By Lance Hunt

C #
Coding Standards for .NET

By Lance Hunt
Document Version 1.13

August 2004
Copyright  Lance Hunt 2004

All Rights Reserved
Published by Lance Hunt

Please submit comments, questions, and feedback to http://weblogs.asp.net/lhunt/
.
Lance Hunt C# Coding Standards
License
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This work is FREE for educational and non-commercial use. Non-commercial redistribution of the work is
permitted so long as all license and all copyright notices are retained and respected. Commercial redistribution
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The Author reserves the right to revise these terms at any time without notice.
Revision History
Version Date Comment
1.0 03/01/2004 Created.
1.01 05/09/2004 Added more Language Usage.
1.02 05/09/2004 Added code examples.
1.03 05/09/2004 Changed formatting and organization.
1.04 05/09/2004 Misc. grammar and syntax changes.
1.05 05/10/2004 Updated Naming Conventions.
1.06 05/10/2004 Misc. adjustments to various rules.
1.07 05/11/2004 Added Bibliography, Resources, and .NET Framework Guidelines.
1.08 05/20/2004 Split .NET guidelines into separate document.
Changed overall scope and goals. Restructured sections. Improved Introduction.
Added Scope and Terminology sections.
1.09 05/23/2004 Changed style & formatting. Added Quick Summary tables. Added/modified
various standards.
1.10 05/25/2004 Modified naming conventions for Internal and Protected identifiers. Added,
modified, & removed misc rules. Corrected grammar, code, and some verbiage.
1.11 06/08/2004 Modified formatting. Restructured “Language Usage” section. Corrected
language, and added code examples. Consolidated conflicting rules.
1.12 06/30/2004 Modified code commenting and formatting rules. Modified various code examples.
Modified Exception Handling and Flow Control sections.
1.13 08/17/2004 Modified layout & added License Agreement. Misc. grammar adjustments.
Removed rules on foreach vs for pending additional research. Added rules on
switch/case statements.
Copyright  Lance Hunt 2004. All Rights Reserved.

Table of Contents
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope ......................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Document Conventions .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Terminology & Definitions .......................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Quick Summary.......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.1 Naming Conventions ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.2 Coding Style ...................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.3 Language Usage ............................................................................................................................... 4
2. Naming Conventions ........................................................................................................................................ 4
2.1 General Guidelines..................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Name Usage & Syntax ............................................................................................................................... 5
3. Coding Style...................................................................................................................................................... 8
3.1 Formatting .................................................................................................................................................. 8
3.2 Code Commenting ..................................................................................................................................... 9
4. Language Usage............................................................................................................................................... 9
4.1 General....................................................................................................................................................... 9
4.2 Variables & Types .................................................................................................................................... 10
4.3 Flow Control ............................................................................................................................................. 11
4.4 Exception Handling .................................................................................................................................. 12
4.5 Events, Delegates, & Threading .............................................................................................................. 13
4.6 Object Composition .................................................................................................................................. 14
5. Object Model Design ...................................................................................................................................... 16
6. Resources....................................................................................................................................................... 17
7. References...................................................................................................................................................... 17
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1. Introduction
This document describes rules and recommendations for developing applications and class libraries using the
C# Language. The goal is to define guidelines to enforce consistent style and formatting and help developers
avoid common pitfalls and mistakes.
Specifically, this document covers Naming Conventions, Coding Style, Language Usage, and Object Model
Design.
1.1 Scope
This document only applies to the C# Language and the .NET Framework Common Type System(CTS) it
implements. Although the C# language is implemented alongside the .NET Framework, this document does not
address usage of .NET Framework class libraries. However, common patterns and problems related to C#’s
usage of the .NET Framework are addressed in a limited fashion.
Even though standards for curly-braces ( or ) and white space(tabs vs. spaces) are always controversial,
these topics are addressed here to ensure greater consistency and maintainability of source code.
1.2 Document Conventions
Much like the ensuing coding standards, this document requires standards in order to ensure clarity when
stating the rules and guidelines. Certain conventions are used throughout this document to add emphasis.
Below are some of the common conventions used throughout this document.
Coloring & Emphasis:
Text colored blue indicates a C# keyword or .NET type.
Bold Text with additional emphasis to make it stand-out.
Keywords:
Always Emphasizes this rule must be enforced.
Never Emphasizes this action must not happen.
Do Not Emphasizes this action must not happen.
Avoid Emphasizes that the action should be prevented, but

