Int. J. Emerg. Sci.

, 3(4), 345-358, December 2013

ISSN: 2222-4254
IJES

Energy-Efficient Buildings: An In-Depth Look into

Definitions, and Design Problems

Ban-Huat Ng1, Zainal Abidin Akasah2

1,2

Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn, Malaysia
1

[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. About 40 percent of the global energy consumption is used in

buildings and this corresponds to one third of the global greenhouse gas
emissions in both developed and developing countries. Fortunately, the
potential for greenhouse gas emissions reductions from buildings is relatively
high, increasing energy efficiency in buildings is the answer to overcome the
unfavorable trend of rising energy consumption this is because, the energy
efficient measures such as energy-efficient building are found to be effective
in greenhouse gas emission reduction. Although, there is an increase in the
development of energy-efficient building, however, there are lacks of study on
the indoor environmental quality (IEQ) of energy-efficient building. Hence,
this article is intended to highlight the design problems facing by the current
energy-efficient building particularly in term of indoor environmental quality
(IEQ).
Keywords: Greenhouse gas, energy-efficient building, Indoor Environmental
Quality (IEQ), design problems.

1 INTRODUCTION
About 40 percent of the global energy consumption is used in buildings and this
corresponds to one third of the global greenhouse gas emissions in both developed
and developing countries (United Nation Environment Program [UNEP], 2009).
Fortunately, the potential for greenhouse gas emissions reductions from buildings is
relatively high (Levine et al., 2007), increasing energy efficiency in buildings is the
answer to overcome the unfavorable trend of rising energy consumption this is
because, the energy efficient measures such as energy-efficient building are found
to be effective in greenhouse gas emission reduction (Siong, Yun & Morris, 2011).
The concept of energy-efficient building has existed since the early 20th century,
the construction of solar houses are one of the efforts towards reducing fossil energy
consumption which will ultimately contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emission.
The construction of the solar houses was aimed to realize zero fossil energy
consumption in buildings heating systems. Of the examples of solar house is MIT
Solar House I. The solar house was built in 1939 and it is located at Cambridge,
Massachusetts, United States. The solar house includes solar thermal collecting
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Ban-Huat Ng, and Zainal Abidin Akasah

area and water storage system (Butti & Perlin, 1980). In 1955, the solar technology
had been applied in the Bliss House located at Melbourne, Florida, United States;
the solar technology has been used in the ventilation system (Bliss, 1955)..
Another example of energy-efficient building is zero energy building (ZEB). In
1975, Professor Korsgaard from Danish Technical University together with his
colleagues had successfully built a Zero Energy House (ZEH) at Thermal Insulation
Laboratory. The building is the first solar heated house in northern Europe
(Esbensen & Korsgaard, 1977). Following the success of ZEH in Denmark, many
countries have started to develop their own energy-efficient building.
These early examples have been influential in current approaches to building design
and indeed contributed to the definition and upgrade of building standards and
regulatory codes. At present, voluntary standards for low-energy buildings using
the principles of high insulation, good air tightness and heat recovery ventilation
systems are increasingly popular, such as the scheme R-2000 in Canada (Natural
Resources Canada, 2005), or Passivhus.dk a consulting company responsible for
certifying passive house in Denmark (Passivhus.dk, 2012) and are now extending to
other parts of the world.
The importance of reducing building energy consumption has elevated the
development of energy-efficient building, each countries has its own definition and
standard to classify energy-efficient building. The variable of definition and
standard can be due to the different in climates and economy state of each country.
The approaches and guidelines by each party should contribute towards reducing
building energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission by any means.

2 DEFINITION OF ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDING

There is no specific definition for energy-efficient building whether in academic
studies or national level, each country in European has a different definition and
scopes for energy-efficient building (Thomsen & Wittchen, 2008). However, its
term could be traced from the previous research which related to energy-efficient
building. In this section a definition of energy-efficient building will be derived
from the summary of the previous research related to the term of energy-efficient
building used by researchers from various studies and fields.
Hauge et al. (2010) define energy-efficient building as building made to reduce
energy consumption to different degree, it includes, low-energy buildings, passives
houses, LEED buildings, and green buildings. Another research done by Zhang &
Leimer (2011) titled low energy certificate an exploration on optimization and
evaluation of energy-efficient building envelope, refer green building as energyefficient building. Furthermore, according to Krope & Goricanec (2009), the
awareness of the importance of energy efficiency of building has brought to the

