183221e PDF

Student Affairs and Services in Higher Education:
Global Foundations, Issues and Best Practices

Roger B. Ludeman
Kenneth J. Osfield
Enrique Iglesias Hidalgo
Danja Oste
Howard S. Wang
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Student Affairs and Services in Higher Education:

Roger B. Ludeman, Editor-in-chief
Kenneth J. Osfield, Associate editor
Enrique Iglesias Hidalgo, Assistant editor
Danja Oste, Assistant editor
Howard S. Wang, Assistant editor
Presented by the:
International Association of Student Affairs and Services (IASAS)
In cooperation with:
The United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
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The editors and authors are responsible for the choice and presentation of the facts
contained in this document and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not
necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material throughout this
document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of
UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Published in 2009
by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization
7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP
Set and printed in the workshops of UNESCO
Graphic design - www.barbara-brink.com
Cover photos
UNESCO/K. Anis
UNESCO/N. Axelrod
UNESCO/G. Boccardi
UNESCO/R. Dominique
UNESCO/P. Lissac
UNESCO/M. Loncarevic
ED.2009/Conf.402/inf.7
UNESCO 2009
Printed in France
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Foreword
Foreword
We are very pleased to present policy and decision makers in higher education and
the academic community as a whole with this publication titled "Student affairs and
services in higher education: global foundations, issues and best practices".
This project follows the successful practical manual for developing, implementing and
assessing student affairs programmes and services published in 2002, as part of the
follow-up to the 1998 World Conference on Higher Education.
Prepared in collaboration with the International Association of Student Affairs and
Services (IASAS), the present book gives useful insights regarding the theoretical
foundations and provides an overview of student affairs and services around the
world.
UNESCO thanks the International Association of Student Affairs and Services
Professionals for their continued support and expert contribution to the development
of an area which has become a key concern for higher education systems and
institutions.
Georges Haddad
Director
Division of Higher Education
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Preface
IASAS
The International Association of Student Affairs and Services (IASAS) currently is an
informal confederation of higher education student affairs/services professionals from
around the world. A number of its members have been actively engaged for some
time in defining the need for and organization of an international community of
student affairs and services professionals. Several national and regional organizations
have recognized the need for better communication and the sharing of professional
development experiences such as best practices, internships, exchanges, conferences,
colloquia, symposia and other professional development opportunities. Others are
assisting developing countries in the preparation of student services workers and the
creation of new organizational structures as they build their universities and higher
education systems.
Meetings of student affairs/services practitioners

Regular national and international gatherings of student affairs and services
professionals occur in such countries as Australia/New Zealand, Belgium, Canada,
China, France, Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, Mexico, South Africa, Spain, the
United Kingdom and the United States, with regional meetings in Asia and the Pacific,
and Europe. Others have included an international component in their meetings and
they have been well attended by individuals from other countries. For example, the
association of Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education (NASPA) of the
United States has held 14 annual international symposia, the latest in Seattle,
Washington, in 2009.
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Preface
Inception of this publication

The closing speaker for the 2000 NASPA International Symposium was Mary-Louise
Kearney, who was the Head of the Unit for the World Conference on Higher
Education Follow-up, Division of Higher Education of UNESCO. During her
presentation, she challenged the attendees to work collaboratively with UNESCO
and the various student NGOs that are affiliated with UNESCO to develop a student
affairs and services manual. She believed that such a publication could be of assistance
to those countries and universities around the world that would like to create a high
quality and robust set of higher education student services and programmes. These
initiatives would be designed to meet both basic student services and more advanced
student needs including the enhancement of student learning and student retention,
and graduation rates.
The challenge was taken up by a writing team comprised of writers and affiliates from
22 countries. The resulting document, The Role of Student Affairs and Services in Higher
Education: A Practical Manual for Developing, Implementing, and Assessing Student Affairs
Programmes and Services (2002), was supported by 29 professional and governmental
organizations from around the world supported the project.
Foundations of student affairs and services

The 1998 World Declaration on Higher Education calls for a major global effort to
improve the delivery of higher education in every country in the world (WCHE,
1998). This call was formulated for a variety of reasons, not the least of which is the
important role that higher education plays in the improvement of the social, cultural,
political, economic and environmental aspects of the global society. This progress may
well occur in different fashions and on different time lines depending on the region
or country; however, if any area of the world wants to provide its citizens with an
improved quality of life, it must include the funding of a higher education system that
will help move citizens toward a better life through teaching, research, advanced
employment and service.
The more traditional and most of the not-so-traditional methods of delivering higher
education academic degrees are primarily comprised of the classroom instructional
model or approach. In addition, there is increasing evidence that higher education also
must address the basic personal needs of students by providing a comprehensive set
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Preface
of out-of-classroom student services and programmes commonly referred to as

student affairs and services. These efforts should be designed to enable and empower
students to focus more intensely on their studies and on their personal growth and
maturation, both cognitively and emotionally. They also should result in enhanced
student learning outcomes. Another important rationale for these efforts is economic,
because investments in students, and student affairs and services provide a healthy
return to national economies as the investments help to assure students' success in
higher education and their subsequent contributions to the national welfare.
Student affairs and services professional theory and practice are informed by a
number of academic disciplines. Student development theory draws from
research in psychology, sociology and human biology. Mental and physical health
services rely heavily on medicine, psychiatry, clinical and counselling psychology,
education, exercise sciences and health education/wellness, as well as others. The
effective administration and leadership of the wide variety of student affairs and
services is based, in part, on the theories of management, accounting, human
resources, marketing, statistics and educational research, and leadership studies.
Because the array of the services and programmes offered by student affairs and
services is wide and diverse, the latest thinking, research and practice from an
equally wide and diverse set of areas of academic study and practice necessarily
underpin its effectiveness (see Section II: Basic principles, values and beliefs that
underpin an effective student affairs and services programme in higher education).
These perspectives also are utilized in other sectors of society, both private and
public.
Another important role for Student Affairs and Services is to prepare students for a
life of service to their society. Every day we are reminded of the critical work in the
areas of human and social development that needs to be done in many areas of the
world, developing and developed countries alike (GUNI, 2008). These professionals
are increasingly being prepared to work with their teaching colleagues and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to increase the amount of community services
and service learning opportunities, e.g., internships, experiential units and short-term
experiences, available to students as a part of their coursework and degree
programmes.
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Preface
Purpose and use of this manual

The present manual developed by IASAS makes the case for inclusion of a student
services/student affairs presence in higher education institutions and how that effort
is directly related to the World Declaration on Higher Education. First, this manual
has been developed based on the assumptions coming from the World Declaration,
especially those that call for student affairs and services functions in higher education.
Second, it outlines the principles and values upon which pertinent and effective
student affairs and services are based. Third, with the increasing evidence that
globalization has spurred a corresponding increase in internationalization of higher
education (UNESCO, 2004), it is imperative that all aspects of the academy, including
student affairs and services, must respond to and support these new efforts.
Focus is placed on ways to build an effective student affairs and services operation
that puts the student at the centre of all efforts by supporting students in their
academic endeavours and enhancing their personal, social, cultural and cognitive
development. The desired outcomes are the same as those for higher education in
general and include:
z
a high-quality, well-rounded higher learning experience;
improved higher education access regardless of ability/background;
better retention and progress toward graduation; higher graduation rates;
enhanced career/employment prospects and lifelong learning interests; and
a life as a responsible, contributing community member and citizen.
Countries or institutions interested in evaluating the effectiveness of their current

efforts in student affairs and services or are interested in developing a more
structured and complete higher education student affairs and services operation are
encouraged to utilise this manual as a guide, template or model to work through
those processes. Using an approach that recognizes the need to be cognizant of
culture specific situations, it also provides basic standards or guidelines that are
applicable anywhere. Members of IASAS are prepared to work cooperatively to
facilitate such reviews.
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References
UNESCO. 2004. Higher Education in a Globalized Society. Paris, UNESCO.
Global University Network for Innovation (GUNI). 2003. Higher Education in the
World 3 - Higher Education: New Challenges and Emerging Roles for Human and
Social Development. 2008. Barcelona/Houndmills, United Kingdom,
GUNI/Palgrave Macmillan.
UNESCO. 2002. The Role of Student Affairs and Services in Higher Education: A Practical
Manual for Developing, Implementing, and Assessing Student Affairs Programmes and
Services. Paris, UNESCO. (ED-2002/WS/27)
World Conference on Higher Education (WCHE). 1998. Higher Education in the
Twenty-first Century: Vision and Action. World Declaration on Higher Education for
the Twenty-first Century; Framework for Priority Action for Change and Development
in Higher Education. Paris, UNESCO.
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Contents
Foreword
Preface
Contents
Introduction
Acknowledgements
Executive summary
Preamble
Section I
Section II
Assumptions
Basic principles, values and beliefs that support an effective
student affairs and services programme in higher education
Section III The central role of professional preparation and professional
development of student affairs and services staff
Section IV Research, evaluation, assessment and strategic planning in
higher education student affairs and services
Section V Health, safety, legal aspects of student affairs and services
Section VI Ethics and student affairs practitioners
Section VII Higher education student affairs and services in postconflict/post-disaster countries: laying a foundation for the
future
Section VIII The student affairs and services functions in higher education:
professional services and programmes delivered for
enhancement of student learning and successA
The senior student affairs and services officer
Descriptions of student affairs/services specialty units
Academic advising/educational counselling
Academic support centres
Admissions
Adult/non-traditional/commuter student services
Alumni relations in student affairs
Bookstore services
Call centres
Campus activities/student organizations
Campus security/police and protection services
Careers service
Chaplaincy and multi-faith services
Childcare
College unions/university centres/student centres
Community service/service learning
Counselling services
Dining/food services
Disability services
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Discipline/conduct standards
Financial aid/employment
Health and wellness services
Housing/accommodation/residence life
International programmes/student mobility services management
International student services
Leadership education, development, training and support
Lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgender (LGBT)work in student
affairs
Multicultural/ethnic minority student services
New student programmes/student orientation
Parent programmes
Shipboard education
Sports/recreation/intramurals
Student affairs research/student life studies/assessment/evaluation
Student recruitment/school relations
Student registration and records
Women's centres
Section IX Country reports on student affairs and services around the
world
Argentina
Armenia
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Barbados
Bolivia
Botswana
Brazil
Bulgaria
Canada
China
Hong Kong (SAR, China)
Ecuador
Finland
France
Germany
India
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Contents
Section X
Annex 1
Annex 2
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Jamaica/Trinidad and Tobago
Japan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malaysia
Mexico
Morocco
New Zealand
Pakistan
Peru
Philippines
Portugal
Qatar
Russian Federation
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
South Africa
Spain
Sweden
Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
United Republic of Tanzania
United States of America
Uruguay
Zambia
Regional and international higher education, student and
government associations/organizations related to student
affairs and services
List of authors and editorial team members and their contact
information
Acronyms and abbreviations
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Introduction
Introduction
Georges Haddad, Director, UNESCO Higher Education Division
Philip G. Altbach
Students are at the centre of any academic institution, yet many universities have
traditionally paid little attention to their students. With the exception of a few
countries, there was little focus on the experiences of students outside the
classroom until the middle of the twentieth century. Concern about the broader
student experience accompanied the expansion of higher education starting, in much
of the world, in the mid-twentieth century. Stimulated by the growth and diversity
of student populations, a reaction to student activist movements and an
understanding that the psychological and social health of students plays a key role in
their academic success, the idea of student development and the field of student
affairs took shape.
The traditional European university paid little attention to student development.
Students were assumed to be adults who were responsible for their lives outside
the classroom. The student population, almost exclusively male, was small and
from a small elite segment of the population. Much of the rest of the world
followed the European academic tradition, either because it was imposed by
colonial rule or, as in the cases of Japan and Thailand, it was chosen freely. The
main exception to this pattern was the United States which, from the beginning,
was concerned with the non-classroom life of students. The idea of in loco
parentis, that the university acts as a parent to its students, is at the base of this
American tradition. Thus, from an early period, American colleges and universities
took the extra-curricular life of students seriously. In the early days, professors
were responsible for the students - later student affairs professionals took over
this task.
Student development and student affairs are now seen as a key task of most
academic systems - and with good reason. Post-secondary institutions recognize
that academic success depends on students who are healthy, motivated and
qualified for their studies. Massification has meant diversification of the student
population, with many first generation students having access. In developing
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Acknowledgements
countries particularly, students from previously underrepresented groups, such as

women, rural youth, students from ethnic or religious minorities and others are
now studying. A concern with students is central to the success of higher education
in the twenty-first century.
Acknowledgements
The editors wish to thank UNESCO and the project authors (more than 110
representing 53 countries) for their contributions and support throughout this
project. We are especially indebted to UNESCO for providing the final editing and
financial support in order for the publication to become a reality. This work focuses
on important higher education issues related to development of the total student,
including cognitive/intellectual, affective/emotional and social/interpersonal
dimensions of the subject. All of this has been framed by the importance of building
a sense of community and collaboration at all levels of the institution of higher
learning. The input and support of student affairs and services practitioners, and
student organizations from around the world have helped make this publication
reflective of a global community in higher education and in our field. They confirm the
central and common beliefs that unite the student affairs and services profession
worldwide.
Recognizing both the diversity of the contributors to this project and the practicality
of having UNESCO publish this work, English and French have been chosen as the
official languages. Translations are encouraged and the editors have offered to assist
with those translations upon request.
Note: The accuracy of the information provided reflects the views and knowledge of
the authors and not the editors. Readers are encouraged to contact authors for
additional information.
Individuals interested in finding out more regarding student affairs and services as a
universal concept are encouraged to contact the Editor-in-Chief. Likewise, anyone
who wants to engage the International Association of Student Affairs and Services
(IASAS) to consult about developing further the student affairs and services ideas,
structures, and functions contained in this work is encouraged to contact Roger B.
Ludeman, also the Executive Director of the International Association of Student
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Executive Summary
Affairs and Services (IASAS), at his email address which can be found in the list of
authors and editorial team members in Annex 1.
Executive Summary
The Preamble emphasizes the importance of higher education generally and, more
specifically, the importance of focusing on students as the centre of that enterprise.
Section I, Assumptions, is based on the World Declaration on Higher Education
for the Twenty-first Century adopted by the World Conference on Higher
Education: Vision and Action, October 1998. From this emanates the idea that
meeting student needs through an effective student affairs and services
programme is central to the development of successful higher education
outcomes.
This leads into Section II, comprised of the principles, values, and beliefs that form the
basis of the student affairs and services field. These beliefs are what student affairs and
services workers diligently strive toward and what is taught to students. They guide
us in focusing on development of appropriate, high-impact student services, and
comprise the 'road map' that is followed in developing and providing the critical
services and programmes necessary to enhance student learning outcomes and
ensure student success.
The entity of student affairs and services is increasingly recognized as a
professional force of importance in higher education around the world. Entrance
into the profession will increasingly require preparation and training
commensurate with the duties to be performed and the national context for
higher education. Section III addresses different models of professional
preparation as well as ongoing professional development that assist student affairs
and services staff in keeping up with changing students and issues, and new skills
needed to administer such efforts.
All functions in higher education must be properly managed, including student affairs
and services. Section IV outlines the importance of effective use of research,
evaluation, assessment, strategic planning, accreditation and standards in higher
education student affairs and services, within the context of a student affairs/services
vision, mission and operational policies that are congruent with those of the
institution.
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Executive Summary
Section V describes a relatively new area: safety, security, risk management and legal
aspects of student affairs and services. Recent world events including terrorism and
conflict, along with risks and legal issues associated with health, safety, the
environment and human rights are demanding that more attention be paid to these
areas of students' lives and the administration of student affairs services and
programmes.
All professions must have codes of ethical behaviour and Section VI outlines the
subject of ethics and the student affairs profession. What concerns most practitioners
have in relating personally to students and to each other? What role can student
affairs and services professionals play in creating an ethical environment on campus?
This section contains examples of what a code of ethics might look like.
Because of the rise in the number of armed conflicts and severe disasters around the
world, more attention needs to be paid to how higher education can play a role in
post-conflict and post-disaster regions. Section VII, higher education student affairs
and services in post-conflict/post-disaster countries: laying a foundation for the
future, provides the reader with indications how such assistance would play out,
particularly related to student affairs and services. What are the unique challenges
these countries face and how can student affairs practitioners play a role in meeting
them?
Section VIII outlines the specific student affairs and services functions in higher
education that are in use throughout various areas of the world. Written by authors
from all over the world, this section gives the reader an overall picture of specialty
areas that could be under the umbrella of a student affairs and services division
within an institution of higher learning. They are presented with the idea that such
services should be provided only as appropriate for the specific culture and country
considering implementing them. No one model, array of student services functions,
or set of activities is recommended for all situations, institutions, or countries.
Section IX is a series of country reports on student affairs and services practice
around the world. One can easily see that delivery systems vary from country to
country both in terms of type and extent of development. This indicates, once again,
how local and regional culture, traditions, economics and politics most often dictate
the status of higher education, and student affairs and services. The authors have
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Preamble
captured the uniqueness of delivery systems from country to country. On the other
hand, similar to the approach used in the World Declaration on Higher Education,
this manual establishes the premise that there are basic values and principles that are
pertinent to the development of an effective higher education student affairs/services
operation regardless of one's location.
Finally, Section X provides a comprehensive array of information on regional and
international higher education, student, and government associations/organizations
related to student affairs and services. Readers are encouraged to utilize these
resources, and those mentioned in the Country Reports, for assistance.
This manual has been prepared for UNESCO by the International Association of
Student Affairs and Services (IASAS). A major purpose for the existence of IASAS is
to assist those countries and institutions that are developing their higher education
infrastructures - especially those that intend to encourage, support and enhance
student enrolment so that they are able to be successful in their life work and careers,
and meet the needs of society. An effective student affairs and services operation is
essential to meeting those goals. Readers are encouraged to contact IASAS for
assistance.
Preamble
The World Declaration on Higher Education, adopted in Paris in 1998 at the first
World Conference on Higher Education sponsored by UNESCO, sets forth a vision
and guiding principles designed to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century.
Among the principles underlying the World Declaration, those most pertinent to the
development of student affairs and services, include the following.
1.
There is an unprecedented demand for and a great diversification in higher

education, as well as an increased awareness of its vital importance for sociocultural and economic development. The career development, employability and
lifelong learning capabilities of students are essential ingredients in these
processes.
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2.
The sharing of knowledge, international cooperation and emerging technologies

can offer new opportunities to reduce the gap between industrially developed
and developing countries regarding access to and resources for higher education.
They also can help in reducing the increasing socio-economic stratification and
differences in educational opportunity within countries at all levels of wealth and
development.
3.
Societies have become increasingly knowledge-based so that higher learning

and research are essential to the cultural, socio-economic and environmentally
sustainable development of individuals, communities and nations. Higher
education is therefore confronted with the challenge to make the most radical
change and renewal it has ever undertaken. It must take the lead in moving
our society from mere economic considerations to the deeper dimensions of
the greater good for all humankind, including world peace. In doing this, it
must address social needs and promote solidarity and equity, and both
preserve and exercise academic and scientific rigour, originality and
impartiality.
4.
This requirement that higher education change substantially, that it enhance its
quality and relevance, dictates the strong involvement of all of society including
government higher education and all its multiple stakeholders.
5.
Higher education must place students at the centre of its focus within a lifelong
learning perspective so that they are fully integrated into the global knowledge
society of the twenty-first century. Students must be considered as equal and
fundamental partners and stakeholders in their own education, with the right to
organize themselves as they see fit within the context of their education
institutions, systems and communities.
6.
More diversified international cooperation and exchange comprise major

avenues for advancing higher education throughout the world, and must include
exchanges of scholars and students, cooperative research, and enhanced
information and technology transfer.
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Preamble
7.
Access to higher education, despite possible limitations owing to institutional or

governmental financial resources, potentially must be available to all qualified
individuals regardless of background or personal characteristics. The World
Declaration noted, in particular, that much more needs to be done to promote
increased participation by women. Other sections of the World Declaration
refer to a number of other underrepresented groups experiencing limited access
to higher education in most parts of the world. It is that broader call for inclusion
and diversity that guides the development of this document. These groups,
including women, are addressed specifically in this manual.
While the aforementioned factors are critical to the future of higher education in the
world of today and tomorrow, they all must take into account the profile of cultures,
values and circumstances of each region and nation.
Reference
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Assumptions
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Assumptions
Assumptions
In the context of unprecedented demand, increasing diversification and the vital role
it plays in the economic and socio-cultural development of nations, higher education
needs to address a number of challenges. These challenges include financing, equality
of access, widening participation, the improvement of support and developmental
services, effective use of technology including distance learning, use of new and more
flexible learning formats, ensuring student attainment of new skills and increased
employability, as well as the need for international cooperation.
For higher education to play its role in promoting ideals and values associated with a
world culture of peace, it needs to become an agent of change, to respond to social
needs and to promote the principles of solidarity and equity. One of the important
ways to meet the challenges is to become more student-centred in all aspects of its
activities, to encourage the development of a citizenry fully able to take its place on
the community, national, regional and international stages.
The following assumptions, derived from the World Declaration, make a strong case
for the development and implementation of a highly effective student affairs and
services programme in higher education around the world. Each country, as a unique
sector of society, will have to bring its own traditions, culture, social infrastructure, and
priorities into the development of this invaluable array of services and programmes;
nevertheless, it is imperative that higher education include such services and
programmes to promote quality of student life, meet student needs, and enhance
student learning and success.
The development of higher education must therefore recognize the importance of
making allowance for national identities. At the same time, there are universal values
that transcend individual cultures and their political and economic contexts. It is these
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Assumptions
I
values that comprise the necessary underpinnings for a solid global education
framework that advocates for peace, justice, democratic practices, human rights and
sustainable economic development for all. Student affairs and services efforts have
always been at the centre of recognizing cultural differences and, simultaneously,
promoting universal values.
Higher education student affairs and services are designed to provide access to higher
education, enhance student retention and graduation rates, develop global citizenship
skills, and provide society with new human capital and potential that can help
everyone as we move forward toward a true family of nations.
The assumptions found in the World Declaration that call for such efforts are
described below.
1.
Education at all levels clearly has been established as a staple process in the
development of a just and prosperous society. It has a number of roles including
that of preparing students for active roles in society, matching their skills and
needs to those of society. Regional and international cooperation would be
beneficial in accomplishing that task.
2.
Women are under-represented in higher education. Equity in educational access

of prospective students from all groups and levels of society is a foundation for
success in higher education. As was pointed out in the Preamble, there are
numerous underrepresented groups based on geography, demography and/or
personal characteristics that need to be encouraged and supported as they
consider higher education as a possibility for improving their lives. The
discrimination against and underrepresentation of these groups will be addressed
several times throughout the manual.
3.
Information technology and telecommunications must play a major role in developing

a quality educational programme. Access to this technology must be available
regardless of the backgrounds of the students involved. Training of faculty, staff and
students to utilize the full range of available hardware, software and structures/systems
to deliver timely and accurate information is just as important as access.
4.
Freedom of expression and a free exchange of ideas are central to a quality higher
education system. Academic freedom is a concept that must extend to faculty,
staff and students alike. To ensure these principles will prevail, it is essential for
higher education to have ongoing and systemic support. This support must include
not only direct financial assistance for institutions and students, but also an
integrated support system that weaves government, community, the private
sector and education of all kinds and levels into a seamless whole.
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Assumptions
I
5.
Sound management and fiscal autonomy, with appropriate oversight by

governmental agencies and guided by constituent involvement and critique, are
important ingredients in successful higher education structures. Related to those
principles is the reality that higher education must seek multiple sources of funding
both within traditional structures and throughout the public and private sectors.
Formation of strategic partnerships with these groups could afford higher
education new ways to achieve its goals of enhanced student learning and success.
6.
Ongoing professional development of faculty and staff must be an integral part of

the basic way of doing business in higher education. In addition, students must be
afforded quality career guidance and development opportunities to facilitate the
transition into, through and out of higher education into society and the world of
work. This concept of career guidance and how it is applied may vary by country.
7.
Assessment and evaluation of learning outcomes, instruction, research and services

must be an integral and ongoing part of higher education. Continuous quality
improvement of all structures is necessary in order to meet student and societal needs.
8.
Society must make the assumption that students are capable of learning and
organizing themselves to participate in higher education governance. They are
key stakeholders who deserve the respect due to equal members of society. It is
also reasonable for society to assume that students will enter higher education
with the idea that they also are obligated to utilize the resources provided to
them in a responsible fashion and to contribute to society by becoming worthy,
actively involved global citizens.
9.
Education of students must be done in a holistic fashion, treating the student as

a whole person. This is in keeping with the idea that education is for the purposes
of enhancing life, developing employability in the appropriate level of the
workforce, transmitting and improving culture, and liberating the minds of
students to pursue liberty as responsible and intellectually curious citizens.
Reference
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Basic principles,
values and beliefs
that support an
effective student affairs
and services programme
in higher education
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Basic principles, values and beliefs that support an effective student

affairs and services programme in higher education
II
Basic principles, values and beliefs that

support an effective student affairs and
services programme in higher education
Roger B. Ludeman and C. Carney Strange
In order for any part of the higher education enterprise to be applied consistently and
to be of top quality, it must be grounded in a set of principles and values that takes
into consideration the expressed needs of those whom it serves (that is, students).
This manual concerns itself with student affairs functions and services that nurture the
success of students as learners in the academy. While specific principles, values and
beliefs might vary, depending on the region or country of origin, the tenets outlined
here have nearly universal appeal and allow readers to understand how they might
apply to the creation and ongoing assessment of student affairs functions and services
in higher education anywhere.
Purposes and partnerships

1.
Higher education and student affairs professionals, as integral partners in

providing services and programmes, must be student-centred and acknowledge
students as partners and responsible stakeholders in their education. Along with
institutional decision-makers, government officials and UNESCO representatives,
students must also be included in the process, as well as in follow-up conferences
and meetings related to the proceedings of the WCHE. Students have the right
and responsibility to organize, to participate in governance, and to pursue their
personal and social interests.
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2.
Partnerships with all constituents, both within and beyond the academy, must be
established to promote not only lifelong learning, but also learning for life. Such
partnerships should include students, faculty, staff, alumni, parents, employers,
social service agencies, primary and secondary school systems, government
agencies and representatives of the local, national, regional and global
communities.
3.
Student affairs functions and services must be delivered in a manner that is

seamless, meaningful and integrated with the academic mission of the institution.
These practices and resulting policies must be built upon sound principles and
research, and carried out by partnering with others throughout the campus
community.
4.
Student affairs and services professionals are key players in the advancement of
the talents of all nations. This requires partnerships at the national and
international levels, through cooperative exchanges, conferences, seminars and
shared research.
Access and diversity

1.
Higher learning is enhanced by creative conflict, in particular as students, faculty

and student services professionals of varying backgrounds encounter in one
another differences of histories, experiences and points of view. Thus, every
effort should be made to attract and retain a diverse student body and staff.
2.
The mission for student affairs functions and services must be consistent with
the institutional mission, its educational purposes, the locale in which it is
operating and its student characteristics. Programmes must be established and
resources allocated for the purposes of meeting the ultimate goal of student
affairs functions and services: enhancement of student learning and
development.
Learning
1.
Higher education must address the personal and developmental needs of

students as whole human beings. Student affairs functions and services should
assume leadership in this regard, as well as in the appropriate advocacy of
students in general.
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2.
The mission for student affairs functions and services must be consistent with
the institutional mission, its educational purposes, the locale in which it is
operating and its student characteristics. Programmes must be established and
resources allocated for the purposes of meeting the ultimate goal of student
affairs functions and services: enhancement of student learning and
development.
3.
Students encounter three major transitions related to their higher education

experience. They first move into higher education, second through their
collegiate and university life, and third from higher education into their careers
and immediate workplace. Support must be available for students during these
transitions, in the form of timely and accurate information, a broad range of
services, and activities that engage them in the learning process within and
beyond the classroom.
4.
Learning is complex and multi-faceted. For society to benefit fully, the processes
of learning must be lifelong in scope and varied in contexts.
5.
All higher education stakeholders must promote independent, self-directed

student behaviour, within a community context. Worthy citizenship and service
to the community, in particular, are important values to promote during the postsecondary experience.
6.
The delivery of student services and programmes is based on a number of critical

values, including diversity, pluralism, inclusiveness, community, high expectations,
a global view, citizenship and leadership, ethical living, the inherent worth of the
individual and the idea that students can and must participate actively in their
own growth and development.
7.
Higher education must prioritize academic and career counselling programmes

to assist students in preparing for their life work, employment and subsequent
careers beyond the academy.
8.
Tools of information technology should serve as means, rather than ends, in the
student learning process. Student affairs and services professionals should
explore ways in which they can enhance student learning through technology
and promote effective student usage, through advising, counselling, development
of appropriate systems and training.
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9.
Student affairs and services professionals expect students to engage in their

institution and the learning process, consistent with principles of academic and
personal integrity, responsible behaviour in a community setting, and the exercise
of appropriate freedoms developed within a national, as well as local and
institutional, context. Good practices in student affairs and services build
supportive and inclusive communities, locally and globally.
Resource management
1.
Student affairs functions and services must subscribe to high standards of practice
and behaviour, including professional preparation, assessment of professional
qualifications, continuing training and development, evaluation of services,
programmes and staff performances, assessment of student outcomes,
adherence to codes of ethics and use of effective management practices. All are
necessary in order to deliver the best in services and programmes, and to remain
accountable to students and other constituents.
2.
Student affairs and services funding sources ideally should be diversified and include
significant institutional support. Funding from outside sources, such as grants from
foundations and philanthropies, cooperative relationships and alumni donations,
may be necessary in order to provide the array and level of services required.
3.
Resources must be allocated to those student services and programmes that

enhance student learning and success in relation to demonstrated need and demand.
4.
Information technology (IT) is essential to efficient and effective management of

student services and programmes. IT must therefore be made available to
students, and to student affairs and services workers in order to achieve learning
and success goals for students.
Research and assessment

Student affairs and services professionals, along with teaching faculty, bring to the
academy a particular expertise on students, their development and the impact of their
learning environments. They gain that information through systematic enquiry,
including both quantitative and qualitative research methods. They are closely aligned
with the academic mission and serve as invaluable links between students and the
institution. They also serve as role models with high expectations of students and
their capacities for learning.
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References
Chickering, A. and Reisser, L. 1993. Education and Identity (2nd ed.). San Francisco,
Jossey-Bass.
Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S. and Guido-Di Brito, F. 1998. Student Development in
College: Theory, Research, and Practice. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Komives, S., and Woodard, D. (eds). 2003. Student Services: A Handbook for the
Profession (4th ed.). San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Kuh, G., Kinzie, J., Schuh, J. and Whitt, E. 2005. Student Success in College: Creating
Conditions that Matter. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Pascarella, E. and Terenzini, P. 2005. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2. A Third
Decade of Research. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Strange, C. and Banning, J. 2001. Educating by Design: Creating Campus Learning
Environments that Work. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
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The central
role of
professional preparation
and professional
development of student
affairs and services staff
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The central role of professional preparation and professional

III
The central role of professional

preparation and professional
development of student affairs and
services staff
Jane Fried and Jacqueline Lewis
Introduction
The premises on which universities are founded as well as the role that each
institution plays in its particular region vary dramatically across the world. The very
specialized profession of student affairs has developed most extensively within the
borders of the United States. The tradition in the United States combines the English
collegiate model, which emphasizes the development of student character within a
Christian tradition, and the European university model which emphasizes the
development of the student intellect, leaving character development, recreation,
housing and most other areas of student life to the students themselves.
The British system is primarily residential and the European system has historically been
non-residential, leaving students to find their own accommodation. With the exception
of some tribal colleges in North America, most universities operate within the
Eurocentric framework. As the practice of student affairs and services continues to
move into institutions around the world, it is imperative that the cultural framework of
the profession be made visible so that it can be reframed to serve the needs of students
and institutions in the cultures and nations where such efforts are being developed.
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In each country the student affairs profession and the services its members provide
depends on the cultural context, the philosophy of higher education, the funding
available and the organizational structure of higher education institutions. Thus, some
of the student services may be provided by faculty or by faculty and staff and, in a vast
majority of countries, many student services professionals will not have an academic
degree in student affairs although they will most certainly receive or have had specific
training for the work they do.
Globally, there are increasing indications that the practice of providing services to
students is evolving into the profession of student affairs. Student affairs organizations
have now been established in countries and territories such as Australia and New
Zealand, Canada, Germany, Hong Kong (China), the Philippines, South Africa and the
United Kingdom. The aims of these organizations are to provide a forum for
professionals serving students in post-secondary settings to promote the professional
development of their members, to facilitate the exchange of ideas and to provide
opportunities for networking with other professionals.
Because of the range of types of preparation that student affairs professionals receive,
it would be helpful to explore an incremental approach to professional training. This
approach might be based on the development of specific modules and a system of
accumulating credit toward an internationally recognized certification.
Theoretical knowledge vs contextual realities

Contextualism has become fundamental to the understanding of all human situations.
A contextual approach to student affairs practice limits, but does not exclude, the use
of universal principles as a source of guidance. The profession of student affairs was
founded within a frame of reference that assumed the universality of ethical principles
and principles of good practice (Fried, 2003).The various developmental theories that
guide student affairs and the management principles that many have adopted are, in
reality, based on Western understandings of both human and organizational
behaviour (Komives and Woodard, 2003).
Although American ideas are becoming more widely known throughout the world as
business and other institutions globalize, the general approach to development and
valuation adapts to local circumstances as it travels. The value system in the United
States is not the same as that governing values or evaluation in Brazil, France, Ghana
or Thailand, although these frameworks have much in common. Student affairs
practitioners must therefore have a thorough knowledge of both the widely accepted
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theories and practices that govern the profession in the United States and of the
cultural context, values, economics and politics that shape the institutions where they
practice outside the United States.
As higher education and student affairs professionals around the world organize the
delivery of services to students, the kind of student services available and the manner
in which they are delivered are strongly influenced by the purpose of education in
that society and by the philosophy that undergirds higher education. As student affairs
in countries other than the United States develop professional identities, it is essential
that they develop a body of knowledge that is grounded in an understanding of their
students and their own cultural context. This includes identifying values and ethical
standards, and developing a theoretical base that describes and explains student
needs and development, designs, implements programmes and identifies good
practices that promote student success.
Knowledge of students and their cultures

The fundamental area of expertise for the student affairs profession is knowledge
about students, their cultures, their needs and their development. Preparation
programmes should include exposure to the theories of cognitive and psychosocial
student development. Practitioners must also learn about the cultural beliefs about
human development along the axes of individuality and collectivism,
past/present/future time orientation and interior vs exterior locus of control (Ibrahim,
1996). Students must understand the range of spiritual and religious beliefs held in a
particular region and how they are integrated to daily life. It is essential that students
be trained to critique their theoretical knowledge from the cultural perspective of the
area in which they are practising.
Many cultures operate from a collectivistic perspective and so student affairs
professionals in different countries must identify key philosophical constructs, values
and best practices that enable their student to achieve and that are congruent with
their cultural context. This is not to say that student affairs professionals from different
countries cannot learn from each other; in fact, quite the opposite - they can and
should. However, it is disingenuous to believe that philosophy, theories and
programmes can be transplanted from one societal context to another without
considering cultural values and norms. Apart from the fact that such behaviour is
ethically questionable, it will not serve students well and there is a very strong
likelihood that such initiatives will not be successful.
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Having a theoretical base is critical for the profession in each country so that it has a
lens through which student affairs professionals can understand and interpret the
needs and behaviours of their students and the higher education contexts in which
they function. These theories can also help student affairs professionals to explain
behaviours and allow them to predict future behaviours, to plan and influence student
outcomes, and to assess their initiatives.
In some countries, the purpose of higher education is to provide students with the
knowledge and skills needed to become productive citizens and to have successful
careers; addressing the social and emotional needs of their students is not a priority. This
approach to higher education exists because the societies have institutions such as family,
religion and the community whose responsibilities include addressing these concerns.
In the United States higher education is concerned with the all-round development
of students and, as a general rule, going away to college is seen as a rite of passage
on the path to adulthood. Colleges in the United States may provide more resources
for addressing student social and emotional needs is the case in countries where
external groups are more responsible for students' personal lives. In addition to
general and theoretical knowledge about students and their cultures, practitioners
must also have some understanding about the interactions among students from
different groups, including the history of relationships, alliances and conflicts among
their home countries and ethnic groups.
The United States tradition focuses heavily on individual relationships and does not
generally help students understand how wars or alliances that happened centuries ago
can still powerfully affect students from those groups who are studying together in
the twenty-first century. Rodney King, victim of a beating by Los Angeles, California,
police following a traffic violation in 1991, asked the question, 'Can't we all just get
along?' While his question was poignant and relevant for the time and situation, it may
be too simplistic to be of much help in most difficult situations when they emerge
from a long history of conflict between groups.
Needs assessment, programme development and feedback

The development of theories to guide the practice of student affairs requires research
and assessment. It is essential that student affairs professionals across the globe
engage in research so that they can develop theories that describe and explain their
students and the higher education institutions with whom they work. Student services
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staff members must be able to gather empirical data about the students on each
campus and share their findings with the campus community. This approach to data
gathering includes locally developed assessment instruments, surveys and other types
of analytical and descriptive information as well as phenomenological material
gathered from observations and focus groups. All data must be systematically
gathered and analysed so that they become an accurate description of campus
circumstances and a reliable guide to the improvement of services. Such research
efforts must be on-going as students and their needs continue to evolve and change.
There are some student needs, such as the need for career counselling, that seem to
be fairly uniform throughout the world and others that vary by location and the
expectations of local student bodies. Students who attend university generally expect
to become trained for a profession, but they may have made the key career decisions
before they applied to a specific institution. A change of field of study often involves a
change of faculty or institution as well. Consequently, career development offices need
to be tailored to the expectations and curricula of each institution. Students also have
universal needs for socializing but may have a tradition of organizing their own clubs,
teams and societies, and have very little interest in being supervised by professional
staff members. Systematic assessment of student needs for support in organizing their
own activities should emphasize questions about student interests and concerns and
also ask what kinds of support would be welcome. The establishment of a consulting
relationship with student groups may be the best initial approach along with developing
trusting relationships with the leaders of these groups.
In the areas of academic support, tutoring and learning skills, student needs can be
determined by a review of academic behaviour and progress. The data gathered should
include faculty observations as well as student opinions. Finally, a scan of each campus
environment in terms of student behaviour, use of time, activities that are typical at
student gathering places and student opinion about the quality of life on campus can be
very useful in determining what services might be appreciated and well-received.
Programmes and activities that are developed as a result of the various assessments
should be vetted with representatives of the populations for which they are designed
and critiqued in the light of the cultural frameworks that shape campus life.
The uniqueness of each cultural context therefore necessitates that student service
professionals across the globe engage in assessment. If assessment results are to
provide feedback about the effectiveness of services and to serve as a means of
identifying best practices, it is critical that assessment instruments be customized to
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the context that they will assess and that the identified student and organizational
outcomes are congruent with cultural values and norms.
Needs assessment, programme development, and giving feedback are critical skills for
student affairs and services practitioners. Any formal preparation programme and
ongoing professional development efforts must include such subjects.
Interpersonal skills
Although the desire to build trusting and trustworthy relationships is universal, the
means by which this is accomplished varies from place to place. Student affairs
professionals must be skilled in developing relationships, beginning from their own set
of cultural assumptions about empathy, accuracy, veracity, fidelity and fairness. These
types of skills are typically taught in introductory counselling or communication
courses at the graduate level. However, many of the popular counselling models and
theories are embedded in White American, middle-class values and communication
styles (Sue and Sue, 2003). Theories that take into account race, ethnic and gender
differences, and that are more egalitarian in nature, such as multicultural counselling
and therapy (Sue, Ivey and Pedersen, 1996) and feminist counselling must be
integrated into the curriculum.
As several countries subscribe to a collectivistic worldview, it is also important that
counselling theories and helping preferences that represent a non-Western
worldview are included in the curriculum of student affairs preparation programmes.
Helping approaches that are standard practices in other cultures can supplement the
Western interpersonal models and theories.
Such a foundation must be enhanced by a thorough knowledge of local norms and
beliefs including variations in eye contact, verbal and non-verbal greetings and forms
of address, appropriate topics to discuss among people who are not close friends,
attitudes of students toward professional staff, expected ways of demonstrating
respect for others, expression of emotion, the role that families play in the decisions
that students make and the importance of maintaining face.
Student affairs professionals must be knowledgeable about all of these aspects of
communication in order to build good relationships with students and faculty (Okun,
Fried and Okun, 1999). They must also be able to identify differences in these areas
among students from different backgrounds so that inadvertent insults and
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misunderstandings can be sorted out from a cultural rather than a personal

perspective. Education about different approaches to communication across cultures
may provide one fruitful area for student affairs programming. This includes being
knowledgeable about high context and low context communication patterns.
Finally, one of the traditional roles that student affairs professionals perform on campus
is to help groups who have common interests connect with each other for their
mutual benefit. This role includes helping groups find common interests and projects,
and helping them address conflicts that may develop as part of the process. Effective
interpersonal skills are critical to fulfilling this role. These collaborative activities also
have a great potential for helping all students learn to negotiate, solve problems and
develop cognitively as they assume their future responsibilities in their own countries.
Leadership and management skills

Student affairs as practised in any specific institution needs to develop a framework
for mission, goals and assessment of outcomes within the overall purpose of the
institution. The staff needs to understand the role the institution plays in the lives of
its students, and in the politics and economy of its area. Given that frame of reference,
the student affairs unit must be able to: do the following:
1.
Express its mission to the entire community and place the work of the student
affairs staff within the mission of the university.
2.
Develop programmes that are relevant to the needs of the students and can be
integrated into the curricula of the various areas of study.
3.
Manage budgets and allocate resources effectively.
4.
Administer programmes and services in ways that are culturally appropriate.
5.
Participate in institutional governance.
6.
Communicate accomplishments of the unit.
7.
Provide for staff supervision and professional development.
8.
Operate within the legal requirements of the institution in the development of

policies.
9.
Adopt technology and integrate it into programme and service delivery.
10. Engage in continuous strategic planning and outcomes assessment.
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Modelling student affairs and services globally

