Bio Sensors

Rathnavel kumar

Rohini S

Dept of Bio Medical engineering

PSNA College of Engineering and Technology
Dindigul, Tamilnadu, India
[email protected]

Dept of Bio Medical engineering

PSNA College of Engineering and Technology
Dindigul, Tamilnadu, India
[email protected]

AbstractThis paper shows about the sensitive biological

element known as Bio sensors. The large area in the field of
medical that occupies sensors. Because of the all measures of
human body that needs some sensing elements. Let us see about
the sensors which are used in bio medical fields.
Index Terms Intoduction, Bio sensors, Principle, Area of
usage, Foot Notes, Conclusion and References

Introduction

The term biosensor is short for biological sensor.

The device is made up of a transducer and a biological
element that may be an enzyme, an antibody or a nucleic acid.
The bioelement interacts with the analyte being tested and the
biological response is converted into an electrical signal by the
transducer. Depending on their particular application,
biosensors are also known as immunosensors, optrodes,
resonant mirrors, chemical canaries, biochips, glucometers
and biocomputers. A commonly cited definition of a
biosensor is:
A chemical sensing device in which a biologically
derived recognition is coupled to a transducer, to allow the
quantitative development of some complex biochemical
parameter.
Every biosensor comprises:

A biological component that acts as the sensor

An electronic component that detects and transmits

the signal

II. History of biosensors

The first experiment to mark the origin of biosensors
was carried out by Leland C. Clark. For his experiment, Clark
used platinum (Pt) electrodes to detect oxygen. He placed the
enzyme glucose oxidase (GOD) very close to the surface of
platinum by trapping it against the electrodes with a piece of
dialysis membrane. The enzyme activity was modified
according to the surrounding oxygen concentration. Glucose
reacts with glucose oxidase (GOD) to give gluconic acid and
produces two electrons and two protons, thereby reducing
GOD. The reduced GOD, the electrons, protons and the
surrounding oxygen all react to give hydrogen peroxide and
oxidized GOD (the original form), therefore making more
GOD available for more glucose to react with. The higher the
glucose content, the more oxygen is consumed and the lower
the glucose content, the more hydrogen peroxide is produced.
This means either an increase in hydrogen peroxide or a
decrease in oxygen can be measured to give an indication of
the glucose concentration.
Biosensor elements
A variety of substances may be used as the bioelement in a
biosensor. Examples of these include:

Nucleic acids

Proteins including enzymes and antibodies.

Antibody-based biosensors are also called
immunosensors.

Plant proteins or lectins

Complex materials like tissue slices, microorganisms

and organelles

The signal generated when the sensor interacts with the

analyte may be electrical, optical or thermal. It is then
converted by means of a suitable transducer into a measurable
electrical parameter usually a current or voltage.
Principles of Bio Sensors
The term biosensor is short for biological sensor
and is a device made up of a transducer and a biological
element that may be an enzyme, an antibody, or a nucleic acid.
The biological element or bioelement interacts with the
analyte being tested and the biological response is converted
into an electrical signal by the transducer. Every biosensor has
a biological component that acts as the sensor and an
electronic component that detects and transmits the signal.

If the bioelement binds to the analyte, the sensor is

referred to as an affinity sensor.

If the bioelement and the analyte give rise to a

chemical change that can be used to measure the
concentration of a substrate, the sensor is called a
metabolic sensor.

If the biological element combines with the analyte

and does not change it chemically but converts it to
an auxiliary substrate, the biosensor is called a
catalytic sensor.

Types of sensing elements

Enzymes
An enzyme is a protein that has a high selectivity for
a particular substrate, which it binds to, bringing about a
catalytic change. Enzymes are commercially available in
highly purified states and are therefore useful in the mass
production of enzyme sensors. Enzymes can be fixed onto the
surface of a transducer through adsorption, covalent
attachment, and entrapment in a gel or an electrochemically
generated polymer.
Antibodies or immunosensors

Types of biosensors
Biosensors can be grouped according to the type of
biological element and transducer they contain. They may also
be named according to how the biosensing takes place.