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development of energy-efficient (saving) building, and it includes low energy

buildings, 3 liters house, passive house, zero-energy house, energy self-sufficient
house, and plus-energy house. Thormak (2001), conducted a research to analyze
the recycling potential of a low-energy dwelling (45 kWh (162 MJ) = m2) in
Sweden. In the research, the low energy building and passive houses were referred
as energy-efficient building. In addition, Bauer & Scartezzini (1997), in their
research on a simplified correlation method accounting for heating and cooling
loads in energy-efficient buildings, one of the studied buildings is a simulated
passive solar office room. According to Carassus (2008) energy-efficient buildings
could be classified into three types of models: the Low Consumption model (eg.
Passivhaus in German), the Energy and Environmental model (eg. LEED certified
building) and the Energy Saving and Production model for example Zero Energy
Homes.
While, a research conducted by Ahmed et al., (2009) in regard to the analyze of
building performance data for energy-efficient building operation, during the
research they have selected an energy-efficient building with many sustainable
energy features such as solar panels, geothermal heat pumps and heat recovery
systems as case study building. On the other hand, Kim et al. (2010) conducted an
analysis of energy efficient building design through data mining approach. In their
research, the energy-efficient building design for the building includes the building
location, envelope (walls, windows, doors, and roof), heating, ventilation and air
conditioning (HVAC) system, lighting, controls, and equipment. Kantrowitz
(1984), research on energy-efficient building, describes energy-efficient building is
a building designed with energy-efficient design such as HVAC and lighting
system.
Based on the research done in previous studies, it is found that, the researchers are
tend to form a collective agreement between one another in term of their
understanding of energy-efficient building. Energy-efficient building can be
defined as a building using energy-efficient design strategies in reducing its energy
consumption in order to achieve low energy consumption. It includes, zero energy
building, passive house, low energy building, LEED buildings, green buildings,
energy self-sufficient house, plus-energy house and any other buildings that has
been specifically designed with the aim of achieving energy-efficiency.

2 THE VARIABLE OF TERMINOLOGY FOR BUILDING WITH

ENERGY EFFICIENCY FEATURES
2.1 Zero energy building

According
residential
efficiency
renewable

to Torcellini et al. (2006), zero energy building (ZEB) is defined as a

or commercial building with greatly reduced energy needs through
gains such that the balance of energy needs can be supplied with
technologies. In 1975, Professor Korsgaard from Danish Technical
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Ban-Huat Ng, and Zainal Abidin Akasah

University has successfully built a Zero Energy House (ZEH) at Thermal Insulation
Laboratory as shown in Figure 2.2. The building is the first solar heated building
built in North Europe (Gram-Hansen & Jensen, 2005).

Figure 2.2: A ZEH at Danish Technical University, Lyngby, Denmark (Seifert,

2006)
2.2 Passive house

Passive House concept is based on a holistic approach, improving the building

envelope to a degree that allows for substantial simplifications of the heating
system. Passive Houses offer increased comfort at affordable costs while
significantly reducing the energy consumption (Feist et al., 2005). This concept
was developed in Germany May 1988 by Bo Adamson and Wolfgang Feist, and has
since then been widely and successfully used in Germany and Austria (as cited in
Janson, 2008). One of the examples of passive house is the Passive House in
Darmstadt Kranichstein (Figure 2.3) which has been constructed in 1990/91 on
design plans by architects Prof. Bott/Ridder/Westermeyer for four private clients
(Steinmller, 2008).

Figure 2.3: Passive House in Darmstadt Kranichstein (Feist, 2006)

2.3 Low energy building

Low-energy building or simply low-energy refers to a building built according to

special design criteria aimed at minimizing the buildings operating energy (Sartori
& Hestnes, 2006). According to European Commission (2009), low-energy
buildings typically use high levels of insulation, energy efficient windows, low
levels of air infiltration and heat recovery ventilation to lower heating and cooling
energy. They may also use passive solar building design techniques or active solar

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technologies. The office building SD Worx as shown in Figure 2.4 is a low

energy building which is located in Kortrijk, Belgium and consists of two office
floors on top of a limited ground floor with building services (Breesch et. al., 2004).

Figure 2.4: SD Worx, Kortrijk, Belgium (Breesch et. al., 2004)

2.3 Green building

According to Burnett (2006), green building is a building that provides the specified
building performance requirements while minimizing disturbance to and improving
the functioning of local, regional, and global ecosystems both during and after its
construction and specified service life. Moreover, its optimizes efficiencies in
resource management and operational performance; and minimizes risks to human
health and the environment. Genzyme Corporation as show in Figure 2.5 is a
world-class example of green building construction, including advanced daylighting
and thermal technologies. The building obtained LEED-Platinum due to its high
efficiency and environmentally responsive architecture (Lockwood, 2006).

Figure 2.5: Genzyme Corporation Headquarter, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

(Kats, 2003).

