Stress

The bolts used for the connections of this steel framework are subjected
to stress. In this chapter we will discuss how engineers design these
connections and their fasteners.

1.1 Introduction
Mechanics of materials a branch of mechanics
the relationships between the external loads applied to a
deformable body and the intensity of internal forces acting
within the body
the deformations of the body
the bodys stability when the body is subjected to external
forces

Design of structures or machines

determine the forces acting both on and within its various
members by principles of statics
choose the type of materials and design the size of the
members
check the deflection and stability
Many formulas and rules for design, as defined in engineering
codes and used in practice, are based on the fundamentals of
mechanics of materials.
An accurate determination and fundamental understanding of
material behavior will be of vital importance for developing the
necessary equations used in mechanics of materials.

Historical Development

1.2 Equilibrium of a Deformable Body

Early 17th century

Galileo performed experiments to study the effects of loads on rods
and beams made of various materials.

Early 18th century

Saint-Venant, Poisson, Lame, and Navier in France conducted both
experimental and theoretical studies on material-body applications of
mechanics, called strength of materials.

Over the years

After many of the fundamental problems of mechanics of materials

had been solved, it became necessary to use advanced mathematical
and computer techniques to solve more complex problems.
theory of elasticity, theory of plasticity

Ongoing research
To meet the demands for solving advanced engineering problems

Support Reactions

External Loads
Body Forces
without direct physical contact

earths gravitation (weight)

electromagnetic field
Surface Forces
direct contact

concentrated force
linear distributed load
FR : equivalent to the area under the distributed loading curve, and this

resultant acts through the centroid C or geometric center of this area

Support Reactions

Reactions
the surface forces that
develop at the supports or
points of contact between
bodies
If the support prevents translation
in a given direction, then a force
must be developed on the member in
that direction. Likewise, if rotation is
prevented, a couple moment must be
exerted on the member.

Equations of Equilibrium

Internal Resultant Loadings

Equilibrium of a body requires both a balance of forces, to prevent

the body from translating or having accelerated motion along a
straight or curved path, and a balance of moments, to prevent the
body from rotating.

in vector form

F 0

in scalar form

Fx 0
M x 0

a system of
coplanar forces

Fx 0

Method of sections
An imaginary section or cut is made through the region
where the internal loadings are to be determined.

M o 0

free-body diagram

Fy 0 Fz 0
M y 0 M z 0

Fy 0

M o 0

The best way to account for these forces is to draw

the bodys free-body diagram.

FR : resultant force at specific point O

M RO : resultant moment at specific point O

Three Dimensions

M Ro

Normal force N : acting perpendicular

to the area. It is developed whenever the
external loads tend to push or pull on the
two segments of the body

Normal force

FR

M Ro

FR
O

Shear force V : lying in the plane of the

area. It is developed when the external
loads tend to cause the two segments of
the body to slide over one another

O
V Shear force
Cross section: the section is taken perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the member.

Three Dimensions

Coplanar Loadings

Torsional moment

M Ro

T
FR

Torsional moment or torque T : This

effect is developed when the external
loads tend to twist one segment of the
body with respect to the other.
Bending moment M : The bending
moment is caused by the external loads
that tend to bend the body about an axis
lying within the plane of the area

Fx 0 N

Bending
moment

Fy 0 V
M o 0 M o

EXAMPLE 1.1
Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section at C
of the cantilevered beam shown in Figure.

EXAMPLE 1.2
Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section at C
of the machine shaft shown in Figure. The shaft is supported by bearings
at A and B, which only exert vertical forces on the shaft.

EXAMPLE 1.3
The 500-kg engine is suspended from the crane boom in Figure. Determine the
resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section of the boom at point E.

EXAMPLE 1.4
Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section at G
of the beam shown in Figure. Each joint is pin connected.

EXAMPLE 1.5

1.3 Stress

Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the cross section at B of

the pipe shown in Figure. The pipe has a mass of 2 kg/m and is subjected to
both a vertical force of 50 N and a couple moment of 70 N-m at its end A. It
is fixed to the wall at C.

Material
continuous
cohesive
M Ro

Fz
Fx
F

FR

Fy

cut x-y plane

the direction of the

outward normal line

Fz
Fx

Normal stress

Fz
A0 A

F y

z lim

cut x-y plane

the direction of the

outward normal line

Shear stress
zx lim

A0

zy lim

A0

General State of Stress

pull tensile stress

push compressive stress

Shear stress zx , zy

Fx
A
Fy

Normal stress z

z the orientation of the area

x, y the direction lines for the
shear stresses

x-y plane

State of stress

Units of stress

acting around the chosen SI system (International Standard)

point in the body
N / m 2 (pascal) (1 Pa = 1 N / m 2 )
prefix kilo- k ( 103 )
kPa
6
prefix mega- M ( 10 ) Mpa
Gpa
prefix giga- G ( 109 )
U.S. Customary (Foot-PoundSecond)

cut z-x plane

cut y-z plane

psi (pounds per square inch)

ksi (kilopounds per square inch)
1 kilopound (kip) 1000 lb.

1.4 Average Normal Stress in

an Axially Loaded Bar

Assumptions
The bar remains straight both before and
after the load is applied. Also, the cross
section should remain flat or plane during
deformation. (deform uniformly)
P is applied along the centroidal axis of
the cross section, and the material must be
homogeneous and isotropic.

Truss members, hangers, and bolts

Prismatic
All cross sections are the same.

Neglect the weight of

the bar

cut

Localized
distortions

Internal force P

Isotropic material: having these same properties

in all directions.

= External force P

Average Normal Stress Distribution

Provided the bar is subjected to a constant
uniform deformation, then this deformation is
the result of a constant normal stress .

F A

Let A dA and therefore F dF ,

then is constant.
FRz Fz

P
A

: average normal stress at any point on the

cross-sectional area

P : internal resultant normal force, which is applied

through the centroid of the cross-sectional area.
P is determined using the method of sections and
the equations of equilibrium
A : cross-sectional area of the bar

The internal load P must pass through the

centroid of the cross-section.

dF A dA
P A

Homogeneous material: having the same physical

and mechanical properties throughout its volume

P
A

(M R ) x M x 0 ;

0 ydF y dA ydA

ydA 0

(M R ) y M y 0 ;

0 xdF x dA xdA

xdA 0

Equilibrium
If consider vertical equilibrium of the element,
then applying the equation of force equilibrium

Fz 0
(A) (A) 0

Uniaxial stress

P A

This resultant passes through the centroid

of this volume.

EXAMPLE 1.6
For a taped bar of rectangular cross section, for which the angle
between two adjacent sides is 15 , the average normal stress, as
calculated by P / A , is only 2.2% less than its value found
from the theory of elasticity. Therefore, this assumption can be
relaxed somewhat to include bars that have a slight taper.

The bar in Figure has a constant width of 35 mm and a thickness of 10 mm.

Determine the maximum average normal stress in the bar when it is
subjected to the loading shown.

Maximum Average Normal Stress

If normal stress within a bar is different from one section to the
next, and if the maximum average normal stress is to be determined,
then it becomes important to find the location where the ratio P/A is
a maximum.
Axial or normal force diagram: a plot of the normal force P
versus its position x along the bars length.
Tension positive (+); Compression negative (-)

EXAMPLE 1.7
The 80-kg lamp is supported by two rods AB and BC as shown in Figure.
If AB has a diameter of 10 mm and BC has a diameter of 8 mm, determine
the average normal stress in each rod.

EXAMPLE 1.9
Member AC shown in Figure is subjected to a vertical force of 3 kN.
Determine the position x of this force so that the average compressive
stress at the smooth support C is equal to the average tensile stress in the
tie rod AB. The rod has a cross-sectional area of 400 mm2 and the contact
area at C is 650 mm2.

EXAMPLE 1.8
The casting shown in Figure is made of steel having a specific weight of
st = 490 lb/ft3. Determine the average compressive stress acting at points
A and B.

1.5 Average Shear Stress

avg
simple or direct shear

V F /2

V
A

avg : average shear stress at the section, which is

assumed to be the same at each point located

on the section
V : internal resultant shear force at the section
determined from the equations of equilibrium

A : area at the section

avg is in the same direction as V.

 Average shear stress is only approximate.

The shear-stress distribution over the critical section often reveals that
much larger shear stresses occur in the material than the average shear stress.
The application of average shear stress is generally acceptable for
engineering design and analysis.

Single Shear

Double Shear
double-shear connections
or double lap joints
no friction between the
members
V = F /2

single-shear connections
or lap joints
no friction between the
members
neglect the moment
V=F

Equilibrium

Equilibrium
xy ( x dx, y )
x ( x dx, y )

M z 0 (center point)

Taylor series expansion

2 ( dx) 2

x ( x dx, y ) x ( x, y ) ( x )dx ( 2 x )
2
x
x

Neglect higher order terms

x ( x dx, y ) x ( x, y ) (

x
) dx
x

( yx

xy

1
1
dx )( dy )(1)( dx ) ( xy )( dy )(1)( dx )
x
2
2
yx
1
1

dy )( dx )(1)( dy ) ( yx )( dx )(1)( dy ) 0
y
2
2

( xy

Neglect higher order terms

xy yx

10

Equilibrium

Equilibrium

xy yx
yz zy
zx xz
Pure shear

Six independent stress components in a general stress state

( x , y , z , xy , yz , zx )

EXAMPLE 1.10
Determine the average shear stress in the 40-mm-diameter pin at A and the
30-mm-diameter pin at B that support the beam in Figure.

M x 0 zy ( xy )z yz (xz )y 0

zy yz

(xy ) 0
Fy 0 zy (xy ) zy

zy zy

yz yz zy zy

Complementary property

EXAMPLE 1.10
Determine the average shear stress in the 40-mm-diameter pin at A and the
30-mm-diameter pin at B that support the beam in Figure.

11

EXAMPLE 1.11
If the wood joint in Figure has a width of 150 mm, determine the average
shear stress developed along shear planes a-a and b-b. For each plane,
represent the state of stress on an element of the material.

*1.6 Allowable Stress

An engineer in charge of the design of a structural member or
mechanical element must restrict the stress in the material to a level
that will be safe.
Reasons for allowable stress
The load may be different from actual loadings.
The intended measurements of a structure or machine may not be
exact, due to errors in fabrication or in the assembly of its component
parts.
Unknown vibrations, impact, or accidental loadings can occur.
Atmospheric corrosion, decay, or weathering tend to cause
materials to deteriorate during service.
Some material, such as wood, concrete, or fiber-reinforced
composites, can show high variability in mechanical properties.

EXAMPLE 1.12
The inclined member in Figure is subjected to a compressive force of 600 lb.
Determine the average compressive stress along the smooth areas of contact
defined by AB and BC, and the average shear stress along the horizontal
plane define by DB.

Factor of Safety (F.S.)

F .S .

Ffail
Fallow

Ffail : found from experimental testing of the material

The factor of safety is selected based on experience so the
uncertainties are accounted for when the member is used under
similar conditions of loading and geometry.

12

 2
Strain
When the bolt causes compression of these two transparent plates, it produces
strains in the material that shows up as a spectrum of colors when displayed
under polarized light. These strains can be related to the stress in the material.

2.1 Deformation
Deformation: A body change its shape and size when a force
is applied to the body.
Also deformation of a body
can occur when the temperature
of the body is changed.