The traditional models for the delivery of student services and the oversight of
student affairs were developed in the twentieth century, mostly in the United States.
Graduate preparation in the United States must expand to include exposure to global
developments affecting higher education politically, economically and educationally.
The increasing number of opportunities for graduate students to travel abroad is one
effort to address this issue.
Other additions to the traditional curriculum might include study of one or more
languages, inclusion of anthropology, international finance and education, crosscultural counselling and opportunities for field experiences in universities outside the
United States. Models will develop and evolve as global approaches to education
change and are influenced by immigration patterns, distance learning and increasing
participation in exchange programmes. The roles that the profession plays in different
places may change but its purpose will probably remain constant: to help students
achieve their goals for themselves and their families in the context of their own values
and beliefs about their purpose in life.
Additional professional development for student services professionals

Since the profession of student affairs and services is evolving globally in countries that
do not provide specific academic education in this field, professional development will
take the form of seminars, workshops, self-directed learning and experiential learning
under the guidance of more experienced professionals. The subject matter for
advance training is similar to that provided in existing academic programmes. The
format for learning will change as the needs and context change. Currently several
United States professional organizations are providing educational trips for Americans
to visit institutions around the world in order to understand the ways in which
student services are delivered in these areas.
'Putting Students at the Center: A Transatlantic Dialogue on Student Affairs and
Services', a 2008 international conference sponsored by the Universit du
Luxembourg, is an example of an event that has occurred for this purpose.
Presumably, additional forms of training and advanced education will continue to
evolve as the need arises and new forms of learning are created.
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Conclusion
In 2000, IASAS was founded to promote communication among student affairs
organizations worldwide and to encourage the professional development of student
affairs across the globe. In conjunction with UNESCO, IASAS published a short
document The Role of Student Affairs and Services in Higher Education: A Practical
Manual for Developing, Implementing, and Assessing Student Affairs Programmes and
Services (UNESCO, 2002) that highlighted the need to recognize the role of student
services in higher education worldwide and to describe the philosophy and values that
guide the practice of the student services profession. It contended that higher
education and student affairs must collaborate in providing services for students.
One of the key values identified in the present manual is ensuring that services are
student-centred. It also recognizes that the cultural context within each country will
influence the way in which services are developed. The manual can be used as a
framework by higher educational institutions to examine the effectiveness of their
services or to guide the development of student services at an institution.
References
Fried, Jane. 2003. Ethical standards and principles. Susan R. Komives and Dudley B.
Woodard (eds). Student Affairs: A Handbook for the Profession. (4th ed.). San
Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Ibrahim, Farah. 1996. A multicultural perspective on principle and virtue ethics. The
Counseling Psychologist. Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 78-86.
Komives, Susan and Woodard, Dudley (eds). 2003. Student Affairs: A Handbook for
the Profession. (4th ed.). San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Okun, B., Fried, J., and Okun, M., 1999. Understanding Diversity: A Learning in Practice
Primer. Pacific Grove, Calif., Brooks Cole.
Ludeman, R.B. (ed.). 2002. The Role of Student Affairs and Services in Higher Education:
A Practical Manual for Developing, Implementing, and Assessing Student Affairs
Programs and Services, Paris, UNESCO.
Sue, D., Ivey, A., and Pedersen, P. 1996. A Theory of Multicultural Counseling and
Therapy. Pacific Grove, Calif., Brooks Cole.
Sue, Derald and Sue, David. 2003. Counseling the Culturally Diverse: Theory and Practice
(4th ed.). New York, NY, John Wiley & Sons.
UNESCO. 2002. The Role of Student Affairs and Services in Higher Education: A Practical
Manual for Developing, Implementing and Assessing Student Affairs Programmes and
Services. Paris, UNESCO. (ED-2002/WS/27).
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Research,
evaluation,
assessment and strategic
planning in higher
education student affairs
and services
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Research, evaluation, assessment and strategic planning in

IV
Research, evaluation, assessment and

strategic planning in higher education
student affairs and services
John H. Schuh and Andrew West
Fundamental to any profession is the capacity and willingness to objectively assess and
evaluate programme and service delivery. The profession of student affairs and services
is no different. Student affairs practitioners provide services, programmes, and learning
experiences for students throughout the course of their collegiate experience and are
well positioned to provide critical information about the student experience to faculty
and institutional leaders. They also serve as a valuable early warning system to university
leadership on issues affecting students and their social and learning environments.
Through their interaction with students, they are well positioned to create various
learning opportunities that result in student growth and development.
Institutions of higher education are increasingly expected to demonstrate the value
that they add to the student experience. The level of expectations has been raised
by governmental entities, accreditation bodies, students and their parents, and other
stakeholders. Institutions can no longer afford to ignore these stakeholders since the
competition to attract able students is rigorous, accreditation bodies are demanding
evidence from institutions that support their claims of effectiveness, and governmental
entities are under great pressure to allocate increasingly precious resources.
Institutions of higher education need to demonstrate unequivocally that they are
effective and efficient.
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Research, evaluation, assessment and strategic planning

in higher education student affairs and services
IV
Within institutions of higher education, student affairs programmes, services and

experiences similarly must demonstrate effectiveness. Internal stakeholders such as
faculty members and administrators expect that student affairs will provide data
showing that resources are used widely by students and that students will develop in
ways consistent with the institution's mission and goals for student learning. Without
conclusive evidence that student affairs units are making a difference in the lives of
students, student affairs runs the risk that budgets will be reduced and staff positions
reassigned.
Providing data demonstrating how various programmes and services add value to the
student experience has become a central function for student affairs. Typically, the
value added is in the context of an institution's mission and learning goals for its
undergraduate students.
For the purpose of this paper, we define research as enquiry related to the testing of
theories and constructs, and assessment as the collection of evidence to determine
programme or unit effectives. Evaluation is the use of assessment data to improve unit
or programme effectiveness. Strategic planning is a process by which a unit or
programme aligns itself with significant aspects of its environment (Schuh, 2003,
paraphrasing Rowley, Lujan and Dolence, 1997).
Various purposes of assessment and evaluation

The attention of student affairs and services practitioners in recent years has been
directed towards improving student learning through educational programming
intended to facilitate the learning goals of the institution. Accordingly, measuring the
outcomes of such programming has become a significant activity for student affairs
staff who are asked to design assessment and evaluation studies that answer the
following questions:
1.
Did participation in the experience enhance student learning?
2.
If so, how?
The campus culture and the perspectives of students on various aspects of

institutional life also are important aspects of student affairs assessment. The range of
such assessments can be quite broad, from seeking the opinions of students as they
matriculate at their college or university to learning how graduates have evaluated
elements of the undergraduate experience in the context of preparing them for their
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lives after graduation. While enrolled, students can provide their evaluation of various
programmes, services and experiences in the context of their goals for the
educational experience; they also can describe how the institutional culture has
affected their learning.
Other elements of student affairs assessment and evaluation are the comparison of
student affairs units at one institution with similar units at other institutions and the
benchmarking of services and programmes. Assessments can be designed to draw
comparisons with institutional standards, with peer institutions and with professional
standards. Such comparisons can be very useful in the ongoing development and
improvement of programmes and services.
Student affairs programmes and services, because of their focus on the lives of
students, are positioned appropriately to collect meaningful student data that, once
collected and analysed, can be used for research purposes in addition to programme
development. Faculty members most commonly will conduct such research studies,
but the results of them can and should be used to inform professional student affairs
practice.
In order to improve programmes and services and determine if students have learned
the intended outcomes resulting from those programmes and services, information
and data are collected to do the following:
z
Determine the effectiveness of promotional material.
Track the number of students attending programmes and monitor waiting lists.
Establish demand, need, focus and applicability of programmes, services and

experiences; assess unmet needs.
Gauge student satisfaction.
Assess campus learning and physical environments.
Analyse and describe campus culture.
Assess quality of effort.
Assess learning.
Benchmark current practices with the best practices at other institutions as well
as with institutional standards.
Monitor the sources of student referrals and monitor outside agency referrals.
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Determine student attrition and retention rates and track graduation rates.
Receive student feedback on key issues and ideas and determine programme
success rates.
Track student employment rates upon graduation.
Assessment and evaluation strategies

Various strategies can be used to conduct assessments and evaluations. Important
questions that need to be answered in developing an appropriate strategy are the
following:
1.
What is the purpose of the assessment?
2.
What information is needed?
3.
What is the most appropriate methodological approach?
4.
Who will be invited to serve as participants in the project?
5.
What instrument(s) will be needed?
6.
How will the data be analysed?
7.
How will the results be reported?
8.
How will the project contribute to organizational improvement?
A significant issue to be addressed and resolved is if the assessment should be

conducted using quantitative methods, qualitative methods or a mixed methods
approach employing quantitative and qualitative methods. Each approach has
advantages and disadvantages, and if time and resources permit, using a mixed
methods approach often will yield comprehensive information. However, mixed
methods studies require a significant range of methodological expertise as well as
time and other resources. Consequently, investigators usually have to choose either
a quantitative or a qualitative approach.
If a quantitative approach is employed, another decision that the investigators need
to make has to do with the instrument used in the study. Using a commercial
instrument has advantages, as well as some drawbacks. The same can be said for
developing an instrument specifically for the study using campus-based resources. A
definitive answer as to which approach is preferred is difficult to provide. More
importantly, the investigators need to look at the study's purpose, their own level of
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expertise and the resources that are on hand before deciding on which instrument
to employ. It is important to note, however, that the psychometric properties of the
instrument must be satisfactory regardless whether a commercial instrument is
purchased or an instrument is developed on campus specifically for the study.
A number of instruments have been developed and used over the years to measure
selected aspects of the student experience. Although this list is not comprehensive,
among those instruments used commonly in the United States. are the Freshman
Survey, College Senior Survey and the Your First College Year Survey, all available
from the Cooperative Institutional Research Programme at UCLA;1 the College
Student Experiences Questionnaire, the College Student Expectations Questionnaire
and the National Survey of Student Engagement, all available from the Center for
Postsecondary Research at Indiana University, Bloomington;2 and various
questionnaires and instruments related to the college student experience from the
American College Testing programme (ACT).3
How the population for the study will be defined and if all of the members of the
population will be invited to participate in the study needs to be determined by the
investigators. A sample of the population's members is often selected for participation
if the population is quite large. Various approaches to inviting individuals to participate
in the study are available to the investigators with some form of random sampling
being preferred to the use of convenience samples (Upcraft and Schuh, 1996). The
investigators also will need to determine what will be an acceptable level of sampling
error and the number of times nonrespondents will be invited to participate.
Some of the actual assessment techniques commonly used in student affairs and
services include mail, telephone and web-based surveys; focus groups; individual
interviews; writing samples including personal journaling and portfolios; benchmarking,
demographic, cost-benefit analyses and other comparative studies; and more
traditional testing.
Significant technological advances have occurred in recent years to assist in instrument
preparation and data analysis. Several of these feature electronic preparation of
instruments, web-based sampling, data collection and data analysis. These
technological tools can expedite the assessment and evaluation process.
Within the higher education sector in the United Kingdom, there has been so far
1
2
3
http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/heri/cirp.html
http://www.cpr.iub.edu/index.cfm
http://www.act.org/path/postsec/promote.html
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relatively little take-up of what might be described as the 'learning reconsidered'

agenda, arising from the two NASPA publications of 2004 and 2006 that have been
so influential within the student affairs profession in the United States. The learningreconsidered position might be summed up by the argument presented in the 2004
report (NASPA and ACPA, 2004, p. 5) that 'traditionally distinct categories of
academic learning and student development [must] be fused in an integrated,
comprehensive vision of learning as a transformative process that is centred in and
responsive to the whole student.' Since this fusion is not thus far - taking place in the
United Kingdom anything like as comprehensively as in the United States, the impact
is felt in terms of evaluation of United Kingdom student affairs programmes. United
Kingdom assessment methodologies typically remain at a somewhat instrumental
level, largely based around the measurement of student satisfaction rather than any
attempt to gauge influence on student learning. Notwithstanding a number of more
recent movements in the opposite direction, there is considerable emphasis on
students as customers, rather than as active participants and co-creators of their own
educational development. Some of the external benchmark quality standards that are
currently relatively popular for student affairs in the United Kingdom (for example the
'MATRIX' standard for initial guidance and advisory services) arguably have the effect
of strengthening this customer/supplier model. Alongside, this, the United Kingdom
National Student Survey (NSS), which is now a government requirement for higher
education institutions in England and Wales, uses a question set with a much
narrower scope than instruments such as the United States National Survey of
Student Engagement. The NSS focus is almost exclusively on a student's classroom
experience and there is little concern with broader life development, beyond a few
questions about confidence in specific skills, such as communication.
There are, however, a number of interesting developments that are moving much
more in the direction of a more intentional fusion of students' academic and nonacademic experiences and learning. Typically these are emerging in the form of
accredited or points-based programmes which seek to recognize non-academic
achievement in an explicit way, as well as to encourage student self-reflection on the
development that has taken place and the skills or attributes which have been honed.
The Sheffield Graduate Award, introduced at the University of Sheffield in 2007, is an
example of such a programme. Designed to encourage in students a commitment to
personal growth, self-improvement, life-skills development, the award programme
provides a framework in which students could demonstrate and gain credits for their
experience in areas such as enterprise, work experience, community volunteering and
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international relations. The assessment process is based on a portfolio submission,

including the requirement for a short piece of written reflection from the student,
including an outline of how skills have been developed.4
Another important development internationally has been the focus on assessing
student learning outcomes, something that should be of concern to both the
instructional staff and student affairs practitioners. Of particular interest has been the
effort of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to
develop comparable assessment standards for measuring specific learning outcomes
in higher education.5 OECD is comprised of representatives of 30 governments from
countries around the world. The fact that nations are involved in an effort to
standardize assessment methods in tertiary education has some critics concerned
about government intervention in the academy. Despite these concerns, it appears
that the move toward more accountability in higher education through standardized
assessment of student learning outcomes is moving forward, albeit with caution.
Assessment of British student affairs provision has also developed in the direction of
professional market research. Most higher education institutions now have
professional market research departments embedded in their structure. Typically such
teams are staffed by professionals whose prior career experience is in the commercial
sector. A growing number of external consultancies are offering specialized marketing
support to universities and colleges, and a range of commercial service providers (in
particular in the area of student housing, a growth area in the British private sector)
are active in commissioning and disseminating their own market research findings to
inform and influence future service provision. The annual release of the student
experience report published by housing provider UNITE is now a fixed feature of the
student affairs calendar in the United Kingdom. There is also increasing evidence of
institutions making their own use of a range of research techniques, including
questionnaires and surveys, focus groups and mystery shopping. The Council for
Advancement and Support of Education - perhaps the key professional organization
for higher education professionals who work in the field of marketing - opened an
office in London in 1994 and is now active in professional development and the
provision of related support services to the British higher education sector.
4
5
http://www.sheffield.ac.uk/thesheffieldgraduateaward
http://www.oecd.org/document/22/0,3343,en_2649_35961291_40624662_1_1_1_1,00.html
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Research on college students

The philosophy of higher education institutions around the globe increasingly has
evolved from an elitist approach to more of a meritocratic philosophy, with the result
that the traditional view of students and their experiences has become broader and
more complex. Widening participation strategies have resulted in a broader
diversification of the students not only in terms of demographics, including age,
gender, ethnicity and social class factors, but also in terms of personal attributes and
characteristics, including psychosocial characteristics, learning styles, abilities,
motivation, and academic and personal preparedness for higher education. Not to be
overlooked is an increasing emphasis on study abroad, where students spend part or
all of their undergraduate experience studying at an institution located in a place other
than their home country. Accordingly, student affairs and services units are
appropriately positioned entities in universities to collect meaningful student data
about students and their experiences. Such data then can be evaluated, synthesized
and analysed for the purpose of research and programme development. Reliable data
inform the theoretical understanding of college students and their experiences. That
understanding, then, can be used to inform practice and further research.
Some common research focuses related to college students include the following:
28
The process students follow in selecting their institution of choice.
Expectations students have for their undergraduate experience.
Factors and conditions that expedite students in achieving their educational

objectives. and factors and conditions that inhibit students from achieving their
educational objectives.
Acculturating curricula.
Improving teaching.
Addressing systemic inequities in enrolment patterns.
Addressing participation, success and graduation outcomes.
Examining culture-fair assessment and evaluation procedures.
Ensuring equitable progression and learning outcomes.
Addressing retention issues.
Ensuring the capacity of graduates to successfully negotiate and undertake

careers of first choice.
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Social or environmental surveys.
European student services agencies are noted for their regular social surveys of
students. In other parts of the world, these studies are called environmental or
student needs studies. It is recommended that a comprehensive and extensive study
of the social and economic living conditions of students be carried out on a regular
basis (at least once every 3 to 4 years). The aim is to initiate the collection of longterm trends in socio-economic conditions faced by students, with particular interest
directed toward the interaction between social framework conditions and the studies
themselves. These surveys can also provide the opportunity to review existing
student services structures and programmes looking particularly at the opinions of
students and how important these programmes/services are from their perspective.
The following areas are examples of those that could be covered by a
social/environmental study.
z
Trends in student numbers, access, participation rates, demographics.
Student funding (financial aid), student income, living expenses-spending.
Educational assistance and support system/progress toward graduation.
Choice of discipline, student interest patterns, impact of advising.
Study conditions, time spent on studying, use of leisure time.
Commuter/married student needs, e.g., childcare, transportation, parking.
Internationalization of the student experience, global attitudes of students.
Impacts of career counselling, health services, social issues on college life.
Impact of employment on success in higher education.
Accommodation (housing), eating habits and food services.
Adoption of professional standards

The past three decades have seen an increasing effort by student affairs and services
professionals to improve professional standards. A number of professional
associations/organizations, e.g., the Association of Managers of Student Services in
Higher Education (AMOSSHE), the Centre national des oeuvres universitaires et
scolaires (CNOUS), the Canadian Association of College and University Student
Services (CACUSS), the Deutsches Studentenwerk (DSW) and the National
Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA), offer clear
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recommendations and guidelines on professional standards. Furthermore, they

sponsor and accredit a wide range of staff development and training courses, many
of which are conducted by universities and colleges; most are sponsored directly by
these organizations.
Appropriate professional standards and accreditation requirements enhance
programme productivity, learning outcomes and efficient utilization of resources.
Professional standards influence the following:
1.
Programme development and targeting of appropriate students.
2.
Ongoing professional development and improved effectiveness.
3.
Benchmarking that helps ensure comparisons with best practices.
4.
Institutional/sector acceptance of a suite of student-centred programmes.
5.
Embedding of student affairs and services staff and their work into the
institution/agency, as well as into the broader community.
6.
Lobbying/politicizing just causes, including genuine equality of opportunity.
7.
Securing of adequate budgeting for appropriate services.
8.
Evaluation and assessment of programmes and services.
In summary, standards give direction to various endeavours and aspirations designed

to achieve positive student learning outcomes.
The Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (CAS), a United
States based group, was established in 1979 and represents an ever-growing
consortium of American higher education professional associations. CAS was
established with the intent of accomplishing several purposes from a profession-wide
perspective. The following eight statements reflect the mission that guides CAS
initiatives.
30
1.
To establish, adopt and disseminate unified and timely professional standards to

guide student learning and development support programmes and services, and
related higher education initiatives.
2.
To promote the assessment and improvement of higher education services and

programmes through self-study, evaluation and the use of CAS standards.
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3.
To establish, adopt and disseminate unified and timely professional preparation

standards for the education of student affairs practitioners.
4.
To promote the assessment and improvement of professional preparation

graduate programmes for student affairs administrators through the use of CAS
standards for assessment, evaluation and self-study purposes.
5.
To advance the use and importance of professional standards among

practitioners and educators in higher education.
6.
To develop and provide materials to assist and support practitioners and

educators in the use of professional standards in higher education.
7.
To promote and encourage public and private higher education systems and
institutions to focus attention on the assurance of quality in all educational
endeavours.
8.
To promote inter-association efforts to address the issues of quality assurance,

student learning and development, and professional integrity in higher education
(Council for the Advancement of Standards, 2008).
Individuals and institutions from the 36 CAS member organizations (Dean, 2006)
comprise a professional constituency of well over 100,000. No other body exists in
the United States that so comprehensively represents and speaks for student affairs.
CAS will continue to have significant impact, especially as institutional effectiveness,
student learning and outcome assessment become increasingly crucial to higher
education.
The CAS standards are mentioned only to describe an approach one a country has
taken in the adoption of student affairs and services professional standards. Of course,
each institution and country must choose a method that fits best with the country's
culture, history and philosophy.
Strategic planning
The development of a strategic plan for student affairs is framed by the strategic plan
for the institution in which the student affairs units are located. After a university has
developed its strategic plan, then student affairs leaders can begin to develop their
strategic plans. Typically, a strategic plan has several elements.
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A mission statement.
A vision statement.
A statement of values.
Goals for student affairs.
Objectives that need to be accomplished and are part of the larger statement of
goals.
Assessment and evaluation projects can be used to measure the extent to which
the objectives that have been identified for student affairs units have been
accomplished.
The planning process

To determine the relative circumstance of student affairs, both within the institution
but also in the larger environment, a Strengths (internal), Weaknesses (internal),
Opportunities (external) and Threats (external) (SWOT) analysis is conducted. The
analysis often involves a brainstorming activity where members of the group identify
internal strengths of student affairs (for example, the experience of the staff), internal
weaknesses of student affairs (for example, an eroding resource base for funding
operations), external opportunities for student affairs (for example, an increasing
number of international students enrolled in the institution) and external threats (for
example, a declining number of prospective students in the geographic region of the
university). The SWOT analysis helps those involved in the planning process
understand the environment in which they will be working and provides them with
ideas that can be used in developing the strategic plan.
The planning group normally will start by analysing the institution's mission statement
and determining if the current mission statement for student affairs is aligned with the
institution's mission. A change in the focus of the institution, for example accelerating
its emphasis on graduate education, will have implications for student affairs. If the
institution's mission has changed, then the mission statement for student affairs will
have to be adjusted.
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The next step is to examine the vision statement for student affairs. A vision
statement has to do with identifying, in general terms, the nature of student affairs in
five to ten years. An example might be, 'The division of student affairs is dedicated to
providing the very best out of class experiences for our students and, toward that
end, we aspire to contribute to the educational experiences of every student at our
university.' This vision might be difficult to achieve, but it does provide a long-range
view to which all staff can be committed.
Values inform the work of student affairs and are the next step in the development
of a strategic plan. Examples of values might be, 'We think all students will benefit
from participating in student affairs programmes and experiences at our institution' or
'No student's education is complete without participation in programmes developed
by student affairs.' The values in the example illustrate a commitment that student
affairs might make to working with every student at the institution.
Developing goals is the next step in the strategic planning process. Typically, the goals
that are established have a one-year time frame and are informed by the mission,
vision and values of the division of student affairs. In the example, the division was
committed to widespread student participation in activities and learning experiences,
so one goal might be to increase participation in events and experiences for students
by 10 per cent in the next calendar year. Another goal might be to increase financial
support for students by 5 per cent so that they would not have to work off campus
to cover their cost of attendance.
After goals have been established, the next step in this process is to develop
measurable objectives related to the goals. One of the goals suggested was to
increase available financial support for students by 5 per cent. Objectives could be as
follows:
z
The department of housing develops a scholarship programme for students so

that they can pay for their lodging and meals more easily. The target for the
department is to provide 20 scholarships in the first year and then add 5 per year
until 200 scholarships have been established.
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The department of campus recreation creates additional jobs for students so

they can earn money on campus to defray the cost of attendance. There are 10
jobs created in the first year and the department is committed to adding three
new jobs each year until the programme supports 30 students.
The orientation programme develops a peer advisor programme to work with

incoming students. The peer advisors are compensated for their work. Five
advisors are hired in the first year and an additional position is created each year
until a total of ten students form a staff of peer advisors.
While these objectives are hypothetical in nature, they illustrate how objectives can
be developed to help achieve goals that have been established through the planning
process. These objectives are easy to measure. That is, the departments either will
create the positions or establish the scholarships or they will not. In other cases,
learning objectives might be established and the department will need to measure,
through an assessment process, if the objectives were achieved. If not, then additional
analysis will need to be conducted to determine why the objectives were not
achieved and what might have to be done to be more successful in the future. But
the relationship between assessment and planning is clear. Planning is conducted to
determine the path that a unit wishes to take. Assessment provides data to determine
if objectives have been met.
In the United Kingdom, the increasingly competitive higher education landscape
challenges all those in leadership positions in student affairs to be more focused and
strategic in their planning. While there is a growing understanding of the importance
of quality student services within the overall student experience 'offer' marketed by
institutions, student affairs professionals need to pitch for resources in a context of
many conflicting demands, often where provision perceived to be closest to the
student learning experience receives a priority. Despite this challenging context, there
is much more work to do to embed a consciously strategic approach into student
affairs delivery and to shift away from a management approach which is mainly
focused on the reactive and operational end of the spectrum. The key British
professional associations such as the AMOSSHE, the Academic Registrars' Council
(ARC) and the Association of University Administrators (AUA) are contributing
significantly to this agenda, with an increasing emphasis in their work on leadership
skills and management development.
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Conclusion
Research, evaluation, assessment and strategic planning at one time might have been
considered peripheral activities in the life of the student affairs division. These activities
have now become central to the success of student affairs units. They provide
meaningful data about students and other stakeholders, and they provide evidence
related to the success of student affairs activities, services and programmes. They
provide direction in terms of long-range thinking about how student affairs ought to
be positioned to meet the challenges and the future, and they provide information
crucial in meeting the need for transparency in an era of accountability. These
activities will continue to be important in the future and we urge student affairs
practitioners to continue to engage in research, evaluation, assessment and strategic
planning in the future.
References and resources

Academic Registrars' Council leadership skills study. 2007. Retrieved 29 January
2008 from http://www.arc.ac.uk/news_story.php?id=27
Association of University Administrators management development programme.
2007. Retrieved 29 January 2008 from http://www.aua.ac.uk/events/courses/
Astin, A. M. 1993. What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited. San Francisco,
Jossey-Bass.
Council for the Advancement of Standards. 2008. The CAS Mission. Retrieved 14
January 2008 from http://www.cas.edu/
Dean, L.A. 2006.CAS Professional Standards for Higher Education (6th ed.).Washington,
DC, Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education.
Fink, A. (ed.). 2003. The Survey Kit 2. Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage.
Kuh, G. D., Kinzie, J., Schuh, J.H. and Whitt, E. J. 2005. Student Success in College. San
Labi,A. 2007. Quest for International Measures of Higher-Education Learning Results
Raises Concerns. The Chronicle of Higher Education.19 September 2007.
Washington, DC, The Chronicle.
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MATRIX standard http://www.matrixstandard.com/about/elements.php.=Retrieved

29 January 2008.
Morgan, D. L. and Krueger, R. A. 1998. The Focus Group Kit. Thousand Oaks, Calif.
Sage.
National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA) and the
American College Personnel Association (ACPA). 2004. Learning Reconsidered:
A Campus-wide Focus on the Student Experience. Washington, DC,
NASPA/ACPA. Retrieved 14 July 2008 from the website of the American
College Personnel Association,
http://www.myacpa.org/pub/pub_books_services.cfm
National Student Survey question set. 2007. Retrieved 29 January 2008 from
http://www.thestudentsurvey.com/archive/nss-questionnaire-english.pdf
OECD Feasibility Study for the International Assessment of Higher-Education Learning
Outcomes (AHELO). 2008. Retrieved 3 October 2008 from
http://www.oecd.org/document/22/0,3343,en_2649_35961291_40624662_1_1
_1_1,00.html
Pascarella, E. T. and Terenzini, P. T. 2005. How College Affects Students, Vol. 2. San
Rossi, P. H., Freeman, H. E. and Lipsey, M.W. 1999. Evaluation: A Systematic Approach
(6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage.
Rowley, D. J., Lujan, H. D. and Dolence, M. G. 1997. Strategic Change in Colleges and
Universities. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Schuh, J. H. 2003. Strategic planning and finance. S. R. Komives, D. B. Woodard, Jr., &
Associates, Student Services: A Handbook for the Profession (4th ed.), San Francisco,
Jossey-Bass, (pp. 358-78).
Sheffield Graduate Award. 2008. Retrieved 29 January
http://www.sheffield.ac.uk/thesheffieldgraduateaward/index.html
2008
from
Survey Monkey. 2008. The Simple Way to Create Surveys. Retrieved 10 January 2008
from http://www.surveymonkey.com/
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Survey Pro. 2008. Advanced Technology for Online Surveys. Retrieved 10 January 2008
from http://www.surveypro.com/
Unite Student Experience Report. 2007. Retrieved 29 January 2008 from
http://www.unite-group.co.uk/data/Research/default.aspx
Upcraft, M. L. and Schuh, J. H. 1996. Assessment in Student Affairs: a Guide for
Practitioners. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Wholey, J. S., Hatry, H. P. and Newcomer, K. E. (eds). 2004. Handbook of Practical
Program Evaluation (2nd ed.). San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
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Safety, security,
risk management
and legal issues in
student affairs
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Safety, security, risk management and

legal issues in student affairs
Safety, security, risk management and legal

issues in student affairs
Dennis E. Gregory
The practice of student affairs has become more complicated around the world as each
country faces its own unique societal issues as well as those issues common to students
and the higher education community. Among those issues of most concern are how
student affairs and services professionals address issues of protecting their students from
physical and psychological harm, and how student affairs and services comply with the
legal environments within which they operate. One only has to examine the weather
and geological disasters that often threaten our countries and their institutions to
understand the impact that these may have on student affairs practice and taking care
of students as a main role of student affairs. When one adds in the issues of crime,
terrorism, violent political protest, governmental interventions in countries with both
autocratic and democratic governments, wars, genocide and other violence-related
issues, these problems may often seem insurmountable. However, while not always able
to provide a successful resolution to the issues facing the institution, students and the
nations in which they operate, preparation by student affairs programmes and
administrators may prevent some problems from occurring, keep others from being
exacerbated and assist students to deal with the issues facing them.
Although the basic concept of student affairs practice is to develop the whole student
outside the classroom and to support and cooperate with the academic mission of the
university, this is often difficult unless the students are safe and comfortable. Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, 1943) states that before one can concentrate on the
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higher levels of need (love, affection and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization),
all of which are a part of 'student development', one must have fulfilled more basic
needs (physiological and safety). It is these lower-level needs, those that form the basis
for later student affairs practice, upon which this chapter will concentrate.
Governmental relationships with institutions vary from country to country and
relationships with police and emergency services agencies also vary according to the
sophistication of the structures of institutions and the countries within which they
operate. Size and physical location of the campus (rural, suburban or urban) also have
important impacts. However, this section is intended to create a basic format for the
development of policy and practice that may form an underpinning for development
of specific institutional processes. It will address those items that we believe need to
be known and put in place with regards to safety, security, risk management and legal
issues. While these are often interconnected, we will seek to address them
individually and then summarize to identify connections. The following definitions will
apply to those four terms in this section.
40
1.
Safety - In this context, we refer to safety as the creation of awareness of

students to act in responsible and mature ways in order to protect their physical
safety from crime, and the creation of a campus infrastructure, that assists in the
development of this awareness and the mechanisms to protect students from
crime committed by fellow students and outsiders while on and around
campuses. Generally, this will consist of work with police agencies, creation of
campus safety programmes, the creation of a campus that has as few physical
risks as possible, and creation of programmes and support agencies to prevent
risky behaviours.
2.
Security - In this section we refer to security in the sense of what has become
known as 'homeland security' in the United States, but which takes on other
names around the world. While there is less that can be done by local agencies
and institutions, particularly those actions to prevent terrorism and similar
activities, we will discuss several mechanisms that student affairs agencies and
professionals may put into place and ways to work with national governmental
entities to assist in the accomplishment of increased safety. This is particularly
important for those campuses that may be near military bases that are
conducting military research, nuclear and biomedical research, and animal
research. Such institutions may be the targets of terrorism and/or violent protest
that would endanger students, employees and visitors.
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3.
Risk management - Here we refer to the creation of policies, plans, infrastructures

and other items that seek to minimize the impact of events that may affect the
campus and its members, particularly students. These may include weatherrelated issues (hurricanes, typhoons, snow events, floods, temperature extremes,
water shortages, etc.), geological issues (earthquakes, tsunamis, etc.), significant
events caused by safety or security violations as defined above (mass murders,
looting after disasters of various types, etc.) and protection from legal liability.
4.
Legal issues - Every institution of higher education, whether independent or

governmentally affiliated, operates within the legal context of its nation, locality
and possibly region or state. Legal issues in this context refer to the creation of
an awareness of that legal environment and operations that allow the institution
to comply with those legal requirements so as not to negatively impact upon
students. Student affairs practitioners need to have an awareness of the legal
context and assure that they comply with those laws and guidelines that allow
for efficient operation and protect the interests of students and the institution.
Safety
The structure of student affairs divisions varies from institution to institution and a
variety of offices are included within these structures. It is our preference that the
campus police or security department of an institution, if one exists, be housed within
the student affairs structure. We believe that this allows police or security officers to
be imbued with the student development philosophy as well as to be trained in
security and law enforcement operations. If a security or police department exists
within the institution but is not a part of the student affairs operation, it is incumbent
upon student affairs professionals to develop an excellent working relationship with
this department.
The International Association of Campus Law Enforcement Administrators (IACLEA,
2008a) has developed a report that indicates some key issues that the association
believes should be learned from the Virginia Tech killings and other similar events.
These initiatives would be beneficial for any division of student affairs to know and
understand in the development of a safer campus. In addition, IACLEA has set
standards by which campus police and security agencies around the world may
become 'accredited'. IACLEA works cooperatively with the Commission on
Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, Inc. (CALEA) with regard to
accreditation of campus police and security agencies. They have developed five new
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standards among those needed to become accredited. The standards, 'which address
blue light phones, panic alarms, security surveys, video surveillance, and safety escort
services' (IACLEA, 2008b) will prove beneficial at improving campus safety services
and should be evaluated by student affairs divisions whether they include the campus
security agency or not.
Both campus law enforcement agencies (when they exist and whether or not a part
of the student affairs division) and student affairs divisions, as a unit, must work with
local law enforcement agencies. The development of formal connections and
memoranda of understanding with local agencies are critical in case of large-scale
criminal activity and serious crimes such as murder and sexual assault. Similar
relationships with local prosecutors must also be developed. Most local prosecutors
only wish to prosecute those cases they feel good about winning. Thus, the collection
of good evidence by campus police, support for victims and witnesses by campus
student affairs staffs, and other ways to cooperate are very important.
One of the primary ways that student affairs may support campus and local police
agencies and protect the safety of students is through the implementation of
education programmes related to campus safety. Thus, the offices within the student
affairs programme that are related to housing, student activities, student conduct,
orientation, disability services, student government support and others that may seem
appropriate in individual settings, should create forums where such programmes can
be offered, and invite campus and local police or security officials to do so as well.
There should also be regular meetings among all of these groups and police to discuss
these issues and to create new programmes as necessary.
Student affairs professionals should also work with campus risk management
professionals to assess areas where crime is likely to take place (student residences,
student organization housing, dark areas on campus, public streets running through
campus, etc.) and work with them to ameliorate these risks. There should also be
planning to assure that crime does not occur or is limited during large-scale activities
such as athletic events, large campus parties, controversial speakers, campus
demonstrations and the like.
A team approach to preventing crime and assisting students to change their
behaviours and habits to make them less prone to be victims should be the primary
functions of the student affairs programme. Bickel and Lake (1999) have described the
concept of the 'Facilitator University'. While this model was intended to focus upon
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American universities where the student affairs division is only part of the university
responsible for creating this model, the model seems applicable around the world in
many ways and relies on student affairs professionals to bring the model to fruition.
Among those conditions for which the university and its student affairs division are
responsible in order to be an institution that facilitates student safety are the
following:
1.
The institution may not be passive.
2.
The university is not a parent.
3.
The university lets students make informed choices based on perceived levels of
maturity.
4.
The university adapts and varies the nature and level of involvement based on
the needs of student.
5.
The university does what the institution is supposed to do best - educates

students - in this case, about risk.
6.
The university sometimes consciously DOES NOT intervene.
7.
The university serves as a guide and positive influence.
8.
The university controls disorder to avoid compromising student safety.
9.
The university is not an insurer of student safety.
10. The university manages, supervises and interacts with the student as appropriate.
11. The university tries to find proper balance and shared responsibility (Bickel and
Lake, 1999).
Security
As both national and international terrorism have become increasing threats around
the world and as war, revolution and genocide continue to plague humanity, college
and university campuses have become targets or potential targets for some of these
acts. These organizations are gathering places for large numbers of students and
others, and are often deemed high prestige targets that host the privileged within
the population. Universities often conduct research that is related to military,
animal, nuclear and/or biomedical purposes that can attract violent responses from
those who use violence and terror to prove their points or create fear and
destruction.
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As a result of threats and actual terrorism, and the potential for attacks on campuses,
student affairs professionals around the world must accept their role in protecting
their students from terrorism whenever possible. Many of the items listed above
apply as well to provision of security as they do in crime prevention. However,
particularly in those countries in which the university is the centre of creative thought
and expression, university officials must be careful not to squash legitimate research,
speech and protest in the name of prevention of terrorism. The balance of working
to support academic enquiry and develop the whole person is often difficult to
achieve when the threat of violence is lurking in the background.
In addition to working with campus and local police agencies, it is incumbent upon
student affairs officials to understand the terrorism threats on their campuses and in
their communities. They must know which may impact upon their students and work
with law enforcement and national security agencies to prepare students and the
campus about what to do to prevent terrorism, and what to do should a terrorist act
take place on or near the campus.
Other than doing the things that they can on campus and in preparation for potential
terrorism, there is little local agencies and, especially student affairs staff, can do. With
the exception of the senior student affairs officer, it is often the case that student
affairs staff are not included in institutional discussions of security issues.
Confidentiality, secrecy and other considerations make this necessary. However,
awareness of the potential is a strong weapon for student affairs professionals around
the world.
Risk management
The concept of risk management serves to support the provision of both safety and
security, and also reaches beyond these to the prevention of tort liability and many
other unforeseen events, natural and human-made disasters, such as weather and
geological upheavals. It may also include preparing for the carelessness and negligence
of other people. According to Sokolow (2001) there are four guiding principles that
must be considered when examining risk management.
44
1.
Risk management practice should create synergies with the institutional mission
and ethics.
2.
The risk management function is a holistic mind-set.
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3.
Risk management must be a dynamic ethic, distinct from risk containment.
4.
Risk management cannot be an afterthought.
Costello (2001, pp. 5-6) defines five areas of risk that institutions of higher education
must face.
1.
Strategic risk - thinking about what the goals of the university are.
2.
Financial risk - facing the 'financial implications of lawsuits and liability' if we

