Agitated vessel

ERT 216 HEAT & MASS TRANSFER

1
bblee@UniMAP

1. Introduction
2. Mixing Terminology
3. Important Heat Transfer
Considerations
4. Heat Transfer in Agitated
Vessels
5. Heat Transfer Surfaces and
Effective Areas
6. Jackets and Other Applied
Devices
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7. Internal Pipe Coils

8. External Auxiliary Devices
9. Process-Side Heat-Transfer
Correlations
10.Service-Side Heat-Transfer
Correlations

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Many processing operations depend

for their success on the effective
agitation and mixing of fluids.
Agitation and mixing are not
synonymous.
Agitation:
The induced motion of a material in
a specified way, usually in a
circulatory pattern inside some
sort of container.
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 Mixing:

The random distribution into and

through one another, of two or
more initially separate phases.
Add

Agitate water
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Agitation & Mixing

Agitation and mixing:

Liquids
Dispersion of liquids and gasses into
other liquids
Suspension of solids in liquids.
Purposes of agitation:
1.Suspending solid particles.
2.Blending miscible liquids, (e.g.
methyl alcohol & water)
3.Dispersing a gas through the liquid
in the form of small bubbles.

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4. Dispersing a second liquid, immiscible with

the first, to form an emulsion or suspension
of fine drops.
5. Promoting heat transfer between the liquid
and a coil or jacket.

Agitated vessels:
Liquids are often agitated in tank or vessel,
usually cylindrical in form with a vertical axis.
The top of the vessel may be open to the air
or closed.
The proportions of the tank vary widely,
depending on the nature of the agitation
problem.
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The tank
bottom is
rounded, not
flat, to
eliminate sharp
corners or
regions into
which fluid
currents would
not penetrate.
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Fig 1: Typical
agitation process
vessel.
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The liquid depth is approximately

equal to the tank diameter.
An impeller is mounted on an
overhung shaft (a shaft supported
from above).
The shaft is driven by a motor,
sometimes directly connected to the
shaft but more often connected to it
through a speed-reducing gearbox.
Accessories: inlet & outlet lines,
coils, jackets, thermometer etc.

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The impeller causes the liquid to

circulate through the vessel and
eventually return to the impeller.
Baffles are included to reduce
tangential motion.

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Heat transfer is an important

consideration when the fluid motion
in the vessel is in the laminar flow
regime.
It influences the design and
operation of agitated process vessels
such as reactors, evaporators, and
crystallizers.
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 Heating and cooling of fluids in these

vessels are necessary to:
Remove the heat of reaction
Provide uniform temperature in a
vessel.
Provide accurate temperature control
in a given process.
Agitation improves heat transfer by its
effect on the process-side (inside the
process vessel) heat-transfer resistance
(the controlling resistance).
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 The design challenge is to select and

design an agitation system to minimize
the process-side heat-transfer
resistance while meeting other mixing
requirements.
Proximity and nonproximity impellers are
the two major designs used in mixing
applications.
Proximity relates to distance from the
vessel wall.
Fig. 2 (a) shows a nonproximity impeller
typically used for turbulent conditions.
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Its blades are not close to the vessel wall.

Close proximity agitators like anchors
and helical ribbons, illustrated in Fig. 2 (b,
c), are typically used for high-viscosity
applications.
Fig 2:

Types of
mixing
impellers
for heattransfer
applications

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An agitated vessel may be operated in

either a batch, continuous or semi-batch
mode.
In continuous operations, the typical heattransfer requirement is to maintain a set
process temperature by either adding or
removing heat, depending on the chemical
reaction involved.
In batch operations, the heat-transfer
process can have a number of different
functions at different stages of the
operation.
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Examples of the functions include:

i. Establishment of initial reaction
temperature
ii. Maintenance of a set temperature
iii.Cooling of a product to a final desired
temperature
The heat-transfer coefficient on both
the process (agitated) and service
(jacket) side may change dramatically
during the course of processing, usually as
a result of physical property or chemical
changes.
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 Heat transfer seldom dictates equipment

design.
Process mixing requirements dictate
design for the majority of agitated tank
systems.
Heat transfer is then a necessary
adjunct, and the design objective is to
accommodate a suitable means of
matching the heat-transfer requirements
to other process requirements.
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Surface area for process heat transfer

is made available by means of jackets,
coils, baffles, and plates.
When these fail to adequately meet
process requirements, pumps and external
heat exchangers are commonly used.
Under certain conditions, condensers can
be designed to remove process heat
through the refluxing of a solvent or
reactant.
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 Power Number, Np:

Np is also a measure of the relative drag
of the impeller.
Streamline curved blades, like hydrofoils
and retreatcurve impellers, have less
drag than flat blades; consequently, their
power numbers are lower than those for
flat-blade impellers.
The calculation of power from impeller
diameter, speed, and liquid density is
given by:
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 Flow Number, Nq:

The magnitude of the flow number is a

measure of an impellers ability to
produce flow.
The larger the flow number, the greater
is the flow.
The total impeller flow consists of the
direct discharge flow plus entrained
flow.
Most reported flow numbers include
both flows.
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Total flow (direct+entrained),

m3/s (ft3/s)
Speed,

s-1

Impeller diameter, m (ft)

Mixing time, M:
M, is the time it takes to mix initially
segregated materials to a specified
degree of uniformity.
For example, it takes 60% longer to mix
to 99% uniformity than to mix to only
95%.
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For certain reactions, it is important to

have mixing times shorter than reaction
times.
The Damkohler number, Da, is the ratio
of mixing to reaction times.
Kolmogoroffs
length scale

Initial or local
concentration of B
Molecular diffusivity

Impeller Reynolds number, Re, NRe, and

vessel Reynolds number, Re:
The impeller and vessel Re are the ratios
of inertia to viscous forces.
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They are indicators of flow conditions:

turbulent, laminar, or transitional.
They are used to correlate other
quantities such as the power number, &
the inside heat-transfer coefficients.
Fig A1:
Reynolds
number vs.
power
number for
six turbine
impellers.
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 Fig A1:

A log-log plot of the power number,

Np, vs. the Reynolds number for
several impellers in a fully baffled
vessel.
A few important features are noted
here:
a. In the laminar region (1 Re
10), the power number decreases
linearly with increasing Reynolds
number.
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b. In the transition region (10 Re

10,000), the power number
decreases more gradually, and for
some impellers, it then begins to
increase, while for others, it
continues to decrease with
increasing Reynolds number.
c. In the fully turbulent region (Re
10,000), power numbers are
constant, but design dependent.
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 The impeller Reynolds number is defined

for stirred vessels and given:
2

D N

Re
The power of agitation:
P( kW )

kg 3
NP 3 N s
m
1000

D5 m

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EXAMPLE:
Determine the power needed to agitate a
fluid using a Rushton impeller, given the
specific gravity of the liquid is 1.0, the
tank diameter is 3.0 m, the height of
liquid is 3.0 m, the impeller diameter is
1.0 m, the speed is 1.0 s1, and the liquid
viscosity is 1.0 cP.

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Solution:
Reynolds number:

Re

1.0 1 1000
0.001

=106

Flow is fully turbulent.

The power number for a Rushton impeller,
the top curve in Figure A.1, NP = 5.0
The density = 1000 kg/m3,
3

5.0 1000 1.0 1.0

1000

=5.0 kW
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Micro-Mixing:
It is the smallest scale of mixing.
In terms of dimensions, it is at or below
the Kolmogoroff microscale that can
be calculated mixing is the scale
involved with kinetically controlled
chemical reactions.
Effective micromixing usually requires
high-energy input.

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Kolmogoroff
scale:

Fig A2:Turbulence energy spectrum, with the

Kolmogoroff scale(T) as the length scale.

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Meso-Mixing:
It is used to describe the intermediate
scale of mixing between micro-mixing and
macro-mixing.
More specifically, it is the turbulent
exchange between turbulent impeller
flow and the surrounding fluid.
Macro-Mixing:
It is distributive mixing caused by largescale flows.
It is analogous to convective mixing.
The rapid blending in a stirred vessel is
due to macro-mixing.
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 The following are some of the key issues

to consider for designing a new system or
to troubleshoot an existing one:
[1] Process characteristics:
Is the process continuous, semi-batch, or
batch?
Is an exothermic reaction involved?
Is the heat of reaction known? What is
the magnitude of heat release?
Is there a wall temperature limitation?
(reactivity, purity, fouling)
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Are internal surface area devices

acceptable?
Is temperature control important?
Can desirable heat-transfer rates
be maintained by controlling the
reaction?
Is corrosivity a problem?
Are gases evolved from processing?
If so, can gas release rates be
controlled?
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[2] Batch operations:

What is the minimum level that will be
maintained and its level relative to the
agitator?
Is heat-transfer surface area available at
all stages of processing?
How do the physical properties change
during the course of processing?

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[3] Fouling:
Can any undesirable reactions occur in the
vapor space of the vessel that may
deposit on the upper surface?
Will controlling the wall temperatures
prevent fouling?
Will the process foul the surface of the
vessel or any internals?
Are solids formed upon cooling or in the
course of reaction?
Is the design suitable for cleaning?
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[4] Safety:
Is the heat release due to mixing?
Is there a choice of heat-transfer
media?
Can temporary power loss create a
sudden heat release when power is
restored?