Before
loading

After
loading

Note the before and after positions of three different line

segments on this rubber membrane which is subjected to
tension. The vertical line is lengthened, the horizontal line is
shorten, and the inclined line changes its length and rotates.

2.2 Strain

Normal strain at point A and in the direction of n

Normal Strain
The elongation or contraction of a line segment per unit
of length is referred to as normal strain.
average normal strain
s s
avg
s
as B A, s 0
B A, s 0
Normal strain at point A
and in the direction of n

s s
B A along n
s

s s
B A along n
s
lim

s (1 )s
0 elongation
0 contraction

lim

Units of strain

Shear Strain

Normal strain is a dimensionless quantity, since it is a ratio

of two lengths

The change in angle that occurs between two line segments

that were originally perpendicular to one another is referred
to as shear strain.

SI system (International Standard)

1 m/m = 106 m/m
meters/meter (m/m)

Units: radians (rad)

nt

U.S. Customary (Foot-Pound-Second)

inches/inch (in./in.)

Others
6

480(10 ) 480(10 ) in./in. 480 m/m 0.0480 %

lim

B A along n
C A along t

positive
negative

480

Cartesian Strain Components

Normal strains cause a change

in volume.

(1 x )x (1 y )y (1 z )z
Undeformed element

Deformed element

Shear strains cause a change in

its shape.

xy

yz

xz

Small Strain Analysis

Most engineering design involves applications for which
only small deformations are allowed.

normal strain 1
The calculations for normal strain are simplified since first-order
approximations can be made about their size.

Undeformed element

When is very small, approximation is allowed as

Six components

sin

x , y , z , xy , yz , zx

cos 1

tan

Deformed element

EXAMPLE 2.1

N
V

The slender rod shown in figure is subjected to an increase of temperature

3
1/ 2
along its axis, which creates a normal strain in the rod of z 40(10 ) z ,
where z is given in meters. Determine (a) the displacement of the end B of
the rod due to the temperature increase and (b) the average normal strain
in the rod.

The rubber bearing support under this concrete bridge girder is subjected to
both normal and shear strain. The normal strain is caused by the weight and
bridge loads on the girder, and the shear strain is caused by the horizontal
movement of the girder due to temperature changes.

EXAMPLE 2.2
When force P is applied the rigid lever arm ABC in Fig, the arm rotates
counterclockwise about pin A through an angle of 0.05. Determine the
normal strain developed in wire BD.

EXAMPLE 2.3
Due to a loading, the plate is deformed into the dashed shape shown in
Fig. Determine (a) the average normal strain along the side AB, and
(b) the average shear strain in the plate at A relative to the x and y axes.

EXAMPLE 2.4
The plate shown in Fig. is fixed connected along AB and held in the
horizontal guides at its top and bottom, AD and BC. If its right side CD
is given a uniform horizontal displacement of 2 mm, determine (a) the
average normal strain along the diagonal AC, and (b) the shear strain at
E relative to the x, y axes.

 3
Mechanical Properties
of Materials
Horizontal ground displacements caused by an earthquake produced excessive
strains in these bridge piers until they fractured. The material properties of the
concrete and steel reinforcement must be known so that engineers can properly
design this structure and thereby avoid such failures.

3.1 The Tension and Compression Test

The tension or compression test is used primarily to determine the
relationship between the average normal stress and average normal
strain in many engineering materials such as metals, ceramics,
polymers, and composites.

Typical steel specimen with attached strain gauge

L L0

electrical-resistance strain gauge

gauge-length

3.2 The Stress-Strain Diagram

Nominal or engineering stress
Divide the applied load P by the specimens
original cross-sectional area A0
Stress is assumed to be constant over the cross
section and throughout the region between the
gauge points.

P
A0

Nominal or engineering strain

Directly from the strain gauge
Divide the change in the specimens gauge
length, , by the specimens original gauge length L0
Strain is assumed to be constant throughout the
region between the gauge points.

Elastic Behavior
linear elastic
proportional limit pl
elastic limit

L0

Necking
fracture stress f

Yielding
yielding stress or yielding point Y
deform permanently
plastic deformation
perfectly plastic: continuing to elongate (strain)
without any increase in load

Strain Hardening
ultimate stress u

True Stress-Strain Diagram

Necking

The actual area A within the necking region is always decreasing

until fracture, and so the material actually sustains increasing stress.

true fracture stress

true stress

The steel specimen clearly shows the necking that occurred just before the
specimen failed. This resulted in the formation of a cup-cone shape at
the fracture location, which is characteristic of ductile materials.

Stress-Strain Diagram for mild steel

3.3 Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile

and Brittle Materials
Materials can be classified as either being ductile or brittle,
depending on their stress-strain characteristics.

Ductile Materials
A material that can be subjected to large strains before it ruptures.
the ductility of a material

linear-elastic behavior

Percent elongation

L f L0
L0

(100%)

L0 : the specimens original gauge-mark length

L f : the fracture length

Percent reduction of area

A0 Af
A0

(100%)

In this text, we will assume that the yield strength, yield point, elastic
limit, and proportional limit all coincide unless stated.
Wood is a material that is often moderately ductile.

A0 : the specimens original cross-sectional area

Af : the area at fracture
yielding stress

Rubber: a polymer exhibits

nonlinear elastic behavior

If a material does not have a

well-define yield point, then define
a yield strength using the offset
method.

offset strain 0.2 %

Brittle Materials
Materials that exhibit little or no yielding before failure are referred to
as brittle materials.

The properties of concrete depend on the mix of concrete (water, sand,

gravel, and cement) and the time and temperature of curing.
the maximum compressive strength is almost 12.5 times greater than
tensile strength.

Concrete

Gray cast iron

 Most materials exhibit both ductile and brittle behavior. For example,
steel has brittle behavior when it contains a high carbon content.
At low temperatures materials become harder and more brittle, whereas
when the temperature rises they become softer and more ductile.
Steel rapidly loses its strength when heated.

Concrete used for structural purposes must be routinely tested in

compression to be sure it provides the necessary design strength for
this bridge deck. The concrete cylinders shown are compression tested
for ultimate stress after curing for 28 days.

3.4 Hookes Law

Linear-elastic behavior

E
X
Ductile material

E : modulus of elasticity or
Youngs modulus
Units: the same as stress, e.g. psi,
ksi, pascals.

For steel
Brittle material

pl
35 ksi

pl 0.0012 in./in.
29(103 ) ksi 200 GPa

Strain Hardening
If a ductile material is loaded into
the plastic region and then unloaded,
elastic strain is recovered as the
material returns to its equilibrium
state, but the plastic strain remains.

permanent set

The pin was made from a hardened steel alloy, that is, one having
a high carbon content. It failed due to brittle fracture.

3.5 Strain Energy

Reload
yield at or near the stress A,
higher yield point
greater elastic region, less
ductility

As a material is deformed by an external loading, it tends to store energy

internally throughout its volume. Since this energy is related to the
strains in the material, it is referred to as strain energy.

Conservation of Energy
External Work = Internal Work

Unload and Reload

in the true sense,
unloading and reloading
result in energy loss

Reload

The external work is equivalent to the

internal work or strain energy stored in the
element

F A (xy )
Force
Displacement z
1
1
Work
W F z (xy )z
2
2

1
1
Strain energy U W (xy )z V
2
2
V xy z
Strain-energy density
the strain energy per unit volume

U 1

V 2

Modulus of Resilience
When the stress reaches the proportional limit, the strain-energy is
referred to as the modulus of resilience.
Physically a materials resilience represents the ability of the material
to absorb energy without any permanent damage to the material.

1
1 pl
ur pl pl
2
2 E
2

for the linear elastic material E

12
2 E

Modulus of resilience

Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness represents the entire area under the stressstrain diagram.
It indicates the strain-energy density of the material just before it
fractures.

Modulus of toughness

This nylon specimen exhibits a high degree of

toughness as noted by the large amount of necking
that has occurred just before fracture.

EXAMPLE 3.1
A tension test for a steel alloy results in the stress-strain diagram
shown in figure. Calculate the modulus of elasticity and the yield
strength based on a 0.2 % offset. Identify on the graph the ultimate
stress and the fracture stress.

EXAMPLE 3.3
An aluminum rod shown in figure has a circular cross section and is subjected to
an axial load of 10 kN. If a portion of the stress-strain diagram for the material is
shown in figure, determine the approximate elongation of the rod when the load
is applied. If the load is removed, what is the permanent elongation of the rod?
Take Eal= 70 Gpa.

EXAMPLE 3.2
The stress-strain diagram for an aluminum alloy that is used for making
aircraft parts is shown in figure. If a specimen of this material is stressed
to 600 Mpa, determine the permanent strain that remains in the specimen
when the load is released. Also, compute the modulus of resilience both
before and after the load application.

3.6 Poissons Ratio

When the rubber block is compressed (negative strain), its sides will
expand (positive strain). The ratio of these strains is constant.

When a deformable body is subjected to an axial tensile force,

not only does it elongate but it also contracts laterally.

Poissons Ratio

Strain in the longitudinal

or axial direction

long

Strain in the lateral

or radial direction

lat

lat
long

EXAMPLE 3.4
A bar made of A-36 steel has the dimensions shown in Figure. If an
axial force of P = 80 kN is applied to the bar, determine the change in
its length and the change in the dimensions of its cross section after
applying the load. The material behaves elastically.

homogeneous and isotropic material

behave within the elastic range
dimensionless
1
1
for most nonporous solids
4
3
0 0.5

3.7 The Shear Stress-Strain Diagram

y

Pure shear
Equilibrium requires that equal shear stresses must be developed on
four faces of the element.
The shear strain xy measures the angular distortion of the element
relative to the sides originally along the x and y axes.

EXAMPLE 3.5
Hooks law for shear

A specimen of titanium alloy is tested in torsion and the shear stress-strain

diagram is shown in figure. Determine the shear modulus G, the proportional
limit, and ultimate shear stress. Also, determine the maximum distance d that the
top of a block of this material, shown in figure (b), could be displaced
horizontally if the material behaves elastically when acted upon by a shear force
V. What is the magnitude of V necessary to cause this displacement?

G
G : shear modulus of elasticity
or modulus of rigidity

Units: the same as E, e.g. psi,

ksi, pascals.

E
2(1 )

pl
pl

Est 29(103 ) ksi and Gst 11.0(103 ) ksi

so st 0.32

EXAMPLE 3.6
An aluminum specimen shown in figure has a diameter of
d0 = 25 mm and a gauge length of L0 = 250 mm. if a force
of 165 kN elongates the gauge length 1.20 mm, determine
the modulus of elasticity. Also, determine by how much the
force cause the diameter of the specimen to contract. Take
Gal = 26 Gpa and Y = 440 Mpa.

3.8 Failure of Materials Due to

Creep and Fatigue
Load Types
static or slowly applied load
dynamic or fast applied load
repeated or cycled load

Load Environment
at constant temperature
at elevated temperatures

10

Creep
When a material has to support a load for a very long period
of time, it may continue to deform until a sudden fracture
occurs or its usefulness is impaired.
Time-dependent permanent deformation
Both stress and/or temperature play a significant role in the
rate of creep.
For practical purpose, when creep becomes important, a
material is usually designed to resist a specified creep strain
for a given period of time.
Creep strength represents the highest initial stress the
material can withstand during a specified time without causing
a given amount of creep strain.

The long-term application of the cable

loading on this pole has caused the
pole to deform due to creep.