'mislead someone, defamed someone, violated someone's copyright', or have
done something else that causes us financial loss.
3.
Operational risk - institutional management processes including how employees

are handled; how student affairs are handled; and how certain volunteer groups,
sports teams, classroom activities, and research materials are handled. This area
also extends to internal operational risks, from accounting and finance, to health
and safety, to medical services.
4.
Compliance risk - how institutions comply with 'laws in terms of hazardous waste
rules, automobile rules, operational health and safety, and on and on.'
5.
Reputational risk - difficult to quantify and varies with every institution. Basically
it means that the university wants to have a certain public image it wishes to
maintain and there is risk whenever anything related to the university occurs that
may damage that reputation.
As we examine risk management within student affairs, we must acknowledge that

student affairs activities often place the university at risk and increase the potential
liability for the university as much or more than any other institutional operation.
Among areas of high risk are student activities, student conduct administration,
student housing and student record keeping, etc. There may well be other areas of
high risk in universities around the world that must be examined and dealt with by
student affairs professionals. Sokolow (2001b) identifies internship and off-campus
volunteer placements, student suicide, sexual assaults, and drug and alcohol use, as
well as study abroad (cross-border or student mobility) programmes as other areas
of high risk. He suggests that student affairs divisions and universities create risk
management policies and procedures and keep these updated regularly. He also
includes several practices 'that can help puzzle together the pieces of an effective
student affairs risk assessment':
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Include office support staff in your assessment practices.
Train staff to identify cases where the policy seems to under-serve the issue it
addresses.
Establish a schedule for revisiting and revising the weaknesses raised by these
policies.
Train staff comprehensively and do not assume they come to you with proper
risk assessment and management skills.
Use case studies, student surveys and risk assessments to make decisions about
how to direct resources to the areas that represent the highest liability risk
and/or greatest risk to student safety.
Develop a comprehensive educational and intervention plan. (Sokolow,2001b,

pp.105-8).
Legal issues
Law and legal issues have an impact on higher education and on student affairs
practice in many ways. While this differs in many countries, in the United States the
law affects virtually every decision made by a university. Issues of risk management,
safety and security as described above are all impacted by legal issues. According to
Hunter and Gehring (2004) there are over 220 federal laws that impact higher
education in the United States. This does not even take into account state laws and
local ordinances that also impact higher education and student affairs. The structure
of government in every country of the world varies somewhat, although there are a
number of predominate models. In most cases higher education and student affairs
are governed at the national level by a ministry of education. There often are,
however, other structures within the government that may also impact negatively
upon student affairs at the national, regional, state, province or local level. Many
governmental structures have one or more of the following units or branches: (1)
executive branch that is responsible for enforcing the law and may also be responsible
for creating law, (2) legislative branch that often is responsible for creating new laws
and (3) the judicial branch that often is responsible for interpreting the law and/or its
enforcement. International law may also come into play when there are agreements
between institutions in different countries, particularly as the transfer of technology
related to the environment and the oceans, joint research endeavours and the like
occur.
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Because the governmental structures of the many countries of the world differ so
dramatically it is beyond the scope of this chapter to deal with them all. Below a
number of areas of the law that may impact student affairs in many countries are
addressed. In any case, student affairs divisions and professionals must be aware of the
law in their particular country and which of the laws impact upon the operations of
student affairs and students in particular.
Constitutional law - Many nations have constitutions that form the basis for the legal
system within the country. This often is the overarching document of the government
from which all other law flows. In countries where there are large political subdivisions, there may also be constitutions for these sub-divisions. In many cases these
are subservient to the national constitution. Sometimes elected or appointed judges
may interpret the constitution of a country or political sub-division.
Statute law - This is the law that is often created by legislative bodies, but may also
be created in other ways. These laws often deal with specific topics such as taxation,
police powers and virtually every other operational aspect of government.
Common law - In cases where there is no constitution, or often in addition to
constitutional law there is 'judge made' law. Often these are interpretations of statute
or constitutional law and may impact the way in which regulations are created. Judge
made law may be examined and changed.
Religious law - There are a number of nations around the world that are ruled by
either religious law or religious law in conjunction with one or more of the types of
law described above. Religious law often impacts upon who can get an education and
to what extent they may be educated, how genders may interact, and the ways in
which education and related services are provided by the government or religious
organizations. These laws, in theocratic countries in particular, may have a large impact
on student affairs.
There are also a number of categories of law that may impact student affairs. These
often include the ones listed below.
Tort law - 'Torts are civil wrongs recognized by law as grounds for a lawsuit. These
wrongs result in an injury or harm constituting the basis for a claim by the injured party.
While some torts are also crimes punishable with imprisonment, the primary aim of
tort law is to provide relief for the damages incurred and deter others from committing
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the same harms. The injured person may sue for an injunction to prevent the
continuation of the tortuous conduct or for monetary damages.' (Tort, nd).
Institutional officials, particularly student affairs officials, may be held liable for negligence
or defamation as well as intentional torts such as battery and other criminal offences.
Administrative law - 'Administrative law encompasses laws and legal principles governing
the administration and regulation of government agencies.' (Administrative Law, nd).
While this varies from country to country, since governments in many countries largely
run institutions of higher education, this becomes particularly important.
Criminal law - 'Criminal law involves prosecution by the government of a person for
an act that has been classified as a crime. Civil cases, on the other hand, involve
individuals and organizations seeking to resolve legal disputes. In a criminal case, the
state, through a prosecutor, initiates the suit, while in a civil case the victim brings the
suit. Persons convicted of a crime may be incarcerated, fined, or both. However,
persons found liable in a civil case may only have to give up property or pay money,
but are not incarcerated.' (Criminal Law, nd). Since both students and employees are
part of the larger society, all must abide by the criminal law or face the consequences
of violations. Student affairs professionals must make students aware of the
consequences of running afoul of criminal law.
Contract law - 'Contracts are promises that the law will enforce. The law provides
remedies if a promise is breached or recognizes the performance of a promise as a
duty. Contracts arise when a duty does or may come into existence, because of a
promise made by one of the parties. To be legally binding as a contract, a promise
must be exchanged for adequate consideration. Adequate consideration is a benefit or
detriment that a party receives which reasonably and fairly induces them to make the
promise/contract. For example, promises that are purely gifts are not considered
enforceable because the personal satisfaction the grantor of the promise may receive
from the act of giving is normally not considered adequate consideration. Certain
promises that are not considered contracts may, in limited circumstances, be enforced
if one party has relied to his detriment on the assurances of the other party.' (Contract
Law, nd). The importance of contract law varies from country to country. In most
countries, however, if private or independent universities exist, contract law is an
important part of their operation. Even in state run institutions, contracts such as
employment contracts, housing agreements and leases, student handbooks, academic
catalogues and other items may be subject to interpretation under contract law.
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Tax law - Each nation has specific laws related to the collection and usage of monies
collected from their citizens in the form of taxes. Public institutions of higher education,
for at least part of their revenue, benefit from the collection of taxes. In the United
States institutions of higher education are largely exempt from taxes at all governmental
levels. It is incumbent upon student affairs professionals to be aware of the tax status of
their institutions and to help their students to understand their own tax liability.
Local law - There is a wide variety of local laws that impact upon higher education in
general and student affairs in particular. Zoning ordinances, noise ordinances, traffic and
parking regulations, food service usage permits, property sale, and purchase and
ownership requirements. Local criminal violations and many other regulations created
by local governmental entities may impact upon student affairs organizations and
students. The creation of an awareness of these is an important student affairs function.
Other laws - There are many other types of laws and legal issues, of which we should
be aware. Among these are health and safety law, labour law, immigration law,
copyright law, patent and trademark law, antitrust law, environmental law, disability
law, accreditation and laws related to research, all of which may impact higher
education in every nation of the world to one extent or the other.
It is very important that student affairs professionals possess a basic understanding of
the law and that they seek to gain further knowledge from legal counsel when
available. Helping students to understand their legal obligations, to know how to stay
safe and free from legal problems, and operating student affairs programmes in ethical
and legal ways are critically important irrespective of the part of the world in which
one is located and practises the student affairs profession.
Conclusion
This section has addressed several issues that are basic to the 'student services' aspect
of student affairs practice. By that, I mean, they are responsibilities that provide
services to students as their primary task and, secondly, provide knowledge and help
students to develop. They create a safe and secure environment, offer protection to
allow students to carry out their learning and developmental growth, and create
opportunities for students to grasp their full potential. Winston, Creamer, Miller and
Associates (2001) have indicated that student affairs administrators operate within
three realms of practice. These include roles as an educator, a leader and a manager.
Each of these three realms of practice may be put to use in dealing with the issues
raised in this chapter. Issues of safety, crime prevention and security may be addressed
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by providing programmes and informing students of do's and don'ts, and of ways to
avoid victimization, and by informing students and others of the potential for
problems. This is the educator role. Creating an environment and setting
organizational priorities so that others within the organization understand these
priorities is the leader role. Arranging the way in which all of this is provided falls
within the manager role.
Risk management is another area in which all three realms of practice may be
demonstrated at one time or the other. Creating an environment in which an
understanding of risk is developed and all staff and students practise risk assessment and
management techniques takes leadership. Developing and offering workshops, professional
development activities and classes in creating a less risky environment is educational in
nature. Actually managing risks, of course, is self explanatory as a manager function.
Becoming aware and developing an understanding of legal issues impacting upon the
university and student affairs are very important tasks. They also are very difficult since
the law is ever changing. It is critical that a basic understanding be part of the training
of all student affairs administrators, that ongoing professional development related to
legal issues be the norm and that consultation with trained legal counsel be a part of
the regular routine of senior student affairs administrators. While less senior
administrators may not need ready access to counsel, it is important that they
understand the importance of these issues and understand when they need to ask for
assistance. Student affairs administrators need to take the lead in insuring legal and
ethical practice, in educating students and other professionals about legal issues and
challenges, and in managing their programmes in legal and ethical ways. This will allow
student affairs and services to also work to provide the other services and
developmental activities described elsewhere in this book.

Administrative Law (nd). Legal Information Institute. Cornell University, Cornell,
NY. Retrieved 30 May 2008, from
http://topics.law.cornell.edu/wex/administrative_law
Bickel, R. D. and Lake, P. F. 1999. The Rights and Responsibilities of the Modern
University: Who Assumes the Risks of College Life? Durham, NC , Carolina
Academic Press.
Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, Inc. (CALEA) http://www.calea.org/
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Contract Law (nd). Legal Information Institute. Cornell University, Cornell, NY.
Retrieved 30 May2008, from http://topics.law.cornell.edu/wex/Contracts
Costello, B. 2001. Risk management in the higher education setting: An overview. B. A.
Sokolow (ed.) Instilling Principles of Risk Management into the Daily Practice of
Student Affairs, Radnor, Penn., NCHERM, Ltd/URMIA (pp.11-23).
Criminal Law. (nd). Legal Information Institute. Cornell University, Cornell, NY.
Retrieved 30 May 2008, from http://topics.law.cornell.edu/wex/Criminal_law
Hunter, B. and Gehring, D. D. 2004. The cost of federal legislation on higher education:
the hidden tax on tuition. NASPA Journal, Vol. 42, No. 4, Art. 5. Retrieved 30
May 2008, from http://publications.naspa.org/naspajournal/vol42/iss4/art5
IACLEA. 2008a. The IACLEA Blueprint for Safer Campuses. Retrieved 25 May 2008
from http://www.iaclea.org/visitors/PDFs/VT-taskforce-report_Virginia-Tech.pdf
IACLEA. 2008b. Recent Developments in IACLEA Accreditation Program. Retrieved 25
May 2008 from
http://www.iaclea.org/visitors/professionaldevelopment/accreditation/Accred_De
velopments.cfm
Maslow, A. H. 1943. A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review, Vol. 50,
pp. 370-96.
Sokolow, B. A. 2001a. Introduction. B. A. Sokolow, (ed.) Instilling Principles of Risk
Management into the Daily Practice of Student Affairs, Radnor, Penn. NCHERM,
Ltd/URMIA, (pp. 5-10)..
Sokolow, B. A. 2001b. Risk assessment in student affairs. B. A. Sokolow, (ed.) Instilling
Principles of Risk Management into the Daily Practice of Student Affairs, Radnor,
Penn., NCHERM, Ltd/URMIA, (pp. 102-122).
Sokolow, B.A. (ed.). 2001. Instilling Principles of Risk Management into the Daily
Practice of Student Affairs. Radnor, Penn., NCHERM, Ltd/URMIA.
Tort (nd) Legal Information Institute. Cornell University, Cornell, NY. Retrieved 30
May 2008, from http://topics.law.cornell.edu/wex/tort
Winston, Jr., R. B., Creamer, D. G., Miller,T. K. and Associates. 2001. The Professional
Student Affairs Administrator: Educator, Leader, and Manager. New York,
Brunner-Routledge.
Zdziarski, E. L., Dunkel, N.W, Rollo, J. M. and Rollo, J. M. 2007. Campus Crisis
Management. New York, Wiley, John & Sons, Inc.
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Ethics and the

student affairs
profession
VI
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Ethics and the student affairs profession
VI

Michael C. Sachs and Cynthia Howman
Student affairs professionals and organizations should consider five basic issues with
regards to ethical conduct and standards.
1.
Law: The student affairs professionals and organizations will abide by the laws of
the locality in which they are governed.
2.
Institution: Ethical considerations and obligations that student affairs professionals

must consider with regards to the institutions at which they service.
3.
Students: Ethical considerations and obligations student affairs professionals have

to the students they serve.
4.
Cultural: Ethical considerations and obligations student affairs professionals must

consider with regards to the cultural issues of the community or country in which
they work.
5.
Ethical codes: Codes of ethics that may exist for certification/licensure in some
fields.
Each of these ethical considerations is important to consider, as the implications can

be profound to the student, the institution and the relationship between the
institution and the culture, community and/or country in which the institution and
professionals are located.
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VI
1. Law:The student affairs professionals and organizations will abide by the
laws of the locality in which they are governed.
It is essential that professionals uphold the laws of the locality in which they work.
Even if professionals do not agree with those laws, it is not their place to wilfully and
intentionally violate those laws within the context of their role as student affairs
professionals. Professionals should 'clearly distinguish between statement and actions
that represent their own personal views and those which represent their institution'
(NASPA, 1990) and the government under which they live.
Throughout this manual it will be assumed that all practices, both institutionally and
individually, are presumed legal in the locality in which the professional is working.
2. Institution: Ethical considerations and obligations student affairs

professionals must consider with regards to the institution at which
they serve.
An institution will have its own ethical standards by which it is expected that all
employees (and in many instances students) must abide. NASPA (1990) states
that it is the obligation of the student affairs professional to support the rights of
students 'in accordance with the mission of the employing institution'. However, it
is a key obligation that the student affairs professional recognize what the ethical
standards of the employing institution are before undertaking employment.
Otherwise, the professional has the obligation to either not accept employment at
an institution whose ethical standards are in conflict with his or her own, or to
abide by the ethical standards of that institution. If the ethics of the institution
change while the professional is employed, then the professional should have the
right and opportunity to challenge those changes in a reasonable and professional
manner.
Equally, it is essential that the institution codify a set of basic ethical standards or rules
by which employees must abide, thus providing both the institution and the
professional with an adequate knowledge of the ethical expectations of each.
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VI
3. Students: Ethical considerations and obligations student affairs
professionals have to the students they service.
According to Delworth, Hansen and Associates (1989, p. 58), '[A]ny thoughtful
exploration of ethical practices in student services settings must have the ethical and
moral development of students as the core concerns, perhaps its ultimate objective.'
To this should be added that the professional has the obligation to facilitate student
learning, in all its forms.
A review of various ethical statements and guidelines from a variety of organizations
and associations (ACPA, College Student Administrators International; ACHUHO-I,
Association of College and University Housing Officers-International; ACUI,
Association of College Unions International; NACE, National Association of College
Employers; NASFAA, National Association of Financial Aid Administrators; NASPA,
Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education), as well as basic principles set
forth by Kitchener (1985), provide some common ethical principles that can guide the
student affairs professional when servicing students. They are:
z
be respectful;
respect the dignity of the student;
act to benefit the student;
facilitate student learning;
provide a safe environment;
maintain the highest level of professional behaviour; and
do not cause harm.
Although each of these principles may have different meaning and subtleties from
culture to culture, the guiding principle of professional - respectful and ethical service
to the student that allows for the highest level of student learning in a safe
environment - is paramount.
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VI
4. Cultural: Ethical considerations and obligations student affairs
professionals must consider with regards to the cultural issues of the
community or country in which they work.
Cultural standards vary from community to community and country to country.
What is acceptable practice in one locality is taboo in another. Student affairs
professionals must understand the culture of the country and community in which
they are working. This is particularly important for those professionals who are
working in countries or cultures other than their own. Not unlike standard 1, student
affairs professionals must separate their personal beliefs from their professional
duties with regards to cultural the cultural beliefs of the nation or community in
which they work.
5. Ethical codes: Codes of ethics that may exist for certification/licensure

in some fields.
Some areas of student affairs require professional certification or licensure which may
involve their own ethical standards and principles. For example, professional
practitioners in the health and psychological services may need to abide by
professional ethical practices or risk formal disciplinary action by the organization that
certifies their credentials. In such instances, student affairs professionals should follow
those specific guidelines when engaging in that professional role.
Conclusion
Ethical considerations are essential in any analysis of student affairs and services. In
order to maintain a model of appropriate behaviour, actions and direction, ethical
standards should be developed and codified within any student affairs organization
and the institution as a whole. Although these ethical standards may differ from
community to community and country to country, the basic premises of respect,
learning, professionalism, providing a safe environment, and acting to benefit the
student and the institution provide a framework from which all organizations can
develop ethical standards to meet the needs of their organization while respecting the
views of the culture and community.
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References
Delworth, U., Gary R. H. and Associates. 1989. Student Services; A Handbook for the
Profession (2nd ed.). San Francisco, Jossey-Bass. p. 58.
Kitchener, K.S. 1985. Ethical principles and ethical decisions in student affairs. H. J.
Canon and R. D. Brown (eds), New Direction for Student Services, No. 30. San
Francisco, Jossey-Bass, pp. 17-39.
Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education (NASPA).1990. NASPA Programs
and Initiatives Standards of Professional Practice. Retrieved 20 May 2008, from
http://www.naspa.org/programs/standards.cfm.
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Higher
education
in post-conflict/postdisaster countries: laying a
foundation for the future
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Higher education student affairs and services in post-conflict/

post-disaster countries: laying a foundation for the future
VII
Higher education student affairs and

services in post-conflict/post-disaster
countries: laying a foundation for the future.
Robert Shea and Nazrin Baghirova
'Many challenges face higher education and student affairs as we move into
the new century. Our success will depend on how well we cope with the
changing environment both within and without the higher education
enterprise.'
(Barr, Desler and Associates, 2000, p. xxi)
Barr et al., highlight the importance of how well we cope with the changing
environment within and without the higher education enterprise in defining our
success. The challenges associated with reconstruction efforts within higher education
in countries ravaged by conflict and/or disaster require a focused, holistic approach.
The student affairs and services profession must have a significant role in this
rebuilding.
Student affairs and services should consider the following aspects in providing student
affairs and services in post-conflict/disaster countries: environment; organizational
issues; essential skills and competencies; professional development; future directions.
While this list is not exhaustive, it does highlight those areas that student services
professionals can employ to aid in reconstruction efforts. The central tenet, namely
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the central importance of the student in all facets of higher education, is critical.
Student affairs/services practitioners must remind the academy of the need for this
concept to be built into the fabric of post-conflict/disaster efforts.
Environment
Understanding campus environments is critical to the successful provision of student
services as well as instruction and other aspects of higher education. Environmental
influences such as fiscal pressures, the relation between the institution and local
governments, and the politics of the institution and the larger macro-political
environment in which the institution resides are critical for the delivery of creative and
dynamic student services. The historical evolution of the institution is important to
facilitate a respect for the past and an understanding of the environmental
opportunities and potential roadblocks ahead.
Organizational issues
Komives, Woodard and Associates (2003) detail the functional areas of student affairs
as admissions and recruitment, orientation to the institution, registration, financial aid,
academic advising and support services, college unions and student activities,
international student services, counselling, career development, residence life, services
for students with disabilities, student health, childcare and food services.
While each of these areas may or may not exist within higher education institutions
in post- conflict/disaster countries, it is important to use this as a model in
reconstruction efforts. The primary need for student services such as registration,
housing, counselling and career development has been highlighted as immediate
needs in many post-conflict/disaster countries.
The organization of these functions requires a review of institutional priorities, the
impact of the size of the institution, student demographics and the relationship to
other functional areas within the institution, especially academic affairs and instruction.
Essential skills and competencies

The selection of individuals with the following skills and competencies, or the
development of such competencies, is critical for the effective delivery of student
affairs and services, and to be able to continue to focus on peace and reconstruction
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within a country: mediation, appreciation for multiculturalism, dealing with campus

crisis, assessment and evaluation, developing partnerships and collaborative efforts,
managing conflict, leadership, co-curricular teaching and consultation. All of these
competencies are required of student affairs/services practitioners in order for the
higher education reconstruction efforts to be effective in post-conflict/disaster
countries.
The following section of a job advertisement for a Chancellor at a university in
Afghanistan highlights the competencies required in the area of student services:
Student affairs
1.
Ensure an enabling atmosphere conducive to higher education in the university.
2.
Ensure an academic atmosphere that will support equitable growth, gender

balance and disadvantaged groups.
3.
Provide mentoring and leadership to the student community to ensure

harmonious growth.
4.
Ensure revitalization of different departments with reference to offering services

to the community and cooperation with industry.6
Professional development
Student services professionals are consistently delivering student and employee
workshops on a myriad of topics. Topics include mediation, crisis
prevention/intervention, conflict resolution, performance appraisal, student and
professional career development, mental and physical health self care, and leadership.
The creation of professional associations designed to support continued student
services professional development is critical. Professional associations in student affairs
exist in many African, Asian, European, and North American countries.
Future directions
The importance of a comprehensive and professional approach to student services
within post-conflict/disaster institutions of higher education has been a missing
element of reconstruction efforts to date. Future directions should include:
6
Retrieved 7 September 2008 at http://unjobs.org/vacancies/1220178126899
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Support from international professional associations representing student affairs

and services professionals, to support recent efforts of the Higher Education
Division of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
(UNESCO) in post-conflict/disaster higher education initiatives (Retrieved
August 2, 2008 from,
http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.phpL_ID=40220&URL_DO=DO_TOP
IC&URL_SECTION=201.html
Support professional development of student services professionals working in

post-conflict/disaster countries.
Utilize technology where possible to deliver support. To professionals in the

field.
Conduct research on the role of student affairs and services in postconflict/disaster peace building.
Create an international forum to explore the issues and highlight the

importance of student services in reconstruction efforts in post-conflict/disaster
countries.
Work with our national and international partners, especially student

associations, to explore future opportunities for student services in postconflict/disaster institutions.
Conclusion
The field of student affairs and services in post-conflict/disaster countries is an
emerging field of practice and study. Higher education can use the decades of
research and work of higher education researchers and student affairs and services
practitioners as a template for future work in post-conflict/disaster countries. While
this template is based on other cultures and assumptions that may or may not be
appropriate in post-conflict/disaster countries, it is a solid foundation upon which to
begin the transformation of higher education in these regions.
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Barr, M. J., Desler, M. K. and Associates. 2000. The Handbook of Student Affairs
Administration, 2nd ed. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Komives, S. R.,Woodard Jr., D. and Associates. 2003. Student Services: A Handbook
for the Profession. 4th ed. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass
UNESCO. 1999. World Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-first Century:
Vision and Action. Paris, UNESCO.
UNESCO. Higher Education in Post-Conflict Countries (Retrieved 2 August 2008 from
http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.phpL_ID=40220&URL_DO=DO_TOP
IC&URL_SECTION=201.html )
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Student
affairs
and services functions in
higher education:
professional services and
programmes delivered
for enhancement of
student learning and
success
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Student affairs and services functions in higher education: professional services and
programmes delivered for enhancement of student learning and success
VIII
Student affairs and services functions in

higher education: professional services and
programmes delivered for enhancement of
student learning and success
Edited by Kenneth J. Osfield and Roger B. Ludeman
The concept of a student services or student affairs profession in some countries
is established and in other countries it is an emerging phenomenon. Until the
early part of the nineteenth century, the teaching faculty and a few clerical
assistants handled the few non-instructional functions for students, e.g.,
accommodation, food service, student discipline and advising, and some activities.
The earlier models of higher education did not focus on the whole student and
access to education was limited to those who could afford it. Soon, however, the
types and number of students coming into higher education began to swell (many
of them women who were being admitted to higher education for the first time
in several centuries). Academics who were previously handling these functions,
even though they knew next to nothing about administering such initiatives and
counselling students, began calling for more assistance in carrying out these noninstructional duties. In the United States, Deans of Women, Deans of Men, and
Deans of Students began to be appointed because of the increases in numbers
and types of students who were enrolling in higher education. Also during the late
nineteenth century, the teacher/scholar and research models were being adopted
all over the world, moving away from the main purpose being teaching and
service. Governments and communities were turning to higher education systems
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to generate research and development for the military, industry, health and other
social programmes.
A new profession was therefore born: higher education student affairs and services.
These staff members were now in charge not only of housing and feeding students;
physical and mental health care also became a necessity on many college campuses.
Recreation, cultural activities, sports, testing, orientation, career assistance, job
placement, financial assistance and disability services all became new units in many
countries. They were initiated to help meet emerging student types and their
corresponding student needs.
Following the Second World War, campuses everywhere continued to become
more diverse because returning war veterans were accessing higher education
through the use of government benefits designed for that purpose. During the last
quarter of the twentieth century, the variety of students coming into higher education
continued to expand all around the world. Joining the traditional well-to-do men
were women students, students of colour, older non-traditional students, single
parents, students with disabilities and others as well. As a result, new professionals
were hired to work with these new groups to meet their needs and help them to
become successful students.
During the 1990s, the focus of student affairs and services moved toward an
enhancement of student learning outcomes and working hand-in-hand with the
teaching faculty and others. This development has given new hope to the idea that
an integrated campus effort will produce better results for students and more efficient
use of resources for all campus units.
The degree to which the wide array of student services and programmes is developed
in a particular country depends on the demands for and access to higher education, the
cultural context and the ability of the infrastructure to provide this level of student
support. Each part of the world, and in many cases each country, must review its
commitment to higher education and include in the financial infrastructure some major
provision for the necessary student affairs and services functions to make sure student
needs are being met. In addition, various student activities should be developed so that
they blend well with the instructional nature of the institution and, therefore, enhance
the desired student learning outcomes. Higher retention and graduation rates will be
the results, justifying the commitment and the resources provided up front.
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It should be noted that regarding technology, distance education, and asynchronous

learning and their application to student affairs and services, the 1990s brought a
revolution in the development and utilization of computing, communications and
multi-media in all aspects of society, but most assuredly in higher education. What
was once considered the only way to communicate, deliver services, conduct
research or teach has been enhanced or replaced by such phenomena as email, fax,
listservs or chat rooms, blogs, interactive video, online courses, online registration and
other resources on the World Wide Web. Student affairs and services employs
technology in its various forms to deliver its programmes and services more
effectively and efficiently as demanded by students and other shareholders. What
once required students to come to a central location to complete a required
transaction now can be done from their residence by using interactive web-based
services. Examples include completing applications, responding to questionnaires,
doing class assignments, watching lectures, conducting research, purchasing books and
materials, and finding up-to-date information on classes and activities at their
university or in their communities. On the one hand, a number of transactions
included in this section of the manual could be carried out quite efficiently at a
distance through using the tools of modern technology. On the other, the price of
efficiency carries with it a different cost: keeping up with the cost of hardware,
software, training, and network administration.
This section will begin with the discussion of the concept of a separate but integrated
division of the institution that is most often called student affairs, student life, student
development or student services, referred to here as student affairs and services. Such
a division would focus primarily on students and their needs, and the division head
usually is a top level/senior university officer. Under ideal circumstances, this officer
would be responsible directly to the senior executive officer of the institution.
Following is a description of the purposes, functions and typical activities of the senior
student affairs and services officer (SSAO).
The accuracy of the information provided in the following reports reflects the views
and knowledge of the authors and not the editors. Readers are encouraged to
contact the authors for additional information.
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The senior student affairs and services officer

Melanie Humphreys, Patricia Smith Terrell and Brian Gormley
Student affairs programmes and services vary greatly according to institutional mission,
type, educational philosophy and context. The SSAO develops, leads, assesses and
coordinates programmes and services that advance the mission and vision of the
institution, foster student learning, assist students in achieving their potential and
enhance the student experience. The SSAO is a change agent utilizing current
research to consistently improve programmes and processes. An expert on students
and how policies, services and programmes may enhance or detract from the student
learning experience, the SSAO actively leads and participates in institutional efforts to
assess overall student learning outcomes and institutional performance indicators
(Keeling, 2004).
An institutional leader, the SSAO is a member of the senior administration and
reports to the Chief Executive Officer/President or in some cases the Chief Academic
Officer or Chief Financial Officer (Barr and Dresler, 2000). In turn, the SSAO is
responsible for hiring and mentoring qualified professional staff members and
conducting their annual performance reviews, providing opportunities for professional
development and growth, obtaining resources appropriate to the mission and goals
of the department, and reviewing policies and practices of the department and the
university, The SSAO is responsible for ensuring a quality, values-oriented professional
learning culture among staff members and promoting a culture of fairness, quality,
valuing differences, community, justice and empowerment (Keeling, 2004, p. 27). The
SSAO works with staff to ensure fiscal accountability for programmes and services.
The SSAO is responsible for student judicial policies and procedures ensuring a fair
and thorough process that focuses on learning rather than punitive outcomes. The
SSAO ensures that judicial procedures are coherent, published widely, and in
harmony with academic policies and processes. The SSAO serves as a liaison to and
communicates with a variety of external persons, services and agencies such as
parents, community organizations, emergency services, legal and health services and
governmental agencies.
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Purpose/functions
z
To serve as a senior administrator and institutional leader in helping to

accomplish the mission and goals of the institution.
To provide leadership for the development and delivery of essential student

affairs and services programmes.
To provide leadership in identifying, interpreting and serving student needs.
To develop and articulate to the institution a philosophical framework and

mission for student affairs and services.
To develop and maintain an appropriate organizational structure for the delivery

of student affairs and services.
To support, advocate for and promote the needs and interests of students to
appropriate institutional and other constituencies.
To develop institutional policies that are congruent with cultural/social needs of

students and institutional values.
To develop and allocate governmental, institutional and extramural resources to

carry out the mission of student affairs and services.
To develop a student affairs and services framework that supports the

enhancement of student learning outcomes and success.
To provide institutional leadership in providing access to students from all

economic levels of society.
To promote the values of pluralism, diversity and multiculturalism.
To utilize all forms of technology as tools to enhance the delivery of student

affairs and services programmes.
To serve as an integrator of functions across the university for the purpose of

enhancing student learning and success.
To integrate the mission, programmes and services of student affairs, and services
with the academic and other divisions of the institution.
To serve as an effective steward of resources provided by students, government,

taxpayers, etc.
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Typical activities
70
To carry out all student affairs and services functions within the ethical framework
of the profession and higher education in general, developing long-range plans
and developing policies accordingly.
Preparing and administering budgets and overseeing expenditure of funds.
Meeting regularly with colleagues in other areas of the institution to discuss

institutional and student priorities.
Advising and working closely with student leaders to pursue common goals.
Representing student affairs and services on important committees and providing

reports on key student issues.
Conducting research studies on students and their needs.
Working with other university officers to provide a safe and secure campus
environment in which students learn and grow.
Encouraging faculty involvement in student organizations and activities outside

the classroom.
Developing rich and diverse learning communities in cooperation with faculty.
Handling appeals of student disciplinary cases.
Working with faculty on projects that enhance student learning outcomes.
Assisting faculty in working with students who may be experiencing financial,

personal or family concerns that interfere with academic work.
Conducting evaluation, assessment and programme review on all units in student

affairs and services.
Providing appropriate staff supervision and professional development.
Coordinating a comprehensive student activities and organizations programme.
Administering essential student affairs and services programmes such as financial

aid, counselling, health, recreation, admission and records, student government,
residence halls, and others.
Conducting institutional and student affairs fund-raising activities.
Serving as a public spokesperson on student needs/welfare matters.
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References
Barr, M. J. and Dresler, M. K. 2000. The Handbook of Student Affairs Administration. San
Blimling, G. S. and Whitt, E. J. 1999. Good Practice in Student Affairs: Principles to Foster
Student Learning. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Keeling, R. P. (ed.). 2004. Learning Reconsidered: A Campus-wide Focus on the Student
Experience. Washington, D.C.
Descriptions of student affairs/services specialty units

Academic advising/educational counselling
Colleen Blaney, Charlie L. Nutt and Harald ge Sthre
All students require academic advice during their studies. This can range from
choosing courses for their degree to questions about alternate academic
programmes. What does vary between universities is how this advice is provided to
students. For every different institution of higher education there exists a different
way to provide students with academic support. On some campuses, specific posts
are created aligned to academic affairs or student affairs and called student adviser or
academic adviser. In the European tradition, this function is often the sole domain of
academic staff members. Key skills for the holder of these positions include
interpersonal skills, knowledge of students and student culture, leadership and
management skills, knowledge of technology used by students and stress
management skills (Irish Universities Quality Board, 2006).
There are many ways in which academic advice is provided to students. On some
campuses, academic advice is centralized in a single unit - and sometimes building and integrated with other functions in student affairs. Other universities have their
academic advising specific to academic disciplines and decentralized.
Purpose/functions
z
To assist students in developing educational plans that are consistent with their life goals.
To provide students with accurate information about academic progression and

degree requirements.
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To assist students in understanding academic policies and procedures.
To help students access campus resources that will enhance their ability to be
academically successful.
To assist students in overcoming educational and personal problems.
To identify systemic and personal conditions that may impede student academic
achievement and to develop appropriate interventions.
To review and use available data about students' academic and educational
needs, performance, aspirations and problems.
To increase student retention by providing a personal contact that students often

need and request, thereby connecting them to the institution.
Typical activities
z
Assisting students with decision-making and career direction.
Helping students understand and comply with institutional requirements.
Providing clear and accurate information regarding institutional policies,

procedures and programmes.
Assisting students in the selection of courses and other educational experiences

(e.g., internships, study abroad)
Referring students to appropriate resources, on and off campus.
Evaluating student progress towards established goals.
Collecting and distributing data regarding student needs, preferences, and

performance for use in refining or revising institutional/agency decisions, policies,
and procedures.
Interpreting various interest/ability inventories that provide students with

information related to their career choices.
Utilizing a variety of supplemental systems such as on-line computer programs to

deliver advising information.
Reference
Irish Universities Quality Board. 2006. Good Practice in the Organisation of Student
Support Services in Irish Universities. Dublin, Irish Universities Quality Board. Accessible
at www.iuqb.ie
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Academic support centres

Glen Jacobs
Academic suppport centres play a pivotal role in the educational success of students.
These centres have a multitude of names including learning resource centres, services
for students, academic achievement services, and student support centres. Despite
differing monikers, they all have the same mission, which is to help students identify
and achieve their academic goals. Centres on different campuses provide various
services. However, they all typically offer tutoring and small group learning sessions in
areas such as mathematics, science, writing and others. With the support of these
services, students are better able to excel academically and develop skills that
promote lifelong learning through critical thinking. In addition, Academic support
centres often host grant-funded, community-based educational programmes, and
conduct workshops and presentations that focus on specific learning skills. Aside from
serving and mentoring students, centre staff work closely with faculty, administrators
and other campus representatives to provide academically enriching opportunities.
These centres often report to Student Affairs, sometimes Academic Affairs, or both
divisions. Academic support centres are instrumental to retention and graduation
efforts, and often serve as the institution's central resource for such initiatives.
Purpose/functions
z
To provide support services that help students attain their academic goals.
To promote access, retention and academic excellence for all students.
To help students understand learning styles and provide discipline-specific

learning strategies.
To assist students in a variety of areas including reading, writing, mathematics and

science.
To provide services that support students in mastering rigorous college courses.
To provide faculty development workshops on a variety of teaching and learning

strategies.
To provide opportunities that promote lifelong learning through critical thinking

and social awareness.
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Typical activities
z
Providing one-on-one and small group tutoring services for a variety of courses.
Developing student success seminars that focus on several different topics

including managing anxiety, financial well-being and campus resources.
Conducting workshops and presentations for students and faculty on time

management, testing strategies, learning styles and study skills.
Creating a supportive environment that promotes student learning and

development.
Providing software and technical support for students and faculty.
Working with faculty, advisors, staff and other campus representatives to

promote learning opportunities.
Providing testing and assessment for students in order to determine academic

strengths and areas for improvement.
Collaborating with other campus groups and organizations to develop

programmes that promote academic success.
Providing small group learning sessions for students.
Providing mentoring opportunities for students that promote personal and

academic growth.
Motivating and encouraging students to achieve academic success and complete

their post-secondary education.
Admissions
Rosalie Vlaar
When prospective students apply to attend an institution they work with staff in
Admissions to complete their application and receive a decision on admissibility. The
nature of this interaction impacts both their impression of the institution and the
likelihood that they will take up an offer and register.
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Admissions staff are responsible for ensuring that the students selected for admission
are likely to succeed at the institution. To this end, they conduct research into various
predictors of success and are responsible for proposing appropriate admission
policies and implementing appropriate admission practices at the
institution.Purpose/functions
z
Guide applicants through the application process.
Adjudicate admission applications to identify those likely to succeed.
Work in collaboration with admission stakeholders - recruitment and housing

offices, financial aid offices, academic units, secondary school and college advisors,
parents and others.
Engage in strategic enrolment management activities and the implementation of

initiatives.
Advise and make recommendations with respect to best practices in admission

selection.
Typical activities
z
Receive, process and evaluate applications from prospective students.
Collect and process information required for the purpose of adjudication.
Distribute files for adjudication.
Conduct credential and other evaluations.
Receive/process admission decisions.
Articulate courses from other institutions and assign transfer credit.
Notify prospective students regarding a decision.
Conduct research into various academic qualifications, standardized academic tests,

tests of English (and other) language proficiency and other predictors of success.
Conduct research regarding demographic trends in the college-going populations

served by the institution.
Conduct admissions criteria and enrolment management studies.
Contribute to the development or purchase of technological tools used in

application, adjudication and information management.
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Adult/non-traditional/commuter student services

Diane H. Bailiff
All commuting students are not adult or non-traditional. This section will weave the
needs of commuting students into purposes and functions recognizing that there are
subtle distinctions here. Research shows that commuting students tend to be less
engaged with campus-based activities, likely to be employed away from campus and
have responsibilities that are peripherally related to their educational pursuits, a set of
circumstances shared by many adult/non-traditional students. At the same time, there
are traditional students who commute and adult/non-traditional students who live in
the campus community. Often graduate schools and programmes provide a more
comprehensive set of services to the older, commuting, family-oriented student.
These models will benefit undergraduate student affairs programmes as they plan for
inclusion of this growing population with special needs.
For some institutions academic focus is the primary function of the college or
university. In these cases all students could be considered 'commuting students' and
lists of services available through the private sector and contract agencies are
provided to incoming and continuing students.
Purpose/functions
76
To conduct research on the needs and characteristics of adult and commuting

students.
To provide basic services for adult and commuting students.
To counsel and advise adult students regarding their personal concerns and
academic needs.
To offer special means of communication through newsletters, a web page,

telephones, fax and email.
To arrange social and cultural activities for adult students and their
families/partners.
To recognize the limitations experienced by commuting students to participate

in traditional social and cultural activities.
To develop a plethora of flexible learning options that take notice of the

individual learning styles of those regarded as non-traditional students.
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To identify and advise academic and administrative staff of matters that can
adversely affect non-traditional students' welfare and capacity to succeed in
higher education.
To develop social networks that nurture/support the non-traditional student.
To provide places for adult students to socialize and study.
To provide preparatory and orientation programmes (including orienting family

groups) for adult students.
To provide accessible parking at a reasonable cost for commuting students.
To provide web sites that adult students, with limited computing experience, can
manage easily.
Typical activities
z
Advising and counselling adult students individually and in groups as they adapt
to their new status among a traditionally aged student population.
Advocating for adult students in policy-making and design of facilities as well as

the instructional programme.
Working with adult students to become involved in institutional activities.
Arranging social activities for adult students.
Working with faculty to understand the different approaches that may be

necessary when teaching adult students.
Conducting research into the underrepresented groups and, once identified,

develop a range of proactive strategies that are welcoming, preparatory and
assist in promoting success.
Promoting the advantages of education in the community.
Organizing specialist mature-age and cultural orientation/preparatory

programmes that assist in the transition into study.
Negotiating appropriate space for observers of religious beliefs, as well as rooms

and support for clubs, societies, functions and the like.
Initiating social and cultural networks that support the variety of

underrepresented groups.
Initiating learning programmes that are culture-fair and meaningful.
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Offering staff development workshops that improve awareness of non-traditional

student needs and requisites.
Developing weekend education programmes and evening academic

opportunities for commuting students.
Establishing childcare, non-campus housing opportunities and career services that

meet the needs of adult/non-traditional/commuting students.
Resources
Kuh, G. D., Gonyea, R. M. and Palmer, M. 2001. The disengaged commuter student:
Fact or fiction. Commuter Perspectives, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 2-5.
Widening Participation in Higher Education. 2006. Nottingham, United Kingdom.
Department for Education and Skills, University of Cambridge.
Powerful Partnerships: A Shared Responsibility for Learning. A joint report, American
Association for Higher Education/American College Personnel Association/National
Association of Student Personnel Administrators. June 1998.
Jacoby, B. and Associates. 2000. Involving commuter students in learning. New
Directions for Higher Education, No. 109. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Web sites of interest

http://nsse.iub.edu/index.cfm. Publications and Presentations link, Indiana University,
United States.
http://www4.uwm.edu/. Adult and Returning Student Information link, University of
Milwaukee, United States.
http://www.gradunion.cam.ac.uk/. Link from University of Cambridge, United
Kingdom.
http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/offices/gradstud/current/new/. Link from University of
Cambridge, United Kingdom.
http://www.metropolitan.edu/. Metropolitan College of New York, United States.
http://www.metrostate.edu/. Metropolitan State University, United States.
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Alumni relations in student affairs

Michele A. Nota
Many mission statements of alumni relations and/or alumni association areas include
the importance of fostering lifelong, mutually beneficial relationships among current
and future alumni and the institution through programmes and services that inform,
involve and invest them as committed partners of the institution, its mission and
traditions. These important relationships begin on campus by engaging future alumni.
The proximity to future alumni will no longer exist after graduation so it is vital to take
advantage of their time on campus.
Purpose/functions
z
To foster a high degree of pride and ownership in the institution.
To provide networking and mentoring opportunities.
To help in providing financial support from its current and future alumni for the
institution.
To be an ambassador for the institution.
To support the branding and marketing efforts of the institution.
To communicate to current and future alumni opportunities for growth both

personally and professionally.
Typical activities
z
Communicate opportunities for future alumni to participate in activities that may

have tradition.
Market events for future alumni to meet potential employers and mentors.
Conduct on-campus giving opportunities for future alumni to begin the tradition
of giving back.
Support formal student alumni associations where future alumni plan campus
activities.
Provide marketing help though alumni magazines and the web.
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Bookstore services
Lynne Vaughan
Over the years, the primary role of the bookstore remains the same; delivering course
materials on a timely basis in the right quantities through exceptional customer
service. Even with this remaining constant, technology and other advancements
continue to shape the bookstore business and the vehicles with which bookstores
deliver products to their customers.
The issue of textbook prices has been a hot topic on campuses for as long as we can
remember. In the past few years, however, the debate has extended beyond the
campus into the media and has become the subject of discussion in state and federal
government. Because of this, students are looking for ways to reduce or minimize this
educational expense. Used books, along with a healthy 'textbook cycle' continue to
be the most economical ways for our customers to source their course materials. A
healthy textbook cycle is illustrated by three main characteristics: timely adoptions,
used books and a strong buyback season.
Students are also looking for the latest technology the publishing world has to offer.
Bookstores try to deliver the right materials, in the formats that customers demand.
Digital delivery of course material content continues to grow and it is important to
be positioned to handle any changes in demand. Today, many bookstores offer
supplemental materials in a digital format through online resources. In addition to
digital offering, access codes to go online may be required for select class assignments.
Advancements in hardware have also changed the landscape. Currently, a remote
device that allows the student to sign in when attending class, as well as take a quiz
with handheld electronic devices (e.g., the clicker), may be required.
From delivering new technologies in course material, to serving customers twenty-four hours
a day, seven days a week, online, bookstores have become the source for all materials and
supplements for a fruitful university experience. The bookstore has become more than its
name implies. Bookstores are a guide, a resource, and a portal for 'everything college'.
Purpose/functions
80
To provide textbooks and other course materials for courses taught at the institution.
To sell instructional supplies such as paper, notebooks, writing utensils, etc.
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To be a source for references such as dictionaries, thesauruses, etc.
To provide personal supplies, convenience products and various sundries.
To sell emblematic merchandise that fosters identification with the institution.
Typical activities
z
Ordering and stocking course-related books for classroom instruction.
Meeting with faculty and staff members to determine their textbook needs.
Development of aggressive marketing techniques to promote bookstore

products, and position the bookstore as the premier area retailer.
Buyback of textbooks year-round.
Stocking and selling personal supplies for students.
Call centres
Jennifer L. Bishop
In recent years, the number of students graduating from secondary school and the
percentage of those graduates applying to college has increased. In addition, the
average time-frame for completion of a traditional four-year degree at public colleges
has crept to 6.2 years in the United States.7 Also, with the recent decline in the
economy, more and more adults are leaving the workforce to go back to college to
finish incomplete degrees or to take on a new area of study in hopes of finding a
prolific career path.
With the increase in the public pursuit of higher education, colleges and universities
are receiving increased call volumes. Each applicant/student is a customer and expects
to receive personalized, high-level customer service. The importance of having a
university call centre to field these calls and provide efficient information with
seamless transitions from one department to another is essential on today's
campuses. Although the scope and complexity of information that each call centre
has chosen to take on and their involvement with the various departments on their
campus will vary at each institution, the purpose and typical activities will be similar at
university call centres worldwide.
7
http://www.greatschools.net/cgi-bin/showarticle/728
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Purpose/functions
82
Provide a centralized area to obtain information with a 'one-stop-shop' mentality.
Provide information to phone customers with customer service as a top priority,

using live customer service agents rather than automated recordings.
Create an open line of communication to campus offices that would otherwise

have a busy signal.
Reduce the transferring of a call/caller from one department to another in order

to obtain the information they are looking for. Stop the 'transfer train'.
Utilize technology to reduce wait time for the caller by routing calls to
information specialists at varying levels based on availability.
Provide a customized phone system to offices that the call centre answers for
that will provide their customers with the most effective and efficient service
possible while remaining consistent with the mission of that particular office.
Utilize technology to relieve stress on professional staff by reducing the call

volume they receive that involves basic, repetitive questions. Allowing
professional staff to focus on higher level questions and office assignments.
Utilize the resources of knowledgeable, energetic students who have personal

experience that relates to many of the situations the calls pertain to.
Reduce operating costs by hiring students in part-time positions.
Maintain a high level of customer service by scheduling students in shorter length

shifts as opposed to full-time employees who will potentially get burned-out by
answering the same questions forty hours per week.
Increase marketability of the university by providing a convenient, concise source

of information with a positive and helpful customer service approach.
Create a sense of personalized service that leads students and parents to feel
reassured about their college choice.
Provide information in a way that allows for a higher level of understanding,

inviting callers to ask more questions and to learn how the processes work so
they leave the conversation feeling informed and confident that they can resolve
their situation if it was not taken care of at the initial point of contact.
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Typical activities
z
Assist the university community and beyond with answers to basic questions
regarding directory information, office locations and hours of operation,
directions to campus, tour reservations, transcript requests, academic calendar
inquires and policies and procedures for the various departments.
Assist the university community and beyond with in-depth questions regarding
their individual admission application, financial aid package, student tuition bill,
course registration, residential arrangements, or other personal inquiries.
Maintain daily contact with department liaisons to remain up to date on changes

within each department.
Attend weekly staff meetings with the departments that utilize the call centre
services.
Assist department liaisons with assessing call volumes and adjusting telecom
technology as call flow variations require for best possible service to customers.
Conduct training sessions on a regular basis for student information assistants to

ensure they are aware of any changes that may pertain to the calls they receive.
Record and review calls for quality control and training purposes.
Hire and train new student information assistants well in advance of graduation
timeframe to allow for thorough training and preparation to replace graduating
student information assistants.
Provide incentive programmes for student employees to motivate and maintain

high-level quality service.
Review privacy policy and the call centre mission on a regular basis to keep
efforts moving in a positive direction.
Conduct employee evaluations and promotions with incremental raises as quality

control and incentive measures.
Campus activities/student organizations

Wadad El-Husseiny
Student affairs and services play a very important role in the organization,
development and advising of campus activities and student organizations. Student
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involvement in non-classroom activities impacts the learning experience in many ways.