2.4 Energy self-sufficient house

One of the prominent examples of energy self-sufficient house is the Self-Sufficient

Solar House (SSSH) in Freiburg, Germany (Figure. 2.6) which is built by the
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems. Its entire energy demands for
heating, domestic hot water, electricity and cooking is supplied solely by solar
energy (Voss et al., 1996). According to Krope & Goricanec (2009), energy self-

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sufficient house capable to generate energy for heating, cooking, water heating and
the operation of home appliances through active utilization of solar energy.

Figure 2.6: Self-Sufficient Solar House (SSSH) in Freiburg, Germany (Bond, 2005).

3
ENERGY-EFFICIENT DESIGN PROBLEMS AFFECTING
OCCUPANTS COMFORT WITH RESPECT TO IEQ CRITERIA
Yu et al. (2009) carried out a research on air conditioning systems and indoor air
quality control for human health found ineffective air conditioning systems could
contribute to poor indoor air quality and the low indoor air quality pose a threat to
human health, particularly for the everyday users. The importance of occupants
control over room temperature is further supported by a research done by Steemers
& Manchanda (2010), according to the findings of their research; the results
demonstrate that increased energy use in the case study buildings is associated with
increased mechanization for example centralized air condition/ventilation, and
reduced occupants control. The results shows that the reduced control in turn is
related to reduced occupant comfort and satisfaction.
A research done by Thomsen et al. (2005) in 12 solar low energy building reveal
some of the problems encounter by the occupants toward buildings indoor
environmental quality. The main reason for the high indoor temperature in Danish
house is due to lack of cross ventilation and lack of solar shading besides;
mechanically ventilation system cause noise and draught problems. Another project
in Norwegian shows noise in the living room caused by the heat pump compressor.
The research done by Wong et al. (2005) in Singapore showed that fully glazed
facade that has been increasingly used in the country due to the advantages of
reducing lighting energy consumption has caused higher energy consumption and
thermal discomfort owing to higher solar gain. The use of double glazed faade
system with ventilation system is one way to resolve these problems.
Mumma (2002) in his research identified that radiant cooling system facing the
design issues that can contribute to the problems such as condensation and radiant
asymmetry. Condensation may occur when the chilled ceiling panels temperature
is lower than its enclosures temperature. Meanwhile, radiant asymmetry will occur
when most of the enclosure at 25.6 degree Celsius and the chilled ceiling panels at

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approximately 15.6 degree Celsius, a 10 degree Celsius radiant asymmetry

temperature exist.
Lim et al. (2006) research found that in radiant floor cooling system, floor surface
condensation and comfort are major concerns for field application. To prevent floor
surface condensation, the supply water temperature could be manipulated according
to the dew point temperature in the most humid room and in an individuals rooms;
the water flow rate (on/off control) can be controlled. Zhen & James (2006)
research on the building with radiant cooling system showed that local discomfort
are the identified problem that can cause occupants discomfort. The survey results
of the research reveal that about 14-22% of participants in the arm-hand and the legfoot region.
According to Raja et al. (2001), a field study of thermal comfort of workers in
natural ventilated office buildings in Oxford and Aberdeen, UK was carried out and
found out that occupants who have greater access to controls (e.g. those close to a
window) report less discomfort than those who have less access (e.g. away from the
window.
A research carried out by Hua et al. (2011) on a LEED - Gold building, shows that
occupants desired more control over the light and shading in their workplaces. This
may due to the large blinds controlled with thin strings are difficult to operate,
which contributes to the fact that blinds are not often adjusted by the occupants to
support visual comfort, furthermore, some of the occupants even delamping their
lighting fixtures voluntarily in order to make the environment more suitable for
work. The findings show that occupants prefer to change lighting condition
themselves, rather than have them automatically controlled and it is consistent with
findings from the studies done by other researchers.
Galasiu & Veitch (2006) conducted a research on occupant preferences and
satisfaction with the luminous environment and control systems in daylit offices,
concluded that improving the energy-efficiency of commercial building lighting
should include better use of daylight, but that will require the development of
control systems that result in luminous conditions that are suitable to occupants.
Their research showed that limitations of current knowledge about how people
respond to daylight, and particularly how they respond to automated
photocontrolled lighting and shading controls are the main problems facing by the
daylit office design.
A study of a glazed office building by Altan et al. (2008), shows that high intensity
solar radiation transmitting through the glazed areas can cause unwanted glare
effect and interior overheating during warm and sunny days, although glazed
facades are able to maximize the daylighting with high indoor luminance in an open
plan floor spaces in buildings.
Blow-Hbe (2008) studied on glazed office building in Sweden identified that very
large windows do not mean that the light is automatically better, this is because, the
larger the window area, the greater is the chance that a window might create glare.
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It can be difficult to achieve a glare free environment without additional measures,