Fatigue
When a material is subjected to repeated cycles of stress or
strain, it causes its structure to break down, ultimately leading
to fracture.
Usually occurs in connections or supports for bridges,
railroad wheels, and axles; connecting rods and crankshafts of
engines; steam or gas turbine blades.
Fracture will occur at a stress that is less than the materials
yield stress.
Since fracture occurs suddenly, the material, even though
known to be ductile, behaves as if it were brittle.

11

Engineers must account for possible

fatigue failure of the moving parts of
this oil-pumping rig.
The design of members used for
amusement park rides requires
careful consideration of cyclic
loadings that can cause fatigue.

Crack due to fatigue

12

The number of
cycles-to-failure N

S-N diagram or stress-cycle diagram

13

 4
Axial Load
The string of drill pipe suspended from this traveling block on an oil rig is
subjected to extremely large loading and axial deformations.

4.1 Saint-Venants Principle

(Localized
deformation)

Sec. a-a

Saint-Venants principle
Both the localized deformation and stress occur within
the regions of load application or at the supports tend to
even out at a distance sufficiently removed from these
regions.
Generally, we can consider this distance to be at least
equal to the larger dimension of the loaded cross section.

Sec. b-b

(Localized
deformation)

Fixed-connection

Sec. c-c

Sec. c-c

Sec. c-c

After loading

Before loading

4.2 Elastic Deformation of an Axially

Loaded Member
x

dx

P( x)
A( x)

d
dx

Linear-elastic range E

P( x)
d
E

A( x)
dx

Notice how the lines on this rubber membrane distort after it is stretched.
The localized distortions at the grips smooth out as stated by SaintVenants principle.

P( x) dx
A( x) E

Constant Load and Cross-Sectional Area

P( x) dx
A( x) E

P( x) dx
A( x) E

: displacement of one point on the bar relative to another point

L : original distance between the points
P ( x) : internal axial force at the section, located a distance x from one end
A( x) : cross-sectional area of the bar, expressed as a function of x
E : modulus of elasticity for the material

Relative
displacement
= Deformation

P( x) dx
A( x) E

If the bar is subjected to several different axial

forces, or the cross-sectional area or modulus of
elasticity changes abruptly from one region of
the bar to the next,

PL
AE

PL
AE

Sign Convention

Positive (+): Tension and elongation

Negative(): Compression and contraction

EXAMPLE 4.1
The composite A-36 steel bar shown in figure is
made from two segments, AB and BD, having
cross-sectional area of AAB = 1 in2 and ABD = 2 in2.
Determine the vertical displacement of end A and
the displacement of B relative to C.

Relative displacement

A/ D

PL (5 kN) LAB ( 3 kN) LBC (7 kN) LCD

AE
AE
AE
AE

EXAMPLE 4.2
The assembly shown in figure consists of an aluminum tube AB having a
cross-sectional area of 400 mm2. A steel rod having a diameter of 10 mm
is attached to a rigid collar and passes through the tube. If a tensile load of
80 kN is applied to the rod, determine the displacement of the end C of the
rod. Take Est = 200 GPa, Eal = 70 Gpa.

EXAMPLE 4.4
A member is made from a material that has a
specific weight and modulus of elasticity E.
if it is formed into a cone having the dimensions
shown in figure, determine how far its end is
displaced due to gravity when it is suspended in
the vertical position.

EXAMPLE 4.3
A rigid beam AB rests on the two short posts shown in figure. AC is made
of steel and has a diameter of 20 mm, and BD is made of aluminum and
has a diameter of 40 mm. Determine the displacement of point F on AB if
a vertical load of 90 kN is applied over this point. Take Est = 200 GPa,
Eal = 70 GPa.

4.3 Principle of Superposition

The loading must be linearly related to the stress or
displacement that is to be determined.

P
P
A

PL
P
AE

The loading must not significantly change the original

geometry or configuration of the member

d1 d 2 d

Pd Pd
1 1 P2 d 2

Statically indeterminate

4.4 Statically Indeterminate Axially

Loaded Member

Consider the geometry of the deformation to

establish an additional equation needed for solution.
An equation that specifies the conditions for
displacement is referred to as a compatibility or
kinematic condition.

F 0

Compatibility equation A / B 0

FB FA P 0

FA LAC FB LCB

0
AE
AE

Statically indeterminate

Equilibrium equation

The equilibrium equation(s)

are not sufficient to determine
the reactions.

FB FA P 0

Solve (1) and (2)

L
FA P CB
L

(1)

(2)

LAC
and FB P L

EXAMPLE 4.5
The steel rod shown in figure has a diameter of 5 mm. It is attached to
the fixed wall at A, and before it is loaded, there is a gap between the
wall at B and the rod of 1 mm. Determine the reactions at A and B if
the rod is subjected to an axial force of P = 20 kN as shown. Neglect the
size of the collar at C. Take Est = 200 GPa

Most concrete columns are

reinforced with steel rods; and
since these two materials work
together in supporting the applied
load, the forces in each material
become statically indeterminate.

EXAMPLE 4.6
The aluminum post shown in figure is reinforced with a brass core. If
this assembly supports a resultant axial compressive load of P = 9 kip,
applied to the rigid cap, determine the average normal stress in the
aluminum and the brass. Take Eal = 10(10)3 ksi and Ebr = 15(10)3 ksi

EXAMPLE 4.7
The three A-36 steel bars shown in figure are pin connected to a rigid
member. If the applied load on the member is 15 kN, determine the force
developed in each bar. Bars AB and EF each have a cross-sectional area of
25 mm2, and bar CD has a cross-sectional area of 15 mm2.

EXAMPLE 4.8
The bolt shown in figure is made of 2014-T6
aluminum alloy and is tightened so it
compresses a cylindrical tube made of Am
1004-T61 magnesium alloy. The tube has an
outer radius of in., and it is assumed that
both the inner radius of the tube and the radius
of the bolt are in. The washers at the top and
bottom of the tube are considered to be rigid
and have a negligible thickness. Initially the
nut is hand-tightened slightly; then, using a
wrench, the nut is further tightened one-half
turn. If the bolt has 20 threads per inch,
determine the stress in the bolt.

4.5 The Force Method of Analysis for

Axially Loaded Members

No displacement at B

Displacement at B when
redundant force at B is
removed

Displacement at B when
only the redundant force
at B is applied

EXAMPLE 4.9

Compatibility equation

( )

0 p B

The A-36 steel rod shown in figure has a diameter of 5 mm. It is attached
to the fixed wall at A, and before it is loaded there is a gap between the
wall at B and the rod of 1 mm. Determine the reactions at A and B .

Apply the load-displacement relationship PL / AE

p PLAC / AE
0

B FB L / AE
L
FB P AC
L

PLAC FB L

AE
AE

From the equation of equilibrium

F 0

L
P AC
L

FA P 0

LCB L LAC

L
FA P CB
L

4.6 Thermal Stress

Compatibility equation

( ) 0.001 p B
Most traffic bridges are designed with expansion joints to accommodate the
thermal movement of the deck and thus avoid any thermal stress.

A change in temperature can cause a material to change its

dimensions. If the temperature increases, generally a material
expands, whereas if the temperature decrease, the material
will contract.

Thermal
deformation

T T L

T : the algebraic change in length of the member

: a property of the material, referred to as the linear coefficient of

Long extensions of ducts and pipes that carry fluids are subjected to variations
in climate that will cause them to expand and contract. Expansion joints, such
as the one shown, are used to mitigate thermal stress in the material.

If the change in temperature or/and varies

throughout the length of the member,
L

T ( x) T ( x) dx
0

thermal expansion. The units measure strain per degree of temperature.

1/ F (FPS system)
1/ C (SI system)
T : the algebraic change in temperature of the member
L : the original length of the member

EXAMPLE 4.10
The A-36 steel bar shown in figure is constrained to
just fit between two fixed supports when T1 60 F .
If the temperature is raised to T2 120 F , determine
the average normal thermal stress developed in the
bar.

Important Remarks
The change in length of a statically determinate member
can readily be computed, since the member is free to expand
or contract when it undergoes a temperature change.
However, in a statically indeterminate member, these
thermal displacements can be constrained by the support,
producing thermal stresses that must be considered in design.

EXAMPLE 4.11
The rigid beam shown in figure is fixed to the top of the three posts made
of A-36 steel and 2014-T6 aluminum. The posts each have a length of
250 mm when no load is applied to the beam, and the temperature
is T1 20 C . Determine the force supported by each post if the bar is
subjected to a uniform distributed load of 150 kN/m and the temperature
is raised to T2 80 C.

EXAMPLE 4.11
A 2014-T6 aluminum tube having a cross-section area of 600 mm2 is
used as a sleeve for an A-36 steel bolt having a cross-sectional area of
400 mm2. When the temperature is T1 15 C , the nut holds the assembly
in snug position such that the axial force in the bolt is negligible. If the
temperature increases to T2 80 C , determine the average normal stress
in the bolt and sleeve.

10

4.7 Stress Concentrations

Stress concentrations often

arise at sharp corners on heavy
machinery. Engineers can
mitigate this effect by using
stiffeners welded to the
corners.

Resultant force P
This saw blade has grooves cut into it in order to relieve both the dynamic
stress that develops within it as it rotates and the thermal stress that develops
as it heats up. Note the small circles at the end of each groove. These serve to
reduce the stress concentrations that develop at the end of each groove.

Average stress

dA

avg P / A

Stress-concentration
factor K

max
avg

11

 Stress-concentration
factor K is independent
of the bars material
properties; rather, it
depends only on the
bars geometry and the
type of discontinuity.
As the size r of the
discontinuity is
decreased, the stressconcentration is
increased.

max K avg

K 3
K 1.5

K 1.5
K 1.5

12

Cracking of the concrete has occurred at all the corners of this slab due
to shrinkage of the concrete while it cured. These stress concentrations
can be avoided by making the hole circular.
Stress concentrations are also responsible for many failures of
structural members or mechanical elements subjected to fatigue loadings.
The material localized at the tip of the crack remains in a brittle state,
and so the crack continues to grow, leading to a progressive fracture.

Failure of this steel pipe in tension occurred at its smallest cross-sectional

area, which is through the hole. Notice how the material yielded around the
fractured surface.

13

 5
Torsion
The torsional stress and angle of twist of this soil auger depend upon the
output of the machine turning the bit as well as the resistance of the soil in
contact with the shaft.

5.1 Torsional Deformation of a

Circular Shaft

( x)
x

Cross sections
remain flat

( x ) : angle of twist
If the angle of rotation is small, the length of the shaft
and its radius will remain unchanged.

If the angle of rotation is small, the

length of the shaft and its radius will
remain unchanged.
The difference in rotations, ,
causes the element to be subjected to a
shear strain.

Shear strain

lim

B A along CA
C A along BA

d
constant over the cross section
dx
The shear strain within the shaft varies
linearly along any radial line, from zero
at the axis of the shaft to a maximum
at its outer boundary.

BD d dx
d

dx

If the material is linear-elastic, then Hookes

law applies, G , and consequently a
linear variation in shear strain leads to a
corresponding linear variation in shear stress
along any radial line on the cross section.

max
c

T ( dA) max dA
A
A
c
T

max
c

2 dA

The integral depends only on the

geometry of the shaft.