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 The basic heat-transfer equation for heat

transfer between two fluids separated by
a wall:
Temperature
Heat flow,
kW (Btu/h)

Overall heattransfer coefficient,

kW/m2K
(Btu/hft2F)

driving force,
K (F).

Area for heat

transfer, m2
(ft2)

The individual resistances comprising UO

and how it is affected by impeller
selection and surface area.
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bblee@UniMAP

The overall heat-transfer coefficient for a

jacketed vessel can be obtained from the
individual resistances:
Reference Fouling

Thermal
Overall heatarea, m2
Wall
conductivity of (ft2)
transfer
coefficient, thickness, wall W/mK
m (ft) (Btuft/hft2F)
W/m2K
(Btu/hft2F)

Heat-transfer film
coefficient (inside
surface of vessel),
kW/m2K
(Btu/hft2F)

resistance
(inside
jacket)

Fouling
Heat-transfer film Area resistance
coefficient (inside inside (inside
of surface of
jacket), kW/m2K
jacket vessel)
(Btu/hft2F)
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Fig 3: Heattransfer
resistances.
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 In situations where both a jacket and an

internal device are used, the overall
coefficients for each type of surface should be
calculated separately, and the two Qs should
be added to obtain the overall heat-transfer
capability.

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Jackets, internal helical pipe coils, tube

baffles, and plate coil baffles are used
to provide heat-transfer surface area.
The only surface area effective for
heat transfer is that portion that is
wetted by both service and process
fluids.
The effective heat-transfer area for
some items may be determined as follows:
i. Use the total wetted area for plain or
spirally baffled jackets.
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ii. The area between the half-pipes is not totally

effective for heat transfer when using halfpipe coil jackets, usually fabricated from 2-, 3, or 4-in. pipes with typical 3/4-in. spacing.
iii. The total outside wetted area is effective for
internal helical coils:

Total
height
of coil

Number of
Centerline
coil turns diameter of coil
per foot of
helix, ft
coil height
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Jackets form what amounts to a double

wall on the mixing vessel.

Spiral
Half
pipe

Agitation
nozzle
Fig 5: Jacket designs

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Dimpled
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Factors to consider when selecting the

type of jacket to use are listed:
1. Cost:
in terms of cost the designs can be
ranked, from cheapest to most
expensive, as below:
i. simple, no baffles
ii.agitation nozzles
iii.spiral baffle
iv.dimple jacket
v. half-pipe jacket
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2. Heat transfer rate required:

select a spirally baffled or half-pipe
jacket if high rates are required.
3. Pressure:
as a rough guide, the pressure rating
of the designs can be taken as:
i. jackets, up to 10 bar
ii. dimpled jackets, up to 20 bar
iii. half-pipe, up to 70 bar.
[So, half-pipe jackets would be used for
high pressure].
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The plain jacket is the simplest

construction and therefore the lowest
initial cost.
It is suitable for condensing heating
fluids such as steam, but results in very
poor performance using sensible heattransfer fluids.
Large passage areas limit the ability to
create good wall velocities.

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 Installation of agitating nozzles is

recommended if sensible liquid heating or
cooling is to be used with plain jackets.
Nozzles produce liquid jets directing the
inlet jacket fluid in a spiral fashion into
the jacket.
This increases the effective velocity
and turbulence level.
Vendors have information dealing with
their performance and installation.
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[1] Spiral-baffled jacket:

The spiral-plate baffle consists of a spiral
strip welded edgewise to the shell.
This forms a channel that raises the
velocity next to the wall.
The largest drawback to this baffle is
that there will inherently be some
clearance between the edge of the
baffle and the tank wall, allowing fluids
to bypass the spiral passageway.
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[2] Half-pipe jacket:

It consists of a half-pipe section welded to
the vessel wall.
This construction is quite good if high
jacket pressures are required, but it is
also an expensive method, because each
course requires two long welds along each
edge of the cut pipe.
It is suitable for sensible heating/
cooling but not for condensing/
vaporizing fluids.
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Heat-transfer predictability is well

defined, since the geometry is known and
no bypassing is possible.
[3] Dimpled jacket :
It consists of an outer shell having regular
indentations of the shell material.
These dimples are intended to promote
turbulence by creating high local
velocities at the dimple.
Heat-transfer information concerning
dimple-jacketed vessels are proprietary
to the fabricators (little information)
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[4] Other devices:

There are other special devices such as
clamp-on plate coils, weld-on plate coils,
etc.
They are often used when an unjacketed
vessel needs limited heat-transfer
capability.

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[5] Internal devices:

Internal devices comprise coiled pipe (or
tubing), baffles of various types that are
also heat-transfer devices, and sometimes
even the agitator.
All internals interfere with the flow
patterns within the
vessel and likely lead
to the formation of
stagnant regions.