some exceptions may exist.
Try Emphasizes that the rule should be attempted whenever possible and appropriate.
Example Precedes text used to illustrate a rule or recommendation.
Reason Explains the thoughts and purpose behind a rule or recommendation.
http://weblogs.asp.net/lhunt/ 1
1.3 Terminology & Definitions
The following terminology is referenced throughout this document:
Access Modifier
C# keywords , , , and declare the allowed code-
accessibility of types and their members. Although default access modifiers vary, classes and most
other members use the default of . Notable exceptions are interfaces and enums which
both default to public.
Camel Case
A word with the first letter lowercase, and the first letter of each subsequent word-part capitalized.
Example:
Common Type System

The .NET Framework common type system (CTS) defines how types are declared, used, and
managed. All native C# types are based upon the CTS to ensure support for cross-language
integration.
Identifier
A developer defined token used to uniquely name a declared object or object instance.
Example:
Magic Number
Any numeric literal used within an expression (or to initialize a variable) that does not have an
obvious or well-known meaning. This usually excludes the integers 0 or 1 and any other numeric
equivalent precision that evaluates as zero.
Pascal Case
A word with the first letter capitalized, and the first letter of each subsequent word-part capitalized.
Example:
Premature Generalization
As it applies to object model design; this is the act of creating abstractions within an object model
not based upon concrete requirements or a known future need for the abstraction. In simplest
terms: “Abstraction for the sake of Abstraction.”
2 http://weblogs.asp.net/lhunt/
1.4 Quick Summar y
This section contains tables describing a high-level summary of the major standards covered in this document.
These tables are not comprehensive, but give a quick glance at commonly referenced elements.
1.4.1 Naming Conventions
“c” = camelCase
“P” = PascalCase
“_” = Prefix with _Underscore
“x” = Not Applicable.
Identifier Public Protected Internal Private Notes

Project File P x x x Match Assembly & Namespace.
Source File P x x x Match contained class.
Other Files P x x x Apply where possible.
Namespace P x x x Partial Project/Assembly match.
Class or Struct P P P P Add suffix of subclass.
Interface P P P P Prefix with a capital .
Generic Class P P P P Use or as Type identifier.
Method P P P P Use a Verb or Verb-Object pair.
Property P P P P Do not prefix with or .
Field P P P _c Only use Private fields.
No Hungarian Notation!
Constant P P P _c
Static Field P P P _c Only use Private fields.
Enum P P P P Options are also PascalCase.
Delegate P P P P
Event P P P P
Inline Variable x x x c Avoid single-character and enumerated
names.
Parameter x x x c
1.4.2 Coding Style
Code Style
Source Files One Namespace per file and one class per file.
Curly Braces On new line. Always use braces when optional.
Indention Use tabs with size of 4.
Comments Use or but not and do not flowerbox.
Variables One variable per declaration.
1.4.3 Language Usage
Code Style
Native Data Types Use built-in C# native data types vs .NET CTS types.
(Use NOT !"#
Enums Avoid changing default type.
Generics Prefer Generic Types over standard or strong-typed classes.
Properties Never prefix with or $
Methods Use a maximum of 7 parameters.
base and this Use only in constructors or within an override.
Ternary conditions Avoid complex conditions.
foreach statements Do not modify enumerated items within a % statement.
Conditionals Avoid evaluating Boolean conditions against or .
No embedded assignment.
Avoid embedded method invocation.
Exception Handling Do not use exceptions for flow control.
Use % &' not % & ' when re-throwing.
Only catch what you can handle.
Use validation to avoid exceptions.
Events Always check for null before invoking.
Locking Use ()# vs. $* )#
Do not lock on an object type. Avoid locking on % $
Prefer locking on private objects.
Dispose() & Close() Always invoke them if offered.
Finalizers Avoid.
Use the C# Destructors.
Do not create + , )# method.
AssemblyVersion Increment manually.
ComVisibleAttribute Set to for all assemblies.
2. Naming Conventions
Consistency is the key to maintainable code. This statement is most true for naming your projects, source files,
and identifiers including Fields, Variables, Properties, Methods, Parameters, Classes, Interfaces, and
Namespaces.
2.1 General Guidelines
Always use Camel Case or Pascal Case names.