Polar moment of inertia

dA

J 2 dA

max
c
Shear-stress distribution is a
function of the radial position
of the element.

d
dx

d max

dx
c

5.2 The Torsion Formula

max
c

The shear stress is always

perpendicular to .

max

Tc

dF dA
dT dF dA

 max

Tc
J

Torsion formula

Solid Shaft

Polar moment of inertia

J 2 dA
A
c

2 (2 d )

max : the maximum shear stress in the shaft, which occurs at the outer

surface
T : the resultant internal torque acting at the cross section
J : the polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area
c : the outer radius of the shaft

max
c

T
J

3d

1
2 4
4

Torsion formula

It is used only if the shaft is circular and the material is homogeneous

and behaves in a linear-elastic manner.

dA 2 d

c4

c
0

Units: mm4 or in4

J is a geometric property of the circular area

and is always positive.

The shear stress varies linearly along each radial line of the cross section
of the shaft.
Due to the complementary property of shear, equal shear stresses must
also act on four of its adjacent faces.
Not only does the internal torque T develop a linear distribution of shear
stress along each radial line in the plane of the cross-sectional area, but also
an associated shear-stress distribution is developed along an axial plane.

Tubular Shaft

Like the solid shaft, the shear stress distributed over the tubes
cross-sectional area varies linearly along any radial line.
The shear stress varies along an axial plane in this same manner.

T
J

(co4 ci4 )

EXAMPLE 5.1

This tubular drive shaft for a truck was subjected to an overload

resulting in failure caused by yielding of the material .

EXAMPLE 5.2

The solid shaft of radius c is subjected to a torque T. Determine the

fraction of T that is resisted by the material contained within the outer
region of the shaft, which has an inner radius of c/2 and outer radius c.

The shaft shown in Figure is supported by two bearings and is subjected

to three torques. Determine the shear stress developed at points A and B,
located at section a-a of the shaft.

dT dF ( dA)

EXAMPLE 5.3
The pipe shown in Figure has an inner diameter of 80 mm and an outer
diameter of 100 mm. If its end is tightened against the support at A using
a torque wrench at B, determine the shear stress developed in the material
at the inner and outer walls along the central portion of the pipe when the
80-N forces are applied to the wrench.

*5.3 Power Transmission

The chain drive transmits the torque developed by the electric motor to the
shaft. The stress developed in the shaft depends upon the power transmitted
by the motor and the rate of rotation of the connecting shaft.

Power is defined as the work performed per unit of time.

The work transmitted by a rotating shaft equals
the torque applied times the angle of rotation.

1 Hz (hertz) 1 cycle/s

The instantaneous power

T d
dt

Angular velocity

d
dt

P T
Units of stress

Frequency is defined as the number of revolutions or cycles

the shaft makes per second

1 cycle 2 rad

2 f

P 2 f T
SI system
1 N m/s 1 W (watt)
U.S. Customary
1 hp (horsepower) 550 ft lb/s

5.4 Angle of Twist

Oil wells are commonly drilled to

depths exceeding a thousand meters.
As a result, the total angle of twist
of a string of drill pipe can be
substantial and must be computed.

The design of a shaft depends on restricting the amount of

rotation or twist that may occur when the shaft is subjected
to a torque.
Computing the angle of twist for a shaft is
important when analyzing the reactions on
statically indeterminate shafts.

homogeneous
linear-elastic
neglect the localized
deformations

d
Hookes law
/G

Torsion formula
T ( x) / J ( x)

T ( x )dx
J ( x )G

TL
JG

T ( x)
dx
J ( x)G

T ( x)dx
J ( x)G

Angle of Twist

: the angle of twist of one end of the shaft with respect to the other end,
measured in radians
T ( x) : the internal torque at the arbitrary position x
J ( x) : the shafts polar moment of inertia expressed as a function of position x
G : the shear modulus of elasticity for the material

Constant Torque and Cross-Sectional Area

Torsion

T ( x)
J ( x)G

dx

T ( x)dx
J ( x)G

Axially loaded

P ( x ) dx
A( x ) E

T ( x) T
J ( x) J

TL
JG

Determine the shear modulus of elasticity G of the material

TL
J

PL
AE

If the bar is subjected to several different torques, or the

cross-sectional area or shear modulus changes abruptly
from one region of the shaft to the next,

TL
JG

The angle of twist of one end of the shaft with

respect to the other is then found from the vector
addition of the angles of twist of each segment.

When computing both the stress and the angle of twist of this soil
auger, it is necessary to consider the variable loading which acts
along its length.

Sign Convention

Right-hand rule: both the torque and

angle will be positive, provided the thumb is
directed outward from the shaft when the
fingers curl to give the tendency for rotation.

EXAMPLE 5.5
The gears attached to the fixed-end steel shaft are subjected to the torques
shown in Figure. If the shear modulus of elasticity is 80 GPa and the
shaft has a diameter of 14 mm, determine the displacement of the tooth P
on gear A. The shaft turns freely within the bearing at B.

A / D

( 80 N m) LAB (70 N m) LBC ( 10 N m) LCD

JG
JG
JG

EXAMPLE 5.6
The two solid steel shafts shown in Figure are coupled together using the
meshed gears. Determine the angle of twist of end A of shaft AB when the
torque T = 45 N m is applied. Take G = 80 Gpa. Shaft AB is free to
rotate within bearings E and F, whereas shaft DC is fixed at D. Each shaft
has a diameter of 20 mm.

EXAMPLE 5.7

F 0.15 45

The 2-in.-diameter solid cast-iron post

shown in Figure is buried 24 in. in soil. If a
torque is applied to its top using a rigid
wrench, determine the maximum shear
stress in the post and the angle of twist at
its top. Assume that the torque is about to
turn the post, and the soil exerts a uniform
torsional resistance of t lbin./in. along its
24-in. buried length. G = 5.5(103) ksi.

5.5 Statically Indeterminate

Torque-Loaded Members

10

Solve (1) and (2)

Equilibrium equation

T TA TB 0

TL
JG
TB

(1)

L
TA T BC
L
L
TB T AC
L

Compatibility equation

A / B 0
TA LAC TB LBC

0
JG
JG

L LAC LBC

(2)

EXAMPLE 5.8
The solid steel shaft shown in Figure has a diameter of 20 mm. If it is
subjected to the two torques, determine the reactions at the fixed supports
A and B.

11

EXAMPLE 5.9
The shaft shown in Figure is made from a steel tube, which is bonded to a
brass core. If a torque of T = 250 lbft is applied at its end, plot the
shear-stress distribution along a radial line of its cross-sectional area.
Take Gst = 11.4(103) ksi, Gbr = 5.20(103) ksi.

*5.8 Stress Concentration

max K

Tc
J

K : torsional stressconcentration factor

12

Stress concentrations can arise at the coupling of these shafts, and

this must be taken into account when the coupling is designed.

13

 6
Bending
Beams are important structural members used in building construction.
Their design is often based upon their ability to resist bending stress,
which forms the subject matter of this chapter.

6.1 Shear and Moment Diagrams

Beams
Members that are slender and support loadings that are applied
perpendicular to their longitudinal axis

Beams develop an internal shear force and bending moment that

vary from point to point along the axis of the beam.
In order to properly design a beam it is first necessary to determine
the maximum shear and moment in the beam.
Express V and M as functions of the arbitrary position x along the
beams axis, which can be plotted and represented by graphs called
shear and moment diagrams.
continuous
continuous
continuous

EXAMPLE 6.1

Sign Convention

w( x)

Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in
Figure.

M
V

EXAMPLE 6.2
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in
Figure.

EXAMPLE 6.3
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in
Figure.

EXAMPLE 6.4
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in
Figure.

6.2 Graphical Method for Constructing

Shear and Moment Diagrams

Failure of this table occurred at the brace support on its right side. If
drawn, the bending moment diagram for the table loading would indicate
this to be the point of maximum internal moment.

Regions of Distributed Load

V w( x ) x (V V ) 0

V w( x ) x
As x 0

dV
w( x )
dx

dV
w( x )
dx

V x M w( x ) x k ( x )
( M M ) 0

M V x w( x )k ( x ) 2

distributed
load intensity
at each point

slope of
shear diagram
at each point

As x 0

dM
V
dx

dM
V
dx

slope of
moment diagram
at each point

shear
at each
point

Regions of Concentrated Force and Moment

w( x) dx
area under
distributed loading

change in
shear

V F (V V ) 0

V F
M V ( x) dx
change in
moment

area under
shear diagram

When F acts upward on the beam, V is positive so the

shear will jump upward. Likewise, if F acts downward,
the jump ( V ) will be downward.

Regions of Concentrated Force and Moment

EXAMPLE 6.5
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam in Figure.

( M M ) M 0 V x M 0

M M 0
If M0 is applied clockwise, M is positive so the moment
diagram will jump upward. Likewise, when M0 acts
counterclockwise, the jump (M ) will be downward.

EXAMPLE 6.5

EXAMPLE 6.6
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam in Figure.

EXAMPLE 6.6

EXAMPLE 6.7(a)
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for each of the beams in
Figures.

EXAMPLE 6.7(a)

EXAMPLE 6.7(b)
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for each of the beams in
Figures.

EXAMPLE 6.7(b)

EXAMPLE 6.8
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the cantilever beam
in Figure.

EXAMPLE 6.8

EXAMPLE 6.9
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the overhang beam in
Figure.

EXAMPLE 6.9

EXAMPLE 6.10
The shaft in Figure is supported by a thrust bearing at A and a
journal bearing at B. Draw the shear and moment diagrams.

EXAMPLE 6.10

6.3 Bending Deformation of a

Straight Member
Pure bending

Horizontal lines
become curved
Vertical lines remain
straight, yet rotate

After deformation
Before deformation

stretch
rotate and
remain straight

longitudinal fibers
of the material will
not undergo a change
in length.

x
neutral axis
straight prismatic
homogeneous

compress

having a cross-sectional area that is symmetrical with

respect to an axis, and the bending moment is applied
about an axis perpendicular to this axis of symmetry.

Note the distortion of the lines due to bending of this rubber bar. The top line
stretches, the bottom line compresses, and the center line remains the same length.
Furthermore the vertical lines rotate and yet remain straight.

Assumptions
(1) The longitudinal axis x, which lies within the neutral surface,
does not experience any change in length.
(2) All cross sections of the beam remain plane and
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis during the
deformation.

s x

lim

Before deformation
(3) Any deformation of the cross section within its
own plane will be neglected.
( zero strain / subjected to
Neutral axis zero stress)

s s
s 0
s

lim

Normal strain along s

s ( y )

( y )

For any specific cross section, the longitudinal normal

strain will vary linearly with y from the neutral axis.

z
After deformation

Undeformed element

Deformed element

A contraction ( ) will occur in fibers located above

the neutral axis ( y ) , whereas elongation( ) will occur
in fibers located below the axis ( y ) .

Provided only a moment is applied to the beam, then this moment

causes a normal stress only in the longitudinal or x direction.
All the other components of normal and shear stress are zero, since
the beams surface is free of any other load.

max c /

max

It is uniaxial state of stress.

x ( x E x )

y/

c/

y x
z x

y
max
c
Normal strain distribution

6.4 The Flexure Formula

Linear variation of normal strain

(Plane remains plane.)

max
c
Linear-elastic manner

E
A linear variation of normal strain
must then be the consequence of a
linear variation in normal stress.

max
c
This wood specimen failed in bending due to its fibers being
crushed at its top and torn apart at its bottom.

This equation represents the stress

distribution over the cross-sectional area.