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The use of internal devices needs to be

carefully considered from the standpoint
of harm to good mixing.
If fouling is a problem (known or
suspected), any internals should be
avoided.
Internal devices, of any type, increase
mechanical complexity and maintenance.
It is recommended that internal
connections be welded, not flanged, to
minimize maintenance.
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Internal pipe coils consist of one to three

helical (concentric) coils of pipe located
inside the mixing vessel for sensible
heating/cooling.
The effectiveness of these coils is
directly related to the flow patterns
generated by the agitator.
Considerable area can be added in this
manner, and if all the heat-transfer
capability must be provided within the
mixing vessel itself, this is an effective
means of doing so.
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 Potential difficulties include cleaning,

mechanical integrity (the coil must be
supported), and installation (both weight
and access).
The presence of coils and their support
structures always detracts from mixing
performance.
The recommended geometry for the use
of coils is shown in Fig 6.

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Fig 6:
Recommended
geometry for
internal pipe
coils
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 An external auxiliary heat-transfer

device is usually one of the following:
A standard condenser,
A reflux (or knock-back) condenser,
A sensible heat exchanger through
which the vessel contents are circulated.
These external auxiliary devices are only
required when the heat-transfer
requirements cannot be met by use of
jackets or internal devices.
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 Heat-transfer coefficients on the

agitated side are determined by the same
principles as for any other heat-transfer
process.
Correlations have been developed for
each of the major impeller types.
These are all basically of the same
form, but differ only in the preproportionality constant and values of
the exponents.
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The general form of the correlating equation:

Tank
Viscosity
(Process fluid)
diameter
Viscosity
(Vessel wall)
Nusselt Constant
Reynolds Prandtl
number (geometry
number
number
variations)
The process-side heat-transfer

coefficient (for flat-blade turbines) for

heat transfer to a jacket is based on the
work of Brooks (1959):

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 The basic correlations have been

extended to include more details of the

impeller geometry, such as blade width,
pitch, and number of blades.
As long as the process is in the turbulent
regime, most of these geometrical
variables have little impact on heat
transfer, and their use is not
recommended until details of an agitation
system are selected or in place.
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For agitated vessels:

Agitator
Agitator, Liquid specific-1heat
oC-1
capacity,
J
kg
diameter, m speed, rps
c
a
b
Heat
2
C

h
D
ND

p
v
transfer
C
coefficient
k

k
w
to vessel
Liquid
Liquid thermal
Liquid
wall or coil,
density,
conductivity, viscosity,
-2
o
-1
Wm C
kg/m3
Wm-1 oC-1
Nm-2s.
The values of constant C and the indices a, b and
c depend on the type of agitator, the use of
baffles, and whether the transfer is to the
vessel wall or to coils.
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A general equation that can be used :

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Ackley (1960) suggests use of the

following equation for unbaffled retreatcurve (blade) impellers typically used in
glass-lined vessels:

When the glass-lined vessel is baffled:

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Flat blade paddle, baffled or un-baffled

vessel, transfer to vessel wall, Re < 4000:

Flat blade disc turbine, baffled or unbaffled vessel, transfer to vessel wall, Re
< 400:
Flat blade disc turbine, baffled vessel,
transfer to vessel wall, Re > 400:

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Propeller, 3 blades, transfer to vessel wall,

Re > 5000:
Turbine, flat blades, transfer to coil,
baffled, Re= 2000 - 700,000:

Paddle, flat blades, transfer to coil,

baffled,

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 For proximity impellers (e.g. helical ribbon)

for Re<130, Blazinski (1981) gives:
Vessel diameter, Clearance
Ribbon
Tank
diameter,
m (ft),
m (ft)
pitch,
m
(ft)
(DT - D)/2
m (ft)
Heat-transfer coefficient on the outside coils:

Heat-transfer
coefficient for
outside of coil

Impeller
diameter,
m (ft)

Tube diameter
making up helix,
m (ft)

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These correlations are all of an overall

nature and do not take variation in flow
due to the flow pattern into account, nor
do they consider any local variation in
fluid bulk temperature in the vessel.
If these things are critical to the
application being considered, either
experimentation, CFD (Computational
Fluid Dynamics) modelling, or consultation
with a vendor will be required.
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 A conservative estimate for the

condensing-steam coefficient used in
plain jackets is 5.678 kW/m2K (1000
Btu/hft2F).
Any organic fluid will have a lower value
due mainly to its lower thermal
conductivity.

Bondi (1983) proposes the following

equations for sensible fluid in plain jacket
with no agitating nozzles.
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 Turbulent flow conditions (Re>10 000),

Equivalent
diameter
of the
jacket

The equivalent diameter of the jacket:

The flow area Ax,

Ax is is used to calculate
the velocity (V) in Re.
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 In this case, Reynolds number is

defined as:
All properties pertain to the jacket
fluid
Laminar flow conditions (Re10 000),

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