NARRATIVE ALTERNATIVES TO CLASSICAL FILMMAKENG I391

most classical films, Dreyer emphasizes the camera movements as a motif,

calling our attention to the ~ a r a l l e land developing situations.
In the course of this scene, Merete publicly accuses Anne of witchcraft.
Martin abandons her, and Anne breaks down, confessing to having been in
the service of "the Evil One." Does this, then, settle the matter of her
witchcraft?
We know that in analyzing a film, it is useful to contrast the beginning
with the ending. Day of Wrath begins with the image of a scroll unrolling,
over which the medieval church melody Dies Irae plays nondiegetically. The
scroll depicts and describes the terrible events that befall the sinful earth
on Judgment Day (the ""Day of Wrath" of the title). (See Fig. 10.47.) Afier
Anne confesses, she looks upward for help, for mercy? The scroll now
returns to the screen, accompanied by the sweet solo voice of a choirboy,
describing how the "bruised soul" will be lifted to heaven. In the eternal
context of the scroll, Anne is apparently forgiven. Yet what she is forgiven
for-seducing Martin, practicing witchcraft, accepting her society's defininever stipulated. The scroll seems not to
tion of herself as a witch-is
resolve the ambiguity so much as to postpone it. The final image of the film
is a cross, but the cross is slowly transformed into the witch motif we saw
earlier, during Herlofs Marthe's execution (Fig. 10.48). Presumably, the
parallel with Herlofs Marthe is now complete: Anne will be burned. But
the causes of certain events, the nature of witchcraft, the desires that
motivate Anne--these remain, like her eyes, "fathomless and mysterious."
Day of Wrath illustrates how a film may fascinate us not by its clarity but
by its obscurity, not by fixed certainties but by teasing questions.

LAST YEAR AT MARIENBAD

(L'ANN~?EDERNI&RE A MARIENBAD)
1961. Prkcitel and Terrafilm, a French-Italian coproduction. Directed by Alain
Resnais. Script by Alain Robbe-Grdlet. Photographed by Saeha Vierney, Edited by Henri Colpi and Jasmine Chasney. Music by Francis Seyrig. With
Delphine Seyrig, Giorgio Albertazzi, Sacha Pitoeff.

When Last Year at Marienbad was first shown in 1961, many critics offered
widely varying interpretations of it. When faced with most films, these
critics would have been looking for implicit meanings behind the plot. But,
faced with iMarienbad, their interpretations were attempts simply to describe
the evenls that take place in the film's story. These proved difficult to agree
on. Did the couple really meet last year? If not, what really happened? Is
the film a character's dream or hallucination?
Typically, a film's plot-however
simple or difficult-allows the spectator to construct the causal and chronological story mentally. But Marienbad
is radically different. Its story is impossible to determine. The film has only
a plot, with no single consistent story for us to infer. This is because
Marienbad carries the strategy of Day of Wrath to an extreme by working
entirely through ambiguities. As we watch the opening of the film, the
events seem to be leading us toward a story, complicated though it might
be. But then contradictions arise. One character says that an event occurred,

Fig. 10.47

Fig. 10.48

3921 FILM CRITICISM: SAMf LE ANALYSES

Fi. 10.49

Fig. 10.50

Fig. 10.51

Fig. 10.52

specifying the time and place, but another character denies it. Because
such contradictions are never resolved, we have no way of choosing which
events are part of a causal series that would make up a potential story. The
flow of the narration never supplies clear-cut story information.
Marienbad creates its ambiguity through contradictions on many different levels: the spatial, the temporal, the causal. Within the same shot,
impossible juxtapositions may occur in the mise-en-scene. At one point a
track forward through a door reveals the shrub-lined promenade that is
(sometimes) situated in front of the hotel. The people scattered across the
flat expanse in the center cast long, dark shadows, yet the pointed trees
that line the promenade cast none (Fig. 10.49). The sun is both shining
and not shining. Later in the film, there is a shot of the woman. (As none
of the characters have names, we shall call her the Heroine, the lead male
the Narrator, and the tall man the Other Man.) We see three images of her
within the frame. Apparently two must be mirror reflections, yet the three
images are facing in directions that make an arrangement of mirrors impossible (Fig. 10.50).
Settings shift in inconsistent ways between different segments of the
film as well. The statue to which the couple frequently returns appears
sometimes to be directly outside the French windows of the hotel (as in the
fast track right as the Heroine leaves the Narrator and runs through these
windows). At other times the statue is set at a great distance. In some
scenes the statue faces a lake; in others, the lake is behind it. In still other
scenes the tree-lined promenade forms the background in shots of the statue.
(Compare Figs. 10.51 and 10.52.) Within the hotel, things change as well,

NARRATIVE ALTERNATIVES TO CLASSICAL FILMMAKING

/393

Fig. 10.53

as the furnishings of the Heroine's room become progressively more cluttered. New pieces of furniture appear, the gilded mounting on the walls
becomes more elaborate, and the decoration over the mantle is sometimes
a mirror and sometimes a painting. The Narrator's frequent descriptions of
the "vast hotel . . . baroque, dismal" and the "hallways crossing hallways"
point up these impossible changes. His words cannot pin down the appearances of things, which frequently shift-as do the descriptions themselves,
which the Narrator repeats many times, with different combinations of
phrases.
Temporal relations are equally problematic. In one shot the Heroine
stands by the window to the left of the bed in her room. The darkness of a
nighttime exterior is visible, and the lights by the bed are lit. But when she
moves left, with the camera panning, she reaches another window through
which sunlight is visible. The type of lighting inside the room is also different
in this new portion of the setting, yet no cut or ellipsis has occurred (Fig.