The concept of partnership between classroom academic activities and the outside
classroom activities is very important for the development of the student and helping
the institution achieve its goals of service to the community, state and country. The
listed purposes and activities might vary from one institution to another based on the
institution's identity, values and reputation.
Purpose/functions
z
Provide opportunities to imprint critical and creative thinking/problem-solving.
Provide social and cultural opportunities that enhance the education and
personal development of students.
Provide opportunities for students to develop leadership skills and individual

responsibility through participation and leadership in student activities and
organizations.
Provide opportunities to associate with others with similar interests.
Provide opportunities for students to develop tolerance through understanding

and appreciation of other cultures.
Typical activities
84
Carrying out recreation programmes and services on and off campus.
Offering direct training to develop vital life skills in the rapidly changing society.
Guiding and working with students to develop arts and cultural programmes.
Advising student government organizations and activities.
Designing and carrying out student leadership development programmes.
Advising students on developing wide range of students' organizations and

activities.
Advising student clubs and organizations during their routine work and events
planning.
Encouraging involvement in community service/volunteer activities.
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Designing and implementing innovative educational and developmental

programmes that are not directly provided by the academic units of the institution.
Establishing institutional annual activities/events to landmark the institution

campus life.
Involving students in the enhancement of integrity and conflict resolution within

the institution through various channels including workshops and events.
Campus security/police and protection services

Dennis E. Gregory
Campus security/police and protection services vary widely around the world and are
dependent upon the national, regional, province or state laws that are responsible for
the control of these services. They are also dependant, at least in the United States,
upon choices made by individual institutions and the public or private status of the
institution. Institutions may have armed or unarmed security/police or protective
services and these officials may or may not have arrest and general police powers. In
some instances, institutions contract with local law enforcement agencies to provide
these services on individual institution campuses. The International Association of
Campus Law Enforcement Administrators (IACLEA) works with campus and external
law enforcement agencies around the world to provide professional development
and organizational support. In the United States, for example, the Jeanne Clery
Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act (20 USC
1092(f)) requires certain actions be taken by campus security and police agencies.
Other countries may have similar laws so it is incumbent on students, faculty and
other travellers to familiarize themselves with local laws, customs and requirements.
Purpose/functions
z
Provide security for campus facilities.
Assure safety of students, employees and guests.
Interact with local external state and national law enforcement agencies.
Oversee traffic and parking regulations on campus.
Provide educational programmes on safety.
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Enforce local, state/province/regional and national laws.
Coordinate with other campus agencies on educational and other programmes.
Enforce student conduct codes and take part as witnesses in student conduct
hearings.
Provide basic fire and emergency medical interventions.
Typical activities
z
Patrol campus property.
Enforce laws.
Investigate crimes that occur on campus.
Liaise with other law enforcement agencies.
Enforce campus rules and policies.
Enforce traffic and parking laws and regulations.
Provide safety programmes.
Check campus facilities (locks, doors, grounds, lighting, etc.) for security and
safety purposes.
Provide assistance to persons on campus who need directions, who are having
vehicle trouble or the like.
Oversee ingress and egress to/from secured campus facilities such as residence
halls, research facilities, athletic facilities and laboratories.
Control campus access.
Serve legal papers.
Assist local law enforcement agencies with off-campus events in local

communities.
Careers service
Wayne Wallace and Di Rachinger
As more people see their university educational experience as an access to a better
life, rewarding occupation and higher standard of living, the opportunity to help guide
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students in their vocational decision-making and eventual employment are seen as a

critical service for colleges and universities. The time and financial investment in an
education is an important decision on the part of a student, and his or her family. The
global nature of work and competition is such that those who are ill prepared or
poorly informed are at an extreme disadvantage. The nature of career services will
vary from institution to institution depending upon type of university, mission,
programme offerings, type of students and student service organizational design.
Specialty academic programmes with a strong vocational focus will need very clear
relationships with the interests and abilities of students as well as the demands of the
marketplace, while those that provide a more liberal arts type of education will need
to focus on student transferable skill identification. Continuing education for mature
students, who may be bound geographically, will demand career services which will
differ significantly from traditional-aged students, who may be much more flexible and
mobile. Likewise, those institutions located in large metropolitan areas with many
local employment options have a different challenge from rurally located campuses.
Private institutional missions will differ from those which are publicly funded, and large
complex campuses differ from smaller scale campuses. There may also be a need for
alumni and institutional staff services as well as for spouses of faculty and staff. There
is therefore not really one single delivery system that fits all circumstances, though
there are a variety of commonalities.
Organizationally, career services tend to be housed within Student Affairs and
Services on a campus, though a number will report to the academic administration.
The functionalities typically include career guidance, internship, cooperative education
and employment assistance, and tend to be delivered as a centralized service available
to all disciplines. There are also decentralized models that disperse services among
campus constituents, and each type of delivery system and reporting authority has
advantages and disadvantages.
There is a major professional association in many countries that is well developed and
contains a multitude of resources to help institutions maximize their career services
function. In the United States it is the National Association for Colleges and
Employers (NACE, www.naceweb.org). For Canada it is the Canadian Association of
Career Educators and Employers (CACEE, www.cacee.com). Within the United
Kingdom it is the Association of Graduate Careers Advisory Services (AGCAS,
www.agcas.org.uk). Australia has Graduate Careers Australia (GCA,
www.graduatecareers.com.au).
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Purpose/functions
z
Assist students in decision-making, addressing majors, and vocational interest.
Provide career diagnostic evaluation and career counselling.
Provide a central resource for career information and employment opportunity.
Instruct in the process of resum preparation, interviewing and employment

processes.
Attract, develop and retain employer involvement with the campus.
Manage employment recruitment processes for students and employers.
Provide resources and information for alumni as feasible.
Provide support for those students considering further education.
Educate and inform the campus and the community about trends and
opportunities.
Coordinate cooperative arrangements between employers and academic

programmes.
Maximize the on-going involvement of employers in the education process.
Cultivate domestic and international opportunities for students.
Represent the interests of the university to media and external public.
Develop mentoring programmes involving alumni and/or employers.
Partner with academic advisors, faculty and student groups to bridge interests.
Typical activities
88
Provide courses or workshops on career planning and employment processes.
Administer vocational guidance testing to assess needs, interests and skills.
Establish recruitment venues such as fairs and on-campus interview services.
Develop on-line virtual library about occupations, employers and trends.
Host employer panels and information sessions for students.
Manage student information database for referral.
Deliver a job-posting system identifying openings.
Maintain on-going employer relations activity to attract and retain.
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Provide alumni tracking systems and outcome studies of graduates.
Counsel students singly or in groups on critical vocational issues.
Deliver custom programming for specific majors, student groups and faculty.
Devise effective website to provide comprehensive services on line.
Prepare pre- and post-work experience training and evaluation for students.
Utilize on-line workshops, webcasts and e-guidance.
Assist students in the development of employment skills (team work, leadership, etc.).
Chaplaincy and multi-faith services

Lauren Payne and Lic. Jorge Lozano Lan
The concept of chaplaincy services is not new to higher education, though it has a
different face from what it had at its inception. The roots of western universities lie
in the education of clergy. This shifted during the nineteenth century as colleges
became more secular, moving towards research. Since this shift, higher education has
become more accessible on a worldwide scale. Institutions now have students from
a variety of faiths and often from around the globe. There is a need to provide
students with a space and resources to support them in their spiritual development.
From the perspective of public institutions in the United States, the courts have
mandated that all religions be given equal treatment in accommodating and
supporting these students but that the institution itself maintain a policy of nonreligious association (CAS, 2006).
On the other hand in other countries, such as those in the Middle East where religion is
often in the constitution, the political ideals often dictate whether space is available and
the range of services. It also important to note that in this region there is not the same
need as most students are attending an institution geographically close to the home and
their own place of worship (Wadad El-Husseiny, personal conversation 10 March 2008).
In general, the overarching goal of multi-faith and chaplaincy services now extends
beyond that of just providing resources to support students in their personal spiritual
exploration and growth; it is moving to a level of engaging members of the campus
in dialogue. These dialogues can become a means of promoting respect, tolerance
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and understanding of one another (National Council on Faiths and Beliefs in Further
Education (FBFE), 2007; Multi-Faith Center, Griffith University, 2005). How
institutions approach the services and goals ranges depends on the institution and
country. In the general, the following are typical functions and activities of a
Chaplaincy/multi-faith office.
Purpose/functions
z
To identify core groups of students and faculty interested in exercising their

religious freedom.
To provide an opportunity for individual students to live, share and express their
faith as appropriate.
To assist individual members of specific communities (students, professors or

support personnel) in their quest for spiritual life.
To provide advice and assistance to the education community at times of

celebration and mourning.
To encourage and nurture the development of a sense of shared community.
To work with student groups in providing opportunities for personal and

community spiritual enrichment.
To promote understanding and acceptance, within the education community, of

the varied personal paths to spiritual enlightenment.
To create an atmosphere of religious tolerance and cooperation.
To minister to the students of the Chaplain's own faith.
To have a network of contacts to provide ministry to students of other faiths.
To encourage understanding of diversity through interaction and discussion.
Typical activities
90
Create and maintain a network of contacts of local ministry services for members
of the campus community.
Design and implement various spiritual and religious-based seminars, workshops

and lectures.
Provide facilities for members of the campus community to worship and share
their religious customs and ideas.
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Organize inter-faith or ecumenical services.
Counsel individuals seeking spiritual guidance.
Organize or make available appropriate liturgies and ceremonies to satisfy the

spiritual needs of members of the education community.
Provide spiritual support and counselling, individually and in groups, to those in

personal crisis.
In multifaith settings, coordinate the activities and events of the various religious
communities.
Organize events and activities promoting spiritual life on campus.
Act as the first point of campus contact for all faith groups.
Arrange services relevant to the Chaplain's own faith.
Facilitate services for other faith groups by inviting their leaders onto campus.
Encourage both specific faith-based and interfaith dialogue by organizing social

events and discussion groups.
Raise awareness of faith and inter-faith issues with all staff.
Be responsible for the use of the multi-faith centre, if one exists, or helping
students find appropriate rooms if no such centre exists.

Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education. 2006. CAS
Professional Standards for Higher Education (6th ed.). Washington, DC, CAS.
Multi-faith Center, Griffith University. 2005. Symposium Recommendations.
Cultivating Wisdom,Harvesting Peace: Educating for a Culture of Peace through
Values, Virtues and Spirituality of Diverse Cultures, Faiths and Civilizations.
Retrieved 1 March 2008, from
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001496/149626e.pdf
National Association of College and University Chaplains:
http://www.nacuc.net/index.php?option=com_frontpage&Itemid=41
National Council on Faiths and Beliefs in Further Education (FBFE). 2007. Multi-Faith
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Chaplaincy: A Guide for Colleges on Developing Multi-faith Student Support. Retrieved 8

February, from
http://www.fbfe.org.uk/documents/current/fbfe%20documents/LSC%20Good%2
0Practice%20Guide.pdf
Child care
Raywen Ford
Nurseries in higher education in many countries with long traditions of university
education have often sat on the margins of university activity. However, as increasing
numbers of students are returning to university after having families, concern for
childcare becomes a significant factor in student retention and success. In addition, in
nations where university education is relatively young, nurseries are crucial to the
opportunity for many, women particularly, to access higher education. In
acknowledging the significance of students' children in student success, a university
extends its support to the family unit. In recognition of this, many universities will
provide subsidized places for the children of students.
The quality of education and care in university nurseries is controlled by the same
inspection mechanisms as any other nursery in that country. They need to meet all
legislative conditions as a minimum. In addition, the knowledge of research into child
development and early childhood education will often mean that university nurseries
are centres of excellence.
A university nursery will often provide care and education for the children of staff,
offering a service to the university's human resources and recruitment, and parents
locally, thereby building links with adjacent communities.
Purpose/functions
92
To provide a safe, stimulating, caring and educative environment for children of

students and staff.
To assist in the recruitment and retention of staff and students through the
provision of appropriate child-care facilities and contribute to the publicity of the
services offered.
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To provide a range of wraparound options including nursery, crche, after-school

care, breakfast clubs and holiday clubs, and to link with other providers of these
facilities to meet a wide range of needs.
To advise parents on issues of concern relating to their child and to assist parents
to develop positive parenting skills.
To advise managers on new developments within child care and encourage

appropriate response.
To be aware of the university's legal responsibilities in relation to child protection.
To model good practices in early childhood education.
To link with other services to students to give advice to parents on issues such
as sources of funding to meet nursery fees.
Typical activities
z
Providing, on demand, a variety of care including both infant and pre-school care.
Giving constant care and attention to children, and always providing a secure,
welcoming and nurturing environment.
Being constantly vigilant for the safety of children.
Developing induction programmes and involvement opportunities to encourage

regular interaction of parents in matters relating to their children, working with
parents as partners in the care and education of the child.
Ensuring that institutional child care meets all local and national standards.
Overseeing budgets; making every effort to maintain reasonable fees and advising
parents on sources of funding to meet the fee costs.
Being flexible and supportive about user needs at stressful times, e.g., exams.
Developing and encouraging an environment that is stimulating and instructive,

and appropriate for the age of children, modelling best practices in early
childhood education.
Providing a variety of parenting-skills workshops, discussions and consultations.
Management
z
Integrated into the university reporting structure in order to maintain a high

profile and ensure that the systems and practices of the nursery are known and
supported.
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Policies and procedures of the nursery must conform to the requirements of the
university unless deemed inappropriate.
Accountable to the university, parents and educational or licensing authority.
Conform to all legal requirements, particularly in relation to child safety and

protection.
Be an authority on child-care opportunities beyond the university nursery,

recognizing that one nursery may not be able to meet the diverse needs of the
student and staff populations.
Link with other university nurseries for the professional support and
development of the nursery nurses and teachers.
College unions/university centres/student centres

Brett Perozzi and Andrew O'Brien
College unions are recognized and embraced around the world as integral and unique
entities within student affairs/services and higher education. College unions are known
under a range of different titles around the world including student centre, university
centre, campus centre, student union and university union. The term student union in
particular can be confusing as it has different meanings around the world with student
union in the United States being another name for college union while in most other
countries student union refers to the elected student body officials (student governance)
and their staff that carry on the official business and politics for their student constituents.
College unions are governed and administered using multiple methods. For example,
the 'chief executive' of a union may report directly to university officials and is hired,
evaluated, etc. by the university. In another example, students are elected by their
peers to run the union, who in turn, hire career administrators to manage the
operations of the organization. The governing structures can be complicated with a
mixture of students, faculty and staff sitting on boards of directors and having various
levels of control over the organization and/or management. Another differentiating
factor from campus to campus is the legal structure of the college union. In some
cases the college union is a department of the university while in others it exists as
an auxiliary, a company or a separately incorporated association.
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College unions are unique within student affairs/services in part because they are one
of the only entities in higher education that almost always (across all countries) blend
an organizational identity as a 'set of programmes and ideas' together with a physical
facility. The organizations provide a sense of place through both ideological contexts
in terms of programmes and services that address issues of the day and activities that
invite students to engage, while simultaneously using a physical structure to encourage
informal dialogue, socialization and community-building activities. It is important to
note that college unions can exist without physical buildings, yet the vast majority of
unions offer some sort of physical assembly, meeting, gathering and/or formal
congregation space. The physical envelopes range from one floor of a high-rise
building in an urban environment (DePaul University) to grand facades with soaring
towers (University of Melbourne) to comfortable and adequate space within which
the campus community can gather for important events, celebrations, and sometimes
university activities such as graduation, open days, orientation and enrolment.
Many college unions provide to their communities dining services (retail venues,
catering services, residential dining) and rent space in the form of meeting rooms,
banquet facilities, ballrooms, etc. Unions may also incorporate retail space for such
services as banking, bookstores/bookshops, pharmacies and travel agencies, as well as
recreational facilities such as billiards, bowling lanes, pubs, concert venues, video
games, etc. Oftentimes the student centre will manage the use of outdoor spaces on
a campus. Above all, the mission of college unions is to build a community.
Purpose/functions
z
To act as a meeting place for the campus community and provide a home base
for student organizations.
To provide leadership development opportunities for students.
To act as a laboratory for students in volunteer capacities as well as employment

roles to practise skills learned in and outside of the classroom.
Serve as a community centre for the campus community (for those that have
facilities).
To facilitate and implement a range of activities, such as cultural, educational,

recreational and social.
To build and enhance community on campus.
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To develop students and provide them with tools to be contributing members

of a global society.
To support students and their organizations.
Maintain forums for the exchange of ideas (bulletin boards, public spaces and
formal events).
To provide a range of food and retail services that support the day-to-day
operation of the campus.
Typical activities
96
Produce and host major events for the campus community.
Schedule space for use by members of the community (meeting rooms,

ballrooms, etc.).
Support students in their programming efforts, or in other cases, student

managers supporting student programmers.
Provide food services; retail, catering and residential.
Support outlets for student organizations to fundraise.
Provide a variety of services for student organizations.
Provide offices for undergraduate and graduate student government.
Generate revenue for students, the perpetuation of the organization or for the
university.
Rent retail space to various clients.
Manage the upkeep of the facilities in terms of maintenance and custodial care,
capital planning and health/safety compliance.
Support special events such as open days and orientation.
Provide ballroom and or theatre facilities for alumni events and, in some cases,
university graduations and other formal programmes.
Some college unions may also include fitness and recreation facilities such as
gymnasiums and group exercise classes.
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Community service/service learning

Tracey E. Reeves and Heather Hare
During the 2005/2006 academic year, almost one-third of college students took part
in university-organized volunteer and service-learning activities, performing a total of
377 million hours at an estimated worth of $7.1 billion. Some 91 per cent of
campuses in the United States report offering service learning courses (Campus
Compact 2006 Service Statistics), reflecting a growing interest by faculty and
students in offering experiences that connect coursework with community-based
learning.
The CAS Standards for Service Learning Programs defines service-learning as 'a form
of experiential education in which students engage in activities that address human
and community needs together with structured opportunities intentionally designed
to promote student learning and development' (2006). A critical dimension of service
learning is that all participants, including the university, student, faculty and community
partner, benefit from the experience. Service learning gives institutions of higher
education the opportunity to contribute to their local, national and global
communities while providing students with meaningful experience to advance their
learning goals. Through service learning experiences, students gain skills and
knowledge, develop increased self-awareness and discover meaning in their lives.
Community partners in service learning advance their goals by engaging students in
work connected with achieving their mission and vision to build healthier
communities.
Service learning programmes are typically co-located in offices that coordinate
volunteer programmes and civic engagement initiatives. Like service learning, high
quality student volunteer programmes are designed collaboratively with community
partners to meet their identified needs and some volunteer programmes may be
designed with student learning as a core consideration. More typically, volunteering is
distinguished from service learning because it is one-time or episodic, and
unconnected with academic courses or wider learning goals. The concept of civic
engagement incorporates service learning and volunteering as well as other aspects
of active citizenship such as issue advocacy and political participation. These
dimensions of civic engagement are often outcomes of student participation in service
learning.
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Central to service learning effectiveness are structured opportunities for students to

learn from their experiences through reflection. Reflection challenges students to
think critically about their service learning activities, connecting experiences with
course concepts and emerging understanding of themselves as citizens. Reflection
assignments include journal writing, essays, papers, portfolios and multimedia
assignments. Class discussions through which faculty can model making connections
between service experiences and course concepts and theory are useful in helping
students develop skills in reflective practice. Reflection is an ongoing process of
learning from experience and student learning is maximized when reflection activities
are integrated into all aspects from beginning to end of the service learning
assignment.
The service learning office serves as the central point of contact between students,
faculty and community partners. The office establishes and maintains relationships
with community partners, trains faculty and community organizations in service
learning basics, and provides all parties with resources to promote successful learning
partnerships.
Purpose/functions
98
To develop programmes in which students learn and develop through didactic

course work and organized service experiences that meet community needs.
To compliment students' classroom learning by offering practical experiences in

which students are able to explore values, career options and their leadership
potential.
To promote student involvement and engagement in community building

through volunteerism.
To provide students with an opportunity to understand community social issues

and citizenship.
To offer structured opportunities for students to reflect on their community/service

learning experiences to promote their learning and personal development.
To advise faculty on service learning course design and reflection activities.
To train community partners in promising practices for working with student

service learners to promote their onsite effectiveness as well as their learning
goals.
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To provide logistical support, including risk management procedures for

community service learning programmes.
To evaluate and assess the effectiveness of community service learning

experiences.
Typical activities
z
Marketing opportunities for students to get involved with community service and
volunteer activities.
Developing and updating a clearinghouse of all community resources where

students can volunteer.
Organizing a volunteer and service learning fair where students, faculty and staff
can meet the various volunteer agencies.
Designing service learning opportunities to match academic programmes through

cooperative efforts with the faculty and community partners. Models include:
Service learning immersion: These courses provide students with the

opportunity to involve themselves in direct service to the community with
the goal of promoting active citizenship.
Service learning assignment: The course requires students to participate in a

one-day or limited project related to course goals.
Discipline-based service learning: Students engage in a regular volunteer

commitment throughout the semester and reflect on their experiences
using course content as a source for their analysis.
Project-based service learning: Individual or student teams serve as

consultants to a community organization to meet a particular need. This
model assumes that students are developing a particular set of skills to share.
Credit add-on: Students enrol for an additional course credit and provide
service to an organization whose mission or programmes relates to course
themes.
Optional course component: Students may choose a service learning project

as one of several course alternatives. The service may be used as the basis
for papers, class presentations or other assignments.
Training community partners to increase their understanding of college students,

service learning and student volunteering.
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Training student volunteers on the fundamental practices for effective service

learning including, attitude, work ethic, cross-cultural sensitivity, follow-through,
liabilities and risks, etc.
Documenting student volunteerism and campus community partnerships.
Conducting studies on the value of community service learning.
Advising student organizations on designing and implementing volunteer projects

based on identified community needs.
References
Campus Compact 2006 Service Statistics
http://www.compact.org/about/statistics/2006/service_statistics.pdf
Center for Leadership and Community Engagement, George Mason University
http://clce.gmu.edu/
Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education. 2006. CAS
Professional Standards for Higher Education (6th ed.).Washington, DC, CAS.
Counselling services
Annie Andrews, Roslyn McCarthy, Jonathan Norton, Jonathan Munro
and Chuck Rashleigh
There is generally a requirement for student counselling services to map service delivery
and operations to the vision, strategic intent and operational plans of the institution that
forms the education community in which the service operates. As part of service
planning, it is important to identify the service guiding statement, service mission, service
values and the service delivery model suited for the specific institutional context and the
student cohort. Service delivery activities will have direct relevance to the documents
and communications that articulate the goals, desires and needs of all stakeholders as
defined within the culture and educational focus of that institution.
Traditionally university counselling services provide guidance, counselling/psychological
services and personal development opportunities, appropriate referrals, mental health
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initiatives and responses for the benefit of the student cohort including the
subcategories identified within the broader cohort (students belonging to minority
groups within the broader country population). University counselling services may also
hold a mandate to provide similar services for staff.
As 'people-focused' services, university counselling services actively promote mental
and physical health as well as general well-being among the university population.
Counselling services provide an opportunity for students to participate fully in campus
life and intelligently prepare for life beyond the university. Counselling services' staff
also consults and collaborates to support academic and administrative personnel in
the very important work of helping students take the utmost benefit from their
learning experiences. Counselling services also make use of available technology
including online counselling in the form of text messages, email (asynchronous) or
synchronously using real time chat rooms. These are modes of service delivery being
used to provide timely information, advice, assessment and treatment to augmenting
more traditional service delivery options.
There are some additional service delivery issues likely to be relevant.
1.
Identification of the funding model options suited for the specific service. There
are various funding models used internationally including fee-for-service activities
with outreach to community members beyond the university.
2.
Implications for managing multiple service delivery areas: counselling plus health
service, learning enrichment centre, cultural adjustment and disability support,
international student support, etc.
3.
Engagement within the broader university context other student focused

services, student administration, faculties, service delivery agreements, etc.
4.
Service referencing to appropriate peak bodies (professional associations and

student associations).
5.
The development of referral relationships with medical practitioners, psychiatrists

and community-based services, mental health service providers, including 24hour telephone and online counselling services (examples from the Australian
context include Acute Care Mental Health teams, a 24 hours a day, 7 days a
week emergency service; Lifeline;8 and the Australian Department of Foreign
Affairs and Trade (DFAT) Counselling Service for Australians Overseas, an
overseas referral service for Australians.
www.lifeline.org.au; Kidshelpline, www.kidshelpline.com.au/home_KHL.aspx?s=6
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6.
Counselling engagement that incorporates cultural adjustments relevant to the

background culture of the student.
7.
Accommodation of counselling for students with identified disability and

interaction with equity and disability services.
8.
Implications of service delivery for students using flexible delivery modes or at a

distance - e-counselling and online workshops, etc.
9.
The impact of services provided over the web that are not managed by the
student counselling service. Such an example from the Australian context is
depressionnet;9 another example from the North American context is the
National Institute of Mental Health.10
10. The impact of the internet on student engagement and the ways that students
use the internet may have an impact on the counselling service. Students and
institutions use of online environments such as Facebook and YouTube and
Second Life as communication and/or teaching and learning environments is also
worthy of consideration.
Future directions
Counselling services will need to find ways to manage the internationally recognized
need to meet the needs of students with more serious mental health and/or drug and
alcohol issues. University counselling services will need to look at the levels of resourcing
for their service delivery and the ratio of students to counsellors. In particular, the level
of counselling and other support provided to overseas students may need to be further
addressed if the impact of the internationalization of education continues to create
additional demand for counselling services by these students.
University counselling services are to be encouraged to develop partnerships with
specialist organizations outside the university setting e.g., centres of excellence,
government health departments, local area health services, and non-government
organizations.
There is a need for financial and other incentives to encourage psychiatrists,
psychologists and other mental health professionals to provide mental health services
for students at affordable fees. There is also a strong and growing need for after-hours
counselling and support services.
9
10
102
www.depressionet.com.au
www.nimh.nih.gov/index.shtml
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Purpose/functions
z
To provide counselling, psychologically focused strategies and applicable clinical

psychological services to students experiencing problems that could be disruptive
to their successful academic, personal, interpersonal and/or campus experience.
To assist students in learning new and more effective ways to cope with stress
and disappointment, resolve conflicts, deal with specific problems or habits, and
manage their personal lives and emerging professional careers.
To work together with the university health service (if applicable) or other
medical services, as appropriate, to facilitate psychiatric interventions, e.g.,
necessary medications and referrals, for students in need of this care.
To provide specialized counselling services to multicultural students and

international students.
To provide gender- and sexual-orientation-based counselling services.
To provide consultation and advice to campus staff and faculty, and family
members to assist in dealing with students who have psychological, behavioural,
interpersonal and/or emotional problems.
To provide psychologists, clinical social workers and psychiatrists for the

treatment of students who are experiencing a wide range of psychological,
situational or personal problems.
To provide opportunities that enable students who may be experiencing

personal, social or educational problems to access psychological strategies that
will assist them to become more effective in their lives within and outside the
academic institution.
To assist and support students with the transition to university life style and
university requirements.
To provide developmental/preventative programmes and activities that assist

students to become more effective and resourceful in their academic,
professional, personal and social lives.
To provide a psychological consultative/advisory/voluntary training service to

teaching and other staff, enabling them to maximize their effectiveness in carrying
out their learner-support and advisory/guidance activities.
To develop the highest level of professional standards to ensure delivery of a high

quality, professionally recognized, cost-effective counselling and psychological
services to students.
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Typical activities
104
Engaging in brief individual counselling and psychotherapy, crisis intervention,

couples counselling, psycho-educational seminars/workshops group delivered
psychotherapy and referral as needed.
Providing flexible intake procedures so that walk-in clients are able to receive
appropriate support as soon as possible and with attention to urgency of need.
Providing clear information for student clients, outlining confidentiality and

privacy protection, including relevant legislation, acknowledged boundaries
around professional relationships, privacy protection for data collected by the
service, and other information relevant to the service's commitment to privacy
and confidentiality.
Providing an appropriate referral process for students to various other

professionals or institutional staff.
Operating, if appropriate (given the number of students enrolled at the

institution), a confidential, after-hours telephone help-line/referral service to assist
students in crisis when no face-to-face counselling is available.
Providing outreach services to traditional and underserved student populations,

including efforts to assist them to cope with personal developmental, university
adjustment and other situational issues as relevant for the individual
campus/institution.
Selectively employing therapeutic modalities and/or psycho-educational

programmes in combination for individualized treatment programmes for
student clients.
Conducting group-focused counselling programmes on themes common to

student cohorts.
Providing developmental, remedial and prevention-focused workshops

throughout the academic year in response to student needs. Themes covered
might include: skills and understanding for transition from culture to culture;
assertiveness training; stress management; managing anxiety in relation to
academic performance; overcoming procrastination; time and task management;
and support for mature age entrants/adults returning to university learning.
Offering counselling and specialized workshops for multicultural students and

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Offering unique counselling and support to gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender
students, and specialized efforts for female and male students.
Participating in student induction, orientation and welcome programmes.
Offering programmes for the promotion of a healthier campus environment.
Offering communication and if necessary advocacy on behalf of students who

receive counselling in relation to extenuating circumstances that may have an
adverse effect on study and assessment/exam results.
Providing liaison and consultancy to tutors and others concerned about a

particular student's personal or academic situation.
Providing a relevant programme of professional development workshops,

conferences and activities for counselling staff and, with reference to best
practice in providing support for students, offer workshops and seminars to
student services colleagues and academic staff.
Contributing to institutional, faculty and departmental planning, policy and

development through participation in university committees and workgroups.
Providing feedback to faculty/staff on factors that promote or hinder learning in

their relevant student cohorts.
Monitoring and evaluating the work of the counselling service through identified
quality assurance systems and client-focused research.
Providing support and counselling services via information technology including

web-based psycho-educational materials, online counselling and peer support.
Providing training placements and internships for trainees in graduate degree

programmes and other mental health or appropriate professionals in training or
seeking licensure.
Providing regular appropriate and professional supervision/consultative support

for the counsellors and providing professional best practice regarding supervision
available to the team for psychiatric consultancy support from a senior consultant
psychiatrist or senior psychologist (as appropriate).
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Dining/food services
Rudolf Poertner
Catering services are of particular importance to universities. Students should be able
to cater for themselves in a healthy manner that is cheap as well as quick. The fact
that such services are provided at universities means that students will have more
time to concentrate on their studies.
The range of services available varies. Usually lunch is offered, with a choice of cold
and warm drinks as well as small dishes. Often students can have breakfast as well as
supper on campus.
The foods and drinks offered should be impeccable in nutrition-physiological terms with regard both to age and lifestyle of students. Equally, distribution of foods and
drinks should be organized optimally and well adapted to students' time schedules.
Frequently, by means of indirect student support, some countries may subsidize
campus food services.
Partially subsidizing is financed by special fees to be paid by all students, not merely
by those actually benefiting from the dining services. Food services are operated by
the universities or by special public institutions, unless they were given in commission
by the universities to private companies. Campus catering centres also provide an
opportunity for student employment, thus giving the opportunity to contribute to
financing their studies.
Purpose/function
106
To provide a well-balanced package of catering services for students living on

campus or in the community.
To provide various forms of food service for other members of the campus
community, e.g., faculty, staff and alumni, and their guests.
To provide food service options, e.g., snacks, beverages and carry-out items.
To provide clean, safe, quiet and efficient facilities.
To assure that international aspects are equally included in the package of

catering offers.
To assure that catering services are offered at all times appropriate for students,
i.e. also in the evenings and during weekends.
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To provide the delivery of food services of all kinds at convenient times and
places (catering service).
To take into consideration the nutritional value of the foods being served and to
provide the customer with quality nutritional and consumer information.
To see to it that environmental protection criteria (such as energy consumption,

bio-foods and protection of species), as well as aspects of social responsibility,
are respected during operation.
To provide quality food service at a reasonable price.
To make sure that a satisfactory solution, from a business point of view and costs,
is found by means of self-management and outsourcing.
Typical activities
z
Serving a regular daily meal service for students.
Serving snacks, beverages and other food items.
Providing catering for the university, for students and for other members of the
university.
Organizing international weeks, often with the participation of international students.
Teaching students and other customers about nutrition and food preparation.
Involving students in the decision-making process about food service, e.g., menu
selection, placement of food containers, types of beverages, hours of operation
and presentation of food.
Developing food service budgets and expenditure records.
Hiring, training and evaluating student (and regular) employees.
Evaluating all food services with input from students and other customers.
Disability services
Kenneth J. Osfield and Reynol Junco
It has been estimated that there are approximately 600 million people worldwide with
disabilities.11 As a civilization we have been slow to provide the necessary supports to
11
United Nations statistics, from EnableLink

http://www.enablelink.org/international.html?showinternational=1
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people with disability and it was not until the Declaration of the International Year of
the Disabled in 1981 that recognition came to one of the largest special interest groups
in the world. Some disability legislation precedes the 1980s; however, the majority of
disability legislation around the globe was enacted between 1980 and 2008. From
1990 to 2005 more than 45 countries enacted disability discrimination laws in an effort
to ensure fair and equal treatment (Sygall and Scheib, 2005).
College and university campuses are no different in their treatment of people with
disabilities. Disability services are relatively new to college campuses. Students with
disabilities across the globe can feel reassured that they have more opportunities
today to attend college and have access to programmes, services and activities
sponsored by universities and colleges. The procedures vary from campus to campus
and country to country. Overall the following functions and activities are typical today
on many campuses around the globe.
Purpose/functions
108
To provide direct one-to-one assistance to every student with a disability.
Act as an advocate for people with disabilities and work to ensure that laws are
followed and appropriate access is provided to all programmes, services and
activities sponsored by the institution.
To conduct informational programmes aimed at students who may not be aware

of their disabilities.
To support student with undiagnosed disabilities by referring them to

appropriate medical or psychological professionals.
To provide appropriate assistance and opportunities for students with disabilities

so that they are able to compete equally with their peers in the academic
environment.
To assist students in gaining access to all programmes, services and activities

sponsored by the university.
To advise and assist students with acquiring classroom and other

accommodations in order to have equal access to academic programmes and
other services on campus.
To provide a central point on campus where facility/programme access and

other issues can be addressed and appropriate resources can be secured.
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To ensure that appropriate resources are available.
To support university faculty and staff in providing accommodations for students.
Assist the university or college in reviewing campus policies and procedures to

ensure that the policies and procedures are compliant with local government
legislation, state legislation and country specific legislation.
Provide periodic reviews of facilities, programmes and services sponsored by the

college or university to ensure that continued efforts are being made to provide
a barrier-free campus.
Act as the central liaison between university and college administration, and
faculty.
To assist and support students in the transition from home to college and college
to work, allowing them to become independent and to develop lifelong
strategies for independent management of their disabilities and lifestyle as they
enter the work force.
Typical activities
z
Serving as the official institutional agency office and/or as a mediator that assists
students in acquiring classroom and other accommodations, as necessary.
Working as mediator when issues of access arise.
Working with the institution to ensure that students with disabilities have equal
access to all areas, including libraries, food service, computer labs and other areas.
Informing and making the campus community aware of the need to include
people with disabilities in all programmes, services and activities.
Conducting informational programmes aimed at students who may not be aware

of their disabilities.
Developing education programmes to inform faculty and administrators about

what is required by state- and country-wide disability access legislation.
Arranging for interpreters/signers for students who are deaf.
Arranging for note-takers, volunteers, books-on-tape and readers.
Arranging for accommodations for test-taking (such as extended time for

testing).
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Assisting students in acquiring alternative formats of classroom materials (Braille,

audio textbooks and large-print text).
Providing individual counselling and assistance to students with disabilities from

matriculation through graduation.
Acquiring the necessary funding to support the office in order to provide the
appropriate classroom accommodations and facility upgrades.
Providing leadership in assessing existing facilities and any new building

development and design to determine compliance with accessibility criteria and
standards set by government units and the institution.
Reference
Sygall, S. and Scheib, M. (eds). 2005. Rights and Responsibilities: A Guide to National and
International Disability Related Laws for International Exchange Organizations and
Participants. Mobility International USA/National Clearinghouse on Disability and
Exchange.
Discipline/conduct standards
Randall B. Ludeman
Significant changes in the enforcement of student behavioural expectations on college
campuses have occurred over the past 300 years (Smith, 1994). From the early
practices of 'flogging' and 'cuffing', to the more current practices of due process and fair
and objective hearings, student judicial systems have undergone transformations related
to the adjudication of student misconduct (Smith, 1994). As stated by Dannells:
Perhaps no other single subject so dramatically reflects our attitudes about
students and how we define our duty and our relationship with them. From
the earliest dissatisfaction with pious and moralistic paternalism in the
colonial colleges, to recent controversies over hate speech and First
Amendment rights, student behaviour and institutional response have vexed
faculty and administrators with a set of issues both fundamental and timely.
(1997, p. iii).
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More recently, colleges and universities have been challenged with complex issues
such as student mental health, troubled and at-risk students, and campus violence,
necessitating a new understanding of the responsibilities and role of judicial affairs in
both student development and risk management. Collaboration with other campus
and outside agencies in the adjudication of student misconduct has become prudent
and necessary. While legislative initiatives have sought more accountability from
colleges and universities related to safety, judicial affairs has become a focus of more
broad attention. Our role as educators and providing students with developmental
and learning opportunities must be balanced with our responsibilities to protect our
campus communities. Judicial officers around the globe will benefit from knowledge
and awareness of best principles and practices.
Purpose/functions
z
To resolve any conflict in which a student is involved (student vs student, faculty

vs student, staff vs student).
To educate students and the community-at-large (including parents) on

university policies and regulations, the behavioural expectations of students and
the judicial process.
To complement the efforts of, and collaborate with, other units or individuals
such as faculty/staff, residential life, campus security and law enforcement in
providing a safe environment that is conducive to learning and student
development by consistently enforcing university policies and regulations.
To help students use mediation or other alternative dispute resolution methods.
To administer the disciplinary process in a manner that protects the due process
rights of students while maintaining the integrity of the institution.
To use student misconduct to educate students on critical issues such as

tolerance, good citizenship, substance abuse and relationship violence.
To provide opportunities through sanctioning that promote wellness, civility and

student development.
To educate students on current legal issues related to student conduct.
Typical activities
z
Training all staff members responsible for the administration of the disciplinary process.
Explaining the unit's role through new student/parent orientation programmes.
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Conducting education programmes for students in the residence halls and

student organizations about the disciplinary process.
Conducting education programmes for faculty and staff about the disciplinary
process.
Developing and disseminating written and electronic materials about the student
code of conduct and conduct process (i.e., student, faculty and staff guides,
handbooks, publications and websites).
Sanctioning students responsible for misconduct through a trained university

hearing board comprised of students, faculty and/or staff or through appropriate
administrative hearings.
Advising students regarding their rights and options in the disciplinary process.
Administering a database that includes disposition and records of the

involvement of students in disciplinary cases.
Designing appropriate sanctions that promote harm reduction, learning and

development, civility and safety.
Holding students accountable for completing their educational sanctions and

assigning additional sanctions to students that fail to complete them.
Training all staff members involved in alternative dispute resolution programmes.
Facilitating mediation sessions.
Providing statistics on student judicial actions to appropriate entities.
Administering all budgets involved in the implementation of judicial programmes.
References
Dannells, M. D. 1997. From Discipline to Development: Rethinking Student Conduct
in Higher Education. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, Vol. 25, No. 2.
Washington, DC, Graduate School of Education and Human Development,
George Washington University.
Smith, D. B. 1994. Student discipline in American colleges and universities: A historical
overview. Educational Horizons, Vol. 72, No. 2, pp. 78-85.
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Financial aid/employment
Rudolf Poertner
In order to enable all students to pursue their studies in accordance with their
interests and abilities, there should be a system of financing guaranteed by the State,
that enables all students to finance their studies, regardless of their means or those of
their parents. Thelevel of expenses of a student varies from city to city, from country
to country and from university to university, depending in part upon whether the
institution is state supported or private.
Studies can be financed using the following basic sources:
z
individual savings
individual earnings
means of the parents
means of other persons
stipends/subsidies provided by the State or by other institutions
loans from the state or from other institutions
reduction or remission of fees and charges
student employment at the educational institution or otherwise
Existing systems of educational financing guarantee in different ways the funding on

the basis of one, several, or all financial sources indicated above. There are systems
that mainly consider parents to have primary responsibility for financing their child's
studies and that accordingly have set their legal specifications in Civic Law.
Other regulations stipulate that study financing is mainly realized by means of a loan,
to which all students are entitled; these loans are offered at a lower interest rate due
to state financing. When it concerns study financing by the State, one can, generally
speaking, distinguish between systems based on the family income and those which
do not take this into consideration.
Usually, subsidies and loans, as well as contributions of the parents and student, are
all taken into account in the regulations for financial aid. To a certain extent there are
also stipends or other means of support granted only to particularly successful
students.
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In most cases, financial aid is assumed by the universities themselves or by other

public institutions. The conditions set by the financing source in question can be either
closely stipulated or they can give ample leeway to the education institution. In
evaluating systems of financial aid, the social benefit law, in particular, and social law
as such, are always to be taken into consideration. An isolated way of looking at
regulations pertaining to studies may lead to misunderstandings.
Purpose/functions
z
To help remove financial barriers for students of all strata of society and assist
them in financing the costs of college attendance.
To try to fill the gap that exists between the cost of attendance and funds
available from the family, savings and other resources.
To provide counselling and assistance in completing the financial aid application,

evaluation and determination of need.
To provide support services to students for summer/part-time employment.
To conduct studies on the economic needs of students and the impact of

financial aid on participation in higher education.
To manage scholarship and other financial aid for students coming from the
private sector and non-profit organizations.
Typical activities
114
Providing counselling to students that determines the financial aid available to

them including grants, loans, scholarships, work and fee remissions.
Providing assistance to students and families in completing various financial aid

applications and forms.
Dealing with the applications on the basis of existing regulations and dispersing
financial aid funds.
Approving emergency loans to students with unusual/sudden needs.
Assisting in collection of outstanding loans from students.
Engaging in job development for student part-time and summer jobs, in

cooperation with the Careers Service.
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Providing job listings for part-time and summer student employment, in

cooperation with the Careers Service.
Developing information and conducting workshops on financial management.
Health and wellness services

