearwalls):

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Calculation of section flexural inertia: is necessary for calculation of drift

under lateral loads and fundamental period of the building. Shear stiffness
should be taken into account, as well as the effective flange width.
Calculation of additional reinforcement around openings: The
longitudinal reinforcement interrupted by an opening should be replaced by
three times the amount, distributed evenly on each side of the opening. The
transverse reinforcement interrupted by an opening should be replaced by an
equal amount distributed evenly on each side of the opening.
Design of coupling beams:
The design of coupling beams includes the following elements:
Section depth: Section depth is often limited by the required false ceiling
clearance and mechanical ducting requirements. In case diagonal main
reinforcement is adapted, some sleeves may be allowed in the coupling beam
and the depth may be increased slightly. The overall shear stress in the
coupling beam should not exceed 5fvc, especially when conventional
reinforcement arrangement is used.
Section width: Section width is constrained by the thickness of the
shearwalls connected by the coupling beam, especially when a diagonal main
reinforcement arrangement is adopted. In case a traditional reinforcement
arrangement is adopted, the coupling beam width may be larger than that of
the connected walls provided the following precautions are taken:
-The extension of the widened section is sufficient to develop the
flexural reinforcement of the coupling beam.
-The bearing area of the coupling beam on the wall is sufficient to
transfer the coupling beam shear force.
-The wall vertical reinforcement in the bearing area is sufficient to
transfer the coupling beam shear force by tension.
Longitudinal
reinforcement
arrangement:
The
longitudinal
reinforcement arrangement in a coupling beam can be either:
-conventional as in a regular beam. In the conventional arrangement,
the amount of longitudinal reinforcement is calculated based on the
end moments applied to the coupling beam by lateral loads (wind,
seismic).
-or diagonal in an X arrangement. The X arrangement can be used
only when the length to depth ratio of the coupling beam L/d is less
than 2 (ACI318-21.9.7.2). The X arrangement is preferred in highly
seismic zones when a large ductility needs to be achieved. In the X
arrangement, the longitudinal reinforcement of the struts is calculated
based on the end shears applied to the coupling beam by lateral loads
(wind, seismic) resolved into axial forces along the struts. Since the
compression strut is stiffer than the tension strut, the compression
strut will have a larger axial force magnitude than the tension tie.
Additional horizontal top and bottom reinforcement must be provided
to resist the horizontal component of the difference of force between
the compression strut and the tension strut.

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Transverse reinforcement arrangement: The transverse reinforcement

arrangement in a coupling beam depends on the arrangement of the
longitudinal reinforcement:
-For a conventional reinforcement arrangement, the transverse shear
reinforcement must be calculated from capacity principles, such that flexural
yielding occurs before shear failure.
-For an X arrangement, the main transverse shear reinforcement is around
the longitudinal reinforcement of the struts, and its function is to provide
confinement to the concrete inside the struts to increase its compressive
strength and ultimate failure strain. The overall stirrups may be a nominal
amount.
The specific verifications to perform are:
Shear strength: As indicated above, shear strength verification depends on
the configuration of the longitudinal reinforcement in the coupling beam.
Flexural strength: As indicated above, flexural strength verification
depends on the configuration of the longitudinal reinforcement in the
coupling beam.
Flexural stiffness: For the conventional reinforcement arrangement, the
effective section moment of inertia may be calculated assuming a cracked
section. For the X reinforcement arrangement, an effective section moment of
inertia may be estimated from the following equivalence K=V/D=12E.Ieff/L3,
where:
V = maximum shear capacity of the coupling beam.
D = vertical relative displacement between ends of the beam corresponding
to V.
E = concrete modulus of elasticity.
L = span length of coupling beam.
Ieff = effective section moment of inertia.
Loading/unloading effect on connected shearwalls: The accumulation
of shear forces from the coupling beams increases the vertical force on one
of the shearwalls and decreases the vertical force on the opposite shearwall.
Both shearwalls must be checked for the applied moment with the increased
or reduced axial force. In a 2D or 3D FEM model this loading/unloading effect
is automatically accounted for.
Design of isolated centered footings:
The design elements of an isolated centered footing include the following items:
Plan dimensions: The plan dimensions of a footing are determined from
bearing stress considerations. For footings with mainly vertical loads (low
eccentricity), the plan dimensions are selected such that a constant width
overhang is provided outside the column limit. For footings with relatively
large moments (high eccentricity) the plan dimensions are determined from
bearing stress considerations, using Meyerhoffs approach (for a reduced
uniformly loaded bearing area).
Thickness: The thickness of the footing is determined from four
considerations: punching shear strength, beam shear strength, flexural