10.53).
Across the whole film, the temporal sequence of events is also uncertain. Supposedly the Narrator has returned to take the Heroine away after
an agreed-on year's separation following their initial meeting. Yet in the
scene at the end when they do leave together, the Narrator's voice is still
describing this event as if it had taken place in the past-as
if it were one
of the things he is trying to recall to her mind. At the beginning of the film
(which apparently coincides fairly closely with the Narrator's arrival at the
hotel) the Heroine is watching a play called Rosmer. At the end of the film,
she stays away from the same performance in order to leave with the
Narrator. (The actions of the Heroine and Narrator in this scene also
duplicate those in the scene from Rosmer as we see it near the beginning
of the film.) If the play occurs only once in the story, all of the events
involved in the Narrator's attempt to convince the Heroine to leave somehow
take place between the two presentations of Rosmer in the plot. The temporal
status of all of the events of the film becomes undeterminable.
Mnrienbad presents many varied combinations of ambiguous space,
time, and causality. An action may carry from one time and space to a
different time and space. This happens several times when "matches on
action" cuts occur with a change in locale. The first such "match" gives us
our first really contradictory cue in the film. A series of shots after the
Rosrner performance shows small groups of guests standing around the hotel

,3944 FILM CRITICISM: SAMPLE ANALYSES

Fig. 10.55

Fig. 10.54

lobby; one medium shot frames a blonde woman beginning to turn away
from the camera (Fig. 10.54). In the middle of her turn, there is a cut to a
different setting. The woman is dressed identically, and her position in the
frame is matched precisely (Fig. 10.55). This cut also uses a device common
throughout the film-a
sudden start or cessation of loud organ music. The
abrupt changes on the sound track accentuate the film's discontinuities and
startling juxtapositions. A similar "match" on action occurs later as the
Heroine walks with the Narrator down a hallway. In the first shot there are
several people in the background; after the cut, the couple are alone in a
different hallway-yet
converse without a break.
At other moments, a scene's space and time may remain continuous
while actions occur that contradict each other. Several times the camera
begins a shot on one or more characters, moves away from them across
considerable space, and picks up the same characters in a different locale.
This happens as the Narrator confronts the Heroine after the first pistolrange segment. They stand in medium shot as he talks. Then the camera
tracks away right, past a series of other people. It reaches the Narrator,
who is now standing at the other end of the room, looking off right. A pan
right reveals the Heroine coming in a door at the top of a flight of stairs.
At several other points, the camera passes over characters who will reappear
elsewhere at later stage of the same shot.
Marienbad combines contradictions of space, time, and causality in
many variations. The Narrator's voice-over account of events seems at first
to make sense, but soon it comes into conflict with the image. In one shot
(the night/day segment already mentioned), we see a "flashback," apparently
illustrating the Narrator's account of a night he had seduced the Heroine.
At first the images and his internal past-tense narration tally closely. But
then discrepancies begin to creep in. He says that she went to the bed, yet
in the image she remains standing by a wall made of mirrors near the door.
He concedes, "It's true, there was a large mirror by the door . . . a huge
mirror which you avoided." Yet the Heroine continues to move along the
mirror, pressing herself to it.
At other times the Narrator declares that entire sequences are false.
We see the Other Man shoot the Heroine, apparently in jealousy over her
affair with the Narrator. In the "present:' the Narrator continues to describe
the scene to the Heroine, trying to get her to remember it. But then he
says, "That's not the right ending. It's you alive I must have." At other