 M R z

FR Fx
0 dF dA
A

dF dA

y
max dA
A
c

max
c

ydF y ( dA) y c

max

Mc
I

max
c

max

dA

y dA
2

Moment of inertia
Bending stress variation

ydA 0

max

ydA

Mz

This condition can only be satisfied if the

neutral axis is also the horizontal centroidal
axis for the cross section.
Once the centroid for the members crosssectional area is determined, the location of
neutral axis is known.

Flexure formula

max : the maximum normal stress in the member, which occurs at a point
on the cross-sectional area farthest away from the neutral axis
M : the resultant internal moment computed about the neutral axis of the
cross section
I : the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area computed about the
neutral axis
c : the perpendicular distance from the neutral axis to a point farthest
away from the neutral axis

y 2dA

max

Mc
I
Bending stress variation

Since

max
c

max

c
y

My
I

Flexure formula

The negative sign is necessary since it agrees with the established x, y, z

axes. By the right-hand rule, M is positive along the +z axis, y is positive
upward, and therefore must be negative (compressive) since it acts in
the negative x direction.

EXAMPLE 6.11

EXAMPLE 6.12

A beam has a rectangular cross section and is subjected to the stress

distribution shown in Figure. Determine the internal moment M at the
section caused by the stress distribution (a) using the flexure formula, (b)
by finding the resultant of the stress distribution using basic principles.

The simply supported beam in Figure (a) has the cross-sectional area
shown in Figure (b). Determine the absolute maximum bending stress in
the beam and draw the stress distribution over the cross section at this
location.

(a)

(b)

EXAMPLE 6.13

EXAMPLE 6.14

The beam shown in Figure (a) has a cross-sectional area in the shape of a
channel, Figure (b). Determine the maximum bending stress that occurs in
the beam at section a-a.

The member having a rectangular cross section, Figure (a), is designed to

resist a moment of 40 N-m. In order to increase its strength and rigidity, it is
proposed that two small ribs be added at its bottom, Figure (b). Determine the
maximum normal stress in the member for both cases.

(b)

(a)

(a)

(b)

6.6 Composite Beams

E1
E2

The total cross-sectional area

remains plane after bending.

E1
E1

E1

E2

E2

E1
E1

E2

E
If the material has linear-elastic behavior, Hookes law applies.
If material 1 is stiffer than material 2, e.g., steel versus rubber,
most of the load will be carried by material 1, since E 1 E 2 .

E2

E2

Location of the neutral axis, and

determination of the maximum stress in
the beam, using this stress distribution,
can be based on a trial-and-error
procedure.

Transformed-section method
to transform the beam into one made of
a single material

dF dA ( E1 )dzdy
The height h remains the same,
and the width of material 1 is
changed to nb. n E1 / E2

The height h remains the same,

and the width of material 2 is
changed to nb. n E2 / E1

Once the beam has been transformed into one having a single material, the
normal-stress distribution over the transformed cross section will be linear.
The centroid (neutral axis) and moment of inertia for the transformed area
can be determined and the flexure formula applied in the usual manner to
determine the stress at each point on the transformed beam.

dF dA ( E2 )( ndz )dy

Equivalent force dF dF

E1
E2

Transformation
factor

E1 dzdy E2 ndzdy

dF dA dzdy

dF dA ndzdy

Equivalent force dF dF

dzdy ndzdy

EXAMPLE 6.17
A composite beam is made of wood and reinforced with a steel strap located
on its bottom side. It has the cross-sectional area shown in Figure. If the
beam is subjected to a bending moment of M 2 kN m , determine the
normal stress at the point B and C. Take Ew 12 GPa and Est 200 GPa .

EXAMPLE 6.**
In order to reinforce the steel beam, an oak board is placed between its
flanges as shown in Figure. If the allowable normal stress for the steel
is ( allow )st 24 ksi , and for the wood ( allow ) w 3 ksi , determine the
maximum bending moment the beam can support, with and without the
wood reinforcement. Est 29(103 ) ksi, Ew 1.6(103 ) ksi. The moment of
inertia of the steel beam is I z 20.3 in 4 , and its cross-sectional area
is A 8.79 in 2 .

*6.9 Stress Concentrations

The normal-stress and strain distributions at the section become

nonlinear and can be obtained only through experiment or, in some
case, by a mathematical analysis using the theory of elasticity.

max K

Mc
I

K : stress-concentration factor

Stress concentrations caused by bending occur at the sharp

corners of this window lintel and are responsible for the cracks
at the corners.

 7
Transverse Shear
Railroad ties act as beams that support very large transverse shear loadings.
As a result, if they are made of wood, they will tend to split at their ends,
where the shear loads are the largest.

7.1 Shear in Straight Members

The load P causes the boards to slide relative to one another,

and so the beam deflects.

Due to the complementary

property of shear, the transverse
shear-stress on the cross section
will create corresponding
longitudinal shear stresses which
will act along longitudinal planes
of the beam.

The longitudinal shear stresses acting between the boards will prevent
the relative sliding, and consequently the beam will act as a single unit.

Shear connectors are tack welded to this corrugated metal floor liner
so that when the concrete floor is poured, the connectors will prevent
the concrete slab from slipping on the liner surface. The two materials
will thus act as a composite slab.

AC

Shear stud

Shear stud

 As a result of the shear

stress, shear strains will be
developed and these will tend
to distort the cross section in a
rather complex manner.
This nonuniform shearstrain distribution will cause
the cross section to warp.

7.2 The Shear Formula

Assume the cross-sectional

warping is small enough so
that it can be neglected. i.e.
cross sections remain plane.
This assumption is
particularly true for the most
common case of a slender
beam which has a small depth
compared with its length.

Fx 0

Fx 0
Assume the shear stress is uniformly distributed over the width t at the
section where the shear stress is determined.

( ) Fx 0

dA

M dM
M

ydA A
I

I
dM

y dA (t dx )
I A

dA (t dx) 0

ydA (t dx) 0

1 dM

y dA
I t dx A

VQ
It

Shear formula

: the shear stress in the member at the point

located a distance y' from the neutral axis
V : the internal resultant shear force

dM
V
dx

Q y dA y A
A

1 dM

y dA
I t dx A

y dA
A

VQ
It

Limitations on the Use of the Shear Formula

I : the moment of inertia of the entire cross-sectional area computed

about the neutral axis
t : the width of the members cross-sectional area, measured at the point
where is to be determined
Q : y dA y A , where A' is the top (or bottom) portion of the
A
members cross-sectional area, defined from the section where t is
measured, and y is the distance to the centroid of A', measured from
the neutral axis.
It is necessary that the material behave in a linear elastic manner and have
a modulus of elasticity that is the same in tension as it is in compression.

Wide-Flange Beam

One of the major assumptions in the shear formula is that the shear
stress is uniformly distributed over the width t at the section where the
shear stress is determined.
, occurs at the edges of the cross section,
The maximum value, max
and its magnitude depends on the ratio b/h (width/depth).
As the b/h ratio increases, the error increases.

accurate in the web

b/h small

40% error
3% error

stress concentration

inaccurate in the flanges

b/h large

A beam having a cross

section with an irregular or
nonrectangular boundary

Shear formula cannot be applied.

Shear formula can

be applied.
tangent to the boundary

EXAMPLE7.1

EXAMPLE7.2

The solid shaft and tube shown in Figure are subjected to the shear force of
4 kN. Determine the shear stress acting over the diameter of each cross
section.

Determine the distribution of the shear stress over the cross section of the
beam shown in Figure.

Rectangular Cross Section

Applying the shear formula

1 h
V y2 b
2
4
VQ

1
It

3
bh b
12

VQ
It

1h
1 h2
h

Q y A y y y b y 2 b
22
2 4
2

The same value can be obtained

directly from the shear formula.
VQ V (h / 4)(bh / 2)

It
1 3
12 bh b
V
1.5 1.5 avg
A

max

6V h 2
y2
3
bh 4

At y h / 2

At the neutral axis, y 0, A bh

max 1.5

6V h 2
y2
3
bh 4

dA b dy

min 0

V
1.5 avg
A

6V h 2
2
y bdy
h / 2 bh 3
4

dA

h/2

h/2

6V h 2
1
3 y y3
3 h / 2
h 4

6V h 2 h h 1 h3 h3
V
h3 4 2 2 3 8 8
When the shear-stress
distribution is integrated
over the cross section, it
yields the resultant shear V.

EXAMPLE7.3
A steel wide-flange beam has the dimensions shown in Figure. If it is
subjected to a shear of V = 80 kN, plot the shear-stress distribution
acting over the beams cross-sectional area.

Typical shear failure of this wooden beam occurred at the support

and through the approximate center of its cross section.

Wide-Flange Beam
A wide-flange beam consists
of two (wide) flanges and a
web.

The web will carry significantly

more of the shear force than the
flanges.

EXAMPLE7.4
The beam shown in Figure is made
from two boards. Determine the
maximum shear stress in the glue
necessary to hold the boards together
along the seam where they are joined.

7.3 Shear Flow in Built-Up Members

Members are built up from several composite parts in order to
achieve a greater resistance to loads.
Fasteners such as nails, bolts, welding material, or glue may be needed
to keep the component parts from sliding relative to one another.
To design fasteners, it is necessary to know the shear force that must
be resisted by the fastener along the members length.
Shear flow q is a measure of the force per unit length along a
longitudinal axis of a beam.

dM
dM
dF
A ydA
I
I

Shear flow q

Fx 0

VQ
I

q : the shear flow, measured as a force per unit length along the beam
V : the internal resultant shear force
I : the moment of inertia of the entire cross-sectional area computed
about the neutral axis
Q : y dA y A , where A' is the cross-sectional area of the segment
A
that is connected to the beam at the juncture where the shear flow is to
be calculated, any y is the distance from the neutral axis to the
centroid of A'.

dF dM Q VQ

t

dx dx I
I

Shear flow formula

Q (t dx )

VQ
I

Single fastener

EXAMPLE7.5

Two fasteners
q
2

The beam is constructed from four boards glued together as shown in

Figure. If it is subjected to a shear of V=850 kN, determine the shear
flow at B and C that must be resisted by the glue.

q
2

Three fasteners
q
q
3
3

q
3

EXAMPLE7.6

EXAMPLE7.7

A box beam is constructed from four boards nailed together as shown in

Figure. If each nail can support a shear force of 30 lb, determine the
maximum spacing s of nails at B and at C so that the beam will support the
force of 80 lb.

Nails having a total shear strength of 40 lb are used in a beam that can be
constructed either as in Case I or as in Case II, in Figure. If the nails are
spaced at 9 in., determine the largest vertical shear that can be supported
in each case so that the fasteners will not fail.

7.4 Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members

Thin-walled members: the wall thickness is small compared with the
height or width of the member.

The shear stress will

not vary much over the
thickness t of the section.

Shear flow q

dF dM Q VQ

dx dx I
I

The shear stress is constant over the

thickness t of the section.

dF dA (t dx) qdx

q t

From q

VQ
I

and

VQ
It

Direction of the shear flow

Q y A

The shear force V must act

along an axis of symmetry or

principal centroidal axis of
inertia for the cross section.