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reinforcement economy and development length for the columns longitudinal

bars. A minimum thickness of 350mm is recommended.
Reinforcement: The footing main reinforcement is flexural reinforcement at
the bottom face of the footing. The minimum reinforcement ratio (after
applying the 4/3r provision of ACI318-10.5.3) should be rmin > 0.25ft/fy,
where:
-ft = tensile strength of concrete.
-fy = yield strength of reinforcement.
The reinforcement on the top face of the footing is calculated for the moment
caused by the weight of the overburden soil, but not less than temperature
and shrinkage requirements (r > 0.0009). For footing thickness greater than
600mm a side reinforcement of 500mm2/m should be provided along the
edges of the footing.
The specific verifications to perform are:
Bearing stress: The net bearing stress due to vertical loads and moments
may be checked using Meyeroffs approach where:
s = Pnet/(Lx.Ly)
Bearing stress
Lx=Lx-2*ex
Effective uniform contact area x length
Ly=Ly-2*ey
Effective uniform contact area y length
ex = |My|/Pnet
Load eccentricity in x direction
ey=|Mx|/Pnet
Load eccentricity in y direction
Pnet
Net vertical load (external load + footing weight
- overburden weight)
Mx
Moment about x axis on footing centroid
My
Moment about y axis on footing centroid
This verification is done using service load combinations.
Stability against overturning: The ratio of overturning moment to
restoring moment for x and y directions should be larger than 2. The
overturning moment consists of the applied external moment. The restoring
moment is the total vertical load (external load+footing weight+overburden
weight) multiplied by half the footing length in the concerned direction. This
verification is done using service load combinations.
Stability against sliding: The ratio of resisting force to sliding force for x
and y directions should be larger than 2. The sliding force is the external
horizontal force. The resisting force is Fres = m.Ptot+c.Afoot where:
m
= coefficient of friction between footing and soil tan(2/3f)
Ptot
=
total
vertical
force
(external
load+footing
weight+overburden weight)
f
= internal angle of friction of foundation soil
c
= foundation soil cohesion
Afoot
= footing area
This verification is done using service load combinations.
Punching shear: The punching shear in the footing due to externally
applied ultimate vertical load and moments is calculated at a perimeter at d/2
away from the column limit as per ACI318-11.11.1.2. The thickness of the

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footing should be such that punching shear check is satisfied without having
to use punching shear reinforcement.
Beam shear: Beam shear in the footing due to externally applied ultimate
vertical load and moments is calculated at two orthogonal sections d away
from the column limit as per ACI318-11.1.3.1. The thickness of the footing
should be such that punching shear check is satisfied without having to use
punching shear reinforcement.
Flexural strength: Flexural strength in the footing due to externally applied
ultimate vertical load and moments is calculated at two orthogonal sections at
the face of the column limits as per ACI318-15.4.1. The thickness of the
footing should be such that the reinforcement ratio is within allowable limits,
the number and spacing of reinforcement bars within acceptable limits, and
the overall design is optimized costwise.
Calculation of equivalent spring stiffness: In some cases where the
distribution of the loads to the foundations is affected by the relative stiffness
of the foundations, the stiffness of the foundations in the vertical direction
and in rotation about the principal axes needs to be accounted for in the
analytical model (instead of the usual fixed base assumption). In those cases,
the design shall proceed by iteration, starting with a fixed base calculation,
estimating the required footing dimensions, calculating and inserting the
corresponding foundation stiffness in the model and redesigning the footings
for the new force distribution. The process is repeated until the assumed and
the required footing dimensions are within an allowable tolerance (5% or
100mm). The foundation spring stiffness is calculated as follows:
Kz = Af.Ks
Kxx = Lx/12.Ly3.Ks
Kyy = Lx3.Ly/12.Ks
Ks = Modulus of subgrade reaction (~120qa)
qa = Allowable net bearing capacity.
Design of isolated eccentric footings (with strap beam):
Isolated eccentric footings are used when the supported column or wall is
immediately at the lot boundary such that a concentric footing cannot be used. The
design of an isolated eccentric footing is similar to that of a concentric isolated
footing except for the following additional items (suppose in the following that the
strap beam is along the X axis):
Load eccentricity: The sign of the moment about the Y axis (normal to the
strap beam direction) is significant and may increase the load eccentricity.
The load eccentricity is calculated with respect to the centroid of the footing
and may be balanced completely or partially by the shear and moment
applied by the strap beam at the edge of the footing opposite to the edge
where the column is situated.
Strap beam section: The strap beam section needs to be determined from
3 considerations: shear strength, flexural strength and flexural stiffness. The
distribution of loads between the footing and the strap beam should take into
account their rotational and vertical translation stiffness.