Sr. Antoinette P. Goosen
Health, a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity, is worldwide a fundamental human right (Alma-Ata,
1978). Health care also is and always will be an individual's right and not merely a
privilege for a few.
The declaration of Alma-Ata of 1978 stated that by the year 2000 all people of the
world should have access to primary health care (Alma-Ata, 1978).
The questions that we need to ask ourselves are how far have we come following
this declaration and do all young adults at an institution for higher education have
access to basic primary health care.
A close look at all higher education institutions around the world indicates that
students' access may vary from first world modern resources to third world scarce
underdeveloped resources. The challenge thus is to ensure that the future leaders of
this world, accessing higher education institutions, have their health needs addressed
in all possible ways, to ensure that they are successful in obtaining a further
qualification and enter the working world well.
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) pandemic poses major challenges to
higher education institutions in that it may not only impact the success rate of all
institutions, but also on the very persons responsible for these young adults, namely
all staff supporting learning in one way or another. A health care facility at any higher
education institution has various roles to fulfil and must be one of the leading student
affairs divisions in addressing all areas pertaining to the HIV and acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) pandemic as it may impact on all areas of
wellness.
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The purposes, functions and activities listed below are aimed at ensuring the total
health and well-being of all students.
Purpose/functions
116
To promote and enhance the good health and well-being of students that
support student academic success and enhances the quality of campus life.
To offer quality effective and efficient on-campus primary health care services at
little or no cost to all registered students.
To provide on-site services for the early detection, management and/or referral
of chronic or other life-threatening diseases.
To provide on-campus comprehensive reproductive health care services.
To offer one-on-one or group health information services.
To promote and/or create awareness of various medical conditions, prevent

diseases and maintain healthy lifestyles through various campaigns, workshops,
talks and activities.
To provide on-campus health crisis intervention, management of and referral as

and when needed.
To be an educational resource for students in need of health information to assist

in their education programmes.
To provide a learning and assessment environment for students studying in

health-related fields.
To provide health care relevant to a specific country or region to prevent

outbreak of diseases.
To promote community engagement and outreach programmes, and develop

partnerships to benefit both the student population and the community at large.
To address all aspects pertaining to the HIV and AIDS pandemic.
To provide on-site services for students affected or infected by HIV and AIDS.
To provide HIV and AIDS information services to assist students with behaviour
change and decision-making.
To provide patient advocacy services for those not able to fully take care of
themselves, who are disabled in one way or another.
To conduct or participate in relevant research, thus contributing to one of the

core functions of higher education.
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To provide culturally sensitive health care when addressing health, well-being,

advocacy, etc, issues.
To provide nutrition programmes addressing malnourishment issues, meal

supplements, health education and nutritional support services.
To provide medical services for bursary- and grant-recipient students including

pre-application medical screenings and annual medicals for continuity of bursaries.
To provide surgical intervention for minor surgical needs.
To provide the students with various options relating to alternative health and
medical care issues that may be required culturally, religious or otherwise.
To assist students with special medical needs or requirements.
Typical activities
z
Daily examination and diagnosing of minor ailments, provision of treatment

and/or referral as necessary for most general health care needs provided by
various health care professionals.
Daily or as needed blood tests and screening of patients suffering from chronic
medical conditions such as diabetes, asthma, hypertension, etc.
Provision of various speciality clinics, including dermatology, orthopaedics,

ophthalmology, urology, sports injuries clinics, pre-employment medicals, etc.
First-aid or medical interventions in case of any medical emergency through the

provision of treatment and/or referral to off-campus medical facilities.
Provision of women's and men's health clinics that provide birth control
methods, cervical screening, general health screenings, sexuality problems and
referrals as and when needed for management of identified problems.
Early detection, diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted infections and

tuberculosis.
Provision of on-campus free voluntary counselling and testing for HIV.
Provision of on-campus management of all persons testing positive for HIV in

wellness clinics to maintain healthy positive lifestyles.
Early detection, diagnosis and treatment of opportunistic infections.
Staging of the disease in preparation for commencing antiretroviral (ARV)

therapy.
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118
Provision of on-campus ARV therapy.
Counselling and support prior to, during and following commencing of ARV
therapy.
Follow-up of all patients receiving ARV therapy, detection and minimizing of

patient defaulting on treatment.
Provision of prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) services.
Provision of on-and-off campus support groups for those infected and/or

affected by HIV.
Conducting awareness campaigns regarding various topics such as reproductive

health, HIV, diabetes, asthma, epilepsy, etc.
Conducting outreach programmes and learning opportunities for current and

prospective students to create awareness pertaining to various health issues and
needs.
Conducting wellness weeks during which students can access free medical
screenings, information sessions and counselling for various health concerns.
Provision of alternative health care treatment options such as acupuncture,

reflexology, reiki, aromatherapy, massages, etc.
Provision of culturally and religiously sensitive health care pertaining to traditional

healers, Sangomas, male circumcision, blood transfusions and others.
Providing or arranging supplemental, affordable health insurance coverage for

health care needs that cannot be obtained in the student health centre such as
hospitalization, surgery and various specialized treatments.
Providing on-campus isolation facilities for students residing in residences and

suffering from uncomplicated contagious diseases.
Providing immunization programmes for those students at risk of contracting

illnesses due to their various study programmes or travel requirements e.g.,
hepatitis B, tetanus, yellow fever, etc.
Identifying, organizing and providing meal packs, supplements, meal coupons, diet
programmes and weight clubs for students with various nutritional needs, e.g.
,malnourishment, eating disorders, obesity problems, etc.
Provision of on-campus medical screenings for the purpose of immigration and

visa requirements, grants, loans, bursary applications or in high risk areas during
epidemic outbreaks.
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Provision of medical certificates according to the institutional policies and

procedures and/or special facilities or rooms if students require special care
during examination times.
Provision of after-hour emergency medical care facilities, transport or nursing

care.
Reference and resources

Declaration of Alma-Ata, 12 September 1978.
http://www.ub.bw/services
http://www.uniset.unisa.au
http://www.ecu.edu.au/student/student-health
http://studentservices.cqu.edu.au/health
Housing/accommodations/residence life
Edward C. Hull
Thousands of colleges and universities worldwide provide housing for students. Some
have been doing this for centuries while some are only now considering moving in
this direction. Perhaps a million or more staff members and faculty are engaged in
delivering residential programmes that seek to link the academic and out-of-class lives
of students in ways that enrich the university experience. Residential programmes
represent a significant aspect of collegiate life and carry with them significant
opportunities and obligations.
While the 'Oxbridge' model of residential colleges served for many decades, even
centuries, as the desired residential model, it has not been the ideal for many (even
most) universities around the world. There are now many models that exist and there
is no consensus about which one is the best. The best model for a given institution is
the one that best meets its own needs and expectations.
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There are, however, common threads that exist in most housing models, including
z
Considering the residential experience as an extension of the academic mission;
Support for the personal development of students; and,
Facilities that support the purposes for which they are intended.
There generally are four functional/organizational components that frame

comprehensive residential programmes:
z
Residential life
Facilities planning and operations
Business and financial operations
Housing assignments and records management
The following offers suggestions regarding best practices to be considered when

developing or reviewing a residence life and housing programme. It offers a lens
through which to examine the many interdependent issues that, together, create a
residential programme that can serve students and institutions well. This section seeks
to be as general as possible in order to encourage interpretation in the context of
individual institutions around the world.
Purpose/functions
120
To align the campus residential experience with the academic mission, goals and
objectives of the institution.
To support the personal development of students and the development of

respectful, inclusive residential communities.
To provide students with opportunities for shared governance of residences and

residential communities.
To provide residential facilities that are designed to support the residential

programme.
To provide residential facilities and grounds that are reasonably safe and secure.
To protect the institution's financial investment in its residential facilities.
To demonstrate commitment to sustainability and environmentally appropriate

practices.
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To manage financial and human resources in an effective and efficient manner.
To select and train staff members and student leaders able to implement the
residential model.
To provide effective response to emergency and crisis situations.
"
To provide and utilize technologies and applications that support student
needs and business operations.
z
To communicate important information to affected parties in a timely and

effective manner.
To evaluate the degree to which the residential programme is achieving its goals
and objectives.
Typical activities
z
As they relate to planning:
Develop and implement a strategic plan that reflects and responds to institutional
values, goals and objectives.
Establish operational priorities and allocate resources in ways that respond to this
plan.
Recognize the ways this plan depends on other sources for success; obtain
institutional support and commitments from interdependent units to assure
attainment of goals and objectives.
Use this plan as a basis for evaluating the performance of the programme.
As they relate to residential life:
Develop a residential programme that responds to institutional expectations for

the student experience, including but not limited to:
o
Programming
-
Community
-
Developing and implementing programming emphases.
Establishing environments that value and actively promote self- and

group-responsibility and accountability, a sense of belonging by all
students.
Citizenship
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Learning what it means to be a positive, contributing member of the

various local, career and global communities to which a student will
belong.
Establishing standards/codes of conduct that frame expectations for

acceptable individual and group behaviour.
Promoting civic engagement and service to the community.
Learning
-
Assuring that residential environments provide conditions for adequate

study and sleep.
Engaging faculty in meaningful dialogue and activities with students.
Enhancing the cultural competency of students and staff members.
Enhancing environmental literacy, including a commitment to

sustainability practices (including recycling efforts).
Providing meaningful exposure to and engagement in discourse about

contemporary and provocative topics.
Enhancing the student's sense of self and world view.
Facilitating tutoring and related academic supports.
Shared governance with students

-
Engaging students in the evaluation of residential communities.
Involving students in the adjudication of student conduct issues.
Providing advising to student governing groups and to student organizations.
Establishing student advisory boards to provide important perspectives

for programme decisions.
Life skills
-
Promoting a wellness lifestyle.
Teaching constructive approaches to conflict resolution (e.g., resolving

roommate conflicts).
As they relate to facilities planning and operations:

o
122
Develop programme statements that articulate the primary residential uses

and services for which a facility is intended and design/renovate facilities
accordingly.
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Implement building access systems that control who has access to

residences.
Conduct safety and security audits to determine possible institutional risk

and develop appropriate physical and policy responses.
Ensure that facilities will adequately accommodate students and staff

members with disabilities.
Utilize residential facilities as an institutional resource, e.g., allocate space for

instruction in order to enhance relationships with faculty and academic
affairs.
Establish and monitor standards for quality, cost, and timeliness of repair and
maintenance.
Establish and ensure achievement of standards for pre-occupancy facility

preparation and for ongoing housekeeping services.
Develop and implement a comprehensive preventive maintenance

programme and monitor to assure it is performed as prescribed.
Establish and implement cyclical replacement programmes for furnishings,

fixtures and equipment.
Engage students and residential staff in the selection of furnishings and fixtures.
Incorporate sustainability products, practices and strategies into facility

design and/or renovation.
Design and maintain adjacent exterior spaces as extensions of the living

environment.
Conduct facilities audits to determine levels of deferred maintenance.
As they relate to business and financial operations:

o
To the extent possible, develop needs-based annual budgets.
Fund reserves at levels that protect the institution's investment in its

residential facilities; i.e., limit the amount of deferred maintenance/building
renewal challenges.
As a general rule, annual contributions should equal approximately 1.9 per

cent to 2.1 per cent of each building's replacement value.
Assure that financial transactions and related reporting comply with

applicable accounting principles and practices.
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124
Conduct regular operational audits and utilize results to make changes, as

required.
In the case of third-party (privatized) housing relationships, ensure that

institutional needs are contractually assured and achieved.
Provide housing for conferences and similar uses during non-academic

periods to provide income that can reduce the cost of housing for academic
year students.
As they relate to housing assignments and records management:

o
Utilize housing contracts/license agreements/leases that clearly articulate the

respective rights and responsibilities of students and the institution.
Provide copies of these agreements in the native language of student

residents to better assure full understanding of its terms.
Implement policies and practices that safeguard privacy rights of students.
Develop and implement housing assignment policies and practices that are
equitable, reflect institutional values and are consistent with prevailing laws.
To the extent possible, provide housing assignment options that respond

positively to the cultural/religious obligations of students.
Maintain student records in accordance to prevailing laws and institutional

policies.
Provide housing options that respond to a variety of student interests and

lifestyles.
Engage students in determining discretionary policies and practices related

to types and placement of residential communities.
As they relate to communications and marketing:

o
Develop and implement a comprehensive communications plan.
Utilize a variety of electronic and print media for sharing important

information.
Assure messages are consistent with messages issued by the institution.
Assure information available on the programme website is current and accurate.
Identify important stakeholders and ensure they are kept informed about
issues that affect them.
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o
z
Utilize language and communication strategies that best respond to intended

audiences.
As they relate to staffing:

o
Develop a staffing model that responds to the operational requirements of

the programme.
Ensure that staff members understand the context in which their work is
performed.
Develop a training programme that equips staff members with the

knowledge, skills and resources required to successfully meet their
responsibilities.
Ensure adequate cross training among staff members to maintain

uninterrupted business activity.
Conduct regular assessments of staff member job performance and provide

plans for improving performance, as needed.
Provide resources that encourage meaningful opportunities for professional

development.
Provide instruction in conversational language skills for native languages of

students living in residential communities.
Utilize and promote students as influential peer and campus leaders.
As they relate to emergency/crisis management:

o
Develop an emergency preparedness/crisis management plan for campus

residences and affected populations. Circumstances to address include:
-
Natural
disaster/extreme
weather
hurricane/typhoon,
tornado/cyclone, earthquake, flood, snow/ice storm, drought
Disease - quarantine/isolation
Fire
Violence/riots
Acts of terrorism
Extended disruption of basic services - utilities, water, food
Include a business interruption plan as part of this planning effort.
Ensure that effective communications can be implemented according to the

circumstances.
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Have agreements in place that will ensure adequate access to services,

equipment and supplies if needed.
Ensure that staff members are sufficiently trained and ready to respond if
needed.
As they relate to assessment:

o
Develop and implement an annual assessment plan.
Establish measurable performance and learning outcomes.
Utilize a variety of quantitative and qualitative measures to evaluate the

programme.
Use assessment results to demonstrate the impacts of the residential

experience and to inform operational decisions.
Engage external reviews to provide an objective view of programme

performance.
Resources
Rather than provide a bibliography of material that can quickly become outdated or
marginally helpful, it may prove more useful to provide contact information for related
professional associations that can provide information and resources specific to an
enquiry or interest. The following is a sampling of associations around the globe.
International
z
Association of College and University Housing Services - International (ACUHOI), www.acuho-i.org
Regional
126
Australasian Association of College and University Housing Officers (AACUHO),

www.aacuho.edu.au
Deutsches Studentenwerk (Germany), www.studentenwerk.de
New Zealand Association of Tertiary Accommodation Professionals (NZTEAP)

c/o Bruce Cowan, NZTEAP President, [email protected]
Ontario Association of College and University Housing Officers (OACUHO),

Canada, www.oacuho.com/home.htm
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Qatar Foundation, www.qf.org.qa
Residence Life Professional Association, Canada, www.rlpa.ca/index.htm
South African Association (information) c/o Eric Sebokedi, Tshwane University of

Technology, [email protected]
United States, ACUHO-I website: www.acuho-i.org.edu
International programmes/student mobility services

management
Gary M. Rhodes and Jodi Ebner
Student flows between countries in higher education continue to increase each year.
In 2006, UNESCO estimated that over 2.5 million students were being educated at
the tertiary level in countries other than their homes, up from an estimated 1.7 million
in 2000 (Global Education Digest, 2006). A report from IDP Education Australia
predicted that by 2025, almost eight million students will be educated transnationally
(Bohm et al., 2002).
The Institute for International Education (IIE) Atlas of International Student Mobility
provides data on country of origin and destinations for students who pursue
education outside their home country each year.
Students move from country to country in different ways. As interactions continue to
increase between the citizens of countries around the world, the movement of
students has been shown to be one important way to enhance learning about
countries and cultures by students around the world. For some students, studying in
another country may be a way to ensure greater access to high quality higher
education. For others, it may be a way to enhance learning in their field of study, while
integrating language and culture learning. The amount of resources necessary to
implement student mobility programmes varies by the type of programme provided
for students. There are many different models currently in place.
Many students leave their home country to earn an undergraduate or graduate
degree abroad fully integrated into the other campus. Some may earn a dual degree
where part of their studies are completed in one country at one campus and the
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other in another country at another campus, earning a degree from both. Students
may also spend a year, a semester, a summer or even a few weeks abroad, earning
credit at their home campus. These programmes may involve placing students in a
university in another country; however, there are other models as well. These
programmes could be housed in an international campus of the home university, led
by faculty from a home campus travelling with students, supported by a provider of
programmes for international students where a student could study through a home
university relationship or independently. Students may also go abroad for work, an
internship, service learning or even personal travel and, if their home campus provides
a mechanism for earning credit, it can then be part of their home campus degree.
Support services range from a student moving independently abroad, where the
home country responsibilities for support are minimal, to a programme organized and
implemented by the home campus abroad, requiring significant specialized
infrastructure at home and abroad. On the receiving end, the student could be fully
integrated into the international campus, receiving similar services to domestic
students with an added orientation programme, visa support services and limited
other special support. For some institutions, the support of international students
could require a significant special infrastructure on the home campus, specialized staff
for marketing and outreach, and specialized support services on the campus, including
regional and country tour programmes to provide specialized support for
international students. In some cases, international students' income may provide
important financial support for a college or university and these specialized services
may interest international students to study there as much as the campus curriculum.
Recognizing this range of support services, the following functions and activities
provide a range of services that may be available, depending on the type of student
mobility programmes being supported on the sending and receiving sides.
Purpose/functions
128
To connect and integrate student mobility programmes to the home institution's

mission, goals, policies and other programmes.
To gain support from the university community about student mobility

programmes through cultural activities on campus and issues related to the
benefits of international education.
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To encourage interaction among international and domestic students on campus.
To advertise and promote the campus study abroad/international programmes

office.
To increase student awareness of the new culture and cultural diversity issues.
To design and implement useful, high-quality experiences abroad.
To assist students in the selection of a good study abroad programme match.
To encourage students from under-represented groups to participate in study

abroad.
To assist students when obtaining passports and visas.
To help students understand their own personal and cultural identity before they
study abroad to aid them in the adjustment phase of their cross-cultural
experience.
To regularly assess student learning and satisfaction in study abroad programmes.
To serve as the liaison between the sending university and receiving university.
To design pre-departure and re-entry activities that help develop adjustment

skills and intercultural understanding.
To prepare students to live in a multicultural society.
To encourage students to research the country they will be studying in about

culture, language, laws, health and security.
To ensure that students will have an arrival orientation with a local resident to
acquaint them with the new culture, laws, safety issues and programme policies.
To assist students in the re-entry process through reflection, incorporating their

international experiences into their home life and identifying ways to integrate
their international experience into their career.
To create awareness of health and safety issues while abroad.
To develop partnerships with individuals and organizations on- and off-campus that
can help with the many aspects of health-care advising for students going abroad.
To encourage students to take responsibility for their own health and safety
while abroad, including alcohol and drug abuse, epidemic diseases and
consequences of changes in routine that a traveller might encounter.
To remind students the level of their personal responsibility each of them must
assume for their individual safety and security.
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To have participants acknowledge risks involved in studying abroad by giving

them informed consent in waivers, releases and participation agreements.
To compile contact information of the home country consulates and embassies,

local resource people, medical providers and other emergency response
information.
To develop a communication plan to be used in emergencies and sudden change

in circumstances at the programme site.
To develop an emergency response team at both the sending and the home
institutions, and have them be complimentary.
Typical activities
130
Participate in study abroad fairs to introduce students to a variety of study abroad

options.
Work with educational leaders to develop recruiting programmes for potential

students.
Visit sites where their students currently study, as well as locations where
students would like to study.
Assist students in securing passports, visas and proper immigration documents

prior to departure.
In order to ensure a smooth process for students to obtain visas, establish a

professional relationship with the foreign embassy or consulate serving the state
or region.
Include clear instructions, embassy and consulate Web sites, and tips for visa
applications when sending students application and post-acceptance programme
materials and consulate-specific visa letters. Incorporate information about
country-specific visa timelines.
Advise students that some countries have additional requirements that must be
met before submitting a visa application, including national criminal background
checks and medical evaluations.
Plan orientation programmes and include other departments on campus about

safety issues, transportation, housing concerns, students' health and social and
personal growth, and help students get the most out of the cultural experience.
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Provide pre-departure orientation to deepen students' cultural skills.
Programme orientation should cover personal safety and security issues, health
and medical issues, and cross-cultural adjustment.
Educate students about cross-cultural adjustment skills such as adaptability and

the concept of culture shock including the common signs and symptoms of
culture shock and re-entry culture shock.
Provide students with contact information on local and national student travel
resources.
Prepare students to understand the technology as part of the local culture.
Address the topic of student expectations, which sometimes are unrealistic.
Incorporate all of the practical pre-departure, while abroad and re-entry details
into a handbook so that students will have the information in writing for future
reference.
Provide information and encouragement to students who are considering study

abroad.
Serve as a general advisor for study abroad students.
Assist students in the transition to live and learn in an international setting.
Review each student's overall objectives and how study abroad fits into his or
her long-term personal, professional and academic goals.
Provide individual and group discussions on issues facing students studying

abroad.
Organize living arrangements and activities for study abroad students.
Evaluate the financial situation of study abroad students and assist them to meet
their financial requirements and needs for study in the host country.
Discuss credit transfers and differences in academic requirement between the

home school and the abroad school for students to receive credit.
Provide the host institution with required student documentation.
Encourage students to learn about the common dating practices and sexual
norms of their host country through reading, orientation meetings and
programme alumni.
Encourage students who identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgender to

identify supportive organizations at their host institution and/or in the overseas
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community before they leave home to reduce their sense of isolation while
abroad.
132
Work closely with faculty and staff in various departmental programmes related
to area and language study. In some cases, advisers can hold joint information
sessions with a department to encourage study abroad students to major and/or
minor in these areas and vice versa.
Help students anticipate and plan for the re-entry process by providing them
with resources and options to consider.
Research and report findings related to the experience of study abroad students
and increase awareness of significant issues.
Gather feedback from returned students to improve study abroad programme

quality.
Collaborate to conduct interviews or focus groups with students when they

return from study abroad to become better informed about the issues that arose
and what worked well for the students.
Organize re-entry activities that give the students who have studied in nontraditional locations the opportunity to talk about their experiences and connect
with other units on campus.
Research additional opportunities for students to integrate their experiences

after their return.
Collect information about current health and safety risks around the world.
Provide emergency support to students who are currently studying abroad.
Make certain that on-site orientation will include information about what to do
regarding emergencies, general travel safety, crime and security.
Conduct inquiries regarding the potential health, safety and security risks of the
local environment of the programme, including programme-sponsored
accommodation, events, excursions and other activities, prior to the programme.
Monitor possible changes in country conditions.
Develop an entire set of procedures including thorough and up-to-date

information on health and safety issues as well as carefully checked lists of health
care and emergency contacts in the programme region students will be studying in.
Train programme directors and staff on health and safety issues in regards to first
aid, emergency response, student support, and student physical and mental stress.
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Address policies surrounding issues such as alcohol and other drug use and
sexual misconduct, and how such behaviour affects student health, safety and
academic progress while abroad.
Strongly suggest to students that travelling within areas of unrest, political rallies,
etc. are not recommended and can put their safety at risk.
If a crisis occurs where students from the home campus are studying, verify those
students/staff/faculty are safe.
Gather as much factual information as possible so you are prepared when talking
to parents.
Advise students/faculty/staff to monitor the media to keep up-to-date with the

situation and follow any instructions issued by the local authorities.
Arrange to have qualified medical personnel provide a health orientation to study

abroad participants.
Partner with campus mental health professionals to provide suggestions for

students to manage cultural adjustment in a healthy manner and to determine
when to ask for help.
Train counselling services staff about study abroad programmes, customs

regulations about importation of medication or mailing medication abroad, and
the availability of medications and local infrastructure abroad.
Discuss with students any health or mental issues that must be addressed for
programme selection.
Verify that each student has health insurance that is valid in the host country.
Encourage the student while abroad to talk about feelings with others, keep a
journal, and connect to others who have experienced culture shock.
Help students find a balance between providing support for each other and
encouraging them to form friendships with host country residents.
Provide professional support for students who indicate a mental health condition.
Have a mental health professional discuss with the student how he or she plans
to manage mental health needs and medications while abroad
If a student becomes depressed while abroad, help the student find treatment
and encourage the student to stay in treatment.
Sensitively offer support that connects the student to professional help before a
problem reaches a crisis state or seriously derails the student's academic and
career plans.
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References
Bhm, A., Davis,T., Meares, D. and Pearce, D. 2002. Global Student Mobility 2025.
Forecasts of the Global Demand for International Higher Education. IDP
Education Australia, L.
http://www.aiec.idp.com/PDF/Bohm_2025Media_p.pdf
Global Education Digest 2006: Comparing Education Statistics across the World 2006.
Montreal, UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
http://www.uis.unesco.org/TEMPLATE/pdf/ged/2006/GED2006.pdf
IIE Atlas of International Student Mobility. 2007. http://atlas.iienetwork.org/
International student services

Patricia Powell Willer
The mobility of students across countries for the purpose of undergraduate and
graduate study has increased dramatically in recent years. UNESCO estimates that
the number of students studying internationally grew by 41 per cent from 1.75 million
in 1999 to 2.5 million in 2004. While eight countries (Australia, Canada, China, France,
Germany, Japan, United Kingdom and United States) hosted 75 per cent of the
world's international students, there are indications that the future holds greater
diversity of destinations for education. These indicators include the increased mobility
of European students as a result of the Bologna Accord, the increase of participation
in study abroad in the United States, the development of higher education institutions
in the Middle East and the expansion of international education in Asia.
Variations exist across countries in how services to support international students are
designed and delivered. However, the trend is toward increasing levels of support for
international students and there are existing models for service delivery that may be
helpful as mobility of students continues to expand.
Purpose/functions
z
134
To provide pre-departure information and documents necessary to secure

passports and visas to students prior to international study.
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To assist international students in making arrangements for housing, consumer

needs and registration for academic course work upon arrival on campus.
To provide relevant information to international students about immigration

regulations, local and national laws and college regulations.
To assist students in complying with immigration regulations and other laws,

while also complying with the legal responsibilities of schools who host
To provide guidance to students about cultural adjustment, personal concerns,

financial issues, and academic policies and practices.
To enrich campus life by promoting opportunities for international student

involvement on campus, as well as opportunities for students to interact with
domestic students and with members of the community.
To educate campus and community members about the value of international

education and the presence of international students on campus, and encourage
programmes and activities that foster interaction.
To manage college services and programmes for international students.
To articulate to the campus the needs and special concerns of international

students.
To extend guidance and share expertise with others on campus related to

international education trends, immigration regulations and campus services.
To provide administrative support for the college's exchange activities and

agreements.
To collect information and perform effective assessment related to international

student services.
To aid in retention and satisfaction of students throughout their study.
To provide guidance to students about opportunities and requirements upon

completion of their programmes of study.
To assist international students in the event of emergencies.
Typical activities
z
Communicate with prospective students prior to arrival about information

needed to make study plans.
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136
Mail packets of information to students to assist in their planning.
Collaborate with the college's admissions officials to admit international students.
Issue documents needed by students for arranging for visas and passports.
Identify housing options and assist students in making appropriate housing

choices.
Seek the assistance of other students, international and domestic, to assist new
international students in adjusting to campus life.
Deliver an orientation programme to assist students upon arrival on campus.
Counsel students individually upon arrival and, as needed, throughout their study
about cultural adjustment issues and personal concerns.
Develop opportunities for international students to meet and interact with other
students.
Provide immigration-related information and guidance on an ongoing basis.
Maintain knowledge of current immigration regulations affecting international

students and effectively communicate that information to students.
Develop cultural, social and educational support services.
Maintain methods of communicating with international students on campus on

an ongoing basis via newsletter, email and website.
Provide information to international students about financial assistance and

employment opportunities, as well as guidance on tax requirements.
Advise faculty and staff on campus about international issues and regulations.
Promote student organizations and activities that foster culture sharing and
interaction among students.
Encourage interaction with the community through the use of community host
programmes, international guest speakers, cultural events and similar activities.
Develop educational programmes for students, faculty and staff that encourage
understanding of cross-cultural issues.
Inform students about health care services, including availability, types of services
and costs related to health care.
Articulate the needs of international students and the importance of international

education to others.
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Conduct assessment and research related to international students and share

that information.
Develop protocols for managing international student emergencies.
Assist students in leaving the campus upon completion of their programmes of

study.
Maintain communication with international alumni.
Resources
Global Education Digest 2006. Comparing Education Statistics across the World. 2006.
Montreal, UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
http://www.uis.unesco.org/TEMPLATE/pdf/ged/2006/GED2006.pdf
Gooding, M. and Wood, M. (eds).2006. Finding Your Way: Navigational Tools for
International Student and Scholar Advisers. NAFSA: Association of International.
Leadership education, development, training and support

Johann van der Watt
Student leadership should be an integral part of an institution's educational mission.
By introducing multiple delivery methods and contexts, leadership education,
development and training could become part of an integrated student affairs learning
strategy, as described in the example here.
z
Entry level: Students are introduced to campus life through purposeful

orientation and recreational activities. These activities are designed to invite
students to become involved in meaningful campus life activities during their stay
on campus.
Participation level: Students are encouraged and professionally supported to

actively take part in and contribute to the activities of student organizations, clubs,
societies, structures and residential life as well as student leadership programmes.
Training level: Leadership education and training programmes are presented

from an entrance level (emerging leaders) through a mentorship and instructor's
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level (peer group leaders) to a support level (where students actively support
and contribute to the training of other students through rendering a service in a
student leadership resource facility).
z
Mentoring and professional level: Students with a proven track record as student
officers or elected leaders are selected for accredited training to serve as
mentors, instructors, programme facilitators and programme directors. At this
level, experiential mentoring as ropes-course instructors, adventure-training
facilitators, project leaders, student newspaper editors and international student
leadership camp facilitators, as well as formal assistantships in the student affairs
resource centre environment, is the main development thrust.
Purpose/functions
138
Providing students with opportunities to develop and enhance a personal

understanding of the process of leadership that includes understanding of self,
others and society.
Engage students in the leadership process in increasing levels of participation,

interaction, quality and quantity.
To assist students to relate insights to the practical real-life applications of the

leadership process.
Underlining learning and development outcomes such as intellectual growth,

enhanced self-esteem, effective communication, clarification of values, meaningful
interpersonal relations, realistic self-appraisal, collaboration, appreciation of
diversity, spiritual awareness and social responsibility.
To develop programmes and learning communities through which students will

experience real life challenges in a safe seamless learning environment.
Ensuring that leadership services and programmes are intentional, coherent,

based on theories of learning and human development, reflective of
developmental and demographic profiles of the student population, and
responsive to the needs of the institution, communities and student populations.
Offering advocacy and support on behalf of students in the student governance

environment when extenuating circumstances may negatively influence their
academic and personal circumstances.
Offering feedback to elected student leaders on factors that may influence their
leaning.
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Include leadership education elements that are designed to enhance knowledge

and understanding of leadership theories, concepts and modules.
Include leadership training that is designed to improve performance of individuals

and groups to be able to translate the acquired skills to the immediate real-life
situation.
Include development activities leading to greater levels of leadership complexity,

group interaction, and civil responsibility, cognitive and effective outcomes.
Provide leadership resources, support services, consultation and advice to

practitioners, students and faculty to assist in creating a culture of excellence and
lifelong learning.
Recognize and reward exemplary leadership behaviour.
Typical activities
Hierarchical leadership training (focus on student structures such as residence student
staff, student government leaders, student judicial board members, clubs, societies,
event teams, community service coordinators, etc.)
z
Preparatory/orientation programmes such as the institutional culture, educational

landscape, management hierarchies, policies and procedures.
Capacity-building/Skills training including strategic programme of action planning,

professional communication, governance, institutional management landscape,
policies and procedures, event planning and programme management and
assessment, financial and administrative matters, managing meetings, portfolio
management, fund raising, marketing, reports, etc.
Activity programming and calendar planning (time management).
Focused development programme for individual student governance

leaders/representatives.
Non-hierarchical leadership education and development (focus on campus-wide

leadership education initiatives including emerging leaders, minorities, peer group
leaders, instructors, student assistants and programme facilitators.)
z
Emerging leaders development programme (could include different interest

groups such as finesse/women's empowerment, performing arts, faculty focus,
spiritual, religious, residence, culture, etc.).
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Peer-group development programme (follow-up programme for students who

successfully participated in the emerging leaders programme. Education,
collaboration and experiential focus).
Diversity, citizenship, cultural exploration and multicultural programmes (focus

on the first year experience).
Accredited leadership education modules.
Special focus programmes

(advertised programmes including creativity and
innovation, democracy, entrepreneurship, etc.).
Facilitator training programmes, mentoring and train-the-trainer programmes

(focus on ropes course and adventure instructors, student programme
facilitators).
Outreach programmes (special needs training).
Leadership resource centre

z
Student leadership consulting (peer group service).
Public speaking, debating, presentation preparation and meeting-lab.
Interactive computer training facilities.
Student radio station (managing the station as a community outreach initiative,

empowerment topics, campus news, constituency newscasts, etc.).
Skills training and experiential activities areas.
Training kits, resource material, CD's, DVD's, computer games, self-assessment

tools, books, articles, etc.
Official information database (policies, staff, constitutions regulations, etc.).
Database with training manuals, activity transcripts, training templates, CD's,

DVD's, trainers and presenters data lists, etc.
Computer and internet facilities (interactive training with possible outdoor

centre, residence halls, faculty, other campuses, interest groups, etc.).
Leadership training and development website, blog (managing interactive website).
Films, DVDs, video sessions.
Outdoor leadership development and training centre (managed and facilitated by

student affairs staff and students with an entrepreneurial enterprise focus.)
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Outdoor adventure, development training and team-building programmes.
Education enterprise opportunity for student affairs staff, interns, peers and instructors.
Community outreach and training opportunities.
Diversity awareness training.
Leadership retreats.
Recreational activities.
Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender work in student affairs

Ronni Sanlo,Annie Cushman-Kosar, Joi Thailoan Ngo and Jude Tate
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) work within the context of Student
Affairs in the United States and Canada is a fairly new but growing profession. The
first office in the United States to serve lesbian and gay students opened in 1971 at
the University in Michigan, but it would be nearly two decades before similar offices and
centres opened at other institutions. NASPA and ACPA began addressing LGBT issues
organizationally by the mid-1990s, and the Consortium of Higher Education LGBT
Resource Professionals was founded in 1997 (Sanlo, Rankin and Schonberg, 2002).
In researching similar work at colleges and universities internationally, LGBT work in
student affairs appears to be a phenomenon primarily of the United States and
Canada. While there are LGBT student organizations at some international
institutions, LGBT work at those institutions does not fall within the context of
student affairs.
The World Wide Web was searched and individuals at higher education institutions
outside of the United States and Canada were contacted to determine the availability
and range of services for LGBT students. Most institutions generally lacked identifiable
physical safe space and had neither paid staff nor institutional support, although a few
found ways to address LGBT issues (such as homophobia) on campus. LGBT student
organizations, student-initiated activities, and student leadership opportunities were
found at such institutions as the University of Waikato and Otago University in New
Zealand, Spain's Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, many institutions in the United
Kingdom, including the Aston University (Birmingham), Vrije Universiteit Brussel
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(Brussels), Sat Yat-sen University (Guangzhou, China), London Metropolitan

University and the American University of Paris.
Since official LGBT services do not exist at most universities beyond the United States
and Canada, it is students who have discerned the need for services and then
provided them for themselves. At such institutions as the University of Waikato (New
Zealand) and Birmingham City University in the United Kingdom, LGBT students are
selected to serve in student government on behalf of the LGBT student population.
LGBT student unions are also utilized as umbrella organizations. The student unions
tend to take on a greater range of services, such as advocating on behalf of students,
advocating for safe learning environments and ensuring that LGBT needs are
considered and met within the larger campus community.
Sexual orientation and gender identity are becoming viable courses of study at a handful
of institutions. The Fudan University in Shanghai offered its first undergraduate course
in lesbian and gay studies in 2005, and the annual Gender and Sexuality Conference
occurs in India, but there are no student affairs/services or LGBT campus support
beyond student organizing (Sivagami Subbaraman, personal email, 21 September 2007).
Human rights policies and laws regarding LGBT people are slowly changing. Although
some countries (Islamic Republic of Iran, Mauritania, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Somalia,
Sudan and Yemen) still invoke the death penalty for homosexuals, other places have
decriminalized homosexuality, and some even permit same-sex marriage (Belgium,
Canada, French Guyana, Israel, Netherlands, South Africa, Spain). In addition, the
University of Waikato (New Zealand) has a strong anti-harassment policy and Sat
Yat-sen University (China) approved a sexual orientation equality policy in 2006.
Regardless of advancing policies and academics, actual LGBT centres on university
campuses - physical spaces for students with services, staff, and institutional support are virtually non-existent outside of the United States and Canada. In addition to the
100-plus campuses in the United States that support LGBT offices or centres, it is
important to recognize the Canadian institutions which also offer similar support:
Wilfrid Laurier University, the University of Toronto, the University of British
Columbia, Queen's University and the University of Regina. Institutional support is
also offered at the University of Manchester (United Kingdom) and at the University
of Western Cape in South Africa.
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Student affairs divisions in colleges and universities in Canada and the United States
have taken the lead to provide services, safe spaces and support for LGBT students.
Given that Student Affairs professionals are change agents in higher education,
national and international Student Affairs professional associations are urged to be
more proactive about LGBT inclusivity on college campuses. By including LGBT
concerns and expert staff in student affairs, such professionals fulfil the commitment
as educators in higher education settings and the campus environment becomes
more inclusive and enriched.
Purpose/functions
z
Work collaboratively within student affairs to provide services for LGBT students.
Provide a supported LGBT office with funding and staffing.
Provide advocacy for LGBT students both on and off campus.
Provide training and education regarding LGBT issues throughout campus.
Provide a safe-space drop-in site for LGBT information, referral and support.
Provide counselling and advising LGBT students regarding sexual orientation and
gender identity.
Help students develop holistically into well-rounded global citizens.
Provide the needed advocacy, information, resources, education, outreach and

inclusive spaces on campus.
Serve as educational resources to inform the both individual LGBT students and
the institution regarding issues for and about LGBT community.
Serve as lifelines for students, staff, faculty, alumni/ae, parents and friends.
Typical activities
z
Coordinate relationships between LGBT campus organizations and external