Flange
q

V t d b

x linear
2I 2

(qmax ) f

V t db
4I

Web
q

Vt db 1 d 2
y 2

I 2 2 4

parabolic

Vt db d 2
(qmax ) w

I 2
8

Q y A d / 2 ((b / 2) x)t
VQ V d / 2 ((b / 2) x)t

q
I
I
V t d b

x linear
2I 2

d
1d

(bt ) y y t y
2
2
2
2

btd 1 d 2
t
y2
2 2 4

VQ Vt db 1 d 2

y 2
I
I 2 2 4

parabolic

Ff qdx

b/2

Vtd b

x dx
2I 2

V t db 2
16 I

V t db 2
b
1
or Ff (qmax ) f
2

16 I

Vt db 1 d 2
y 2 dy

d / 2 I

2 2 4

Fw qdy

d /2

1 d2
1
Vt db
y
y y3
2 4
3
I 2

Vt d
1
2b d
4I
3
2

d /2

d / 2

V t d2
1
Fw
2b d
4I
3
2
1
d 1
I 2 bt 3 bt td 3
2 12
12

Neglecting the first term, since the

thickness of each flange is small, we get
1
td 2
I
2b d
4
3

Fw V

Important Remarks
(1) The value of q changes over the cross section, since Q will be different
for each area segment A for which it is determined. In particular, q will
vary linearly along segments (flanges) that are perpendicular to the
direction of V, and parabolically along segments (web) that are inclined or
parallel to V.
(2) q will always act parallel to the walls of the member, since the section
on which q is calculated is taken perpendicular to the walls.
(3) The directional sense of q is such that the shear appears to flow
through the cross section, inward at the beams top flange, combining
and then flowing downward through the web, since it must contribute
to the shear force V, and then separating and flowing outward at the
bottom flange.

EXAMPLE7.8
The thin-walled box beam in figure is subjected to a shear of 10 kip.
Determine the variation of the shear flow throughout the cross section.

Symmetry prevails about an axis that is collinear with V, and as a result,

q flows in a direction such that it will provide the necessary vertical force
components equivalent to V and yet also satisfy the horizontal force
equilibrium requirements for the cross section.

 8
Combined Loadings
The offset column supporting
this sign is subjected to the
combined loadings of normal
force, shear force, bending
moment and torsion.

8.1 Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

The offset hanger supporting this ski gondola is subjected to the combined
loadings of axial force and bending moment.

Thin wall refers to a vessel having an inner-radius-towall-thickness ratio of 10 or more (r / t 10) .

When r / t 10 , the results of a thin-wall analysis will
predict a stress that is approximately 4% less than the actual
maximum stress in the vessel.
For larger r / t this error will be even smaller.
The stress distribution throughout the thickness of thinwalled pressure vessels will not vary significantly, so we will
assume that it is uniform or constant.
The pressure in the vessel is understood to be the gauge
pressure, since it measures the pressure above atmosphere
pressure, which is assumed to exist both inside and outside
the vessels wall.

tension

Cylindrical Vessels
Normal stresses 1 in the
circumferential or hoop direction

Normal stresses 2 in the

longitudinal or axial direction

tension

Cylindrical pressure vessels, such as this gas tank, have semi-spherical end
caps rather than flat ones in order to reduce the stress in the tank.

circumferential or hoop stress

1

longitudinal or axial stress

Fx 0

Fy 0

2 1 (t dy ) p (2r dy ) 0

2 (2 rt ) p ( r 2 ) 0

pr
t

pr
2t

1 : the normal stress in hoop direction, assumed

2 : the normal stress in longitudinal direction,

to be constant throughout the wall of the

cylinder, and subjects the material to tension
p : the internal gauge pressure developed by the
contained gas or fluid
r : the inner radius of the cylinder
t : the thickness of the wall (r / t 10)

assumed to be constant throughout the wall of

the cylinder, and subjects the material to tension
p : the internal gauge pressure developed by the
contained gas or fluid
r : the inner radius of the cylinder
t : the thickness of the wall (r / t 10)

 1 2 2

hoop stress > longitudinal stress

Spherical Vessels

Fy 0

2 (2 rt ) p ( r 2 ) 0

the same result as that obtained for the

longitudinal stress in the cylindrical pressure vessel
the stress is the same regardless of the orientation
of the hemispheric free-body diagram.

pr
2t

Shown is the barrel of a shotgun which was clogged with debris just
before firing. Gas pressure from the charge increased the circumferential
stress within the barrel enough to cause the rupture.

EXAMPLE 8.1
A cylindrical pressure vessel has an inner diameter of 4 ft and a thickness of
in. Determine the maximum internal pressure it can sustain so that neither its
circumferential nor its longitudinal stress component exceeds 20 ksi. Under the
same conditions, what is the maximum internal pressure that a similar-size
spherical vessel can sustain?

8.2 State of Stress Caused

by Combined Loadings
Most often, the cross section of a member is subjected to
several of the types of loadings simultaneously, an internal
axial force, a shear force, a bending moment and a torsional
moment.
The method of superposition can be used to determine the
resultant stress distribution caused by the loads, provided a
linear relationship exists between the stress and the loads and
the geometry of the member should not undergo significant
change when the loads are applied.

EXAMPLE 8.2
A force of 150 lb is applied to the edge of the member shown in Figure.
Neglect the weight of the member and determine the state of stress at
points B and C.

This chimney is subjected to the

combined loading of wind and
weight. It is important to investigate
the tensile stress in the chimney
since masonry is weak in tension.

EXAMPLE 8.3
The tank in Figure has an inner radius of 24 in. and a thickness of 0.5 in. It
3
is filled to the top with water having a specific weight of w 62.4 lb/ft .
3
If it is made of steel having a specific weight of st 490 lb/ft , determine
the state of stress at point A. The tank is open at the top.

EXAMPLE 8.4
The member shown in Figure has a rectangular cross section.
Determine the state of stress that the loading produces at point C.

EXAMPLE 8.5
The rectangular block of negligible weight in Figure is subjected to a
vertical force of 40 kN, which is applied to its corner. Determine the
normal-stress distribution acting on a section through ABCD.

EXAMPLE 8.6
A rectangular block has a negligible weight and is subjected to a vertical
force P, in Figure. (a) Determine the range of values for the eccentricity
ey of the load along the y axis so that it does not cause any tensile stress in
the block. (b) Specify the region on the cross section where P may be
applied without causing a tensile stress in the block.

Here is an example of where combined axial and bending stress can occur.

EXAMPLE 8.7
The solid rod shown in Figure has a radius of 0.75 in. If it is subjected
to the force of 500 lb, determine the state of stress at point A.

EXAMPLE 8.8
The solid rod shown in Figure has a radius of 0.75 in. If it is subjected
to the force of 800 lb, determine the state of stress at point A.

 9
Stress Transformation
These turbine blades are subjected to a complex pattern of stress.
For design it is necessary to determine where and in what direction
the maximum stress occurs.

9.1 Plane-Stress Transformation

General state of stress

Plane stress

Six independent normal and

shear stress components in a
general stress state

( x , y , z , xy , yz , zx )

xy yx
yz zy
zx xz

(three-dimensional view)

(two-dimensional view)

Engineers frequently make approximations or simplifications of the

loadings on a body in order that the stress produced in a structural member
or mechanical element can be analyzed in a single plane. When this is the
case, the material is said to be subjected to plane stress.

 xy
A cos

x
A

A sin
The state of plane stress at the point is uniquely represented
by three components acting on an element that has a specific
orientation at the point.

Fx 0

Fy 0

xy

EXAMPLE9.1

The state of plane at a point on the surface of the airplane fuselage is

represented on the element oriented as shown in figure. Represent the
state of stress at the point on an element that is oriented 30 clockwise
from the position shown.

A sin

A cos

Fy 0

Fx 0

xy

9.2 General Equations of Plane-Stress

Transformation
y
y

A normal or shear stress component is positive provided it

acts in the positive coordinate direction on the positive face
of the element, or it acts in the negative coordinate direction
on the negative face of the element.

Sign Convention

Positive normal stress

acts outward from all faces

and positive shear stress
acts upward on the righthand face of the element.

x
x

Positive Sign Convention

Normal and Shear Stress Components

y
x

y
x

Right-handed coordinate systems

The angle is measured from the positive x to
the positive x axis.

Fy 0

Fx 0

xy A xy A sin sin y A sin cos

x A xy A sin cos y A sin sin

xy A cos sin x A cos cos 0

x x cos2 y sin 2 xy 2 sin cos

x x cos 2 y sin 2 xy 2 sin cos

xy y x sin cos xy cos 2 sin 2

xy A cos cos x A cos sin 0

xy y x sin cos xy cos2 sin 2

By using sin 2 2sin cos

sin 2 1 cos 2 / 2

x y

xy

x y
2

x y
2

cos 2 1 cos 2 / 2

cos 2 xy sin 2

sin 2 xy cos 2

By substituting

90

x y
2

x y
2

cos 2 xy sin 2

EXAMPLE 9.2
The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the element shown in
Figure. Determine the state of stress at the point on another element
oriented 30 clockwise from the position shown.

9.3 Principal Stresses and Maximum

In-Plane Shear Stress
In-Plane Principal Stresses
To determine the maximum and minimum normal stress, we must
differentiate x with respect to and set the result equal to zero.

x y
d x

2sin 2 2 xy cos 2 0
2
d
the orientation p of the planes of maximum and minimum
normal stress

tan 2 p

tan 2 p

For p1

x y
cos 2 p1

tan 2 p

x y / 2

x y
2

xy
2

For p 2
2

x y
2

xy
2

p1 and p 2

x y / 2

xy

sin 2 p1 xy

xy

xy

x y / 2

sin 2 p 2 xy

x y
2

xy
2

x y
cos 2 p 2

x y
2

xy
2

For p1

x'y'

1,2

x y
2

xy
2

This particular set of values are called the in-plane principal stresses, and the
corresponding planes on which they act are called the principal planes of stress.

x y
2

sin 2 xy cos 2
2

xy

x y
2

xy
2

x y
xy

In-plane principal stresses

x y

x y

For p 2

x y
2

xy
2

x' y' 0

No shear stress acts on the principal planes

Maximum In-Plane Shear Stress

The orientation of an element that is subjected to maximum shear
stress on its faces can be determined by taking the derivative of xy
with respect to and setting the result equal to zero.

d xy
d

The orientation s of the planes of maximum shear stress

The cracks in this concrete beam were caused by tension stress, even
though the beam was subjected to both an internal moment and shear.
The stress-transformation equations can be used to predict the direction
of the cracks, and the principal normal stresses that caused them.

tan 2 s

( x y ) / 2

xy

s1 and s 2

Maximum In-Plane Shear Stress

tan 2 s

( x y ) / 2

xy

max

in plane

x y

2

2
xy

A normal stress on the planes of maximum in-plane shear stress

avg

The planes for maximum shear stress can be determined by

orienting an element 45 from the position of an element that

defines the planes of principal stress.

EXAMPLE 9.3
The state of plane stress at a failure point on the shaft is shown on the
element in Figure. Represent this stress state in terms of the principal
stresses.

Notice how the failure plane is at an

angle due to tearing of the material.

x y
2

EXAMPLE 9.4
The state of plane stress at a point on a body is represented on the element
shown in Figure. Represent this stress in terms of the maximum in-plane
shear stress and associated average normal stress.

EXAMPLE 9.5
When the torsional loading T is applied to the bar in Figure. It produces a
state of pure shear stress in the material. Determine (a) the maximum inplane shear stress and the associated average normal stress, and (b) the
principal stress.