Avoid ALL CAPS and all lowercase names. Single lowercase words or letters are acceptable.
Do not create namespaces, classes, methods, properties, fields, or parameters that vary only by
capitalization.
Do not use names that begin with a numeric character.
Always choose meaningful and specific names.
Always err on the side of verbosity not terseness.
Variables and Properties should describe an entity not the type or size.
Do not use Hungarian Notation!
Example: or
Avoid using abbreviations unless the full name is excessive.
Avoid abbreviations longer than 5 characters.
Any Abbreviations must be widely known and accepted.

Use uppercase for two-letter abbreviations, and Pascal Case for longer abbreviations.
Do not use C# reserved words as names.
Avoid naming conflicts with existing .NET Framework namespaces, or types.
Avoid adding redundant or meaningless prefixes and suffixes to identifiers
Example:
- .
*
/ %
0 1
Do not include the parent class name within a property name.

Example: $ NOT $
Try to prefix Boolean variables and properties with “ ”, “ ” or “2 ”.
Append computational qualifiers to variable names like 3 1 , , , , and 4 where
appropriate.
When defining a root namespace, use a Product, Company, or Developer Name as the root.
Example: 5 2 $ 16
2.2 Name Usage & Syntax
Identifier Naming Convention

Project File Pascal Case.
Always match Assembly Name & Root Namespace.
Example:
5 2 $7 $ 8 9: 5 2 $7 $ 9:
5 2 $7
Source File Pascal Case.

Always match Class name and file name.
Avoid including more than one ,* (global), or ; 1 (global) per file. Use a
descriptive file name when containing multiple ,* , or ; 1 .
Example:
$ <:
Resource Try to use Pascal Case.

or
Embedded File Use a name describing the file contents.
Namespace Pascal Case.

Try to partially match = 8 3 Name.
Example:
5 2 $7
Class or Struct Pascal Case.

Use a noun or noun phrase for class name.
Add an appropriate class-suffix when sub-classing another type when possible.
Examples:
, 3 > 3
> -
* 3 1 > * 3 1
3 1
Interface Pascal Case.

Always prefix interface name with capital “ ”.
Example:
Generic Class Always use a single capital letter, such as or .
& Example:
+ (? :
Generic Parameter
Type = %)? : 8#
? : = )#
Method Pascal Case.

Try to use a Verb or Verb-Object pair.
Example:
*4 )#
1 3 / )3 1 #
Property Pascal Case.

Property name should represent the entity it returns. Never prefix property names with
“ ” or “ ”.
Example:
1
Field Pascal Case.

Avoid using non-private Fields!
(Public, Protected, Use Properties instead.
or Internal)
Example:
1 '
5 5 '
Field (Private) Camel Case and prefix with a single underscore (@) character.
Example:
1 @ '
Constant or Treat like a Field.

Static Field Choose appropriate Field access-modifier above.
Enum Pascal Case (both the Type and the Options).

Add the + 1 3 to bit-mask multiple options.
Example:
Delegate or Event Treat as a Field.

Choose appropriate Field access-modifier above.
Example:
* 2 5 = 1 '
Variable (inline) Camel Case.

Avoid using single characters like “4” or “ ” except in FOR loops.
Avoid enumerating variable names like 4 B, 4 ", 4 ! etc.
Parameter Camel Case.
Example:
*4 ) 1 4 A #
3. Coding Style
Coding style causes the most inconsistency and controversy between developers. Each developer has a
preference, and rarely are two the same. However, consistent layout, format, and organization are key to
creating maintainable code. The following sections describe the preferred way to implement C# source code in
order to create readable, clear, and consistent code that is easy to understand and maintain.
3.1 Formatting
Never declare more than 1 namespace per file.