LGBT academic, religious, social, political and cultural organizations.
Initiate research and climate surveys regarding the campus environment.
Advise LGBT student organizations.
Provide collaborative programming and outreach through:

o
educational training, workshops, seminars, panels, etc.
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144
ally or safe-zone programme
speaker's bureau
peer education programme
mentoring programme
social and professional networking
Offer support and advocacy for students and other campus constituents are the
most important services that LGBT programmes provide. Such services include:
o
counselling services (if no full-time counsellor-in-residence, then referrals to

LGBT friendly health care providers)
support for student organizations
leadership development for LGBT student leaders
secular, religious and multiple identity development education
conference opportunities
scholarship resources
advocacy
mediation
negotiation
conflict resolution
professional staff and funding
student and professional staff development
support groups (men's, women's, transgender, bi-sexuality, coming out, etc.)
Recognize and celebrate the achievements of the LGBT campus community by

providing the following:
o
Lavender Graduation ceremony
staff and faculty recognition
individual student achievement recognition
student organization achievement recognition
recognition of the history of the LGBT community
award ceremonies
pride parade participation
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Transgender Day of Remembrance
Coming Out Day
history week's or month's celebration
Providing current and accurate information and resources is paramount to the

safety and overall well-being of LGBT students and the general campus
community. Information and resources acknowledge that students' experiences
are part of the greater fabric of the LGBT community and global society in
general. Services might include:
o
bias incident assistance
technology: website, electronic calendar, virtual support group, virtual peer

education, computer lab (if possible
safe and inclusive environment
community space
information/referrals
resource manual
collection of LGBT providers
library and/or archives
current publications (magazines, newspapers, etc.)
pamphlets
information about campus services, student organizations and campus

events
information about health and safer sex including testing sites for HIV and
sexually transmitted infections
Offer the tools necessary for continued success of LGBT centre. These tools
include but are not limited to:
research including campus climate surveys, research concerning issues of

importance to the LGBT community,
assessment, CAS standard review
learning outcomes, measurement of learning outcomes and current

programmes
student leadership
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the centre itself
committed professional staff
relationship-building including academic, religious, social, cultural, and the

campus and surrounding communities and other campuses
visibility via advertising, logo, brochures
fund-raising

Sanlo, R. L., Rankin, S. R. and Schonberg, R. 2002. Our Place on Campus. Westport,
Conn., Greenwood Press.
American University of Paris. http://planet.aup.fr/archives/2004-2005/pdfs/issue3.pdf
Aston University. http://www.myspace.com/aston_lgb
Fudan University, Shanghai. http://www.china.org/cn/english/2005/Aug/138620htm
Imperial College, London.
http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/staffdevelopment/workshops/prof_dev/lgbt
King's College, London.
http://www.kcl.ac.uk/about/structure/admin/equalopps/networks/lgbt.html?m=print
London Metropolitan University.
https://intranet.londonmet.ac.uk/studentservices/studentoffice/activities/clubs/metlgbt.
cfm
Otago University. http://www.ousa.org.nz/queer.php
Sat Yat-sen University.
http://www.lifeofguangzhou.com/node_10/node_36/node_87/2006/11/07/11628686
181
UCE Birmingham. http://www.uceunion.com/club_homepage.asp?clubid=6672
Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya. www.sinver.org
University College London. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news-articles/0701/07013003
University of Manchester. http://lgbt.manchester.ac.uk/wiki/Welfare/LGBTOffice
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University of Waikato.
http://www.waikato.ac.nz/student/support/studentssexuality.shtml
University of Western Cape, South Africa.
http://www.uwc.ac.za/portal/uwc2006/content/research/map_websites.htm
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
http://web.wits.ac.za/Library/Gala/
University of Western Ontario.
http://www.lgbtcampus.org/resources/lgbt_studies.html, Retrieved 10/25/07.
Vrije Universiteit Brussel. http://www.vub.ac.be/holebi/english.htm
Wilfrid Laurier University.
http://www.wlu.ca/calendars/section.php?cal=1&s=184&sp=700&ss=659&y=23#Rai
nbow_Centre
Multicultural/ethnic minority student services

Colette M.Taylor
Introduction
Anthony Giddens stated in his book, Runaway World (2000) that:
'The battleground for the twenty-first century will pit fundamentalism against
cosmopolitan tolerance. In a globalising world, where information and images are
routinely transmitted across the globe, we are all regularly in contact with others who
think differently, and live differently than ourselves.'
Today's college students are more likely to be racially and ethnically diverse (Swail,
Redd and Pema, 2003). For example, according to the 2000 United States census,
39.1 per cent of people under 18 are people of colour (Asian; black; Hispanic, who
may be of any race; or Native American), as compared with 28.02 per cent of people
18 and over (United States Department of Education, 2002). Student affairs should
therefore play a vital role in diversifying colleges and universities, particularly
supporting the growing number of multi-ethnic students attending these institutions.
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Purpose/functions
z
To foster and develop a climate that encourages and promotes the inclusion of
all cultures into a unified, multidimensional society.
To provide activities/policies that promote access to developmental, social,

academic and recreational higher education programmes for qualified persons.
To provide opportunities for multicultural students to develop the necessary

skills for inclusion into the main culture.
To provide training for key campus personnel, e.g., counsellors, faculty, student
services workers, resident assistants, etc., regarding multicultural and diversity issues.
To develop learning opportunities for the university community to appreciate its

multi-ethnicity and diversity.
Typical activities
148
Assessing multicultural student needs and developing key support systems.
Developing specialized orientation activities, programmes and events that

complement such institutional activities.
Assisting multicultural students to assess their academic goals and skills, and
providing programmes that enhance knowledge/skills for academic success.
Providing opportunities for multicultural students to develop a deeper

understanding and a better knowledge of their culture, heritage and history.
Developing programmes and educational opportunities for the institutional

community to develop a deeper understanding and appreciation of diversity.
Identifying and offering appropriate multicultural mentors and role models.
Supporting and encouraging a diverse curriculum.
Developing programmes, activities and events that change prejudicial and

stereotypical attitudes and/or behaviours.
Developing programmes and opportunities to enhance multicultural student

understanding and skills necessary for the exercise of leadership.
Developing/administering assessment instruments for multicultural students to

develop an understanding of their skills, interests and learning styles.
Serving as an advocate for multicultural students in resolving issues including

creating a safe environment on and off campus
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Providing advising, counselling and assistance for multicultural students.
Providing programmes designed to enhance retention and graduation rates of

multicultural students.
References
Giddens, A. 2000. Runaway World. New York, NY, Routledge.
Swail,W. S., Redd, K. E. and Perna, L.W. 2003. Retaining Minority Students in Higher
Education: A Framework for Success. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, Vol.
30, No. 2, Hoboken, NJ, Wiley.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. 2002. The
Condition of Education 2002.Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office.
NCES 2002-025. http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002025.pdf.
New student programmes/student orientation

Mary Stuart Hunter, Bill Crome, Jim Elliott, Mohamed Ouakrime, Lydia
Nyati-Ramahobo and Casey Stafford
Students matriculating to an institution of higher education enter a new environment
and a new culture. Like other large organizations and systems (e.g., armed services
and corporations) colleges and universities must assist newcomers to successfully
transition and to achieve effective assimilation. The form that such transition
programmes takes varies in scope, timing, process, and structure (e.g., welcome week
activities, one- to several-day long programmes prior to enrolment, and term-length
academic courses). A major strategic goal of orientation programmes of all types is to
maximize the successful transition of new students into higher education so that they
will persist on through to their degree attainment. It must be recognized that each
institution has its own particular set of influences and that research-based initiatives
are important in predicting needs and trends for the persistence of new students.
Successful programmes enhance academic integration and advance positive student
outcomes by improving the student experience and making the institution a better
place to live and study. Thus, the ultimate goal is to yield long-term benefits for the
individual, the institution and the world.
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Purpose/functions
Transition
z
Help students make a transition from secondary school to higher education

environment (traditional age students) or from daily life and work to higher
education (adult students), from life before university to life at the university.
Ensure that admission and enrolment processes are clear, accessible, user friendly and
as simple as possible. This includes efficient technologies providing twenty-four hours
a day, seven days a week, access to enrolment and application information, financial
services, procedures for adding and changing courses, and academic advice.
Provide special services for international students who need further support in
course selection than do domestic enrolees. Such students also need greater
social integration with non-internationals during orientation.
Build awareness of student support services in case difficulty is encountered (e.g.,

counselling, health clinic, recreation centre and career services).
Provide opportunities for new students to ask questions and be supported in a

friendly and comfortable peer group environment long after orientation is over.
Create an environment that helps students move between their 'culture of

origin' and the 'institutional culture' in a seamless manner. Enhance students'
motivation for embracing the ideals of the institution.
Assist students to adjust into university communities that are conducive for
learning and comfortable on-campus living.
Provide targeted support to new students from backgrounds where there are
known risk factors (e.g., international students, students from low socioeconomic backgrounds, students with disabilities, minorities, commuters, those
who work full time off campus, mature students and first generation students).
Offer career guidance services to first-year entering students throughout their

first few weeks of classes. Career options may lead to greater academic
integration and lower programme attrition rates.
Social integration
z
150
Integrate students into the intellectual activities and social culture of the
institution.
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Create a sense of belonging and pride as a member of the first-year class, as well
as an affinity for the institution, and its unique values and culture.
Provide an opportunity for students to know each other as members of a

community that strives to make their environment safe and secure.
Understand the changing student attitudes towards university life and create
dialogue that allows the student to feel engaged, connected and supported.
Provide skills and develop values that minimize the effects of the undesirable
aspects of collegiate life (e.g., drugs, excessive drinking, gambling, vandalism,
academic dishonesty and violent relationships).
Provide students with opportunities to interact with faculty and staff in formal
and non-formal settings (e.g., mentor relationships and advising).
Institutional resources and services

z
Introduce students to the institution and its resources, services and policies.
Develop the capacity to use information technologies inherent in successful

university learning.
Provide students with information needed to make informed decisions and

choices about their personal lives and their social and academic behaviour.
Promote attitudes and skills that will develop students' ability to make a choice
of study field/career consistent with their interests and capacities.
Help students develop life skills that will assist them in succeeding in their
academic disciplines as well as in their personal growth and development.
Provide information and support that will enhance academic achievement,

reduce attrition rates in year one and yield higher completion rates over time.
Diversity/global awareness
z
Recognize ethnic diversity in the institutional environment and create an

appropriate climate that welcomes, accepts, respects and affirms the value of
diversity through a proactive mentoring and orientation programme.
Recognize that acculturation-based stressis more likely to increase in

environments where students' cultural practices are deemed out of place,
incompatible, lacking or valueless. Develop efforts to minimize stress.
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Raise students' awareness and involvement in global issues through the

development of acceptance, tolerance and engagement of a diverse student
body.
Recognize the widening age difference of new students and the trend towards a
more mature age population of students on campus.
Foster the spirit of mutual understanding and self-reliance while developing

compassion among students for one another.
Student success skills development

z
Foster attitudes and skills necessary for university-level learning by encouraging

students to reconsider their conceptions of what learning means.
Help students develop adequate language skills appropriate to the language of

instruction at the institution.
Promote students' understanding of academic integrity.
Cultivate confidence in the learner to overcome challenges and to develop as

learners and leaders.
Help students develop skills of soliciting help and eliciting feedback.
Help students become better decision-makers.
Involvement and engagement
152
Develop institutional values that support the view that the student experience
involves engagement outside traditional academic commitments.
Promote students' involvement in service and community learning.
Create an interactive and fluid process between faculty, staff and students that in
turn creates an empowering community of scholars.
Improve student learning outcomes through involvement in academic learning

communities, linked courses and cohort groups based on shared interests and
ethnic, gender or religious ethos.
Promote social integration through clubs, sporting activities and cultural

organizations to encourage involvement and a sense of belonging within the
institutional culture.
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Typical activities
z
Develop learning outcomes for programmatic activities.
Plan events to meet the programme goals.
Identify and secure facilities for implementing the programme.
Identify and train student orientation leaders and peers' educators.
Develop resource materials for programme.
Advertise orientation programme and register those planning to attend.
Welcome first-year students.
Provide an appropriate series of events that encourages student involvement and

allows the student to engage with the institution irrespective of employment,
distance learning or lifestyle demands.
Organize open visit days for potential new students (during their final year at
secondary school), involving their teachers.
Organize welcome events (e.g., Fresher's ball, convocation, first-year common

reading programme).
Organize events to meet needs of special micro-populations (e.g., international

students, parents/partners, mature students and scholarship recipients)
Provide upper level peer mentors for first-year students.
Provide opportunities for students to meet students from other institutions

(nationally and internationally).
Register students for first-term classes.
Develop learning communities and mentoring networks.
Monitor student performance and operate a proactive early warning system. This
may include use of text communication, social networking website capability and
email technologies to monitor and engage with the student at various points of
year that are determined to be times of the highest risk of withdrawal.
Identify, recruit and train faculty/staff to effectively teach first-year students.
Provide instructors' with training sessions/support/research on first-year students.
Invite students to be part of a peer support learning community that encourages

engagement, connectivity and support leading to student success.
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Plan extended orientation courses to explore student competencies, further

orientation relationships with students and instructor, and develop a sense of
personal goals and self-awareness.
Carry out appropriate and comprehensive quantitative and qualitative assessment

and evaluation of orientation and transition programmes, the results of which are
used to continuously improve student learning and programmatic efforts.
Collect, analyse and disseminate findings related to student attitudes and

experiences beyond course and subject evaluation. 'A learning environment that
respects students as individuals by acknowledging and helping them to achieve
their goals and commitments, by celebrating their diversity, and by valuing their
opinions is a learning environment that contributes to social and academic
integration, to student-environment fit, and perhaps, to retention.' (Peterson et
al., 1997).
For Institutions currently without such programmes, the following is suggested:
Raise awareness in institutions of higher education about the importance of the

first-year transition.
Organize dissemination activities for best practices in new student programmes.
Use assessment and evaluation of orientation and transition programmes to

enhance the process of dissemination of good practices.

Clark,W. A. and Crome,W.W. 2004. Personalising the Transition Experience: Induction,
Immersion or Intrusion? University of Auckland, New Zealand.
Elliott, J. S. 2007. Hang in There!: Making It at University, rev. ed. (first published 1990),
Perth, Western Australia, Curtin University Counselling Service,
Hunter, M. S. 2006. Fostering student learning and success through first-year
programs. Peer Review, American Association of Colleges and Universities, Vol. 8,
No. 3, pp. 4-7.
Ouakrime, M. (in press). A first-year seminar initiative for Moroccan university
students. International Perspectives on the First-Year Experience in Higher Education,
Columbia, SC. National Resource Center for The First-Year Experience and
Students in Transition, University of South Carolina.
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Peterson, S., Kovel-Jarboe, P. and Schwartz, S. 1997. Quality improvement in higher

education: implications for student retention. Quality in Higher Education, Vol. 3,
No. 2, pp. 131-41.
Upcraft, M. L., Gardner, J. N. and Barefoot, B. O. (eds). 2005. Challenging and
Supporting the First-year Student: A Handbook for Improving the First Year of College.
San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Ward-Roof, J. and Hatch, C. (eds). 2003. Designing Successful Transitions: A Guide for
Orienting Students to College, 2nd ed. Columbia, SC, National Resource Center
for the First-Year Experience and Students in Transition.
Parent programmes
Marjorie Savage
Although the discussion of parental involvement at the college level seems like a
relatively new topic and is primarily associated with the family-oriented students of
the Millennial Generation, parent associations and events date back at least to the
1920s. Parents have long been generous donors to funds that support student life,
and Mothers Clubs and Dads Clubs have existed for more than 80 years. Parent
events such as a Mothers Tea or a Fathers Football weekend were annual traditions
at many colleges and universities until the 1970s when political correctness and the
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) led United States colleges and
universities to re-evaluate their parent activities and abandon parent events on
campus (Wartman and Savage, in press).
Family-college relations were minimal during the turbulent Viet Nam War era, but as
early as 1984, parents were brought back into the picture with parent orientation
programmes that identified a supportive role for families during their student's
academic experience (Upcraft, 1984). Parent and family weekends regained
popularity and communications on critical topics like alcohol and health issues brought
parents into a partnership with colleges and universities to assist with students' wellbeing. In recent years, strategic parent programming with messages and involvement
opportunities that promote institutional goals for student development have been
established at public and private institutions, encompassing large, medium and small
schools, and are now being considered at two-year institutions. (Wartman and
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Savage, in press). Although parent services differ based on whether a parent or family
programme is housed in a student affairs office, a fund-raising office, enrolment
management, admissions or academic affairs, the functions and activities noted below
are common to parent programmes.
Purpose/functions
z
To advise parents on the unique concerns, challenges and opportunities facing

today's college students, including academic and non-academic expectations.
To provide information that helps parents understand the transition to college

for the student and for the family.
To assist parents in developing positive parenting skills that support their

student's increasing maturity and independence.
To inform parents about student services and explain how students can access
services that support academic, personal and social success.
To provide communications, social and informational programmes, and events

for parents and family members.
To provide a central point on campus for parents where their issues can be
addressed and where appropriate assistance can be provided.
To assist parents in understanding relevant administrative policies and

procedures, the purposes of higher education, and the mission of the institution.
To develop an affinity among parents for the college or university and establish
a positive relationship that may yield financial donations for the institution.
Typical activities
156
Providing a central contact person who can respond to parent questions, identify
common and emerging concerns, and coordinate messages among campus
offices.
Conducting programmes and involvement opportunities such as parent

orientation programmes, parents and family weekends, move-in events and other
events unique to the college or university.
Developing an active and current website targeted to parents and family

members.
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Producing communications (print newsletters, e-newsletters, campus resource

guide, handbook or campus calendar) that support an appropriate role for
parents during the college years.
Developing educational workshops and seminars either on campus, online or at

a distance to inform parents of student and campus issues.
Forming a parents' organization, association or club that provides an institutional

identity for parents.
Developing a parents' council or board that represents the interests of the

general parent population.
Raising funds from parents for targeted projects that improve the student
experience.
Representing parent concerns within the college or university.
Communicating with and responding to parents at times of crisis, as part of a

campus crisis plan.
References
Upcraft, M. L. (ed.). 1984. Orienting Students to College. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Wartman, K. L. and Savage, M. B. (in press). Parental Involvement in Higher Education:
Understanding the Relationship among Students, Parents, and the Institution. San
Shipboard education
Lisa Bardill Moscaritolo and Michael J. Zoll
Using a ship to transport ideas and learning was thought of as early as 1877. However
it was not until 18 September 1926 that the first shipboard education voyage sailed
from the Hoboken, New Jersey pier. The first voyage took seven and a half months
to travel around the world on the SS Ryndam. The ship travelled to 35 countries
which included some of the following ports: China, Hong Kong, India, Italy, Norway
and Spain. There were some 504 students and 62 faculty and administration aboard
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the SS Ryndam. The 1926 voyage was a monumental moment for shipboard
education which continues today as an alternative to land-based campuses.
Unfortunately, because of differing viewpoints among those who believed in
shipboard education, another voyage was not possible until 1963. Under the
leadership of Rotarian Gerald S. Black from Whittier, California, shipboard education
was a possibility again. After three voyages, California's Chapman University in 1966
assumed academic sponsorship of the programme and renamed it World Campus
Afloat. In 1976, the Institute for Shipboard Education was founded. This non-profit
corporation took administrative oversight of the programme and named it Semester
at Sea. The University of Colorado sponsored the programme until 1980 when the
University of Pittsburgh assumed leadership until 2004. Each of these universities
played an important role over the years which have led to an increase in the growth
and popularity of Semester at Sea. Students who enrol today receive academic credit
from the University of Virginia.
Over time, the name of the ship has changed. The newest ship, the Explorer, is a
24,300-ton motor vessel equipped with classrooms, library, student union, wireless
Internet, campus store, fitness centre, and two dining rooms. The Explorer, built by
Blohm & Voss shipbuilders in Germany, is 590 feet long with a beam of 84 feet and
a draft of 24 feet. It is said to be the fastest passenger ship today, with a cruising speed
of 28 knots. Other ships which were retrofitted to serve as a floating university over
the years include the SS Ryndam I, MS Seven Seas, SS Ryndam II, The Universe
Campus, SS Universe and SS Universe Explorer.
To date there are over 48,000 alumni of Semester at Sea. Students pay approximately
$20,500 for the fall and spring voyage, which includes not only tuition but meals and
a shared cabin with one other student. For the summer, students pay approximately
$10,000. The Institute for Shipboard Education offers more than $2.2 million in needbased student aid. Donations to Semester at Sea make it possible to offer annual
financial grants to about 40 per cent of the participants. Students also get assistance
from federal aid and loans.
There are some contrasts from a student life experience on Semester at Sea and a
ship to a land-based campus. As you would expect, compared with home campuses,
space is tight. For example, there is a single, shared recreation space on the outside
deck, which alternates as a volleyball/basketball court and aerobics studio. But space
does not limit the activities aboard the ship. Students are often more active in the
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contained environment of a ship than they would be on a sprawling land-based

campus. During the first or second passage at sea, the Resident Directors and other
members of the student life team organize an 'involvement fair'. It is not unusual to
have at least 50 per cent of the students attend and want to get involved. Many of
the students establish similar organizations each voyage (term) such as Students of
Service and the Yearbook committee but new organizations based on interests are
created and organized as well. There are some traditions each voyage shares,
including Sea Olympics, Neptune Day (Crossing the Equator), Ambassadors Ball,
Crew and Ship Talent Shows and Students of Service Auction. Frequently, the faculty
staff and their families participate in these activities as well.
Semester at Sea is the longest standing shipboard education programme. In the history
of shipboard education there are other programmes which use a ship as its laboratory
and provide students academic credit for participating. Some other programmes include
Seamester, SEA and the ScholarShip (programme closed June 2008).
The men and women who fought for shipboard education would be pleased with
how shipboard education has affected the lives of 55,000 students. Shipboard
education enriches students in ways not possible through any other method of
learning. These programmes cultivate a close connection between students and the
faculty, staff, and other individuals who embark on this adventure. Participants of
shipboard education hopefully develop an appreciation of what it means to be a
global citizen. By embarking on this educational experience, students will increase
their academic knowledge and expand their horizons to an extent they may never
have dreamed possible.
Purpose/functions
z
Education for a comparative view of the world.
Cross-cultural understanding.
Knowledge/understanding of the social, political, cultural, economic and

geographic characteristics of 10 to13 countries, depending on the voyage.
Ship functions like a campus with similar facilities such as a library, computer lab,
6 to 8 classrooms, union, health centre, administrative offices, social and
recreational areas, and fitness centre.
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Resident directors and the assistant director for student life are responsible for
fostering the educational, cultural, social, spiritual and personal development of
students within residential living units called 'seas'. In addition, their
responsibilities include: providing a comprehensive learning skills programme to
enhance student learning; advising, counselling, and performing crisis intervention;
supplying residents with important safety, security and emergency procedures;
and facilitating educational and community development programming.
Collateral assignments for campus life staff: learning skills and academic support,
administration and communication, diversity/religious programming, health
education and promotion, programming and advising student groups, recreation
and students of service.
Support the academic mission by working collaboratively with the executive

dean, academic dean, registrar, bursar, and field office coordinator.
Work closely with crew on catering/food operations and any other facility issue.
The student life team's level of contact will be high. The daily contact with
students is one of the advantages to shipboard life in comparison with a
traditional land-based campus.
Develop programmes that meet the students' needs.
Oversee the student organizations that form on the ship.
Typical activities
160
Orient faculty, staff and families about students and student life. Prepare them for
the close living environment on a ship.
The administrative team meets once a day, usually from 1 to 2 in the afternoon.
The chief student affairs officer, director for student life is part of the
administrative team. Other members include the academic dean, registrar, field
office coordinator and assistant dean. This meeting is led by the executive dean.
The residence directors, assistant director for student life, dependent children
coordinator and lifelong learner coordinator rotate sitting at the programming
desk between the hours of 2 and 8 p.m. to serve as a public resource for the
shipboard community. They may sign out board games or other sports
equipment.
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The student life team meets once a day while at sea. The student life team
includes the assistant director student life, residence directors, lifelong learner
coordinator, dependent children coordinator, conduct officer and mental health
professionals. Information from the administrative team meeting would be shared
when appropriate.
The residence directors, assistant director for student life and the conduct officer
participate in alcohol service each night from 9 to 11.
All resident directors participate in in-port on-call service, as does the assistant
director and conduct officer.
The director of student life in conjunction with the executive dean may contact
parents when there is conduct or emergency situations with regards to a student.
Resident directors and the assistant director for student life hold three or four
meetings per voyage and plan one smart/business-casual event held in the faculty
staff lounge. Alcohol is served. Each resident director and assistant director for
student life receives $3 per resident to support social gatherings while at sea.
Only the director for student life can authorize cabin changes after the first two
weeks of the voyage. She/he works closely with the assistant dean and ships hotel
director.
In countries where participants must carry a passport, the student life team will
assist the purser's office in distributing them before disembarkation.
The student life team is responsible for assisting with the embarkation process in
each port. They are required to come back two hours prior to posted on-ship
time. The conduct officer assists the ship security in checking baggage and person
checks.
The assistant director for student life will be the main hearing officer for student
conduct on the ship. The resident directors, conduct officer, and assistant
director for student life are responsible for documenting students whose conduct
is in violation of the Semester at Sea code of conduct. Student conduct will be
reported back to the student's home institution if while on the ship the student
was placed on probation or something more severe.
Mail was delivered at the end of each port call and the distribution of mail is
coordinated by the lifelong learner coordinator.
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On each voyage the crew usually entertains the community with a crew talent show.
Classes are cancelled on Sea Olympics Day which is held once each voyage. The
different seas of students along with the faculty and staff team compete for a fun
day of activities such as volleyball, chess game and ping-pong.
The campus life team hosts an involvement fair during the first week on the ship
to assess student interests.
Student life works closely with the senior adult coordinator and the 'adopt the
senior/grandparent' programme.
Ensure all ship life activities are publicized each day in the Dean's Memo.
Ensure that students attend the global comparative education class that is
mandatory for the shipboard community.
Ensure there are no formal activities planned the night before a global
comparative education test.
Assist with the planning of pre-port and post-port briefings.
Assist in hosting important political people to the ship while in port.
Work closely with the counselling professionals on various groups offered on the
ship.
Work with ship officers and the medical team on random drug tests, and health
and safety room checks.
Resources
Bardill, L. H. 2008. Opening the door to the world: Semester at sea. K. J. Osfield and
Associates, Internationalization of Student Affairs and Services: An Emerging Global
Perspective. Washington, DC, NASPA.
Institute for Shipboard Education. 2004. Semester at sea: History of ISE. Retrieved
13 March 2008, from http://www.semesteratsea.com
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Sports/recreation/intramurals
Oscar Sotelo Pineda, Juan Pablo Caballero Medina, Luis Orlen Silva
Portillo, Gonzalo Erazo Anaya and Fernando Lpez Sosa
It is important to promote awareness of the idea that, while competitive sports
among educational institutions is important and reinforces identity and a sense of
belonging, it is not sufficient for the construction of a healthier society. Sports
programmes must be more inclusive in order that all students can benefit from the
activities offered, not only for their physical well-being, but also for the values they
develop in the practice of sports. Secondary schools and universities must make a
commitment to develop intramural programmes that are varied and enjoyable. These
programmes should be well planned by committed professionals in physical education
and sports.
Purposes/functions
z
Create spaces for sports and recreation in which participants benefit from social
interaction.
Generate directed programmes and self-learning programmes in which students

develop abilities, attitudes and values such as commitment, responsibility and
respect for others. Participants should develop the habit of daily exercise, as well
as leadership, companionship, teamwork, self-confidence, tolerance, good
sportsmanship and effective communication.
Observe the university from a different perspective, one in which the community
generates a greater sense of identity and belonging to the institution and its symbols.
Develop an interest in physical health among participants in sports, generating in

turn an awareness of the benefits of recreation and healthful use of free time.
Provide spaces which help relieve stress and promote enjoyable exercise through
participation in games.
Increase and share knowledge of sports and recreational activities.
Help participants develop social responsibility and an interest in philanthropy, as

well as an awareness of ecology.
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Typical activities
z
Organizing sports activities that generate a feeling of identity and belonging to the
university, faculty, community, division, department or other group within the
university community.
Providing instructional programmes for learning opportunities, knowledge and

skills through lessons, clinics and workshops.
Organizing activities in which participants develop physical culture that will lead
them to monitor their own progress and teach themselves new techniques.
Coordinating informal self-directed sports activities that satisfy the needs of

participants for recreation and enjoyment.
Developing programmes for sports and recreation that are linked to the needs
of academic programmes.
Organizing open-air activities in which participants are exposed to new

challenges in a natural environment.
Offering classes or clinics in which participants may learn about or improve their
techniques in a particular sport.
Coordinating well-planned, high quality tournaments and leagues for university

students and personnel that, in addition to providing recreational competition,
help participants learn character-building principles and values.
Organizing sports teams that represent the university in competitions with other
universities.
Offering programmes that promote health and wellbeing.
Offering family and youth programmes for members of the campus community.
Developing recreational sports programmes for people with disabilities.
Offering sports clubs that provide opportunities for individuals to organize

around a common interest in a sport inside or outside the institution.
Resources
http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=medu03&s=est&c
=5676
http://www.anuies.mx/servicios/e_educacion/index2.php
Statutes of the National Council for Sports Education (CONDDE).
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Student affairs research/student life

studies/assessment/evaluation
Danielle M. De Sawal
Student affairs research and assessment practices continue to become more critical
in understanding the work of professionals on college campuses around the globe.
The explosion of research in the past 15 years (Pascarella and Terenzini, 2005)
provides the profession with a strong foundation to look at the impact of college on
students. The assessment of our college campus environments has been occurring
since the emergence of higher education. However, the way in which we approach
our assessment practices has changed.
Institutions face a couple of specific challenges when they begin to explore how to
conduct assessment in student affairs. First, the term assessment itself can mean
something different to people within an institution (Banta et al., 2002). Institutions
need to be sure they are philosophically working under the same definition of
assessment. Second, identifying instruments that are valid and credible can be
challenging (Banta et al., 2002). The public and government continue to look for how
college truly impacts students' growth and development. Banta (2008) points out that
'policymakers everywhere are interested in finding a quick way to determine what
students are learning in college, so that they can compare institutions' (p. 3). As a
result, practitioners need to be intentional and purposeful in what instruments they
select for campus assessments.
Purpose/functions
z
Study campus culture and determine its relationship to student learning.
Provide the entire campus with data that articulate the outcomes of student
affairs initiatives.
Establish connections between institutional mission and the functions of the

student affairs/life office on campus.
Articulate the institution's outcomes related to learning and connect these to

student development.
Identify the types of data/information needed to assess outcomes for specific

audiences.
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Contribute to the knowledge base to further understand the impact of college

on students.
Typical activities
z
Research existing assessment instruments that would provide campus

administrators and faculty with useful information about student learning.
Develop an assessment plan for specific programmes or departments.
Interpret results from national data related to specific outcomes associated with
your institution.
Develop education programmes that inform the campus community about

emerging trends related to student learning and engagement.
Organize and conduct individual and focus-group interviews with an established

interview protocol to gather qualitative data.
Develop survey instruments (paper or web based) to assess institutional goals

and/or student affairs/life initiatives.
Develop rubrics to guide the evaluation of assessment methods.
Identify the strengths and limitations of assessment instruments.
Advocate for continued resources to supportive student affairs/life initiatives that

are proven through assessment.
Establish partnerships across campus (i.e. faculty, staff, students, etc.) to study
student learning.
References
Banta, T. W. 2008. Editor's notes: Trying to clothe the emperor. Assessment Update,
Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 3-4, 15-16.
Banta, T. W. et al. (eds). 2002. Building a Scholarship of Assessment. San Francisco,
Jossey-Bass.
Pascarella, E.T. and Terenzini, P.T. 2005. How College Affects Students: A Third Decade
of Research, Vol. 2. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
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Student recruitment/school relations

Rosalie Vlaar
A prospective student's first interaction with an institution is often with someone
from recruitment. Recruiters help students and their families navigate the university
admissions process as they prepare for post-secondary studies. Often, the
information and image presented by the recruiter can significantly impact the
likelihood that this individual will proceed with an application to the institution.
Recruiters are responsible for representing their institution to prospective students.
They must provide information about academic programmes, housing, admission,
fees, financial aid and campus life, and answer a host of additional questions.
Recruiters are also responsible for identifying students who are likely to succeed at
the institution and encouraging these students, in particular, to apply for admission.
Recruiters may work with communications professionals and institutional
representatives to develop tools that communicate information about the institution
to prospective students.
Purpose/functions
z
Help the university meet its enrolment targets through recruitment of students.
Reach out to prospective students and other stakeholders such as guidance

counsellors to inform them about the institution.
Support admissions in guiding applicants through the application process.
Work in collaboration with admission stakeholders - recruitment and housing

offices, financial aid offices, academic units, secondary school and college advisors,
parents and others.
Collaborate with faculties and programmes to help them meet their

undergraduate recruitment goals.
Provide in-person, telephone and email advising for prospective students,

including targeted information for applicants and admitted students to encourage
enrolment to the institution.
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Typical activities
z
Proactively solicit contact with prospective students as well as respond to general

enquiries on behalf of the institution.
Provide information about the institution to prospective students, their parents

and their secondary school teachers/counsellors.
Visit secondary schools and community colleges, and other sources of potential
students.
Sponsor and attend workshops and recruitment fairs.
Develop recruitment messages on the institution's website for prospective

students as well as promotional printed materials on the institution.
Coordinate tours of the campus for school groups, prospective students and
their families.
Student registration and records

Nancy Low
Registration and records is responsible for maintaining accurate and complete academic
records of all current and past students. When a student registers for courses, the
enrolment is officially recorded on the institution's Student Information System (SIS)
and becomes a part of the student's record along with the biographical information
that was collected during the admission application process. The SIS is used by faculty
and staff who perform student-related administrative and advising roles. Students are
able to access their personal records using a student interface.
The information contained in the SIS is subject to privacy legislation and; as the
custodian of student data, this unit is responsible for ensuring that the confidentiality
and security of student records is maintained.
Registration and records role has developed over the years to include responsibilities
related directly to supporting and maintaining the security of and access to student
information systems.
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Purpose/function
z
Coordinate the processes associated with the registration of students in

programmes and courses.
Provide on-line registration and records-related services and resources to

students.
Provide in-person, telephone and email services to students.
Provide support services to faculty and administrators; this includes SIS training.
Manage access to and security of the SIS.
Review current processes and identify areas of improvement based on feedback

from the university community, including academic units and students.
Typical activities
z
Provide students with information regarding the course registration process. This
includes access to course schedules, step-by-step instructions as well as tools to
assist them in planning their academic programmes.
Manage the course registration process; assign registration access dates and
times.
Allow students to conduct the majority of their transactions via the web. This
includes updating personal information, registering for courses, viewing grades,
requesting transcripts, paying tuition fees and applying for graduation.
Provide support services to students and administrators.
Provide instructors and/or administrators with a means of retrieving class lists and
submitting final grades.
Provide students with academic evaluations at the end of each term.
Provide administrators with tools to evaluate a student's academic performance.
Provide a degree audit tool to enable students and administrators to view degree
requirements and monitor progress.
Provide students with examination schedules and make accommodations for

conflicts and hardships.
Provide students with verification of enrolment letters.
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Provide degree confirmations to third parties.
Process requests for academic transcripts.
Process special course registrations, late registrations, withdrawals and grade

changes.
Assess, collect and process tuition fees, and provide students with tax receipts.
Produce degree parchments and assist in the coordination of convocation

ceremonies.
Provide statistical information to government agencies, the university community

and other interested parties.
Women's centres
Sharon L. Davie
University and college women's centres across the globe aim at both bettering
women's lives and increasing gender equity within the university and society. But
women's centres are diverse in many ways, including missions, programmes, services,
constituencies and funding. They are shaped by differences in cultures, countries,
regions, and the opportunities and challenges that women face in their local setting.
But almost all women's centres focus in some way on positive transformation - of the
self, of the university curriculum and climate, and of the larger society - in a journey
toward gender equity.
Seven particular issues are addressed by many university and college women's
centres: 1) gender violence (including sexual assault, domestic or relationship violence
and sexual harassment); 2) women's health, physical and psychological; 3) poverty,
development and economic parity for women; 4) discrimination, either overarching
gender discrimination or discrimination directed toward women of a particular race,
ethnicity, nationality, socio-economic class, religion, region of the world or other
specific characteristic of identity; 5) educational, leadership and professional
development for women and girls; 6) building university-community alliances; and 7)
'networking', or developing relationships, with other women to shape a more
equitable campus, community and world. University and college women's centres that
address the issues above sometimes carry different names than 'women's centre',
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such as 'gender institute', 'centre for the study of women', 'gender advocacy
programme', 'office of women', or 'development institute for women', among others.
Whatever its specific name may be, the ways in which that university and college
women's centres approach such issues are always shaped by the particularities of a
specific culture or situation. Spelman College, located in the southern United States,
is an historically Black American women's college; its primary (though not sole) focus
is on learning about and from African-American and African women, through
academic courses, community outreach, research, leadership development and
activist projects. In several Eastern European centres, there is a strong focus on antitrafficking work. The Philippines Women's University houses a Development Institute
for Women in the Asia-Pacific Region. The Center for Women's Studies at the
University of El Salvador addresses topics that are often culturally taboo: reproductive
and sexual health and gender stereotypes, including 'machismo'.
The African Gender Institute (AGI) at Cape Town University is pan-African in its
approach: it includes the Forum for African Women Educationalists, South Africa
(FAWESA), which supports 'partnership of African women cabinet ministers, women
vice-chancellors of universities and other senior women policy makers', to promote
gender equity in education in Africa; and the Gender in Africa Information Network
(GAIN), which 'is committed to making indigenous information on women and
gender valued, visible, and accessible globally' and to participating 'in the global
information society in order to promote gender justice and women's rights in Africa'.
The University of Virginia (UVA) Women's Center, located in a small American town,
aims at bringing a wider cultural vision to students. In the Republic of Korea in 2005
and in El Salvador in 2007, students in UVA Women's Center courses learned from
books and from a wide range of women leaders and grassroots activists about culture
and gender in those countries.
Ask some broad questions when you start a women's centre: What goals do you
have? What is the centre's mission? What practical considerations constrain you?
Who are your allies? What are your dreams?
Women's centres across the globe empower women, shape education for both
women and men in vital and important ways, and support universities and colleges in
their mission of achieving excellence. The goal of women's centres is no less than full
recognition of the potential of all women and men, and a university or college climate
in which that human potential can flourish - in learning, in living and in leadership.
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Purpose/functions
z
To provide a physical space that is safe, accessible and comfortable for women.
To address issues of gender violence and women's health.
To promote gender equity throughout the university.
To promote leadership development and mentoring programmes for women and girls.
To provide counselling for women students, on personal and career issues.
To address economic needs of women on campus and in the community.
To engage male students and faculty as allies for positive change.
To foster collaboration with other departments and student groups on campus.
To undertake and support applied research on gender issues.
To provide resources such as books, films, videos, magazines and newsletters.
To provide programmes that bring together students of different backgrounds.
To provide information and referral for students with specific needs, from legal
to medical to financial to educational issues.
To foster education for women and girls in mathematics, science and technology.
To provide connections with women from other cultures and countries.
To provide support for older adult students who are returning to the university.
Typical activities
172
Providing confidential support for students experiencing violence (sexual assault,

relationship violence and sexual harassment, for example), and aid in pursuing
medical, psychological or legal services.
Providing campus-wide preventive education programmes on gender violence,

engaging men as well as women.
Working with university or college officials on gender-sensitive policies (for

instance, sexual harassment policies and procedures).
Offering panel discussions comparing gender issues across cultures.
Organizing a visiting women scholars, artists and leaders series.
Inviting women leaders in the community to share their knowledge.
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Providing counselling services, which may include individual psychological

counselling, career counselling, support groups, couple's counselling and referral.
Providing mentoring and leadership development programmes for women and girls.
Supporting students in creating print and web publications.
Supporting applied research on gender and women's issues.
Offering courses on gender issues, including study abroad courses.
Creating joint programmes with NGOs that help women economically.
Building a library of books, magazines, films and other material on gender.
Developing a centre website that provides links to resources for women.
Creating an advisory board of students, faculty and community members.
Involving men in developing programmes for men on gender issues.
Resources
African Gender Institute, University of Cape Town, South Africa:
http://www.uct.ac.za/org/agi
Aziz, Iman. Arab World Forum Shares Gender Field Notes. Women's eNews, 18
January 2008. http://www.womensenews.org/article.cfm/dyn/aid/3463/
Davie, Sharon L. 2002. How women's centers shape our journey: transformation,
education, leadership. Sharon L. Davie (ed.), University and College Women's
Centers: A Journey Toward Equity. Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press, pp. 19-46.
Davie, Sharon L. 2002. Drawing New Maps. Sharon L. Davie (ed.), University and
College Women's Centers: A Journey Toward Equity. Westport, Conn.,
Greenwood Press, pp. 447-58.
Development Institute for Women in Asia-Pacific, The Philippines Women's
University: http://www.distel.ca/womlist/countries/philippines.html
Gender Studies Center, 'Euro-Balkan' Institute, Ohrid Summer University, AntiTrafficking Projects: http://www.euba.org.mk/eng/sub.asp?id=124&kat=67
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Gender Violence Recovery Center: Helping Survivors and Families to Heal, Program Report,
2002-2005. The Nairobi Women's Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya: nrbwomenshosp@
africaonline.co.ke
Global List of Women's Organizations: http//:www.distel.ca/womlist/womlist.html
Gribi, Gerri. Campus Women's Centers Postal Mailing List: http://creative
folk.com/wc.html
Guy-Sheftall, Beverly and Wallace-Sanders, Kimberly. 2002. Building a women's
center at Spelman College. Sharon L. Davie (ed.), University and College Women's
Centers: A Journey Toward Equity. Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press, pp. 79-89.
Kaic, Biljana (ed.). 1997. Women and the Politics of Peace: Contributions to a Culture of
Women's Resistance. Multilingual edition. Centre for Women's Studies, Zagreb,
Croatia, X-Press.
Kunkel, Charlotte. 2002. Starting a women's center: key issues. Sharon L. Davie (ed.),
University and College Women's Centers: A Journey Toward Equity, Westport, Conn.,
Greenwood Press, pp. 64-78.
Martinez, Fidelina, Director, Center for Women's Studies, University of El Salvador,
San Salvador. Personal Interview. May 2007.
Moghadam, Valentine. 2005. Globalizing Women: Transnational Feminist Networks.
Baltimore, Md., The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Naples, Nancy A. and Desai, Manisha (eds). 2002. Women's Activism and Globalization:
Linking Local Struggles and Transnational Politics. New York, Routledge.
Otina, Ken, Director, Office of Men for Equality Now, Nairobi, Kenya. Personal
Interview. April 2007.
Schwartz, Martin D. and DeKeseredy, Walter S. 1997. Sexual Assault on the College
Campus: The Role of Male Peer Support. London, Sage Publications.
Willinger, Beth. 2002. Women's centers, their missions, and the process of change.
Sharon L. Davie (ed.), University and College Women's Centers: A Journey Toward
Equity. Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press, pp. 47-63.
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Women's Centers and Offices at American Colleges and Universities:

z
http://www.uic.edu/depts/owa/womens_centers.html
Women's Studies Programs, Departments, and Research Centers:

z
http://userpages.umbc.edu/~korenman/wmst/programs.html
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Country
reports on
student affairs
and services practice
around the world
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Country reports on student affairs and

services practice around the world
IX
Country reports on student affairs and services practice

around the world
Edited by Roger B. Ludeman
Section Coordinators
Howard Wang (Asia and Oceania), Danja Oste (Europe), Denise
Gifford and Wahdad El-Husseiny (Middle East), Robert Shea and C.
Carney Strange (North America and Caribbean), Sonia Parker (South
America)
Introduction
Student affairs and services in higher education vary depending on the country in
which it is found. The delivery systems employed as well as the array of offerings
available to students develops in accordance with the historical, cultural, economic
and social contexts that present themselves in the regions or countries in which they
are employed. This section provides the reader with numerous examples of different
student affairs and services delivery systems, types of services offered, qualifications of
staff, issues being confronted and some of the professional resources available in the
countries whose student affairs and services operations are being reviewed. The
accuracy of the information provided in the following reports reflects the views and
knowledge of the country report authors and not the section coordinators or editors.
Readers are encouraged to contact country report authors for additional information.
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Argentina
Maria Elodia Ramos
Background information on student affairs/services
The history of higher education in Argentina started with the creation of the
Universidad de Cordoba in 1622. The manifesto of the First National Congress of
Students in 1918 in Cordoba introduced the concept of democracy and autonomy in
the university. The participation of students in the governance of the university has
precipitated numerous support programmes. There are some 40 public and 55
private universities.
Qualifications/training of staff
There are currently no specific student affairs training programmes. The staff
members responsible for providing support are from various social service
professions and higher education areas (academics, social workers, psychologists,
nurses and doctors.
Typical services and programmes offered