NARRATIVE ALTERNATIVES TO CLASSICAL FILMMAKING I395

points he describes having entered the Heroine's bedroom and raped her,
then denies that he had used force to seduce her. The images present several
versions of the scene, with the Heroine sometimes cringing in fear, sometimes opening her arms in welcome. The Narrator's descriptions of the
supposed events "last year'' are unreliable, since he several times offers
incompatible versions of scenes.
The film is careful not to give us clues to help establish clear connections. The title itself is purely arbitrary. It seems to imply that an important
narrative event has occurred at a specific time and place. But in fact, the
Narrator states several times that he had met the Heroine a year ago at
Friedrichsbad. Only when she denies ever having been there does he reply,
"Perhaps it was elsewhere . . . at Karlstadt, at Marienbad, or Baden-Salsa,
or in this very room." Nor can we tell what the relationships among the
characters are. The Narrator says that the Other Man is "perhaps" the
Heroine's husband. He may also be her brother, friend, or lover, but we
have no way of determining which. All of the characters invariably use the
formal uous (you) to one another rather than the more intimate tu. As a
result, we never get a sense of how close the Heroine's relationship to either
of the two men is supposed to be.
Marienbad teases us to try to fit its parts into a coherent whole, yet at
the same time it provides several indications tha.t such a constructed unity
is impossible. First, there is the statue beside which the couple often stands.
The Narrator describes how they had discussed the figures of the man and
woman in the statue, offering different interpretations. He says that the man
is trying to keep the woman back from something dangerous, whereas she
believes that the woman is pointing something out to the man. Each hypothesis is equally reasonable as an explanation for the gestures of the stone
figures (as are still other explanations). The Narrator's voice-over says,
"Both were possible," but goes on immediately to elaborate on his own
explanation. Finally, he tells how the Heroine had insisted on identifying
I think. Then I
the statues: "You . . . began naming them-haphazardly,
said, they might just as well be you and I or anyone. Leave them nameless,
with more room for adventure." Yet the Heroine still persists in trying to
interpret the statue and invent a story to go with it. Later, the Other Man
offers a precise explanation of the statue as an allegorical figure representing
Charles 111. Here we have an apparently correct interpretation, for the Other
Man seems to have special information that the others lack. But by this
he is only making
point in the film we are suspicious of everyone-perhaps
it up. The statue resembles the film as a whole in several ways: Its temporal
and spatial situation shifts without explanation, and its meaning ultimately
remains elusive.
Another clue to the ultimate undecidability of the film is offered by
the locale. The ending of the film leaves the Heroine lost in the gardens of
the hotel with the Narrator. The rnazelike hotel and gardens suggest the
windings of the narrative itself. The space, both inside and outside, is
impossible; we can never reconstruct it. The Narrator's voice is heard over
the ending, describing the locale: "The gardens of this hotel were in the
French manner, without trees, without flowers, without plants, nothing.
Gravel, stone, marble, straight lines setting rigid patterns of space, surfaces
without mystery." The space as he describes it is stable and unambiguous;

396/ FILM CRITICISM: SAMPLE ANALYSES

yet, as we have seen, contradictions and impossibilities abound here. The

Narrator goes on: ""T seemed impossible-at first-to lose one's way there.
At first. Among the stones, where you were, already, losing your way forever,
in the quiet night, alone with me."
This ease of losing one's way in a deceptively straightforward path
applies to the spectator's attempts to construct the film's story as well. "At
first" it seems possible to piece events together in a chronological fashion.
Only gradually do we realize that the task is hopeless.
A major motif in the film is the game that the Other Man plays against
several opponents, always winning easily. The game is not a symbol in the
sense of representing some hidden meaning, but it does present yet a third
image of impossibility. It is impossible to win the game without knowing
the key. One onlooker suggests that perhaps the one who starts the round
wins-but
the Other Man wins whether he goes first or second. The Narrator
struggles to learn the key, but the film offers no solution. Instead, the game
helps to suggest to the spectator the nature of the film he or she is watching.
The narrative, too, has no key that will enable us to find its hidden
coherence; it is a game that we must lose. The whole structure of Marienbad
is a play with logic, space, and time which does not offer us a single,
complete story as a prize for winning this "game."
This is why Marienbad fascinates some people but frustrates others.
Those who go expecting a comprehensible story and refuse to abandon that
expectation may come away baffled and discouraged, feeling that the film
is "obscure." But Marienbad broke with conventional expectations by suggesting, perhaps for the first time in film history, that a narrative film could
base itself entirely on a gamelike structure of causal, spatial, and temporal
ambiguity, refusing to specify explicit meanings and teasing the viewer with
hints about elusive implicit meanings. Critics have too often tried to find a
thematic key to the film while ignoring this formal dynamic. Much of
Marienbad's fascination for the spectator rests in the process of discovering
its ambiguity. The film's Narrator gives us good guidance when he resists
interpreting the statue. Of the film's characters and other devices we might
also say, "Leave them nameless, with more room for adventure."

TQKVo STORY (TOKYO MQNOGATARI)

1953. Shochiku/Ofuna, Japan. Directed by Yasujiro Ozu. Script by Ozu and
Kogo Noda. Photographed by Yuharu Atsuta. With Chishu Ryu, Chieko Higashiyama, So Yarnamura, Haruko Sugimura, Setsuko Hara.

We have seen how the classical Hollywood approach to filmmaking created

a stylistic system ("continuity") in order to establish and maintain a clear
narrative space and time. The continuity system is a specific set of guidelines
which a filmmaker may follow. But some filmmakers do not use the continuity
system. They develop an alternative set of formal guidelines, which allows
them to make films that are quite distinct from classical narratives.
Japanese director Yasujiro Ozu is one such filmmaker. Ozu's approach
to the creation of a narrative differs from that used in more classical films