Avoid putting multiple classes in a single file.
Always place curly braces ( and ) on a new line.
Always use curly braces ( and ) in conditional statements.
Always use a Tab & Indention size of C.
Declare each variable independently – not in the same statement.
Place namespace “ 1” statements together at the top of file. Group .NET namespaces above
custom namespaces.
Group internal class implementation by type in the following order:
Member variables.
Constructors & Finalizers.
Nested Enums, Structs, and Classes.
Properties
Methods
Sequence declarations within type groups based upon access modifier and visibility:
Public
Protected
Internal
Private
Segregate interface Implementation by using D 1 statements.
Append folder-name to namespace for source files within sub-folders.
Recursively indent all code blocks contained within braces.
Use white space (CR/LF, Tabs, etc) liberally to separate and organize code.
Avoid declaring multiple declarations within a single line. Instead stack each attribute
as a separate declaration.
Example:
- .
E3 BA 3 "A 3 !F
.
E3 BF
E3 "F
E3 !F
Place Assembly scope declarations on a separate line.

Place Type scope declarations on a separate line.
Place Method scope declarations on a separate line.
Place Member scope declarations on a separate line.
Place Parameter declarations inline with the parameter.
If in doubt, always err on the side of clarity and consistency.
3.2 Code Commenting
All comments should be written in U.S. English.

Use or but never
Do not “flowerbox” comment blocks.
Example:
Use inline-comments to explain assumptions, known issues, and algorithm insights.

Do not use inline-comments to explain obvious code. Well written code is self documenting.
Only insert inline-comments for Bad Code to say “fix this code” – otherwise, rewrite it!
Include Task-List keyword flags to enable comment-filtering.
Example:
G;G> = ; 2
6 ;G *> 0 =H (
23 > 4
Always apply C# comment-blocks ( ) to , , and declarations.

Only use C# comment-blocks for documenting the API.
Always include ? : comments. Include ? :A ? :A and ? 4 :
comment sections where applicable.
Include ? <II : and ? 3 <II : where possible.
Always add CDATA tags to comments containing code and other embedded markup in order to
avoid encoding issues.
Example:
? 4 :
3 % & 1 ( % J 1 I 1>
? :?.E
?.E ;3 3E
? 1 :
? 1 :
? ( <I 1I <I / I :
? 1 :
? 1 :
FF:
FF:? :
? 4 :
4. Language Usage
4.1 General
Do not omit access modifiers. Explicitly declare all identifiers with the appropriate access modifier
instead of allowing the default.
Example:
- .
/ 7 * ) 1 1 #
.
/ 7 * ) 1 1 #
Do not use the default (“1.0.*”) versioning scheme. Increment the 3 / 3

value manually.
Set the / 3 to for all assemblies. Afterwards, selectively enable the
/ 3 for individual classes as needed.
Example:
E > / ) #F
E / ) #F
Consider factoring classes with code blocks into a separate assembly.

Avoid mutual references between assemblies.
4.2 Variables & Types

Try to initialize variables where you declare them.
Use the simplest data type, list, or object required. For example, use over. 5 1 unless you
know you need to store 64bit values.
Always use the built-in C# data type aliases, not the .NET common type system (CTS).
Example:
% NOT $ BK
NOT $ !"
1 NOT $ KC
1 NOT $ 1
Only declare member variables as . Use properties to provide access to them with
, , or access modifiers.
Avoid specifying a type for an - use default of unless you have an explicit need for 1.
Avoid using inline numeric literals (magic numbers). Instead, use a or * .
Avoid declaring inline string literals. Instead use Constants, Resources, Registry or other data
sources.
Only declare for simple types.
Declare variables for complex types.
Avoid direct casts. Instead, use the “ ” operator and check for .
Example:
8 G 8 < 5 ; )#'
; < G 8 ; '
) .< #
Always prefer C# Generic collection types over standard or strong-typed collections.

Always explicitly initialize arrays of reference types using a loop.
Avoid boxing and unboxing value types.