Antibodies are produced by B-lymphocytes in

response to antigenic stimuli such as foreign invaders or
microbes. When used as biosensors in immunoassays,
antibodies are immobilized on the surface of a transducer
through covalent attachment by conjugation of amino,
carboxyl, aldehyde or sulfhydryl groups. Antibodies are
sensitive to changes in pH, ionic strength, chemical inhibitors
and temperature. Immune sensors usually employ optical,
fluorescence or acoustic transducers.
Microorganisms

Enzymes

Antibodies (also called immunosensors)

Microbes may be used to detect the consumption of

oxygen or carbon dioxide in an environment using
electrochemical techniques. Microbe biosensors have the
advantage of being cheaper than enzymes or antibodies and
are more stable. However they may be less selective than
enzymes or antibodies.

Micro-organisms

Other bioelements

Biological tissue

Organelles, nucleic acids and biological tissues have

been researched as biosensors.

Organelles

The types of biological elements include:

Types of biosensing
The different ways that biosensing may occur are
described below:

Types of transducer
Electrochemical transducers

These are useful in electrochemical, amperometric

and potentiometric signals. These electrodes are commonly
made of platinum, gold, silver, stainless steel, or carbon-based
inert materials.
Amperometric transducers, detect changes in current
that occur due to oxidation or reduction. The current reflects
the reaction that takes place between the analyte and the
bioelement.
Potentiometric transducers can measure the charge
accumulation (potential) of an electrochemical cell. The
transducer is usually made up of an ion-selective electrode and
a reference electrode.
Optical transducers
Fluorescence is commonly used in signal
transduction, especially when using enzymes and antibodies.
Fibre optic probes consist of at least two fibres. One is
connected to a light source of a given wavelength range and
produces the excitation wave. The other is linked to the
photodiode that detects the change in optical density at a
selected wavelength. Plasmon resonance transducers measure
alterations in the refractive index at and close to the sensing
elements surface.
Acoustic transducers
These are devices in which mechanical acoustic
waves act as the transduction system. The membrane contains
chemically interactive materials in contact with a piezoelectric
material. The devices vary according to the wave guiding
process used. Usually, bulk acoustic wave (BAW) and surface
acoustic wave (SAW) devices are used.

Calorimetric transduction
These measure the heat from the biochemical reaction
between the sensing element and the analyte.
and not as an independent document. Please do not revise
any of the current designations.
SURFACE ATTACHMENT OF BIOLOGICAL ELEMENTS
A biosensor consists of a bioelement that interacts
with an analyte and a transducer that converts the response
into an electrical signal. The bioelement is usually an enzyme,
antibody or microorganism and the transducer may be optical,
acoustic, electrochemical or calorimetric.
The first step in preparing a biosensor is the
application of the biological element to the surface of the
sensor. The sensor may be made of a metal, a polymer or
glass. The most common method for applying the bioelement
is to coat the sensor with the biological element. The most

commonly used bioelements include enzymes, antibodies,

organelles, biological tissue and microbes. Coating of the
sensor may be achieved using polylysine, aminosilane,
epoxysilane or nitrocellulose to allow attachment to silicon
chips or silica glass.
Coating may also be achieved by fixing the
bioelement on the surface layer by layer using alternatively
charged polymer coatings. Sometimes, three dimensional
lattices of hydrogel or xerogel are used chemically or
physically to trap the bioelement on the surface. Chemical
entrapment of the bioelements refers to strong chemical
bonding that keeps the element in place, while physical
entrapment means the element is unable to pass through the
pores in the gels matrix.
Sol-gel is the hydrogel that is usually employed and
is a glassy silica created through the polymerization of silicate
monomers in the presence of the biological elements using
physical entrapment. Other hydrogels used include acrylate
hydrogel, which polymerize upon radical initiation.
The bioelement and the sensor are coupled together in one
of four ways:
Membrane entrapment A semipermeable membrane is
used to separate the analyte and the bioelement. The sensor is
attached to the bioelement.
Physical adsorption A combination of van der Waals forces,
hydrophobic forces, hydrogen bonds, and ionic forces are used
to attach the biomaterial to the sensors surface.
Matrix entrapment Also called porous entrapment, a
porous encapsulation matrix is created around the biological
element to help it bind to the sensor.
Covalent Bonding The sensor surface is treated as a
reactive group that the bioelement binds.
Bio Transducers
Biosensors can be classified by their biotransducer
type. The most common types of biotransducers used in
biosensors are
1) electrochemical biosensors,
2) optical biosensors,
3)electronic biosensors,
4)piezoelectric biosensors,
5) gravimetric biosensors,
6) pyroelectric biosensors.
Electrochemical