Ductile material
Fail due to shear stress

Fail due to tensile stress

Brittle material

EXAMPLE 9.6
When the axial loading P is applied to the bar in Figure, it produces a tensile
stress in the material. Determine (a) the principal stress and the (b)
maximum in-plane shear stress and associated average normal stress.

Brittle material
Fail due to normal stress

Fail due to shear stress

Ductile material

9.4 Mohrs Circle - Plane Stress

The parameter can be eliminated by squaring each equation

and adding the equations together.
2

x y
x y
2
2
x
xy
xy
2
2

x avg
where avg
x

x y

xy

x y
2

x y
x
2

x y
2

cos 2 xy sin 2

x2y R 2

x y

A circle having a radius R

and center on the axis
at point ( avg , 0)

2
2

x y
2
R
xy
2

sin 2 xy cos 2

x y
2
2
xy
xy
2

x y
xy xy

90

90

G ( y , xy )

Mohrs Circle

x x
xy xy

A( x , xy )

Reference point

P ( x , xy )

B (1 , 0)
D ( 2 , 0)

Principal stress

Stress on arbitrary plane

A( x , xy )

E ( avg , ( xy ) max )

A( x , xy )

F ( avg , ( xy ) max )

Positive sign convention

EXAMPLE 9.7

Maximum in-plane shear stress

EXAMPLE 9.7

Due to the applied loading, the element at point A on the solid shaft in
Figure is subjected to the state of stress shown. Determine the
principal stresses acting at this point.

12 ksi

Due to the applied loading, the element at point A on the solid shaft in
Figure is subjected to the state of stress shown. Determine the
principal stresses acting at this point.

EXAMPLE 9.8
The state of plane stress at a point is shown on the element in Figure.
Determine the maximum in-plane shear stresses at this point.

EXAMPLE 9.9
The state of plane stress at a point is shown on the element in
Figure. Represent this state of stress on an element oriented 30
counterclockwise from the position shown.

EXAMPLE 9.8
The state of plane stress at a point is shown on the element in Figure.
Determine the maximum in-plane shear stresses at this point.

EXAMPLE 9.9
The state of plane stress at a point is shown on the element in
Figure. Represent this state of stress on an element oriented 30
counterclockwise from the position shown.

*9.5 Stress in Shafts Due to Axial

Load and Torsion

EXAMPLE 9.12
An axial force of 900 N and a torque of 2.50 N . m are applied to
the shaft as shown in Figure. If the shaft has a diameter of 40 mm,
determine the principal stresses at a point P on its surface.

Occasionally circular shafts are subjected to the combined effects

of both an axial load and torsion. Provided the material remains
linear elastic, and is only subjected to small deformations, then we
can use the principle of superposition to obtain the resultant stress
in the shaft due to both of these loadings.

*9.6 Stress Variations Throughout

a Prismatic Beam

Shear stress distribution

Bending stress distribution

Bending stress

stress trajectories for cantilevered beam

Shear stress

x-y stress components

principal stress

EXAMPLE 9.13
The beam shown in Figure is subjected to the distributed loading of
w = 120 kN/m. Determine the principal stresses in the beam at point
P, which lies at the top of the web. Neglect the size of the fillets and
stress concentrations at this point. I = 67.4(10-6) m4.

 10
Strain Transformation

Complex stresses developed within this airplane wing are analyzed

from strain gauge data.

Shear strains cause a change in

its shape.

Normal strains cause a change

in volume.

(1 x )x (1 y )y (1 z )z
Undeformed element

xy

yz

Undeformed element

Deformed element

Deformed element

xz

10.1 Plane-Strain
A plain-strained element is subjected to two components of
normal strain, x , y , and one component of shear strain, xy .

Shear strain

Normal strain
(change in length)

Normal strain

xy

(relative rotation of two

adjacent sides of the element)

(change in length)

x , y , does not
cause plane strain in the x-y plane
since z 0 (Poisson effect).
Since shear stress and shear strain
are not affected by Poissons ratio, a
condition of xz yz 0
requires xz yz 0 .
Plane stress,

The rubber specimen is constrained

between the two fixed supports, and so
it will undergo plane strain when loads
are applied to it in the horizontal plane.

10.2 General Equations of Plane-Strain

Transformation
Sign Convention

Normal strains x and y are

positive if they cause elongation
along the x and y axes,
respectively.
The shear strain xy is
positive if the interior angle
AOB becomes smaller than 90.

Before deformation
Positive sign convention

x x dx cos y dy sin

dy dx sin

y x dx sin y dy cos

x x dx cos y dy sin xy dy cos

y x dx sin y dy cos xy dy sin

x
dx

Normal strain y

dx dx cos

Shear strain xy

Normal strain x

x cos2 y sin 2 xy sin cos

y / dx
x y sin cos xy sin 2
Substituting 90 for
x y sin 90 cos 90 xy sin 2 90

x y cos sin xy cos2

 x y
2 x y sin cos xy cos 2 sin 2

Using sin 2 2sin cos , cos 2 1 cos 2 / 2

sin 2 cos 2 1

x y
2

x y

xy

x y

2
2

cos 2

xy
2

sin 2

x y
2

x y
2

xy

x y

x y
2

x y
2

cos 2 xy sin 2
cos 2 xy sin 2

sin 2 xy cos 2

Plane-strain transformation
x
y

xy

x y
2
x y
2

x y
2
x y

x y

2
2

cos 2
cos 2

xy
2

xy
2

sin 2

x y
2

x y
2

xy

x
cos 2

xy
2

sin 2

Principal Strains
The similarity between two
transformation equations

x x
y y
x x
y y

xy

sin 2

xy

cos 2
sin 2
2

Positiveshear
shearstrain
strain
Positive

Substituting 90 for into

xy

cos 2
sin 2
2

Plane-stress transformation
x

Positive normal strain

xy

The elements deformation is represented by normal stains,

with no shear strain. When this occurs, the normal strains are
referred to as principal strains.
If the material is isotropic, the axes along which these
strains occur coincide with the axes that define the planes of
principal stress.

tan 2 p

xy
2

xy
2

1,2

x y
2

xy
x y

x y xy

2
2

Maximum In-Plane Shear Strain

x y
tan 2 s

xy

max

in plane

x y xy

2
2

avg

x y
2

EXAMPLE 10.1
A differential element of material at a point is subjected to a state of plane
strain x 500(10 6 ), y 300(10 6 ), xy 200(10 6 ) , which tends to
distort the element as shown in Figure. Determine the equivalent strains
acting on an element of the material oriented at the point, clockwise 30
from the original position.

Complex stresses are often developed at the joints where vessels

are connected together. The stresses are determined by making
measurements of strain.

EXAMPLE 10.2
A differential element of material at a point is subjected to a state of plane
strain defined by x 350(10 6 ), y 200(106 ), xy 80(10 6 ) , which
tends to distort the element as shown in Figure. Determine the principal strains
at the point and the associated orientation of the element.

EXAMPLE 10.3
A differential element of material at a point is subjected to a state of plane
strain define by x 350(106 ), y 200(106 ), xy 80(106 ) , which
tends to distort the element as shown in Figure. Determine the maximum inplane shear strain at the point and the associated orientation of the element.

10.5 Strain Rosettes

The normal strains at a point on its free

surface are often determined using a cluster

of three electrical-resistance strain gauges.
Since these strains are measured only in
the plane of the gauges, and the body is
stress-free on its surface, the gauges may be
subjected to plane stress but not plane strain.
The out-of-plane displacement caused by
principal normal strains in plane will not
affect the in-plane measurements of the
gauges.

electrical-resistance
strain gauge

a x cos 2 a y sin 2 a xy sin a cos a

b x cos 2 b y sin 2 b xy sin b cos b

c x cos 2 c y sin 2 c xy sin c cos c

x , y , xy
Once x , y , xy are determined,
the transformation equations can be
used to determine the principal inplane strains and the maximum inplane shear strain at the point.

a 0, b 45, c 90

x a
y c

xy 2 b a c

a 0, b 60, c 120

x a
1
2 b 2 c a
3
2

b c
3

y
xy

EXAMPLE 10.8
The state of strain at point A on the bracket in Figure (a) is measured using
the strain rosette shown in Figure (b). Due to the loadings, the reading from
the gauges give a 60(106 ), b 135(106 ), c 264(106 ) . Determine
the in-plane principal strains at the point and the directions in which they act.

Typical electrical resistance 45 strain rosette.

10.6 MaterialProperty Relationships

Generalized Hookes Law

By superposition
x x x x

Homogeneous and isotropic

Linear-elastic E , lat long

x
E

z
E

Generalized
Hookes Law
for normal
strains

1
x y z

1
x y z

E
1
y y x z
E
1
z z x y
E

Homogeneous and isotropic materials

Linear-elastic behavior
Small deformations

Relationship Involving E , , and G

For pure shear x y z 0

x y z 0
Recall 1,2

xy

1
xy
G

yz

1
yz
G

xz

x y

tan 2 p

1
xz
G

x y

2

2
xy

xy

x y / 2

Principal stresses
max xy

Generalized Hookes Law for shear strains

at p1 45

min xy

For x y axes

1
x y z xy 1
E
E

x max
1,2

Recall

x y
2

x y xy

2 2

x y 0

1 max

xy
2

From (1) and (2)

xy
E

1
G

xy
2

xy
2G

E
2 1

(2)

Dilatation and Bulk Modulus

(1)

V 1 x 1 y 1 z dxdydz dxdydz
Neglecting the products of the strains since the
strains are very small.

V x y z dxdydz

Dilatation or Volumetric strain

V
x y z
e
dV
Using the generalized Hookes law

1 2
x y z
E

By comparison, the shear strains will not change the volume of the
element, rather they will only change its rectangular shape

Hydrostatic loading
When a volume element of material is subjected to the uniform pressure p
of a liquid, the pressure on the body is the same in all directions and is
always normal to any surface on which it acts.
Shear stresses are not present, since the shear resistance of a liquid is zero.

x y z p

E
3 1 2

p
e

1
so k E
3
For rigid materials which did not
change its volume V 0 so k

Similar to Hookes law / E

The theoretical maximum value for

Poissons ratio 0.5 . Also, during
plastic yielding, no actual volume
change of the material.

E
3 1 2

Bulk modulus or
volume modulus of elasticity

For most metals

p
E

3 1 2
e

Bulk modulus

Hydrostatic stress

EXAMPLE10.9
The bracket in Example 10-8 is made of steel for which Est = 200 GPa,
st 0.3 . Determine the principal stresses at point A.

EXAMPLE10.10
The copper bar in Figure is subjected to a uniform loading along its edges
as shown. If it has a length a = 300 mm, width b = 50 mm, and thickness
t = 20 mm before the load is applied, determine its new length, width, and
thickness after application of the load. Take Ecu = 120 Gpa, 0.34 .

EXAMPLE10.11
If the rectangular block shown in Figure is subjected to a uniform pressure
of p = 20 psi, determine the dilatation and the change in length of each side.
Take E = 600 psi, 0.45 .

 12
Deflection of Beams
and Shafts
If the curvature of this pole is measure, it is then possible to determine
the bending stress developed within it.