Example:
< B'
8 < ' 4 $
& < ) # ' *4 4 $
Floating point values should include at least one digit before the decimal place and one after.
Example: totalPercent < 0.05;
Try to use the “L” prefix for string literals instead of escaped strings.
Prefer 1$+ () or 1- over string concatenation.
Never concatenate strings inside a loop.
Do not compare strings to 1$* or JI to check for empty strings. Instead, compare by
using 1$5 1 % << M.
Avoid hidden string allocations within a loop. Use 1$ )# instead.
Example: (ToLower() creates a temp string)
- .
< 9B'
1 < J % I'
) <M' ? 5 $ ' NN#
) 5 E F$ $ 5 & )# << #
< 5 E F$ ;'
.
< 9B'
1 < J % I'
) <M' ? 5 $ ' NN#
% J 1 < I 1
9 & % & $
) 1$ ) 5 E F$ A A #<< M#
< 5 E F$ ;'
4.3 Flow Control

Avoid invoking methods within a conditional expression.
Avoid creating recursive methods. Use loops or nested loops instead.
Avoid using % to iterate over immutable value-type collections. E.g. String arrays.
Do not modify enumerated items within a % statement.
Use the ternary conditional operator only for trivial conditions. Avoid complex or compound ternary
operations.
Example: < / O P > C;
Avoid evaluating Boolean conditions against or .

Example:
- .
) / << #
.
) / #
Avoid assignment within conditional statements.

Example: )) <"#<<"#
<"
Avoid compound conditional expressions – use Boolean variables to split parts into multiple
manageable expressions.
Example:
- .
))) : @% 1% # QQ ) .< @% 1% ## QQ ) ?
@ 4 ##
.
2 1% < ) :< @% 1% #'
2 1% < ) << @% 1% #'
/ < ) ? @ 4/ #'
)) 2 1% QQ . 2 1%# QQ / #
Avoid explicit Boolean tests in conditionals.

Example:
- .
) / << #
'
.
(IsValid#
Only use & % statements for simple operations with parallel conditional logic.
Prefer nested over & % for short conditional sequences and complex
conditions.
Prefer polymorphism over & % to encapsulate and delegate complex operations.
4.4 Exception Handling

Do not use % blocks for flow-control.
Only % exceptions that you can handle.
Never declare an empty % block.
Avoid nesting a % within a % block.
Use exception filters where possible.
Order exception filters from most to least derived exception type.
Avoid re-throwing an exception. Allow it to bubble-up instead.
If re-throwing an exception, omit the exception argument from the % & statement so the original
call stack is preserved.
Example:
- .
%)*4 4#
5 1) 4#'
% & 4'
.
%)*4 4#
5 1) 4#'
% &'
Only use the block to release resources from a statement.

Always use validation to avoid exceptions.
Example:
- .
$ )#'
%)*4 4#
% 4 .
.
) $ .< $ #
$ )#'
Avoid defining custom exception classes. Use existing exception classes instead.
When a custom exceptions is required;
Always derive from 3 *4 .
Always override the 1)# method and 1 G to provide
serialization.
Always implement the Exception Constructor Pattern:
*4 )#'
*4 ) 1 1 #'
*4 ) 1 1 A *4 *4 #'
When throwing a new 3 *4 A always pass the *4 in order to

maintain the exception tree & inner call stack.
4.5 Events, Delegates, & Threading

Always check Event & Delegate instances for before invoking.
Use the default * 2 and * 3 1 for most simple events.
Always derive a custom * 3 1 class to provide additional data.
Use the existing * 3 1 class to allow the event subscriber to control events.
Always use the “ (” keyword instead of the type.
Only lock on a private or private static object.

Example: (( / );
Avoid locking on a Type.
Example: (( ) #);
Avoid locking on the current object instance.
Example: (( % );
4.6 Object Composition

Always declare types explicitly within a namespace. Do not use the default “{global}” namespace.
Avoid declaring methods with more than R parameters. Consider passing a struct or class instead.
Do not use the “ &” keyword to hide members of a derived type.
Only use the “ ” keyword when invoking a base class constructor or base implementation within
an override.
Do not use the access modifier in classes.
Consider using method overloading instead of the attribute.
Always validate an enumeration variable or parameter value before consuming it. They may contain
any value that the underlying Enum type (default ) supports.
*4 >
)- ( 1 #
)* $ ; ) )- ( 1 #A ##
Consider overriding *S )# on a .
Always override the *S G (<<) when overriding the *S )# method.
Always override the 1 G when overriding the 1)# method.
Always call )# or ; )# on classes that offer it.
Wrap instantiation of ; objects with a “ 1I statement to ensure that ; )# is
automatically called.
Example:
1) S < & S )@ 1##
Always implement the ; interface & pattern on classes referencing external resources.
Example: (shown with optional Finalizer)
; )#
; ) #'
$ + , ) % #'
; ) 1#
) 1#
+ % ) 1 8 #$
+ & ) 1 8 #$
1 $
D , $ ) #
T- )#
; ) #$
; ) #'
Avoid implementing a Finalizer.