The scholarship department offers information about internal and external
scholarship opportunities. Scholarships may cover expenses for transportation, copy
services, housing, cafeteria and medical assistance for the students and/or their family
for emergencies during the academic year, as well as work study with their
department. There are cash awards. There is an age limit for benefits with exceptions
for students with disabilities or those from indigenous populations. There is also
financial aid for students who move from their province to continue their education.
Private universities have benefits for students with academic potential but low
resources.
The Health and Wellness Department prepares multiple activities in addition to the
regular ones: medical check-ups, nursing, emergency, control of admission medical
exams for both students and personnel, and physical examination for sport aptitude,
among others. The Physical and Sport Education Department offers free classes,
tournaments and training in basketball, soccer, tennis, aerobics, chess and swimming.
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There are day-care facilities for children of students, faculty and staff. The Cafeteria is
open for students with scholarships and to others for a minimum fee. There are
housing services in some universities. The Student Employment Office assists
graduates to enter the job market through internal promotion in industry, maintaining
communication with alumni about job opportunities.
Academic services offer quality courses in the area of information systems. There are
language labs. Each of the colleges in the national universities has a library and students
can borrow material with their Library ID card. The Psychology and Psycho-pedagogy
Department offers vocational orientation and learning skills workshops. There is also
attention given to emotional problems that may serve as an obstacle to a student's
academic achievement. This unit also tracks the academic progress of students receiving
tutorial services. The tutor's responsibility is to guide students when they experience
learning difficulties and in their relationship with the faculty. The Social Service Division
promotes and participates in the politics of prevention and assistance as regards the
social problems of the university. It is also involved with diagnostic research about the
socio-economic and family situation of the students. One of its goals is to improve the
nutritional condition of those students without economic resources.
Organizational structure of student affairs/services

In the national universities, the Secretary of University Support assists the rector and
coordinates activities related to the well-being of the university community and its
integration into the environment. The Secretary is responsible, among other
functions, for planning actions that facilitate the socio-economic development of the
students, in areas such as health, and family assistance for the university community
as well, in the areas of sport and recreation. It works in coordination with the
Secretary of Student Affairs of each college. It maintains inter-institutional relations
with the municipalities that allow them to execute diverse academic activities, training,
extension and internship of students.
Issues and challenges for student affairs/services

z
It is necessary to better utilize new technology to reach out to the masses.
Tutorial services should be associated with the courses. They should be

personalized, with the instructor available when the student can attend the
tutorial session. Access to tutors on-line should also be explored.
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'Stimulus scholarships' should be provided to students who may have lower

grades but are committed to improve their academic progress.
Attrition is mainly a result of a lack of motivation. The students need to be

engaged in reaching their educational goals.
Websites with links to student affairs publications and research

Each Secretary of Student Affairs at the university has his/her own website and
research information.
Armenia
Liana Sanamyan
The state universities in Armenia do not have a student affairs body or offices or units.
However, some services and programmes are offered to the students. The
organizational structure and the offered services vary from one university to another
and are not clearly defined.

Typically, the universities have admission committees that advise students in choosing
the faculty based on the exam marks the students have received.
Many universities have dormitories that are located in the same city but not very close
to the campus. The students are offered housing in the dorms; however, that is a paid
service.
All the universities in Armenia have a Students Committee. The primary duties of the
Committee are student representation and students' rights protection. The
Committee also takes an active part in organization in different student
events/activities, from entertainment, sport and art events to the organization of
workshops and conferences.
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Some departments in the universities also organize social events such as movie nights,
subject clubs and hiking in the countryside. Several universities offer summer leisure
programmes: camps in the country where they have rest houses. The universities also
have adherent student polyclinics, where students can receive medical care (not of
the best quality).
Staff members are not required to have a professional student affairs qualification or
special training. They come from a variety of backgrounds.

The organizational structure and the offered services vary from university to university
and are not clearly defined.
Australia
Annie Andrews
In Australia the term 'student services' describes student support initiatives or units.
Student support, student services, and student amenities are the responsibility of
three agents of service delivery: the Commonwealth Government, the universities
and student organizations. All three have made significant investments and
contributions to the evolution of student support, services and amenities since the
middle of the twentieth century. Student services units and programmes aim to
enhance the student experience and to enrich campus life. Australia has a growing
number of higher education student enrolments. As of 2006 more than 984,146
students were enrolled in Australian higher education programmes. International
student accounted for 25.5 per cent of the total enrolment (250,794).12
12
2006 full-year higher education student data retrieved 3 March 2008 from:
http://www.dest.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/ECADEDDB-C358-4B97-92447A74D9974061/18815/2006FullYearStudentdata_shortanalysis3.pdf
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The primary goals for student services are: 1) to assist students make successful
adjustment and transition to the university environment; and 2) to reduce enrolment
attrition and enhance student retention. Specific service delivery areas include academic
advising, academic skills enhancement and information literacy, peer mentoring, student
equity, services for students with disabilities, student social engagement activities,
psychological counselling and student development services, careers and employment
services, student housing services, international student services, indigenous student
support centres and indigenous cultural programmes, sports and recreation activities,
and student health services. Increasingly student services and/or student organizations
are involved in forming campus-wide policies and procedures that impact on student
experience. The director of student services (or the pro-vice-chancellor (students) or
the dean of students) is responsible for student disciplinary procedures.
Student services personnel usually hold a university qualification and in specific fields
of practice: academic skills services, student psychological and counselling services,
careers and employment services, and disability services hold relevant post-graduate
qualifications specific to their service delivery areas. There is no degree programme
specifically focused on student affairs as a career destination offered in Australia.

Typically, the head of student services area is a director or associate director reporting
to a dean of students, an academic registrar, pro-vice-chancellor (students and
registrar) or a deputy vice-chancellor (academic).

Student services delivery budget is a tertiary priority to the primary and secondary
missions of the institution (research followed by learning and teaching). Funding for
student organizations is limited by the Voluntary Student Union legislation which
makes it illegal to collect a compulsory membership charge and they rely on the
limited revenue from voluntary membership, external sponsorships and contributions
made by the enrolling university.
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Websites of student affairs/services professional associations/organizations

z
ANZSSA - Australian and New Zealand Student Services Association Inc.

(www.anzssa.org)
ATEM - Association for Tertiary Education Management Inc.

(www.atem.org.au)
EOPHEA-Equal Opportunity Practitioners in Higher Education Australia

(http://www.eophea.anu.edu.au/)
ISANA-International Education Association (www.isana.org.au)
TCMA- Tertiary Campus Ministry Association

(http://www.une.edu.au/campus/chaplaincy/tcma/)
NAGCAS-National Association of Graduate Careers Advisory Services

(http://www.nagcas.org.au/)
TEDCA- Tertiary Education Disability Council of Australia -has no website but

information is available via www.adcet.edu.au/

z
www.anzssa.org
www.adcet.edu.au/
Austria
Barbara Duppich
In Austria the Study Grant Authority (Studienbeihilfenbehrde) is responsible for any
type of information, applications, appeals and interventions regarding questions
pertaining to study grants, transport cost allowance, grants upon completion of
studies, insurance cost subsidies and grants for study abroad.
The Austrian Study Grant Authority is headed by the Federal Ministry of Science and
Research, and consists of six study grant departments and the administrative
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departments (Human Resources, Law, Information Technology and Controlling and

Budget). The study grant departments have been established in all major Austrian
university cities, namely in Graz, Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, Linz, Salzburg and Vienna.
The various types of federal aid to students, with the exception of orphans' pensions
to students, are regulated in the Student Support Act of 1992
(Studienfrderungsgesetz). The Study Grant Authority whose main duty consists of
the execution of the Student Support Act of 1992 is therefore a national organization
that covers one student service sector: study financing.

Student housing, student restaurants/cafeterias, financial aid, advisory services (for
psychological counselling), incoming international students and researchers, cultural
activities, university preparatory services and study abroad programmes are in the
hands of various organizations (websites listed below).
The individual educational institution is in charge of academic advising/educational
counselling, the admission of students, orientation programmes, student registration
and records, child care, tutoring/mentoring programmes for incoming international
students, alumni affairs and conference services. Housing, student jobs and cultural
activities are also administered by private organizations.
Student services personnel are mainly administrators with relevant qualifications
specific to their fields of practice. There are no formal student affairs generalist
academic preparation programmes.
In the Study Grant Authority the staff is trained either collectively or individually by
organizing special conferences, compiling working aid, publishing information material,
and carrying out initial and continuing education and training.

Depends on each individual organization (see websites below).
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z
Internationalization of higher education: the Bologna process aims to establish a

European Higher Education Area by 2010. The overall success of the Bologna
process depends not only on the implementation of comparable study structures
and excellent academic/research facilities but also on the provision of adequate
infrastructural conditions.
Websites of student affairs/services, professional associations/organizations

z
Homepage of the Studienbeihilfenbehrde (Austrian Study Grant Authority)

http://www.stipendium.at
http://www.bmwf.gv.at Federal Ministry for Science and Research
http://www.oeh.ac.at/ Austrian Student Union
http://www.oead.ac.at Austrian Exchange Service
http://www.studentenberatung.at Centre for Psychological Student Counselling
http://www.studienwahl.at Data base of all courses of studies offered in Austria
http://www.mensen.at Austrian Student cafeteria service Ltd.
http://www.ams.at Austrian Employment Services
http://www.bundessozialamt.gv.at Social Services Department
http://www.sozialversicherung.at Health services
http://www.auslaender.at/categories/Studieren/
All educational institutions: please refer to: http://www.stipendium.at/stbh/links/
Access to some research projects in the 'publication' section of the ECSTA

homepage: http://www.ecsta.org/
Azerbaijan
Nazrin Baghirova
Azerbaijan does not have an institutional student affairs either in public or in private
universities. Universities do not have student affairs offices as a uniform unit. Private
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universities, such as Khazar and Gafgaz Universities, have distributed student affairs
functions of the office among other committees and departments.

As you will see below these universities have divisions that perform function of
student affairs units, but do not have mission statements and do not describe their
history and purpose.
Khazar University - 1991

z
Student service: health care centre, housing, student support system, career centre;
Computing
Dining
Entertainment
Arts, sport, and events
School Council
The most recent is the career centre, established on 1 November 1999. 'Career
Center Development Project at Khazar University, 1999-2001', funded by the Eurasia
Foundation, United States.
Gafgaz University - 1993

Social Affairs Department
The social activities of the university are realized directly by administration which has
the following responsibilities:
186
To organize activities and shows in the area of culture, arts and sports.
To solve problems of dormitory and living conditions, to plan leisure and to

help students obtain jobs.
To provide guidance and psychological consultations.
To make and publish research on specialized areas.
To realize suitable programmes in order to introduce students to the business

world. To visit companies and organizations in order to have working
experiences and to help students with employment.
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By close cooperation with other departments of the university, the administration

provides the necessary canteen, restaurant, reading rooms, overseeing
dormitories supplied with sport equipment, hiring cinema, theatre and sport
salons, in order to provide all these services for the students.
To ensure university-family cooperation.
To register students who participate in social activities.
The activities mentioned above are carried out by the Department of Public
Relations.
At present there is no formal student affairs training programmes.

The organizational structure varies with each university and is not clearly described by
the universities. This means that it needs close study and personal interviews with the
provosts of the universities.
Khazar University
Khazar University has separate departments for separate services, which report to the
director of the student service division. The latter reports to the school council of the
Khazar University. The organizational chart is not available.
Gafgaz University
The Social Affairs Department is composed of three directors, two secretaries, two
dancing instructors, three officers, three lectures, one doctor, one psychologist and
one nurse. The divisions report to their relevant director, for example, the doctor to
the director of health division. The organizational chart is not available.

The student services functioning within the universities need more adequate funding
for expanding and restructuring, and developing a student affairs unit with a mission
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and a vision for the universities. The existing student services therefore need new
student affairs professionals and networking with other professionals outside of the
country for further assistance and organizational enhancement.

Khazar University
z
Student Services: http://www.khazar.org/general/stservices.shtml
Computing: http://www.khazar.org/general/computing.shtml
Dining: http://www.khazar.org/general/dining.shtml
Entertainment: http://www.khazar.org/general/entertainment.shtml
Arts, Sports and Events: http://www.khazar.org/general/artsport.shtml
School Council: http://www.khazar.org/general/facultysenate.shtml
Gafgaz University
z
Health, Culture and Sport Administrative:

http://www.qafqaz.edu.az/index.php?z=670
Directorate Guidance and for Psychological Counselling:

http://www.khazar.org/general/facultysenate.shtml
Directorate for Health Affairs: http://www.qafqaz.edu.az/index.php?z=565
Directorate for Sports Affairs: http://www.qafqaz.edu.az/index.php?z=567
Directorate for Cultural Affairs: http://www.qafqaz.edu.az/index.php?z=566
Personnel list for the Social Affairs Department:

http://www.qafqaz.edu.az/index.php?z=519
Barbados
Pedro L.V.Welch
Barbados has had a long history of tertiary education, beginning with the opening of
Codrington College in 1745. In addition, given the history of the island as a British
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colony, the education system followed the best practices of British institutions,
including the early establishment of student affairs offices, headed by a registrar. There
are four tertiary-level institutions (listed with the year of establishment): Codrington
Theological College (1745), The University of the West Indies (UWI) (1948) (the
Cave Hill campus of the UWI, located in Barbados, was established in 1963), Erdiston
Teachers' College (1948), and the Samuel Jackman Prescod Polytechnic (1969).
Types of services and programmes offered

Student counselling, placement, student health services, international student services,
student representation through students' guilds, issuing of guidance handbooks,
maintenance of websites dedicated to student information, student welfare/financing,
sports and recreation.
Most Registrars at the various institutions have, at least, a master's degree, and some
possess qualifications in administration/management at the certificate/diploma,
bachelor's or master's level. At the university, the tendency is to appoint academic
staff as deans of the various faculties. The deans act as student advisors and provide
counselling services. Most deans are qualified at the Ph.D. level. The various
institutions also run training programmes in the administration of student affairs.

Typically, the student affairs section of the various institutions is headed by a registrar,
with various assistant registrars assigned to such areas as examinations, placement,
distance education, international students services, and so on. There is usually a
separate section of the registry designated as the office of student services and one
section devoted to sports and recreation.

The biggest challenge usually relates to meeting the needs of a rapidly expanding
student cohort with relatively small administrative units. Funding for student welfare
and scholarships is also inadequate, given that there is a history of government
funding, rather than that of private endowments as may exist in, say, the United
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Kingdom, or the United States. In this context, there is competition between the
administration of student services and other aspects of the academic programme for
scarce resources.
Websites of student affairs/services/professional associations/organizations

Most administrators of the various student services sections are members of the
Association of Caribbean Higher Education Administrators (ACHEA), and, with the
exception of Erdiston College, have websites detailing their various student services.
z
http://sta.uwi.edu/achea/index.htm
http://cavehill.uwi.edu/
http://www.sjpp.edu.bb/documents/Handbook_for_students_2006.pdf
http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/tliu/cc/erdiston.htm
http://www.bcc.edu.bb/divisions/Counselling_Placement.cfm
http://www.bcc.edu.bb/Divisions/office_registrar.cfm#student_affairs
http://www.codrington.org/
ACHEA - http://sta.uwi.edu/achea/conferences.htm
Some of the websites listed above offer access to student handbooks, detailing the
various services that are available. Some research on student affairs may be identified
via a search of the ACHEA website.
Bolivia
Tammy Boyd and Manuel Olave
Background Information on Student Affairs/Services
According to the Gua de universidades de Bolivia 2009 from the Ministerio de
Educacin y Cultura, Bolivia has 12 public autonomous universities, 6 special public
universities (including 3 indigenous universities which opened on 11 April 2009), 3
private universities assigned to the Bolivian university system and 37 private
universities. Some of the public universities have an academic department or two that
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dates back to the 1940s, but the overwhelming majority of the growth in Bolivia
higher education occurred after the mid-1980s with the founding of private
universities. Bolivian universities offer a wide variety of post-secondary credentials,
including certificates, diplomas and degrees, both undergraduate and graduate.
Provisions for student services are similarly varied, with some schools having no staff
or space dedicated for serving students and others offering services similar to what
one might find on a North American campus, including intramural athletics and study
abroad. Generally speaking, the universities with the most expansive student services
programmes tend to be newer, private universities.

Most universities, whether public or private, usually have basic services for:
1.
admissions
2.
student health services
3.
counselling
4.
food services/dining
5.
social activities (usually some physical activity such as sports or dance)
6.
housing or information to assist in procuring off-campus housing
7.
library or other book/textbook service
For many of the private universities, student services can also include:
1.
financial aid and scholarship programmes
2.
study abroad/partnerships with international universities for student exchange

programmes
3.
transportation
4.
orientation
5.
student social organizations
There are no formal student affairs degree programmes in Bolivia, nor are there any
professional associations or organizations that provide any training or accreditation.
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Most student affairs offices have dedicated professional staff who accrue experience
and expertise while working.
A director or a dean of students heads student affairs offices at top private
universities. Specialists including psychologists, and physical education and social
activities specialists staff the offices.

Again, the structure can be quite varied, but it is fairly common to find an office
somewhere on campus called bienestar estudiantil (literally, student well-being) or vida
estudiantil (student life). These offices tend to focus on meeting students' immediate
needs, such as health services, counselling and activities, but they also serve as
information hubs for students on a wide variety of other issues such as financial aid,
academic support and professional development.

Student affairs is experiencing the same challenges and opportunities as the rest of
higher education in Bolivia, namely managing the rapid expansion of higher education
in a manner that is most beneficial for students. Bolivia recently ratified a new
constitution that called for universities to build much stronger linkages with their host
communities and to serve national interests in a much more expansive and purposeful
manner; specifically, universities are expected to become multicultural and multilingual
(and to assist in language preservation), to engage in rural outreach and development,
and to provide free information centres for community members. All of these are
new activities for most universities and will require people with expertise in second
language acquisition, university extension and community outreach. Furthermore and this is the most serious problem universities currently face - these new activities
will require substantial additional funding; neither the public universities, with their
fixed budgets and large student bodies, nor the cash-strapped private universities
have the capabilities to meet these new and increasing demands.

There is no professional organization for student services/affairs in Bolivia at this time.
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Botswana
Lydia Nyati-Ramahobo
The University of Botswana is the main university in the country. The following report
therefore reflects that institution's efforts in student affairs and services.
The Division of Student Affairs at the University of Botswana became operational in
January 1999. The division is responsible for creating a holistic environment that
ensures that learning is the central focus for student life. It has developed and
established a range of learning, social, cultural and recreational opportunities that
facilitate the full realization of student potential for academic and personal growth.
The division also collaborates with other divisions towards ensuring that the university
fulfils its vision and mission by developing a student-centred, intellectually stimulating
and technologically advanced teaching, learning and research environment. It
promotes the health, social and spiritual welfare of the university community through
a range of policies and programmes, and a diversity of positive co-curricula activities
and experiences.

In addition to the traditional student services in health, sports, recreation, arts and
culture, and academic service, the division has developed new programmes to
improve students' experiences as they make a transition into university life. They are
described below:
First Year Experience (FYE) Seminar

FYE 101 is a life-skills course aimed at helping students to make a transition from
secondary school to the higher education environment. It is based on the University
of South Carolina model and it fosters the right attitudes and skills in students and
prepares them for learning and career planning. The course introduces the University
as an institution and its immense resources, services and policies for their comfort. It
also gives them skills to say NO to the undesirable aspects of life, such as drugs,
excessive drinking, gambling, vandalism, academic dishonesty and violent relationships.
FYE 101 further cultivates confidence in the learner to overcome challenges, develops
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students as leaders and makes each individual student a valuable product that the
University can proudly present to the world.
Living and Learning Communities Programme

This programme is to ensure that the student adjusts into a community that is
conducive for both living and learning, since most learning takes place outside the
formal classroom. In this programme all first-year students reside on campus, have an
academic member of staff as their warden to help plan their community activities and
another member of staff as 'a friend of the community'. This will give students a rich
campus life experience, which values community spirit to foster its own security and
safety, and to aid the transition into higher education.
Empowerment workshops
The empowerment workshops target both the academic and support department,
and student leaders. They are taken on Saturday retreat which ends with a game drive
in one of the game reserves. The workshops focus on personal growth and helps
participants to reflect on their own behaviour and how it affects others, and in turn
how such behaviour affects service delivery and productivity at the university. Better
service delivery provides a good student experience. The workshops link productivity,
work ethics and interpersonal behaviour in the workplace as a leadership
development strategy.
Perception, expectation and destination surveys

In order to improve services and processes, the university needs to know how its
potential students perceive it, and what their expectations are. It also needs to know,
upon admission, whether such expectations are being met. It is also important for the
University to know the destinations of its graduates and their employability. As a
result, three types of surveys have become regular features on the Division's research
process: 1) a survey on perceptions and expectations of potential students (Form
5),2) an expectation survey on first-year students and following the cohort to
completion of their programme, and 3) a destination survey on graduating students
five months after completion. These forms of data serve to assist management to
develop programmes and policies that are relevant and in step with current trends.
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Each department is headed by a director; three of the five directors have a doctorate
and the other two have a master's degree. The director of health services has a
medical degree. The support units headed by managers with a master's degree in the
relevant field. The coordinator for the HIV/AIDS programme holds a Doctorate in
Nursing Science and is at the rank of senior lecturer. The manager for disability
support services has gone for further training at the doctoral level.

The Division of Student Affairs is headed by the Deputy Vice-Chancellor for Student
Affairs and has five departments: Careers and Counselling Services; Academic
Services; Culture, Sports and Recreation; Student Welfare and Health Services.
Services provided directly under the auspices of the Office of the Deputy ViceChancellor include the Disability Support Services Centre, the Health and Wellness
Centre, and the HIV/AIDS programme.

The division is faced with challenges to deal with issues related with student behaviour
such as alcohol and drug abuse, safety and security on campus, and funds for
specialized services in the Disability Unit and web portal services.

No professional associations in student affairs exist in Botswana; however, staff
members often attend such meetings in neighbouring countries, particularly in South
Africa. Student services at the University of Botswana can be accessed on the
university website: www.ub.bw. The section on student services describes each
service in details and offers links to other university sections.
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Brazil
Christopher Chaves e Silva
The history of higher education in Brazil began with the creation of the Universidade
Federal do Paran in 1892. According to a 2005 census, Brazil had over 2,165 higher
education institutions, divided according to their funding status as private, state, federal
and municipal. Over 70 per cent of all enrolled students attend private universities.

Most universities in Brazil started specific student assistance units in the past 10 years
and many of them already offer a variety of programmes such as:
z
Subsidized food services where the university operates cafeterias to provide lowcost meals for students. This service is mostly available at the public universities.
Low-cost student housing. This service is provided on a needs-basis and in

most cases students must prove they do not live in the same city as the school.
Scholarship and financial aid is available based on need and is mostly funded by
the Brazilian government.
Academic advice.
Employment and internships placement.
Psychological counselling.
Community involvement programmes, where students can apply knowledge

from their majors in supporting the local community. Programmes such as health
safety, dental education and computer literacy are among the most common.
Assistance for visually impaired students and students with other disabilities.
Retention and financial support programmes for students of Afro-Brazilian and

indigenous descent.
All staff members have bachelor's degrees and some have attained master's degrees.
Typically the pro-dean (pro-reitor) for student services has earned a doctorate in a
specific field.
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Currently, there are no specific graduate programmes in higher education

administration, college student personnel and counselling focused on higher
education students. Most of the staff comes from the psychology, pedagogy, social
work or administration fields.

Typical units will have a pro-reitor as the senior student affairs officer, a number of
project coordinators, social workers and support staff members. The pro-reitor reports
directly to the reitor (president or chancellor of the university).

The development of a unified student retention programme that has the ability to
provide financial awards to students who excel academically; the availability of
technology tools to assist with academic progress tracking; the development and
improvement of programmes such as student housing, food services and support to
populations that have minimal access to higher education.

z
Uniao Nacional des Estudantes (UNE): http://www.UNE.org.br
Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisas Educacionais:

http://www.inep.gov.br/superior/censosuperior/default.asp
Bulgaria
Lydia Krise and Jill Rasmussen
In 2008/2009 the Council of Ministers predicts an undergraduate population of
58,800 students in Bulgaria. Student affairs offices as found in the United States do
not exist in Bulgaria, with the exception of the American University in Bulgaria.
Following entry into the European Union, universities are beginning to offer specific
services, such as disability assistance and career planning, but not in the systematic way
an American school would.
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Housing and dining services are provided by state-subsidized companies at state
universities. These are simple services and do not include programming, resident
assistants or special events. Housing is offered based on financial need and many
students live in private apartments as there is limited dormitory space. Private
universities are unlikely to provide housing. International students receive assistance
only in obtaining visas and learning Bulgarian. Career centres are springing up around
Bulgaria due to a programme sponsored by the United States Agency for
International Development (USAID) offering training and materials to Bulgarian
schools. Eight of twenty-six universities now have active career centres.
University administrators normally have at least bachelor's degrees and in many cases
old-style master of arts degrees (five year bachelor's degrees that led directly to
master of arts degrees). There are no formal student affairs professional preparation
programmes.

All Bulgarian universities have the basic structure of a rector, provosts, and deputies.
They are the supervising governance of the university. Each of the provosts a specific
college or discipline (chemistry, English, etc.) and all student services functions take place
within the college. The main university budget is divided between the colleges based on
enrolment and all activities are funded from within the colleges. Faculty may sponsor
guest lectures or arrange field trips from this budget, but co-curricular activities are
limited. Sports activities are scheduled through private clubs or as physical education
courses. Each college also has a registrar's office which provides class scheduling,
transcripts and other documentation such as 'student books'. Student governments do
exist in Bulgaria and, while they have little political power, they do organize events
around the country to unite students from various universities.

The lack of a local professional network can be extremely challenging. While email,
on-line journals, and listservs are valuable resources, they cannot replace face-to-face
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contacts for inspiration and insight. This lack is exacerbated by the increased costs of
attending professional conferences and workshops in the United States due to the
rising costs of international travel.

There are no student affairs associations in Bulgaria at this time. Some websites that
may be of interest are:
z
The American University in Bulgaria - www.aubg.bg
European Association for International Education (EAIE) - www.eaie.org
Erasmus - http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/llp/erasmus/index_en.html
Association of American International Colleges and Universities (AAICU) www.aaicu.org
Canada
Robert Shea
Student affairs and service programmes in universities throughout Canada formally
began in the mid 1940s. Prior to this student services were coordinated by housing
professionals, the registrar and individuals whose titles varied - but were
predominantly entitled dean of men or dean of women. For purposes of this report
higher education is defined as those formal programmes that occur in formally
recognized post-secondary institutions.
The community college structure has also enjoyed the expertise of student service
professionals beginning in the early 1960s. Currently Canada has over 90 universities
and affiliated colleges and over 100 community colleges and institutes.

The services traditionally offered on college and university campuses in Canada
include: housing, counselling, registrar, recruitment, enrolment management,
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chaplaincy, student success, student judicial affairs, disability, career development,

cooperative education, health, scholarships and awards, aboriginal services, ancillary
services and athletics. Variations in each of these services will depend on the culture
and history of the institution.
Student service professionals have a myriad of qualifications which predominantly
depends on their area of expertise. The majority of professionals have a bachelor's
degree at a minimum. Many have further education at the master's and doctoral level.
Prior to 2007 there was only one graduate-level preparation programme in Canada.
There is currently a trend towards having senior student service administrative
positions require a doctoral degree and be appointed from within the professoriate.

The organizational structure varies within each university and college. Position titles
include associate vice president (students), vice-provost (students), dean of students,
director of student services. There appears to exist a movement to ensure the
portfolio is included as part of the president's senior executive. Hence, the title of
vice-president (students) is gaining popularity. The majority of positions report to the
vice-president (academic) or chief academic officer or the president and vicechancellor.

The field of student services is increasing in visibility on university and college
campuses across Canada. There appears to be an interest in building on the strengths
of student service professionals to engage in enrolment management activities that
enhance student recruitment and retention activities. There is also an interest in
focusing on the co-curricular learning needs of students.
It appears that the student demography in Canada is changing with more adult
learners returning to campus and increasing students presenting physical and mental
health issues enrolling in academic programmes.
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The only umbrella student service organization in Canada is entitled the Canadian
Association for College and University Student Services (CACUSS). CACUSS
represents over 1,100 student services professionals. (www.cacuss.ca)
The following divisions are included under that umbrella: Canadian Academic Integrity
and Student Judicial Affairs (CAISJA); Student Affairs and Services Association (SASA);
Canadian University and College Counselling Association (CUCCA); Canadian
Association of Disability Service Providers in Post-Secondary Education (CADSPPE);
and National Aboriginal Student Services Association (NASSA).

Publications have been made available by the CACUSS at the following website.
These publications include an annual magazine, monographs and position documents.
z
http://www.cacuss.ca/en/16-publications/index.lasso
China
Professor Zengyu
China has a total of 1,867 regular universities, of which 720 are undergraduate, fouryear-institutions, and 1,147 advanced professional institutions, typically three-year
colleges (2006 data). Among regular universities, 450 offer graduate degrees and 317
are research institutions offering graduate studies. There are also 444 universities for
non-traditional (adult) students. The total number of students in all educational
institutions is over 25 million.
The education13 and management of students and services are known in China as
'student work'. The term 'student affairs administration' is a relatively new concept in
Chinese higher education, though many Chinese universities use 'student work' and
'student affairs' interchangeably.14 Student affairs administration is shared among the
13
14
Generally in political and ideological education, or known as 'moral' education.

For consistency, 'student work' (as an 'administrative unit' at the university level) will be used
throughout the rest of this document.
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offices of 'student management' (involved in 'moral' education), 'educational

auxiliaries' (similar to 'academic support' provided by schools, colleges or faculties in
the universities) and logistics department (equivalent to auxiliary services in the
United States, such as 'dormitories', campus maintenance, housekeeping, public
safety, etc), with designated individuals in charge of each office.

Services mainly include: learning support, dormitory and dining, financial aid (mostly in
the form of bank loans), physical education and medical health, psychological
counselling, career development, student entrepreneurship support, management of
student organizations, etc.
The minimum requirements to be a student affairs staff member include at least an
undergraduate degree and a relevant professional ('on the job') training and
experience in student work. Some staff members have master's or doctoral degrees
in a related field. Staff members who work in health care and psychological counselling
are required to have appropriate credentials. Other areas of services also require
relevant professional training. There are currently no formal academic degree
programmes that offer training in student affairs administration as a career profession.

In a university, there usually is a university-level leadership group or 'administrative
unit' for student work. One of the senior university administrators such as the vicesecretary15 assumes the role as the director of student work. Staff members who are
responsible for various offices or departments within student work report directly to
the vice-secretary. Normally, student work includes the following offices, departments
or centres: office of student affairs, office of academic affairs, department of logistics
or logistic service centre, psychological counselling centre, financial aid centre, career
development centre, etc.
15
202
Vice-Secretary (of the Communist Party) is a title equivalent to 'Vice-President' in the United
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Issues and challenges of student affairs/services

The development of student work management follows the development and
transformation of Chinese higher education beginning in the late 1980s and early
1990s. It has gone through a long period of gradual development and perfection.
However, generally speaking, 'student affairs administration' is still a relatively new
concept and its practice is still in its early stages. A modern advanced level of student
work or student affairs administration, in both theory and practice, needs to be
promoted further, especially in the development of value-added services to students.'

There is no national professional association of student affairs. However, regional or
provincial student services practitioners have been known to meet on an ad hoc basis
to exchange ideas and form networks of support. Some student-services-related
organizations and Chinese government websites are listed below.
z
Chinese University Graduates Employment Service Information Network

http://www.myjob.edu.cn
National Student Financial Assistance Administration Center Network

http://www.xszz.edu.cn
Chinese Higher Education Student Information Network

http://www.chsi.com.cn
Student service websites that can be found at most university websites.
Chinese Education and Research Network

http://www.edu.cn/HomePage/english/index.shtml
Ministry of Education (English)

http://www.moe.edu.cn/edoas/website18/en/index.htm

There are monographs and research papers on student affairs administration
published in academic journals (mostly in Chinese), and more and more specialized
scholars, experts and professors are now engaged in research on the administration
of student affairs in China.
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Hong Kong (SAR, China)

Lai Kwok Hung
Eight of twelve degree-awarding public higher education institutions are funded
through the University Grants Committee (UGC). In 2006/2007, UGC-funded
institutions accounted for 5.6 per cent of the total government expenditure, or 24.1
per cent of the total expenditure on education. Since 2003, the Government
provided matching grants to broaden the funding sources of these UGC-funded
institutions and strengthen their fund-raising capabilities. Only about 18 per cent of
students between the ages of 17 and 20, or around 15,000, were successful in
entering first-year-first-degree places in these institutions. There are 51,000
undergraduate and 10,000 post-graduate students.
The transfer of Hong Kong sovereignty to the People's Republic of China in 1997
accelerated the linkage with China and an influx of students from China. Non-local
students accounted for 4 per cent of all undergraduates in 2005/2006 and 6 per cent
in 2006/2007. The Government is preparing to further increase the admission quotas
and introduce measures to facilitate local employment of graduates in order to
enhance the status of Hong Kong, China, as an education hub that brings young, new
and high quality talents into the regions population.

Student affairs emerged as a defined area of work in universities in the early 1970s.
All student affairs offices facilitate student learning and development. They also
provide health services, guidance and counselling, career and employment services,
financial assistance and scholarships, sports and recreation, student amenities,
residential halls and food service, co-curricular activities, leadership development and
support for students with disabilities, student organizations and international students.
Cross-institutional collaboration is extensive through joint programmes, inter-varsity
competitions, a job-search database system, award schemes, summer internship
projects, work groups on special topics, etc. A shift from 'management and service'
to an emphasis on 'whole-person development' of students is continuing. There is a
growing focus on the education role of student affairs practitioners, as they partner
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with faculty members in facilitating integrated learning of students, and an increasing

emphasis on using various outcome-based assessment tools for quality assurance and
service improvement.
With the impending introduction of the new senior secondary school curriculum and
the transformation of undergraduate studies from three to four years in 2012 (known
as the '3-3-4' academic structure), local universities are working towards new
directions such as re-structuring their curricula, in view of globalization and
internationalization, to be more multidisciplinary with greater emphasis on core
curriculum or general education. There is a trend for faculty to play a more active role
in transforming co-curricular activities into academic requirements or credit-bearing
modules, such as service learning and transferable skills training. Student affairs offices
are expected to work collaboratively with academic departments to launch these
activities. All such changes have great implications for the direction of student affairs
and the roles it played within higher education institutions.
Student affairs personnel have a diverse educational background. More and more
current practitioners possess higher degrees in social work, education, counselling,
management, social policy, public administration, languages, law or other social science
disciplines. Staff serving in counselling and physical education have relevant
qualifications specific to their fields of practice, such as social work, counselling, sports
and recreation management. More and more certified clinical psychologists work
collaboratively with other student affairs practitioners in teams. Though there are no
formal academic preparatory programmes in student affairs, certificated courses,
educational seminars, study tours, conferences, staff attachment and specialized
training on specific topics are offered by the Hong Kong Student Services Association
(HKSSA) and the Asia Pacific Student Services Association (APSSA) regularly to
enhance professional growth and development of practitioners.

As universities are restructuring themselves to meet with challenges of the new '3-34' academic structure, some offices of student affairs are transforming themselves and
undergoing service integration and introducing new services, such as support for
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international students or strengthening internship programmes. As heads of student

affairs offices retire, there is a tendency to appoint senior academic staff to serve as
dean of students to advise the educational leader of the institution on policy
formulation, resource allocation and development strategies for supporting students.
The 'dean' may either serve as head of various sections of the office, or delegate this
administrative role to a 'director', with assistant or deputy directors responsible for
specific student service areas. As residential life is considered a very important part of
university education, the government has recently allocated additional resources to
expand residential facilities for students. In general, academic staff members are
usually appointed as hall wardens, with university staff or post-graduate students
appointed to be tutors or senior tutors to take care of hall residents.

Changing student profile due to rapidly increasing non-local students has called for
'local adjustment' programmes and 'special student support services', especially the
provision of additional student residences. Resource increase usually lags behind the
introduction of new services. There is also a quiet and progressive move into a
'modern' personnel management system within which staff salaries are pegged at
market rate. Again, there is usually a time gap of over one year. New staff members
are recruited on a low salary scale which has been difficult to keep pace with market
rate in the private sector. The departure of experienced staff, exacerbated by quick
turnovers of new staff has resulted in continuous recruitment and re-juggling of job
portfolios.

The HKSSA (http://home.ust.hk/~hkssa/), officially formed in 1983 with members
from nearly all tertiary education institutions, provides a platform for intervarsity
collaboration and staff development. Five years later, the Association took the lead to
organize the first Asia Pacific Student Affairs Conference which led to the formation
of the APSSA (http://home.ust.hk/~sanet/apssa.htm).
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Ecuador
Jessica del Carmen Benites Ronquillo
Ecuador has 69 higher education institutions among them polytechnic, private and
public universities. In addition, there are 421 higher technical institutes, technical and
pedagogical centres, and conservatories in Ecuador. These institutions offer technical
careers with professional degrees. The student services/affairs department is known
as student support (bienestar estudiantil). It started in the 1980s with the objective of
offering support services and programmes to the students.

The typical services are summarized in six groups: 1) financial aid: scholarships based
on needs or scientific, cultural and sport merit, and student loans; 2) health centres:
medical-dental services; 3) academic support; professional orientation, psychological
counselling, partnerships with international universities for student exchange
programmes, internships, library, labs, computer and language labs, internet,
conference rooms and community schools; 4) sports and recreation: sports fields,
recreational facilities, sauna, gyms and hydro-massage; 5) student life: discounts in
bookstores and airline tickets, transportation, housing (on campus for a few qualified
families), life and accident insurance, copy centres, cafeteria, and parking; and 6)
professional development: centres for teaching, research and production, workshops,
art and sports schools, access to graduate school and revalidation.
Most of the polytechnics, universities and higher education institutes have trained staff
to meet the needs of the students. The Departamento de Bienestar Estudiantil may
be under the responsibility of a director, dean or vice-president, depending on the
institution. There is no professional organization or association dedicated to the
training or exchange of experiences in this field.
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The private universities and polytechnics are better organized than others institutions.
Their organizational structure allows qualified staff to perform their duties where they
can be of better service. The student leadership is elected by popular vote of the
student body. They voice the needs of the students to the administration and
sometimes assist organizing activities.