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Punching shear area: In case the strap beam connects to the footing along
its side face, then punching shear stress under the eccentric column needs to
be checked (reduced punching shear perimeter). In case the strap beam
connects to the footing along its top face and extends to the eccentric
column, then no punching shear needs to be checked.
The specific verifications to be done are identical to those done for a concentric
footing.
Design of combined footings:
Combined footings are used when adjacent isolated footings are likely to overlap.
The design elements of a combined footing are:
Plan dimensions: The plan dimensions of a footing are determined from
bearing stress considerations. Generally, a trapezoidal plan form is selected,
such that the centroid of the trapezoid coincides with the resultant of the
vertical permanent loads, in order to obtain a uniform permanent soil stress
and uniform settlement.
Footing thickness: The thickness of the footing is determined from four
considerations: punching shear strength, beam shear strength, flexural
reinforcement economy and development length for the columns longitudinal
bars. A minimum thickness of 350mm is recommended.
Footing reinforcement: The footing main reinforcement is flexural
reinforcement at the bottom face of the footing outside the columns, in the
transverse direction, and on the top face of the footing between the columns.
The minimum reinforcement ratio (after applying the 4/3r provision of
ACI318-10.5.3) should be rmin > 0.25ft/fy, where:
-ft = tensile strength of concrete.
-fy = yield strength of reinforcement.
The top transverse reinforcement is calculated for the moment caused by the
weight of the overburden soil, but not less than temperature and shrinkage
requirements (r > 0.0009). For footing thickness greater than 600mm a side
reinforcement of 500mm2/m should be provided along the edges of the
footing.
The specific verifications to be done are:
Bearing stress: The net bearing stress due to vertical loads and moments
may be checked using strength of materials approach:
s = P/A+/-Mx/Sx+/-My/Sy : Bearing stress
s = 0.75 smax+0.25 smin : Effective bearing stress
P
Net vertical load (external load + footing weight - overburden
weight)
Mx
Moment about x axis on footing centroid
My
Moment about y axis on footing centroid
Sx
Section modulus for bending about x axis
Sy
Section modulus for bending about y axis
If a negative stress (tension) is obtained at one or more corners of the
footing, then the line of zero stress must be obtained by trial and error. The

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effective bearing stress is compared to the allowable bearing stress. This