12.1 The Elastic Curve

The deflection diagram of the longitudinal axis that passes through
the centroid of each cross-sectional area of the beam is called the
elastic curve.
It is necessary to know how the slop or displacement is restricted
at various types of supports

If the moment diagram is known, it will be easy to construct

the elastic curve.

maximum
displacement

maximum
displacement
Slope = 0

maximum
displacement

Slope = 0

Normal strain along ds

Moment-Curvature Relationship

ds ds
ds

ds ( y )d

ds dx d

straight beam
symmetric cross section
homogeneous
linear-elastic

maximum
displacement

( y ) d d
y

Homogeneous and linear-elastic E

My
Flexure formula
I
My

EI

M
EI

radius of
curvature

M
EI

Relationship between the internal moment

and the radius of curvature

: the radius of curvature at a specific point on the elastic curve

(1/ is referred to as the curvature )
M : the resultant internal moment in the beam at the point where is to
be determined
E : the materials modulus of elasticity
I : the beams moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area computed
about the neutral axis

M ( EI )

EI = Flexural rigidity

12.2 Slope and Displacement

by Integration

Ey

Curvature of an Elastic Line

lim
s

s 0

2 1

The moment of inertia of this bridge girders vary along its length and
this must be taken into account when computing its deflection.

s ds

d dx
dx ds

d dx
dx ds

d
?
dx

tan

d d 2 y

2 1 (1 tan )
dx dx 2

2 1

dx

dx2 dy 2

1/ 2

1
dx 2 dy 2

2
dx
1

1/ 2

1/ 2

1 dy / dx 2

Elastic curve v f ( x)

Neglect

d 2 y / dx 2
d d dx

ds dx ds 1 dy / dx 2 3 / 2

2 1

dx

ds

ds 2 dx 2 dy 2
ds ( dx 2 dy 2 )1/ 2

d
d 2 y / dx 2

dx 1 dy / dx 2

dx
?
ds

d dx
dx ds

d
d2y
tan
dx
dx 2

dy
dx

dy / dx

d d 2 y

ds dx 2

d 2 v / dx 2
3/ 2

1 (dv / dx)
d 2 v / dx 2
2

1 (dv / dx)
2

and

3/ 2

M
EI

nonlinear second-order
differential equation

d 2v M

dx 2 EI

Assume dv / dx is very small

dM / dx V

M
EI

; dV / dx w

d d 2v
EI
V ( x)
dx dx 2
d 2 d 2v
EI
w( x )
dx 2 dx 2

 Assume the flexural rigidity EI is constant along

the length of the beam

d 4v
EI 4 w( x )
dx

Four constants of integration

d 3v
EI 3 V ( x)
dx

Three constants of integration

EI

d 2v
M ( x)
dx 2

continuous

cont.

continuous

Two constants of integration

dv
tan
dx

Sign Convention
and Coordinates

Elastic curve

The design of a roof system requires a careful consideration of deflection.

For example, rain can accumulate on areas of the roof, which then causes
ponding, leading to further deflection, then further ponding, and finally
possible failure of the roof.

Continuity Conditions

Boundary conditions

v1 (a ) v2 (a )

1 (a) 2 (a)

v1 (a) v2 (b)

1 (a ) 2 (b)

EXAMPLE 12.1
The cantilevered beam shown in Figure is subjected to a vertical
load P at its end. Determine the equation of the elastic curve. EI is
constant.

EXAMPLE 12.2
The simply supported beam shown in Figure supports the triangular
distributed loading. Determine its maximum deflection. EI is constant.

EXAMPLE 12.3
The simply supported beam shown in Figure is subjected to the
concentrated force P. Determine the maximum deflection of the beam.
EI is constant.

12.5 Method of Superposition

EXAMPLE 12.4
The beam in Figure is subjected to a load P at its end. Determine the
displacement at C. EI is constant.

d 4v
EI 4 w( x )
dx
Two necessary requirements for applying the
principle of superposition
The load w(x) is linearly related to the deflection v(x).
The load is assumed not to change significantly the original
geometry of the beam or shaft.
The deflection for a series of separate loadings acting on a
beam may be superimposed.

The resultant deflection at any point on this beam can be determined

from the superposition of the deflections caused by each of the separate
loadings acting on the beam.

EXAMPLE 12.13
Determine the displacement at point C and the slope at the support A of
the beam shown in figure. EI is constant.

EXAMPLE 12.15
Determine the displacement at the end C of the cantilever beam shown
in figure. EI is constant.

EXAMPLE 12.14
Determine the displacement at the end C of the overhanging beam
shown in figure. EI is constant.

EXAMPLE 12.16
The steel bar shown in figure is supported by two springs at its ends A
and B. Each spring has a stiffness of k = 15 kip/ft and is originally
unstretched. If the bar is loaded with a force of 3 kips at point C,
determine the vertical displacement of the force. Neglect the weight of
the bar and take Est 29000 ksi, I 12 in 4.

 13
Buckling of Columns

The columns used to support this water tank are braced at their
mid-height in order to reduce their chance of buckling.

13.1 Critical Load

Whenever a member is designed, it is necessary that it
satisfy specific strength, deflection, and stability
requirements.
Some members may be subjected to compressive
loadings, and if these members are long and slender, the
loading may be large enough to cause the member to
deflect laterally or sidesway.
Long slender members subjected to an
axial compressive force are called columns,
and the lateral deflection that occurs is
called buckling.
Quite often the buckling of a column can
lead to a sudden and dramatic failure of a
structure or mechanism.

The maximum axial load that a column can

support which it is on the verge of buckling is
called the critical load Pcr .
Any additional loading will cause the column
to buckle and therefore deflect laterally.

Since is small
L
( )
2

Driven
force

tan

L
2
2 P tan 2 P F

2 P k
2

driven force > resisting force

unstable
kL
equilibrium
4

kL
neutral
4 equilibrium

F k k

Resisting
force

2 P k
L
( )
2

L
2

kL
P
4
Since Pcr is independent of the (small) displacement
of the bars, any slight disturbance given to the mechanism
will not cause it to move further out of equilibrium, nor
will it be restored to its original position.

13.2 Ideal Column with Pin Supports

Critical load

kL
stable
equilibrium
4

2 P k
2

driven force < resisting force

Ideal Column
Perfectly straight before
loading
Homogeneous material
The load is applied through
the centroid of the cross section.
The column buckles or bends
in a single plane.

A small lateral force will cause the column

Some slender pin-connected members used in moving machinery, such as

this short link, are subjected to compressive loads and thus act as columns

to remain in the deflected position when F is

removed.

Assumptions
The slope of the elastic curve is small.

The deflections occur only by bending.

d 2v
EI 2 M
dx

By using the method of sections

(1) x 0, v 0

d 2v
EI 2 Pv
dx

C2 0

(2) x L, v 0

P
C1 sin
L 0
EI

d 2v P
v 0
dx 2 EI
A homogeneous, second-order, linear
differential equation with constant coefficients

n 2 2 EI
L2

2 EI

If C1 0, then v 0 trivial solution

P
L 0
If C1 0, sin
EI

Pcr

P
L n
EI

4 Pcr
unstable
equilibrium

n 1, 2,3,...

The smallest value of P (when n 1 )

Pcr

Boundary conditions

M Pv

in the deflected position

P
sin
L 0
EI

d 2v P
v 0
dx 2 EI
The general solution
P
P
v C1 sin
x C2 cos
x
EI
EI

neutral
equilibrium

C1

Euler load

L2
The corresponding buckled shape
x
v C1 sin
L

C1 sin

n 1

2 x
L

Critical load

stable
equilibrium
P 4 Pcr
n2

The critical load is independent of the strength of the material; rather it

depends only on the columns dimensions (I and L) and the materials
stiffness or modulus of elasticity E.

 A column will buckle about the principal

axis of the cross section having the least
moment of inertia (the weakest axis).

Pcr

2 EI

Pcr

2 EI
2

The buckling equation for a pin-supported

long slender column

Pcr : critical or maximum axial load on the column just before it begins to
buckle. This load must not cause the stress in the column to exceed the
proportional limit
E : modulus of elasticity for the material
I : least moment of inertia for the columns cross-sectional area
L : unsupported length of the column, whose ends are pinned

L2

I a a I b b
(Pcr ) a a (Pcr )b b

For the purpose of design

The column will buckle about the a-a axis.

I A r2

Pcr

2 E ( Ar 2 )
L2

2E
P

2
A cr ( L / r )

r : radius of gyration

cr

2E
( L / r )2

L/r = slenderness ratio

(geometric ratio)

cr : critical stress, which is an average stress in the column just before the
column buckles. This stress is an elastic stress and therefore cr Y
E : modulus of elasticity for the material
L : unsupported length of the column, whose ends are pinned
r : smallest radius of gyration of the column, determined
from r I / A , where I is the least moment of inertia of the
columns cross-sectional area A

Typical interior steel pipe columns used to support

the roof of a single story building.

elastic buckling cr

2E
( L / r )2

valid only for critical stresses

below the materials yield point

cr Y

EXAMPLE 13.1
The A-36 steel W8 31 member shown in figure is to be used as
a pin-connected column. Determine the largest axial load it can
support before it either begins to buckle or the steel yields.

( L / r ) smallest

13.3 Columns Having Various Types

of Supports

Assumptions
The slope of the elastic curve is small.
The deflections occur only by bending.
d 2v
EI 2 M
dx

By using the method of sections

M P( v)
d 2v
P ( v)
dx 2
d 2v P
P
v

EI
dx 2 EI
EI

The tubular columns used to support

this water tank have been braced at
three locations along their length to
prevent them from buckling.

in the deflected position

A nonhomogeneous, second-order, linear

differential equation with constant coefficients

d 2v P
P

v
2
EI
EI
dx
The solution consists of both a
complementary and particular solution.

The deflection curve

P
P
v C1 sin
x C2 cos
x
EI
EI
Boundary conditions

(3) x L, v

(1) x 0, v 0

C2

P
P
dv
P
P
C1
cos
sin
x C2
x
dx
EI
EI
EI
EI

(2) x 0, dv / dx 0

C1 0

n 2 2 EI
n 1,3,5,...
4 L2
n x

v 1 cos
2 L

The smallest value of P (when n 1 )

Pcr

2 EI
4 L2

v 1 cos
2L

P
v 1 cos
x
EI

P
L 0
EI

cos

If 0, then v 0

trivial solution

P
cos
L 0
EI

P
n
L
2
EI

Effective Length
Euler formula Pcr

2 EI
L2

L is the unsupported distance between

the point of zero moment.
This distance between the zero-moment
points is called the columns effective
length Le .

M 0

M 0

Effective-length factor K

Pcr

Le KL

2 EI

Euler formula

( KL) 2

2 EI

Pcr

( KL) 2

or

cr

2E
( KL / r ) 2

Effective slenderness ratio: (KL/r)

EXAMPLE 13.2
A W6 15 steel column is 24 ft long and is fixed at its ends as shown in Figure.
Its load-carrying capacity is increased by bracing it about the y-y (weak) axis
using struts that are assumed to be pin-connected to its midheight. Determine
the load it can support so that the column does not buckle nor the material
exceed the yield stress. Take Est 29(103 ) ksi and Y 60 ksi .

EXAMPLE 13.3
The aluminum column is fixed at its bottom and is braced at its top by
cables so as to prevent movement at the top along the x axis as shown
in figure. If it is assumed to be fixed at its base, determine the largest
allowable load P that can be applied. Use a factor of safety for buckling
of F.S.=3.0. Take Eal 70 GPa, Y 215 MPa, A 7.5(10-3 ) m 2 ,
I x 61.3(106 ) m 4 , I y 23.2(106 ) m 4 .