Never define a + , )# method as a finalizer. Instead use the C# destructor syntax.
Example: T
5. Object Model Design

Always prefer delegation over inheritance.
Avoid “Premature Generalization”. Create abstractions only when the intent is understood.
Do the simplest thing that works, then refactor as time permits.
Always make object-behavior transparent to API consumers.
Always separate presentation layer from business logic.
Always prefer interfaces over abstract classes.
Try to append the design-pattern name to class names where appropriate.
Make members if they are designed and tested for extensibility.
Consider using the “ ” keyword to break the inheritance chain.
Refactor! Refactor! Refactor!
6. Resources
FxCop - a code analysis tool that checks .NET managed code assemblies for conformance to the Microsoft
.NET Framework Design Guidelines.
http://www.gotdotnet.com/team/fxcop/
7. References
“MSDN: .NET Framework Developer’s Guide: Common Type System”, Microsoft Corporation, 2004,
http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/cpguide/html/cpconthecommontypesystem.asp
“MSDN: C# Language Specification v1.5”, Scott Wiltamuth & Anders Hejlsberg, Microsoft Corporation, 2003,
http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/csspec/html/vclrfcsharpspec_15.asp
“MSDN: Design Guidelines for Class Library Developers”, Microsoft Corporation, 2004,
http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-
us/cpgenref/html/cpconNETFrameworkDesignGuidelines.asp
“Applied Microsoft .NET Framework Programming”, Jeffrey Richter, January 23, 2002, 1st ed., Microsoft Press,
ISBN: 0735614229

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C #

Coding Standards for .NET

Document Version 1.13

Copyright  Lance Hunt 2004

Published by Lance Hunt

Copyright  Lance Hunt 2004. All Rights Reserved.

1.2 Document Conventions

Coloring & Emphasis:

Text colored blue indicates a C# keyword or .NET type.

Bold Text with additional emphasis to make it stand-out.

Always Emphasizes this rule must be enforced.

Never Emphasizes this action must not happen.

Do Not Emphasizes this action must not happen.

Avoid Emphasizes that the action should be prevented, but

Example Precedes text used to illustrate a rule or recommendation.

Reason Explains the thoughts and purpose behind a rule or recommendation.

1.3 Terminology & Definitions

The following terminology is referenced throughout this document:

Common Type System

1.4 Quick Summar y

1.4.1 Naming Conventions

Identifier Public Protected Internal Private Notes

1.4.2 Coding Style

1.4.3 Language Usage

2.1 General Guidelines

Always use Camel Case or Pascal Case names.

Any Abbreviations must be widely known and accepted.

Do not include the parent class name within a property name.

2.2 Name Usage & Syntax

Identifier Naming Convention

Source File Pascal Case.

Resource Try to use Pascal Case.

Namespace Pascal Case.

Class or Struct Pascal Case.

Interface Pascal Case.

Generic Class Always use a single capital letter, such as or .

Method Pascal Case.

Property Pascal Case.

Field Pascal Case.

Constant or Treat like a Field.

Enum Pascal Case (both the Type and the Options).

Delegate or Event Treat as a Field.

Variable (inline) Camel Case.

Never declare more than 1 namespace per file.

Place Assembly scope declarations on a separate line.

3.2 Code Commenting

All comments should be written in U.S. English.

Use inline-comments to explain assumptions, known issues, and algorithm insights.

Always apply C# comment-blocks ( ) to , , and declarations.

Do not use the default (“1.0.*”) versioning scheme. Increment the 3 / 3

Consider factoring classes with code blocks into a separate assembly.

4.2 Variables & Types

Always prefer C# Generic collection types over standard or strong-typed collections.

Avoid boxing and unboxing value types.

) <M' ? 5 $ ' NN#

) <M' ? 5 $ ' NN#

4.3 Flow Control

Avoid evaluating Boolean conditions against or .

Avoid assignment within conditional statements.

Avoid explicit Boolean tests in conditionals.

When throwing a new 3 4 A always pass the 4 in order to