Electrochemical biosensors are normally based on enzymatic

catalysis of a reaction that produces or consumes electrons
(such enzymes are rightly called redox enzymes). The sensor
substrate usually contains three electrodes; a reference
electrode, a working electrode and a counter electrode. The
target analyte is involved in the reaction that takes place on the
active electrode surface, and the reaction may cause either
electron transfer across the double layer (producing a current)
or can contribute to the double layer potential (producing a
voltage). We can either measure the current (rate of flow of
electrons is now proportional to the analyte concentration) at a
fixed potential or the potential can be measured at zero current
(this gives a logarithmic response). Note that potential of the
working or active electrode is space charge sensitive and this
is often used. Further, the label-free and direct electrical
detection of small peptides and proteins is possible by their
intrinsic charges using biofunctionalized ion-sensitive fieldeffect transistors.
1) Ion channel switch
The use of ion channels has been shown to offer highly
sensitive detection of target biological molecules. By
embedding the ion channels in supported or tethered bilayer
membranes (t-BLM) attached to a gold electrode, an electrical
circuit is created. Capture molecules such as antibodies can be
bound to the ion channel so that the binding of the target
molecule controls the ion flow through the channel. This
results in a measurable change in the electrical conduction
which is proportional to the concentration of the target.
An Ion Channel Switch (ICS) biosensor can be created using
gramicidin, a dimeric peptide channel, in a tethered bilayer
membrane. One peptide of gramicidin, with attached antibody,
is mobile and one is fixed. Breaking the dimer stops the ionic
current through the membrane. The magnitude of the change
in electrical signal is greatly increased by separating the
membrane from the metal surface using a hydrophilic spacer.
Piezoelectric sensors utilise crystals which undergo an
elastic deformation when an electrical potential is applied to
them. An alternating potential (A.C.) produces a standing wave
in the crystal at a characteristic frequency. This frequency is
highly dependent on the elastic properties of the crystal, such
that if a crystal is coated with a biological recognition element
the binding of a (large) target analyte to a receptor will produce
a change in the resonance frequency, which gives a binding
signal. In a mode that uses surface acoustic waves (SAW), the
sensitivity is greatly increased. This is a specialised application
of the Quartz crystal microbalance as a biosensor.
Placement of Bio Sensors

is failure, the device must be removed and replaced, causing

additional surgery. An example for application of an in-vivo
biosensor is insulin monitoring within the body.
In-vitro: An in-vitro biosensor is a sensor that takes place in a
test tube, culture dish, or elsewhere outside a living organism.
The sensor uses a biological element, such as an enzyme
capable of recognizing or signaling a biochemical change in
solution. A transducer is then used to convert the biochemical
signal to a quantifiable signal. An example of an in-vitro
biosensor is an enzyme-conductimetric biosensor for glucose
monitoring.
At-line: An at-line biosensor is used in a production line
where a sample can be taken, tested, and a decision can be
made whether or not the continuation of the production should
occur. An example of an at-line biosensor is the monitoring of
lactose in a dairy processing plant.
In line: The biosensor can be placed within a production line
to monitor a variable with continuous production and can be
automated. The in-line biosensor becomes another step in the
process line. An application of an in-line biosensor is for water
purification.