for example by adding interior curtains or blinds.
Taeyon & Jeong (2011) investigated the effects of indoor lighting on occupants
visual comfort and eye health in green building found the indoor lighting and visual
environment of the building were poor and the visual annoyance were caused by
glare, darkness, unqualified shade materials, logic error of shade.
A case study of Kresge foundation office complex in Troy, Michigan by Goins et al.
(2010) showed the although the building acquired LEED-platinum rating, the
building still facing significant problems in the acoustics performance. Occupants
have low satisfaction towards the acoustics performance of the building although
others IEQ criteria have high satisfaction score; the research also found sound
privacy is the main concern of the problem.
A review on manually-operated window shade patterns in office buildings done by
OBrien et al. (2012) found difficulty to operate shades is the reason occupants of
the building lack of using shades in reducing thermal discomfort or glare and tends
to rely on energy-consuming technology to achieve thermal comfort and reducing
glare. Another research also shows over glazing can contribute to thermal
discomfort, according to Persson et al. (2006) a larger glass area of 40% means
more than double the cooling power compared to the case of a 50% reduced
window area.
Foster & Oreszczyn (2001) carried out a research on occupant control of passive
system of venetian blinds. The research finding showed majority of the blinds tend
to be kept down most of the time, the reason for this situation occurred is due to the
over glazing of the building, as so a much smaller window can reduce thermal
discomfort and glare problems.
A research done by Wilkinson et al. (2011) showed that most of the energy-efficient
buildings share a common problem which is lack of privacy. The research found
that high levels of dissatisfaction are related to the area of privacy within the offices
with more than one respondent noting: lack of privacy in office is the biggest
problem and critical problem - lack of privacy. The overall level of satisfaction
was very low for privacy. It should be noted that lack of privacy is closely related
to the poor acoustic performance and high rates of sound transmission from office
to office and corridor to offices.
Lee (2010), carried out a study investigating office layout affecting privacy,
interaction and acoustic quality in LEED certified buildings founds that people in
high cubicles showed significantly lower satisfaction and job performance in
relation to visual privacy and interaction with co-workers than both enclosed private
and enclosed shared office types.
Muehleisen (2010) identified acoustics is the least satisfaction indoor environmental
criteria for energy-efficient building after post occupancy evaluation have been
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carried out in 181 buildings. The result showed, excessive noise, speech clarity and
privacy are the types of acoustics problem in energy-efficient building.
Jensen et al. (2005) analyzed acoustic satisfaction in office environments in
buildings surveyed by the Center for the Built Environment (CBE). The study
found office workers are significantly more dissatisfied with the lack of speech
privacy than with the level of noise. Occupants in open office environments are
more satisfied than the occupants of either type of cubicle with noise and speech
privacy.
The current energy-efficient envelope is its air tightness with minimal
infiltration/exfiltration to reduce energy losses. The tight envelope can aggravate
potential Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) problems (Wendt, et al., 2004). Yu & Kim
(2012) conducted a research on indoor air quality in low carbon emission house; the
result shows volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in energy-efficient house are
higher than the conventional house. The concentration of VOCs was maintained the
rest of the 7-year monitoring showing the ineffectiveness of the ventilation system
for removal of VOCs in the indoor environment of the air-tight house and there was
always a reservoir of VOCs exist in the house.
Pank et al. (2008) reporting sustainability of the tall building found building faade
air-tightness for tall green building tightness is a major issue where pressure
differentials from higher winds at the top of a building can cause problems with
controlling internal temperatures and drafts. Using the right window faade such as
double glazing window can reduce the differential of pressure.
Paul et al. (2010) carried out a research on effect of mechanically induced
ventilation on the indoor air quality of building envelopes. The research findings
show increases the dust particle concentration level and increase the interior wall
moisture content values by 2050%; during the operation of mechanical ventilation
system. Crump et al. (2009) found Homeowner do not use the mechanical
ventilation systems on a continuous basis because of concerns about wasted energy,
noise and discomfort caused by cold draughts.

4 CONCULSION
Energy-efficient building could be defined as building made to reduce energy
consumption to different level, it includes, zero energy building, passive house, low
energy building, green building, energy self-sufficient house and buildings that
designed based on passive and active energy design, to reduce its energy
consumption and support its energy usage with renewable energy technologies
approaches. The research also found, there are still a lot of rooms of improvement
for energy-efficient building design. Current designs are unable to cope with the
occupants comfort problems and causing in some cases affecting the building
performance. Such as an energy-efficient building in Malaysia, which is Malaysia

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Green Technology Corporation building performance still not on par as the

expected performance although, the building has been certified by sustainable
building rating tools assessment (Ng & Akasah, 2011). Hence, the building
designers are still need to increase the IEQ performance of energy-efficient building
particularly in the buildings thermal comfort, acoustics, indoor air quality and
lighting.

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