verification is done using service load combinations.
Stability against overturning: The ratio of overturning moment to
restoring moment for x and y directions should be larger than 2. The
overturning moment consists of the applied external moment. The restoring
moment is the total vertical load (external load+footing weight+overburden
weight) multiplied by half the footing length in the concerned direction. This
verification is done using service load combinations.
Stability against sliding: The ratio of resisting force to sliding force for x
and y directions should be larger than 2. The sliding force is the external
horizontal force. The resisting force is Fres = m.Ptot+c.Afoot where:
m
= coefficient of friction between footing and soil tan(2/3f)
Ptot
=
total
vertical
force
(external
load+footing
weight+overburden weight)
f
= internal angle of friction of foundation soil
c
= foundation soil cohesion
Afoot
= footing area
This verification is done using service load combinations.
Punching shear: The punching shear in the footing due to externally
applied ultimate vertical load and moments is calculated at a perimeter at d/2
away from the column limit as per ACI318-11.11.1.2. The thickness of the
footing should be such that punching shear check is satisfied without having
to use punching shear reinforcement.
Beam shear: Beam shear in the footing due to externally applied ultimate
vertical load and moments is calculated at orthogonal sections d away from
the column limits as per ACI318-11.1.3.1. The thickness of the footing should
be such that punching shear check is satisfied without having to use shear
reinforcement.
Flexural strength: Flexural strength in the footing due to externally applied
ultimate vertical load and moments is calculated at orthogonal sections at the
face of the column limits as per ACI318-15.4.2 and at the maximum moment
in the span between the two columns. The thickness of the footing should be
such that the reinforcement ratio is within allowable limits, the number and
spacing of reinforcement bars within acceptable limits, and the overall design
is optimized costwise.
Calculation of equivalent spring stiffness: In some cases where the
distribution of the loads to the foundations is affected by the relative stiffness
of the foundations, the stiffness of the foundations in the vertical direction
and in rotation about the principal axes needs to be accounted for in the
analytical model (instead of the usual fixed base assumption). In those cases,
the design shall proceed by iteration, starting with a fixed base calculation,
estimating the required footing dimensions, calculating and inserting the
corresponding foundation stiffness in the model and redesigning the footings
for the new force distribution. The process is repeated until the assumed and
the required footing dimensions are within an allowable tolerance (5% or
100mm). The foundation spring stiffness is calculated as follows:

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Kz = Af.Ks
Kxx = Ks.y2dxdy
Kyy = Ks.x2dxdy
Ks = Modulus of subgrade reaction (~120qa)
qa = Allowable net bearing capacity.
Design of tie-beams:
Tie-beams connect isolated footings and may support slabs on grade. The design
elements of tie-beams are:
Location with respect to top of footing: Generally, the tie beams frame
into the columns immediately above the top face of the footing and may
support the slab on grade. In some cases
Section dimensions: Tie beam sections are such that the vertical dimension
is larger than the horizontal dimension. The horizontal dimension should not
be less than 250mm and should be either smaller or larger (by at least
50mm) than the column dimension into which it is framing (to avoid
interference between the tie-beam longitudinal reinforcement and the column
longitudinal reinforcement). The vertical dimension is determined from
analysis, based on the required compression capacity, buckling resistance and
flexural stiffness.
Section reinforcement: The longitudinal reinforcement is determined on
the basis of the required axial tension and compression capacity and the
required flexural capacity. The transverse reinforcement is determined on the
basis of the required shear capacity, and the minimum transverse
reinforcement requirements. The longitudinal top and bottom reinforcement
are equal, and the vertical faces receive skin reinforcement. The shear
reinforcement is often a single tie.
The verifications to perform on tie-beams are as follows:
Axial capacity in tension and compression: the tie-beam section and
reinforcement should be able to resist 10% of the maximum ultimate column
load at each end of the tie-beam, as either a tension force or as a
compression force.
Resistance to buckling: when subjected to its design compression force,
the tie-beam should not buckle. The effective length may be taken as half the
clear length (fixed ends). The effective moment of inertia shall be taken as
0.35Ig, according to ACI-318-10.10.4.1.
Flexural and shear resistance: the tie-beam shear and flexural strength
shall be sufficient to resist imposed deformations corresponding to the
expected differential settlement under vertical load, the imposed rotations
due to lateral loads and the vertical loads directly applied to the tie-beam
(from slabs-on-grade monolithically connected to the tie-beam).
Design of rafts:

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Rafts are used when the bearing capacity is so low, or the column loads so high, that
individual footings would overlap over one another. The design elements of a raft
are:
The extent in plan: The extent in plan of a raft is usually the footprint of the building
(particularly when it is a high-rise or has basements below the water table), in which
case it also supports the perimeter basement walls. Otherwise, the extent in plan
outside the high-rise core is determined from soil bearing capacity considerations.
The thickness: The thickness of a raft is determined from punching shear and beam
shear considerations, since it is not practical to provide punching shear
reinforcement in the raft. In some cases, where uplift due to shallow water table is
encountered, the raft thickness may be increased to provide ballast weight against
uplift, and to have the reinforcement work at a reduced stress to limit the flexural
crack widths.
The flexural reinforcement: The flexural reinforcement is calculated for the moments
induced in the raft. Two approaches are possible for the detailing of the
reinforcement; either a constant bar spacing is used with changes in the bar
diameters where needed, or a basic reinforcement mesh at twice the minimum bar
spacing (250mm to 300mm) is laid and additional reinforcing bars are inserted
between the mesh bars, where needed. The minimum bar spacing should not be less
than 120mm or 150mm preferably, to allow proper placement of reinforcement.
The punching shear reinforcement: Punching shear reinforcement may be used
around a few heavily loaded columns to keep the raft thickness to a reasonable
value. When the raft thickness necessary for these column to satisfy punching shear
stress is much larger than the thickness necessary to satisfy beam shear or punching
shear at the other columns, then it is more economical to use punching shear
reinforcement at these columns.
The construction sequence and heat of hydration control: For large or thick rafts that
cannot be poured in one phase, it is necessary to preview a construction sequence
with either construction joints either along vertical planes or along horizontal planes.
In either case, the reinforcement has to be detailed to provide sufficient
development length across the construction joints, and the construction joint faces
must be keyed or roughened to provide sufficient shear resistance across the planes.
Moreover, in case of thick rafts, some measures need to be taken to avoid excessive
rise of temperature inside the raft and thermal gradients leading to cracking of the
raft.
The verifications to perform are:
Analytical model:
Flexural strength:
Punching shear strength:
Beam shear strength:
Design of slab-on-grade:
Design of pile foundations:
Design of pile caps:

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Design of basement walls:

Design of water tanks:
Design against progressive collapse:
Calculation of superimposed dead loads
The main vertical loads on a structure consist of self weight dead load, superimposed
dead load and live load. Self weight dead load is easily computed from the structural
elements sections and material density. The superimposed dead load consists of floor
covering (tiling, screed), partition walls and ceiling fixtures (false ceiling, lighting
fixtures, cable trays, water supply piping, drainage piping, fire-fighting piping, HVAC
ducting)
Floor covering: Three typical scenarios may be encountered:
Floor tiling: would typically involve about 60mm of sand for levelling
(g=18KN/m3), 20mm of screed (g=22KN/m3) and 20mm for tiles
(g=24KN/m3) for a total thickness of 100mm and a weight of
18x0.06+22x0.02+24x0.02=2 KN/m2. A 0.5KN/m2 is added for ceiling
fixtures on the ceiling below for a total of 2.5KN/m2.
Floor screed: When screed is used to cover a floor, a minimum screed
thickness of 50mm is usually required. The screed is sloped to falls at a rate
of 2%. The screed thickness is variable, and the average thickness is
0.5(tmax+50mm). A 0.5KN/m2 is added for ceiling fixtures on the ceiling
below.
Roof covering: Roof covering typically involves levelling screed (~50mm),
waterproofing, protection screed (50mm<t<tmax) or protection gravel
(~150mm). A 0.5KN/m2 is added for ceiling fixtures on the ceiling below. The
total weight is 0.5+22x0.05+0.1+22x0.15=5KN/m2.
Partition loads: can be analyzed either as line loads or as equivalent uniformly
distributed loads. The first option is recommended for perimeter cladding and faade
loads, whose location is fixed and whose value could be large. The second option is
generally used for interior partition walls for its simplicity.
Partitions equivalent distributed loads: There are three ways to
compute partition equivalent distributed loads. In the following, let:
Wp be the weight of a partition section 1m long in the horizontal
direction.
Hp be the thickness of the partition wall
Then:
Case of partition normal to a beam of length L:
We=2xWp/L for simply supported beams.
We=1.5xWp/L for continuous beams.
Case of partition parallel to a beam of length L:
We=Wp/e, where:
E=max(1,Hp+0.6L) for an interior partition
E=max(1,Hp+0.3L+h) for an exterior partition, where h is the
distance from the edge.

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Unspecified case:

We=Wp/3 > 1KN/m2.

Generally partition loads would not be less than 4.5KN/m2.

Calculation of lateral wind loads

Calculation of lateral seismic loads
Calculation of vertical deflection in beams and ribs
Calculation of vertical deflection in two-way slabs
Calculation of drift due to lateral load

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Rev. Date: Aug 2007