Point-of-concern: There is a challenge to create a biosensor

that can be taken straight to the point of concern, that is the
location where the test is needed. The elimination of lab
testing can save time and money. An application of a point-ofconcern biosensor can be for the testing of HIV virus in third
world countries where it is difficult for the patients to be
tested. A biosensor can be sent directly to the location and a
quick and easy test can be used.
Glucose monitoring

In-vivo: An in-vivo biosensor is one that functions inside the

body. Biocompatibility concerns follow with the creation of an
in-vivo biosensor. That is, an initial inflammatory response
occurring after the implantation. The second concern is the
long-term interaction with the body during the intended period
of the devices use.Another issue that arises is failure. If there

Commercially available gluocose monitors rely on

amperometric sensing of glucose by means of glucose
oxidase, which oxidises glucose producing hydrogen peroxide
which is detected by the electrode. To overcome the limitation
of amperometric sensors, a flurry of research is present into

novel sensing methods, such as fluorescent glucose

biosensors.
Interferometric Reflectance Imaging Sensor
The Interferometric Reflectance Imaging Sensor
(IRIS) was initially developed by the Unlu research group at
Boston University based on the principles of optical
interference. IRIS consists of a silicon-silicon oxide substrate,
standard optics, and low-powered coherent LEDs. When light
is illuminated through a low magnification objective onto the
layered silicon-silicon oxide substrate, an interferometric
signature is produced. As biomass, which has a similar index
of refraction as silicon oxide, accumulates on the substrate
surface, a change in the interferometric signature occurs and
the change can be correlated to a quantifiable mass. Daaboul
et al used IRIS to yield a label-free sensitivity of
approximately 19 ng/mL. Ahn et al. improved the sensitivity
of IRIS through a mass tagging technique.
Since initial publication, IRIS has been adapted to
perform various functions. First, IRIS integrated a
fluorescence imaging capability into the interferometric
imaging instrument as a potential way to address fluorescence
protein microarray variability. Briefly, the variation in
fluorescence microarrays mainly derives from inconsistent
protein immobilization on surfaces and may cause
misdiagnoses in allergy microarrays.To correct from any
variation in protein immobilization, data acquired in the
fluorescence modality is then normalized by the data acquired
in the label-free modality.IRIS has also been adapted to
perform single nanoparticle counting by simply switching the
low magnification objective used for label-free biomass
quantification to a higher objective magnification. This
modality enables size discrimination in complex human
biological samples. Monroe et al. used IRIS to quantify
protein levels spiked into human whole blood and serum and
determined allergen sensitization in characterized human
blood samples using zero sample processing. Other practical
uses of this device include virus and pathogen detection.

In the future, DNA will find use as a versatile

material from which scientists can craft biosensors. DNA
biosensors can theoretically be used for medical diagnostics,
forensic science, agriculture, or even environmental clean-up
efforts. No external monitoring is needed for DNA-based
sensing devises. This is a significant advantage. DNA
biosensors are complicated mini-machinesconsisting of
sensing elements, micro lasers, and a signal generator. At the
heart of DNA biosensor function is the fact that two strands of
DNA stick to each other by virtue of chemical attractive
forces. On such a sensor, only an exact fitthat is, two
strands that match up at every nucleotide positiongives rise
to a fluorescent signal (a glow) that is then transmitted to a
signal generator.

Microbial biosensors
Using biological engineering researchers have
created many microbial biosensors. An example is the arsenic
biosensor. To detect arsenic they use the Ars operon. Using
bacteria researcher can detect pollutants in samples.

Food analysis
There are several applications of biosensors in food
analysis. In the food industry, optics coated with antibodies
are commonly used to detect pathogens and food toxins.
Commonly, the light system in these biosensors is
fluorescence, since this type of optical measurement can
greatly amplify the signal.
A range of immuno- and ligand-binding assays for the
detection and measurement of small molecules such as watersoluble vitamins and chemical contaminants (drug residues)
such as sulfonamides and Beta-agonists have been developed
for use on SPR based sensor systems, often adapted from
existing ELISA or other immunological assay. These are in
widespread use across the food industry.
DNA biosensors

Foot Notes
Source of support : Nill
Conflict of Interest : None Declared

Conclusion
The emerging field of Bioelectronics seeks to exploit
biology in conjunction with electronics in a wider context
encompassing, for example, biological fuel cells, bionics and
biomaterials for information processing, information storage,
electronic components and actuators. A key aspect is the
interface between biological materials and micro- and nanoelectronics.

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