The institutions seek to satisfy the needs of the students as well as the need for academic
excellence through the completion of projects. It is not always possible because, even
though they request reimbursable or not reimbursable resources from state agencies, they
do not get the collaboration of the administration to support these types of initiatives. As
a result, those responsible for advancement of projects get discouraged. It is a challenge
working with politicized student organizations. There has been an improvement in the
relationship among administrators and students, but there is still much to do.

There is no professional organization concerning student services/affairs at this time
in the country. The higher education institutions get the experiences from other
countries and adapt them to their reality. They are always available to cooperate and
talk about new initiatives.
Finland
Ulla-Mari Karhu
In Finland, there is no national umbrella organization for student affairs/services. The
student services operate under several laws and ministries. They are organized by
various independent organizations.
208
The Social Insurance Institution of Finland (Kela) provides student financial aid.
Student restaurants receive a student meal subsidy from Kela.
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The local student housing organizations accommodate students.
The Finnish Student Health Service provides health and medical care including
mental health, as well as dental care services for students enrolled at
universities and tertiary-level science and arts schools.
Students' child care and services for students with disabilities are organized by
municipal services.

Student financial aid is made of three parts: study grant, housing supplement and study loan.
Student accommodation is typically a two-or-three-student apartment, where each
tenant has a room of his/her own; kitchen and bathroom are shared. There are also
studios. Small apartments are available for students with families.
specific to their fields of practice. Depending on their working areas, they have either
a university degree or a specific vocational training. There are no formal student affairs
generalist academic preparation programmes.

The Social Insurance Institution of Finland operates under the supervision of
parliament. It provides basic social security for all persons resident in Finland, among
these tasks is student financial aid.
The student housing organizations are local, independent foundations or municipalityowned companies. They have student accommodation in 22 cities. They have a
national-level umbrella organization, the Finnish Student Housing (FSHS) is a
nationwide organization with offices in 16 Finnish cities.

z
Internationalization - the consequences of internationalization are not quite

clear. How to cope with foreign students?
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The future of smaller universities in Finland - there is a strong tendency to

close down smaller units and form more efficient universities

z
Student Financial: www.kela.fi
Health Services: www.yths.fi
Accommodation: www.soa.fi

z
www.minedu.fi
www.otus.fi
France
Centre national des uvres universitaires et scolaires (CNOUS)
Centre rgional des uvres universitaires et scolaires (CROUS)
Lucie Stepanyan
Under the supervision of the Ministre de l'enseignement suprieur et de la
recherche, the Centre national des uvres universitaires et scolaires (CNOUS)
manages the Centre rgional des uvres universitaires et scolaires (CROUS)
network. Its objective is to provide all students with equal access to higher education
and an equal opportunity for success, by lending support to their everyday activities.
Born of student initiative, the university social services network took its current form
under the law of 16 March 1955. The social services network predated the
government's activity in the domain of social aid to students. From this beginning, the
network of university social services has built a strong identity based on its core values
of justice, equality and sharing.
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Typical tasks of the network are: social work, grants (grants based on social or
university criteria and study grants), cultural and student initiatives; international
(14,137 foreign students holding grants managed directly by the CNOUS/CROUS
network); housing (for 155,000 students); food services (55.1 million meals served in
2006). The comprehensive regional coverage allows a local response to user needs
and constitutes the core of a network of university social services.
At the national level, the CNOUS regulates and oversees the network and
contributes its expertise to projects. It promotes the sharing of experience, the
modernization of management, and the allocation and optimization of resources. It
seeks dialogues with employee representatives and students, and it is responsible for
monitoring the results of policies financed by the French government on a nationwide
basis. The CNOUS supervises foreign grant holders for the Ministre des affaires
trangres and it mobilizes foreign investment sources to create programmes of
foreign government education grants. It negotiates projects in partnership with
universities for the development of student life services.
Student services personnel are civil servants (2,700) of the administration of the
Ministry of Education recruited by competition and contract employees of public law
(9,300). On the local and national level, the social services network organizes training
at different levels for these employees. The directors of CROUS are appointed on
decree of the Minister for a twice renewable mandate of three years (maximal
mandate: nine years).

National level: the CNOUS is a national independent public establishment with a civil
and financial orientation. The CNOUS administrative council is the institution's
deliberative body. It defines the general policies of the network, assures the
distribution of CROUS budget allocations, and accepts and distributes donations,
bequests, subsidies and other aid intended for the development of centres. The Prime
Minister names the director of the CNOUS for a period of three years at the
recommendation of the minister of higher education.
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The CNOUS administrative council has 27 members.

z
The President: a leading figure in the field, well qualified, named by the minister
of higher education.
Eight civil servants representing the national government, of whom four are
designated by the minister of higher education and four are designated
respectively by the budget, housing, social affairs and foreign affairs ministers.
Eight elected student representatives.
Three representatives of CNOUS' and CROUS' personnel designated by the

most representative employee unions.
Three university presidents or directors of establishments of higher education,

of which one is from a private institution.
Four qualified representatives of whom two are chosen from a list proposed
by the student representatives.
Local level: the local network includes 28 regional centres (CROUS: national public
administrative institutions) located concurrent with regional education authorities
(acadmies). They are 16 local centres (CLOUS) and over 40 specialized branches
that bring services directly to students. Each CROUS takes charge of all the students
who study within the region of its acadmie.
Each CROUS is headed by a civil servant named by the minister of higher education
who implements the resolutions of the CROUS administrative council. This
administrative council is chaired by the Recteur de l'acadmie who is the head of the
regional educational administration. The council includes seven representatives of the
national government, seven elected student representatives, three representatives of
CROUS employees, one representative of the regional government, two university
Presidents (or directors of Grandes coles) and four representatives chosen by the
Recteur for their abilities.
There are nearly 12,000 employees in the network (national and local level). The
CNOUS/CROUS annual budget for 2006 was 1 billion, of which 66.10 per cent was
its own funds.
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Student housing: following the report Plan Anciaux about the modernization of
student housing: 50,000 new places will be built by 2015 and 70,000 places will be
renovated. Research is carried out on innovative solutions to finance of student
housing. Regarding the internationalization of higher education, the CNOUS is a
member of the new agency Campusfrance, founded in 2007. The creation of
CampusFrance is part of an ambitious public policy to enhance the attractiveness of
France in the field of higher education. CampusFrance facilities were created in France
as from 2007, which will result in higher quality services for foreign students after their
arrival in France.
Cooperation with universities: partnerships are being developed with universities and
the local government in the framework of the new global organization of the
cooperation among universities. The position of the CNOUS in the context of the
increasing autonomy of universities is in evolution. There is a tendency to a stronger
coordination or even breakthrough integration with universities.

z
Homepage of the CNOUS with link to the 28 local CROUS:

http://www.cnous.fr

z
Homepage of the Observatoire national de la Vie Etudiante (OVE):

http://www.ove-national.education.fr
Homepage of CampusFrance: http://www.campusfrance.org
Homepage of the Ministry of Higher Education and Research about the last
reforms: http://www.nouvelleuniversite.qouv.fr
Homepage of the Ministry of Higher Education and Research:

http://www.enseignementsuprecherche.quov.fr
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Germany
Deutsches Studentenwerk
Danja Oste
In Germany, the local Studentenwerke (STW, student service organizations) perform
public responsibilities related to economic, social, health-care and cultural support to
all students. These organizations are completely autonomous and fully independent
from the higher education institutions which they serve, unlike colleges and
universities in Anglo-Saxon countries, where these responsibilities are carried out by
departments that are an integral part of the respective university or college.
The STW emerged after the First World War from the students' mutual aid
initiatives. With the support of the industry they founded student houses, restaurants
and loan societies, and arranged for factory work to alleviate economic hardship.
Today, there are 58 local STW in charge of 2 million students enrolled at about 370
higher education institutions. Hence, many STW are simultaneously responsible for
several higher education institutions and, in some cases, for institutions at various
locations.
The mission of the STW is to contribute substantially to the realization of equal
opportunities. In collaboration with the higher education institutions and the
university towns, the STW strive to improve the social framework conditions for
higher education study.
The Deutsches Studetenwerk (DSW) is the voluntary national umbrella organization of
the 58 STW.

Typical tasks of the local STW are: student housing, student restaurants/cafeterias,
financial aid (administration of the Federal Educational Assistant Act), advisory
services (for psychological problems, and social and legal counselling), guiding and
counselling centres for students with disabilities, international students, cultural
activities, day care centres for children, etc.
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On the national level, the DSW supports and coordinates the work of its members.
Its main tasks are to organize the exchange and flow of experience between the local
STW and to safeguard the social-economic policy interests of all students.
specific to their fields of practice. Depending on their working areas they have either
a university degree or did a specific vocational training (e.g., chef of the student
restaurants). There are no formal student affairs generalist academic preparation
programmes.
DSW supports the STW either collectively or individually by organizing special
conferences, compiling working aid, publishing information material, and carrying out
initial and continuing education and training.

Local level: The STW are mainly independent statutory bodies of the 16 federal states
(Lnder). Their organizational structure is slightly different from federal state to federal
state. In general, the STW have three governing bodies: the executive director, the
board and the administrative council. Traditionally, students and professors are
represented in the board as well as in the administrative council. Representatives of
public life are often been part of the council. The executive director is elected by the
council and appointed after confirmation by the respective minister. In total, the local
STW employ some 15,000 people (45 per cent part-time staff).
National level: The DSW has three executive bodies: the members' assembly, the
executive board and the secretary general. The members' assembly is composed of
representatives of the 58 STW and meets annually. The Board, elected by the
Members' Assembly, is comprised of 3 professors, 3 executive directors of the local
STW and 3 students. The board nominates the secretary general who assumes the
executive responsibility and heads the national office with staff of some 45 people.

z
Decreased public subsidies: The public subsidies earmarked to the STW have
been constantly decreasing over the past 15 years
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Changing demand: On the one hand, institutions of higher education demand a

broader range of services and support of their individual profiles and missions.
On the other hand, students demand stable prices and fees as well as
improvement of services. STW are challenged to become service provider for
students and higher education institutions.
Need to become competitive: STW need to amplify cooperation with higher

education institutes, local authorities, enterprises and companies, and need to
diversify their business areas.
Housing: In some regions less than 10 per cent of students can get
accommodation in student residences. There is a lack of about 21,000 student
rooms. Aggravation of this problem is expected due to the possible increase in
number of those qualified to enter higher education.
Internationalization of higher education: The Bologna process aims to establish a

process not only depends on the implementation of comparable study
structures and excellent academic/research facilities but also on the provision of
adequate infrastructural conditions.

z
Homepage of the Deutsches Studentenwerk with links to the 58 local

Studentenwerke
http://www.studentenwerke.de/
Homepage of the European Council for Student Affairs (ECSTA) with links to
its European member organizations
http://www.ecsta.org/

z
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India
Rahul Choudaha
With more than 10 million students enrolled in over 18,000 higher education
institutions, India's higher education system is the third largest in the world, after
China and the United States. Despite the size of the Indian higher education system,
the concept of formal student affairs offices is a recent trend. Student services are
more prominently provided in professional schools rather than at the university-wide
level.

Advancement in student services in higher education has been largely restricted to
business schools. After the liberalization of India's industrial sector in 1991, business
schools became professionalized. However, student services in most of the business
schools are still limited to career employment and housing services. Student affairs
gained momentum in 2001 with the start of the Indian School of Business (ISB),
Hyderabad, in collaboration with global business schools. Student services at ISB
include fund-raising and event support to student organizations, student counselling
and health services.
Student services administrators generally have at least a bachelor's degree. There are
hardly any formal student affairs professional preparation programmes. Managers
from other service-based industries learn and adapt to the needs of the student affairs
profession. As a result, there is a need to offer professional education programmes
to train student affairs administrators.

Since the concept of 'student affairs' is fairly new in India, senior positions such as the
dean of students are non-existent. The head of career services usually reports to the
head of an academic department or institution. All other student services report to
the administrative head of the institution.
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Student services as a profession in India is at its nascent stage and considered auxiliary.
Neither the institution nor students have high expectations for services. In general,
there is a lack of recognition of the value-added services through student
development programmes. Funding is a major constraint since public universities
charge very low fees. Offering student services beyond the curriculum is quite a
challenge. Private universities are more receptive to offering services as they compete
for students with a marketplace mindset.
Out-of-class learning experiences are also very limited. Student organizations are
voluntary and get very little support from administration. Whatever little support is
provided to students comes from career services as they see some value in events
that develop students' leadership skills and provide visibility among prospective
recruiters.
There is a need for major intervention and support from global student affairs
associations such as NASPA and others to start chapters in India.

Currently there is no professional association/organization catering to the needs of
the student affairs administrators. There are few programmes that prepare
professionals for education administration in general. Two websites that may be of
interest are:
z
National University of Educational Planning and Administration http://www.nuepa.org/
Post-graduate diploma in Education Management by Narsee Monjee Institute

of Management Studies (NMIMS) in Mumbai http://www.nmims.edu/parttime.pgdem/

Little publication/research is done in the area of education administration in India.
Specific research on student affairs is absent.
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Ireland
Colleen Blaney
The numbers of professionals employed in the student affairs and services sector have
developed dramatically over the past two decades in Ireland. This is primarily
explained by the increase of the number of students attending university-level
education. The participation rate in higher education has consistently increased over
the past decades. In 1980 the participation rate in higher education was 20 per cent;
by 2004 it was 55 per cent. Since 1998, the number of students in undergraduate
programmes increased by 20 per cent and in graduate programmes by nearly 50 per
cent. Colleges and universities have responded to the increasing number of students
by increasing the number of support staff.

While there are increasing opportunities in student affairs in Ireland, the field is still
quite limited to the relatively small number of institutions in which to work. The
typical services covered include disability support services, international offices,
student activities and sports, and student health. Chaplains of all faiths play important
roles in supporting students at all public Irish universities. Many student residences are
run by private companies; staff members in student residences are therefore usually
not considered part of student affairs.
Student services administrators generally have at least a bachelor's degree and many
posts, such as careers advisers or counsellors require master's level degree
qualifications. There are no formal student affairs professional preparation
programmes, but many working in the field have qualifications in education,
psychology, social work, counselling, guidance and related fields.

Nearly all Irish universities and colleges have a senior student affairs professional, such
as a vice-president for students or dean of students. The senior student affairs
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professional is nearly always a member of the academic faculty, from a variety of

academic backgrounds, who has risen through the ranks of the university. The student
affairs profession is still considered a new profession and there are very few
opportunities at middle management level for those working in the area of student
affairs to progress.

Students from Ireland and the European Union, attending Irish universities, pay very
little tuition; Irish universities therefore, do not always have large budgets dedicated
to hiring more student affairs staff. Many in the profession find that they carry out a
broader range of support and services, with fewer resources, than their counterparts
in North America or the United Kingdom.
Broad changes in Irish society during the 'Celtic Tiger' years of the late 1990s have
also brought challenges and opportunities for student affairs and services. As Ireland
becomes more multicultural, the needs of 'the new Irish' and non-traditional students
have come to the fore. The Irish government is actively pursuing increased access to
higher education and is committed to increasing the numbers of mature students and
students from lower socio-economic backgrounds in the university sector. This has
lead to an increase in resources for support services that serve these students. Many
of the employment opportunities in student affairs are in the field of adult education
and disability support services.
220
Confederation of Student Services in Ireland - www.cssi.edu.ie
Graduate Careers Ireland (association of careers advisers) www.gradireland.com
Colleges and Universities Sports Association of Ireland - www.cusai.ie
Association of Higher Education Access and Disability - www.ahead.ie
The Please Talk Campaign (student support services nationwide) www.pleasetalk.ie
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Little publication or research is done in the area of student affairs or student services.
Research is limited to official reports and research carried out by the Higher
Education Administration (www.hea.ie) and the Institutes of Technology Ireland
(www.ioti.ie) on issues relating to students in higher education. Individual institutions
have institution-specific research on a wide range of student affairs issues, particularly
on student retention and access programmes for non-traditional students. The
Confederation of Student Services in Ireland (www.cssi.edu.ie) keeps conference
presentations on-line.
Israel
Menachem Kellner
Student affairs provision at Israel's seven research universities is generally provided by
the dean of students (typically an academic holding a three-to-five-year appointment)
and by student unions which, at Israeli universities, function more like actual labour
unions (negotiating with the administration over tuition, etc.) than do similar bodies
in North America.
Typical services and programmes

The dean of students is typically responsible for financial aid, counselling services
(psychological and professional), student housing and, in general, the welfare of the
student body. Students with special needs are usually serviced through the office of
the dean of students. Student unions generally provide services which include job
hunting, cultural events and travel services. Both the office of the dean of students and
student unions work towards the integration of minority students into university life.
No specialized training exists for student affairs practitioners. Leadership positions are
usually reserved for academics interested in working with student needs beyond the
classroom.
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Italy
Pietro Brandmayr
In Italy, public responsibilities related to the economic, social, health-care and cultural
support to all students are mostly performed by the Regioni or directly by some
Universities. The regional administrations instituted local agencies or Enti per il Diritto
allo Studio; a major agency is located in each provincial capital or in the regional capital
city (e.g., Torino in Piemont). These organizations are completely autonomous and
fully independent of the higher education institutions that they serve, unlike colleges
and universities in Anglo-Saxon countries, but their administration councils are
composed of some university representatives and elected students. Recently, in some
regions the student welfare activities have been incorporated into the respective
universities (e.g., Lombardy, Milan); some private universities or technical universities
manage their facilities directly, as is the case for some university campus facilities
instituted by special national laws, e.g., the Centro residenziale of the University of
Calabria. The mission of the Enti per il Diritto allo Studio is to contributeto the
realization of equal opportunities. In collaboration with the higher education
institutions and the university towns, the Associazione Nazionale degli Organismi per
il Diritto allo Studio Universitario (ANDISU)strives to improve the social framework
conditions for higher education study, according to the 390/91 Italian national law.
Today, there are more than 50 local Enti in charge of 1.8 million students enrolled at
about 75 higher education institutions. Hence, many Enti are simultaneously
responsible for several higher education institutions and, in some cases, for institutions
at various locations.
ANDISU, a voluntary umbrella organization, coordinates the activities of all the
agencies at national level.

Typical task of the local Enti are basic student services, housing, student
cantines/cafeterias, financial aid (administration of the student scholarships financed at
regional, national and local level), financial aid for international student exchanges,
advisory services (for psychological problems, social and legal counselling), guiding and
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counselling centres for students with disabilities, job and placement orientation,
cultural activities, etc.
On the national level, ANDISU supports and coordinates the work of its members.
Its main tasks are to organize the exchange and flow of experience between the local
Enti and to safeguard the social-economic policy interests of all students.
specific to their fields of practice. Depending on their working areas they have either
a university degree or did a specific vocational training (e.g., chef of the student
restaurants). There are no formal student affairs generalist academic preparation
programmes.
ANDISU supports the Enti either collectively or individually by organizing special
conferences, compiling working aid, publishing information material, and carrying out
initial and continuing education and training.

Local level: The Enti per il Diritto allo Studio are mainly instrumental bodies of the 21
Italian Regioni. Their organizational structure is slightly different from region to region.
In general, the Enti have three governing bodies: the president, the executive director
and the administrative council. Traditionally, students and professors are represented
in the administrative council. Representatives of public life are often been part of the
council. The executive director is designated by the local government, accordingly
with the Rectors of the Universities. In total, the local Enti employ some 3,500 people.
National level: TheANDISU has four executive bodies: the members' national
assembly, the executive board, the president and the secretary general. The
members' assembly is composed of representatives of the 50 Enti (president and
director of each agency) and meets twice in the year. The board, elected by the
members' assembly, is comprised of 5 presidents, 5 executive directors of the local
Enti and by the president and secretary general. The board nominates the secretary
general who assumes the executive responsibility.
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z
Low public subsidies: The public subsidies earmarked to the ANDISU institutions
have been constantly too low or increasing very little over the past 10 years
Changing demand: On the one hand, institutions of higher education demand a

broader range of services and support of their individual profiles and missions.
On the other hand, students demand stable prices and fees as well as
improved services. ANDISU institutions are challenged to become service
providers for students and higher education institutions; a new law proposal
has been forwarded to the Ministry for University and Research.
Need to become competitive: ANDISU needs to increase cooperation with local

authorities, municipalities, enterprises and companies and to diversify business
areas.
Housing: At national level less than 5 per cent of students can get
accommodation in student residences. There is a shortage of about 100,000
student rooms. Aggravation of the problem is expected due to possible
increase in number of persons qualified to enter higher education.
Internationalization of higher education: The Bologna process aims to establish a

process depends not only on the implementation of comparable study
structures and excellent academic/ research facilities but also on the provision
of adequate infrastructural conditions.

z
Homepage of ANDISU with links to the 50 local Enti (local agencies:

http://www.andisu.it/

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Jamaica/Trinidad and Tobago

Thelora Reynolds
The University of the West Indies (UWI), a regional institution, has the greatest impact on
the development of student services in the Caribbean. The concept of the role of
institutions of education in producing well-rounded students is not new to the Caribbean,
but an academic approach to the delivery of intentional effective learning programmes is
relatively new. In 1990, a Department of Student Services was established on the Mona
campus, Jamaica, and in 1993 on the Cave Hill and St. Augustine campuses in Barbados
and Trinidad and Tobago respectively. In 1996 a professional organization - the Caribbean
Tertiary Level Personnel Association (CTLPA) - was established as an International
Division of the American College Personnel Association (ACPA).
The history of student services is closely associated with the evolution of higher
education, which includes universities, teachers' colleges and community colleges. The
stages of the development of student services in each type of institution are functions
of the institutional type - universities versus colleges; the institution's size - large
universities versus small colleges; sources of funding - public versus private; preparation
of the student services/affairs personnel; and characteristics of the students.

The programmes and services vary according to the five factors identified above.
Services vary from senior management functions, including policy formation and
implementation, to managing functional areas - sports, placement, careers, residence
halls, disabilities, orientation, financial aid, off-campus housing, programme
management, facilities management, health services, counselling services, clubs and
societies, student government, peer advising, first year experience, leadership and
mentorship programmes, and international students' centres. All the named services
and programmes are not offered in any single institution.
Qualification/training of staff
At the UWI, heads of student services -directors - must have at least a master's in a
field of administration. However, one director holds a Ph.D. in Higher Education. In
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other institutions, the head must have at least a first degree and a teacher's diploma.
Counsellors and sports personnel have qualifications specific to their field of practice.
In 2006, Mona introduced the Master's in Higher Education - Student Personnel
Administration. The first batch of graduates prepared in the Caribbean was in 2008.
The professional development of student services professionals is facilitated through
local seminars and workshops, regionally through CTLPA and internationally through
ACPA and NASPA.

The organizational structure of student services relates to the five factors articulated
earlier. In some institutions, the head of student services has the designation of
director. Others are titled vice president and, in small institutions where there are no
structured departments, the designation of the heads is reflected in the functional area
- e.g., sports director or placement officer - and the head answers to the institution's
head. At Mona the director is a member of the campus management team and
answers to the head or deputy head of the institution. The director heads a
department comprising a number of units, each headed by a student services and
development manager who has responsibility for an administrative staff, the physical
plant and the financial aspects of the unit. The units include - student residence,
student government, development programmes, service learning, career services,
sports and clubs, and societies.

Many faculty members and some administrators are still struggling with the level of
importance to be placed on student services. Resource allocation is also a major
challenge. Financial constraints challenge policy-makers with the decision as to the
amount of resources that can be diverted to student services.
Most of the available literature was developed and tested in the United States and
may not be totally applicable in the context of the Caribbean. Motivating Caribbean
student services professionals to engage in research and publications remains
challenging. Accessing the Master's in Higher Education - Student Personnel
Administration is challenging. Although the programme is web-based, the economic
cost of accessing the programme prevents many who would like to read for the
degree from registering.
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Websites of student services/affairs professional associations/organizations

Many student services departments in higher educational institutions have their own
websites. The website for the professional organization CTLPA is www.ctlpa.org.jm
and for the Office of Student Services and Development www.uwimona.edu.jm/oss.
Japan
Yuko Omata
Student affairs programmes and management in higher education in Japan is modelled
after the United States. In 1958, the Student Welfare Council of the Education
Ministry published a policy white paper addressing the importance of extracurricular
programmes in developing students' personalities. However, many Japanese
universities continue to be faculty-centred and extracurricular programmes are
thought to complement the academic curriculum. In 2000, the University Council of
the Education Ministry (now the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology) published a report requiring universities to become student-oriented
and to accept the value of co-curricular programmes.

Services and programmes include advising student organizations, organizing student
activities, services in student counselling, careers and employment, student housing,
international student, sports and recreation, student health, orientation, peermentoring, financial aid, campus amenities, students with disabilities, cultural events,
school festivals, self-development seminars and freshmen camps. Student
cooperatives that are not part of the university have traditionally undertaken student
welfare and amenities such as operating the bookstore, cafeteria, housing services,
insurance business, etc. as well as administering student affairs programmes. However,
recently, the number of universities that establish their own enterprises as part of the
university organizational structure to deal with these student services is increasing.
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The concept of a 'student services professional' does not exist in Japanese universities.
It is fairly common to impose personnel changes of administrative staff within a
university. Administrators generally have at least one university degree and some of
them have master's or doctoral degrees.

Typically, the head of a student affairs operation is a dean of students and a faculty
member who most often reports to the president. It is not uncommon for the dean
of students to also hold the position of vice-president. Reporting to him/her are often
several sections including student life, housing/accommodations, financial aid,
sport/recreation and counselling.

Student services work has not been given much priority by the academic side of
university. This changed after the 2000 report mentioned earlier. The Good Practice
Support Program for Distinctive University Education was initiated by the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in 2003. The Ministry selects
special examples of excellence in university education and provides subsidies to
exemplary universities. Selected programmes are published and introduced in various
forums so that other universities may learn from the best practices. These
programmes have made a great impact upon Japanese university education including
co-curricular programmes in student affairs.
In Japan, total collaboration and integration of curricular and co-curricular activities has
not been well developed. However, many educations are beginning to realize the
importance of collaboration between student affairs and academic affairs. In some
universities, student affairs have started unique student development programmes
that build campus communities by working closely with faculty members.

The Japan Student Services Organization (JASSO) was established in 2004 by unifying
the Japan Scholarship Foundation, the Association of International Education, Japan
(AIEJ), the Center for Domestic and Foreign Students, the International Student
Institute and the Kansai International Students Institute.
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http://www.jasso.go.jp/index_e.html
The National Federation of University Cooperative Associations (NFUCA) was

established in 1958 and 214 student cooperatives are affiliated with this organization.
NFUCA operates student bookstores, insurance business, housing services,
management of cafeteria, student welfare programmes, etc.
z
http://www.univcoop.or.jp

z
JASSO): http://www.jasso.go.jp/index_e.html
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology:

http://www.mext.go.jp/
http://www.mext.go.jp/english/org/f_formal_22.htm (English page)
Doshisha University (one of the major Japanese universities that are

enthusiastic about student services): http://www.doshisha.ac.jp/english/
Kazakhstan
Steven Green and Janel Bayastanova
In 2007, Kazakhstan had over 167 universities with a total of 717,000 students.
Approximately one-third (53) are state universities with 390,600 students. Nearly 58
per cent are female and 42 per cent are male students. All universities are required
by Kazakhstan legislation to follow the regulations of the Ministry of Education.
However, supervision of these universities before 2007 was somewhat weak, leading
to a plethora of institutions in terms of size and quality. In 2007 the Ministry of
Education therefore began a series of steps to more closely supervise institutions of
higher learning, leading to a 5 per cent reduction in the number of universities. Many
closures were due to problems in quality. Over the next few years, the number of
private institutions is expected to continue to decrease. This corresponds to a
demographic downturn in the number of students completing secondary school,
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directly related to the population losses and birth rate decline during the transition
from the Soviet Union to an independent Kazakhstan. In 2006 approximately
230,000 students graduated from secondary schools, down from over 300,000
students in 2005.
Most universities and colleges in Kazakhstan do not have a separate division for
student services. Student services are not as well developed as in western universities
nor focused on the same issues, especially in state institutions. Most higher education
institutions have student governments that represent student interests, but their level
of development is less than in western institutions. Financial aid is not a significant
issue at most institutions, given the low tuition rates. Exceptions to this are usually
private institutions using a western model of education. In Kazakhstan there are
several universities in this category, all at different stages of development. Two of the
most advanced are Kazakhstan British Technical University (KBTU) and Kazakhstan
Institute of Management, Economics and Strategic Planning (KIMEP). Both have
student services divisions modelled somewhat on the western approach and include
rather sophisticated financial aid programmes. Over 80 per cent of KBTU students
have scholarships, mostly sponsored by one of the largest gas production companies
in Kazakhstan. KIMEP has a more modest programme, but dedicates over 5 per cent
of its budget to financial aid. Assistance comes in two forms. First, there are
scholarships based on academic merit, sponsored either by the university or by
outside companies. A second category is tuition discounts related to the socioeconomic situation of the student (single parent, orphan, multiple siblings attending
the university, etc.).
For all universities there is a limited number of government stipends offered to
students at university/college level. These stipends are usually limited to $1,200 per
year and are distributed by the university/college to a handful of students at each
institution. To ensure that some of the best students receive an education from some
of the best institutions in the world, the government provides, on a competitive basis,
full scholarships (Bolashak programme) on the graduate and undergraduate level to
approximately 3,000 students. Most are studying in North America, Europe and
China. These students are required to return to Kazakhstan and work for several
years as a part of the conditions of this scholarship.
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In state-sponsored institutions, the Soviet model of education still prevails, including
the areas of student services. The typical services most focus on the student cafeteria,
cultural activities, student housing, student governments and sports programmes.
Academic advising, peer assistance, financial aid, international student assistance and
university preparatory programmes for study abroad are generally non-existent.
Student cultural events are often limited and staged by the administration of the
university. KIMEP and KBTU are the two most notable exceptions. KIMEP is clearly
the most advanced in the area of student affairs in terms of its development. Financial
aid is offered to students with high academic achievement through scholarships and
tuition discounts are offered to those students from disadvantaged social-economic
backgrounds. The latter programme is similar to work-study programmes found in the
west where students receive a discount for a minimal number of hours of work at
the university. There is a scholarship programme sponsored by private sector
organizations and NGOs; however, this sponsorship covers less than 100 out of 5,000
students attending KIMEP. KBTU has an extensive scholarship programme covering
approximately 80 per cent of its students.
Students are encouraged to plan and execute their own activities with the
understanding that such participation takes their classroom training in management and
financial planning into the real world. During the period of time when funding for such
events was separated from the general university budget, student organizations and
events have proliferated and led to a student population with a high level of satisfaction.

Student affairs is divided between two units, both led by a dean and both reporting
directly to the president and executive vice president of the university. Under the
dean of student affairs are student organizations, on-campus living facilities, sports
activities, the medical centre and student organizations. Under the dean of enrolment
management are financial aid, registrar, admissions and recruitment. Prior to June
2007, these two offices were consolidated under one dean. KBTU has a unified
student services division that includes financial aid, admissions and student activities.
A medical clinic is required by the Ministry of Education for all large institutions. These
services include emergency medical treatment as well as treatment for routine
illnesses for both faculty and staff. The medical staff also is responsible for
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implementing directives of the Ministry of Health with regards to problems with

tuberculosis, requiring an annual x-ray of all students and staff, the implementation of
quarantine orders during times of flu and other population-threatening diseases, and
for ensuring that all sanitary conditions fulfil the requirements of the legislation of
Kazakhstan.
Kazakhstan's higher education system lacks well-trained individuals managing student
affairs. What has occurred is an on-the-job training approach of individuals who are
either familiar with higher education in Kazakhstan or with extensive experience as
students or administrators in the United States, but not necessarily in the student
affairs area. This has led to an evolution of these services as experience is acquired by
those in the area.

The largest challenge facing student affairs is the lack of staff training. This has meant
that most professionals have been trained on the job. Drawing upon experiences of
western universities, this has proven relatively successful at the two universities that
have adopted this strategy, but the overall development of student services still lags
behind the west. The system is plagued by a lack of student understanding of their
role, an overly bureaucratic approach to financial aid and admissions, and an
embryonic sports programme. It will take a decade or more to bring these services
up to western standards.
232
Student government KIMEP - http://www.kimep.kz/studentaffairs/government
Student organizations KIMEP - http://www.kimep.kz/studentaffairs/organizations
KIMEP Createam Student Forum - http://forum.createam.kz/
Financial aid, admissions and recruitment - http://www.kimep.kz/
KBTU (less developed in terms of student services websites) - http://kbtu.kz/
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Kuwait
Carol A. Ross
Higher education has evolved in the state of Kuwait since the early 1960s after the
founding of Kuwait University, the country's comprehensive state-supported public
university. Public Authority for Applied Education and Training established in 1982
serves as the two-year public college for the country. Kuwaiti students attend the
state-supported institutions free of charge. Within the past ten years, the government
has provided licenses for numerous private universities and colleges. Thus far
institutions are based upon the American and Australian models of higher education
with more institutions to follow. The government of Kuwait provides a scholarship
programme, full tuition, expenses and stipend, for talented students who have been
accepted by universities in the United States, the United Kingdom and other foreign
countries. With the licensing of private colleges and universities, similar scholarships
are availed to students to attend college in Kuwait. Private colleges and universities
are monitored by the Private University Council which is a department within the
Ministry of Higher Education. The prospective collegiate pool is expected to grow
three-fold over the next years. There are no two student affairs programmes alike
within Kuwait. The concept of student development is new with little understanding
of its benefits. From a traditional division of student affairs excluding housing to a
programme whereby a student committee working with the vice-president of student
affairs plans the institutions student activities, each university provides a unique
perspective of programmes and services for students.

The structure and comprehensiveness of student affairs programmes and services are
varied within the institutions of Kuwait. Each institution offers an iteration of the
following programmes and services: admissions, registration services, student activities
including co- and extra-curricular programming, counselling services, career services
including counselling and placement, disability accommodations, housing, health
services, outreach and events, alumni affairs, academic advice, retention initiatives,
academic support, student media, sports and student associations. Most institutions
focus on admissions, registration and student activities, particularly student
government and athletics.
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The entry level minimum requirement for most positions is that of a bachelor's
degree. Professional or leadership positions require a master's degree, for example
counselling positions. In addition, at least one university provides staff members with
professional development opportunities in the profession because many of the staff
do not have degrees or experiences in higher education administration, student
personnel or counselling. Such opportunities include participation in professional
organization institutes such as the National Academic Advising Association, National
Association of Student Personnel Administrators 'New Professionals Institute' or
American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admission Officers 'Registrar 101'.
Staff also enrol in online courses that cover topics such as 'Admissions Manager 101',
'Exploring College Student Development Theories', and 'Advising Student
Organizations'. Online courses have proven to be an invaluable asset in the training
and development of new staff to the profession.

There is no typical operational structure for student affairs programmes and services
in Kuwait. In most cases the chief student affairs officer reports to the president of the
university or college. Whereas one model may be the traditional comprehensive
model of programmes and services with directors of student life, admissions,
registration, student success, alumni affairs and health services, reporting to the chief
student affairs officer, another typical model has a chief student affairs officer with a
student advisory committee that plans college activities and professional staff that
provide counselling services, advice and language support. Another operational
structure includes only the functions of admissions, registration and the student union.
The philosophy of student affairs is new to Kuwait. As more western colleges and
universities are opened, it is expected to see more traditional operational structures.

The profession of student affairs focuses on the growth and development of
individuals. The goal is to guide, introduce and prepare students for the global society.
This includes not only addressing and supporting the academic integration of students
but also the social integration issues such as emotional wellness, sexual identity,
relationships, physical wellness, assertiveness, substance abuse, leadership and respect,
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to name a few. The culture of Kuwait prohibits the openness and frankness of many
discussions. Because the issues do not disappear, the way in which they are addressed
must be done within a cultural context whereby it can be accepted. Separation and
transition issues are equally as challenging. The influence of the parent is very strong,
especially with female students. Parents will take responsibility or become more
involved in the daily lives of students, thus delaying maturation when it comes to
taking responsibility for one's actions. In addition, many young ladies are not able to
take advantage of opportunities such as study-away, international internships or
international competitions because they are not allowed to travel alone. It is not
unheard of for a male relative or parent to travel with the student, thus not allowing
them to fully partake in the programme. Kuwait has a law on segregation in higher
education which is also very challenging for colleges and universities. Private
institutions are licensed as co-educational entities. The law requires that institutions
operate in a segregated manner in everything from curriculum to student activities to
eating facilities, library and study space in a co-educationally developed environment.
This has proven very challenging due to students' expectations of studying in a
'Western' environment, their feeling that they will not be prepared for the global
society as well as their angst because their rights have been infringed upon. This is also
challenging for the institutions particularly because of the burden on the resources
and conflicting philosophies. Often, dual programmes have to be run in order to
provide equal opportunities for participation or programmes will not be run at all.
Cultural bias is an issue to be addressed. Student affairs prides itself on respect for
diversity. In order to ensure students are provided opportunities to learn from other
cultures, it is important to provide exposure to professionals of diverse backgrounds.
This is a challenging notion because of the lack of qualified prospective personnel,
cultural biases within the country and limited opportunities for exposure whether
because certain cultures cannot afford the post-secondary institutions or because
students cannot participate in educational travel opportunities that would immerse
them in other cultures.
Websites listing student affairs/services professional associations/organizations

There is one university in Kuwait that is actively involved in professional associations.
The American University of Kuwait has membership in the National Association of
Student Personnel Administrators, the National Academic Advising Association, the
American Counselling Association, the National Eating Disorders Association (NED
Awareness Week), the National Career Development Association, the American
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Association of College Registrars and Admissions Officers, and the National

Association for Campus Activities. These associations provide an avenue to educate
and train staff in the field of Student Affairs whether it be through webinars,
conference or institute attendance or through peer contacts. The goal is to become
more actively involved in professional organizations as a strategy for addressing the
lack of master's degree programmes in the region. As the region becomes smaller,
and colleges and universities begin to work more collaboratively, opportunities to
address the knowledge gap in student affairs regarding issues related to student
development in the Middle East can and will be more readily addressed. Through
mentoring and student involvement in work-study and volunteer opportunities, it is
hoped that more students see student affairs are a viable career option.
Lebanon
Wadad El-Husseiny
In spite of its small population and geographical area, Lebanon is well known for its
quality of higher education in the Middle East area. Currently Lebanon has 25
universities and colleges including one public university: the Lebanese University.
Some are as old as the American University of Beirut which celebrated its 141st
anniversary this year and others are extremely new. Those institutions follow one of
two prevailing education systems, American or European.
The student affairs sector and its services differ greatly from one institution to another
in terms of function and structure. Many changes were introduced to structure as
well as function in the past 50 years in most Lebanese universities and colleges.

Currently all universities with American education system have a well-founded sector of
student affairs with major offices operating in most universities including dean's office,
personal counselling services, career and placement services, athletics and recreational
services including state-of-the-art facilities, housing and residential services, student
activities, exchange programmes and study abroad services, international students
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services and student with disabilities services. Other services such as financial aid, health
services, food services and registration are provided as well. It is worth mentioning that
not all provided services fall under the jurisdiction of student affairs but within the
jurisdiction of other administrative units (e.g., health and food services).
Education institutions that follow the European system started recently to incorporate
the concept of student affairs services into their organizational structure. Hence, their
services are not fully developed and operating within the same structure found in
other institutions.
Student affairs officers in most Lebanese colleges and universities are of different
backgrounds rather than graduates of student affairs professional education
programmes. Vice-presidents or deans of student affairs are usually academics with
good management skills or who have positive relationships with students in general.
Most student affairs directors are holders of a B.A. or an M.A. Few institutions invest
in their staff's development. Management skills and on-the-job training prevail rather
than programmes of formal training.

The structure and hierarchy of the student affairs unit varies from one institution to
another. Yet the basic one includes a dean of student affairs who oversee the work
of the various departments in addition to disciplinary committees. Mainly the student
affairs unit reports to the provost or academic officer unless the sector is under the
supervision of a vice-president of student affairs who reports directly to the president.
z
Generalizing about all institutions would be unfair since the uniqueness of each
institution in terms of its focus, efficiency and impact is to be taken into
consideration. However, the major challenge is financial since the sector is
allocated the lowest budget.
A second major challenge is the lack of recognition of student affairs as a

partner in the educational process of university students. Generally, the
community inside and outside the university look at student affairs professionals
as service providers rather than as educators.
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A last issue is the lack of standardization of hierarchy and units under the
student affairs unit in most Lebanese universities and colleges.
Lithuania
Melanie Humphreys
Student affairs is a relatively new concept within Lithuania. The first student affairs
division was established in 1997 at LCC International University, a private accredited
liberal arts university located in Klaipeda. Recently student affairs offices in both public
and private Lithuanian universities have been established to work predominately with
an influx of international students due to European Union student mobility
programmes such as Erasmus. Currently there are no professional training
programmes or national associations that unite student affairs faculty and professional
staff within the country.

Typical services offered through student affairs offices include assistance in finding
accommodation, career services and information regarding cafeteria services, health
insurance, extra-mural and leisure activities, facilities for special needs students,
financial support, orientation, language studies and practical information regarding
living in Lithuania. Additional services and learning-focused programmes at LCC
International University include athletics, counselling services, intercultural education
programmes, a leadership development programme, performing arts and spiritual life
(chaplaincy).
The minimum requirement for entry-level professional staff is an undergraduate
degree (1st cycle). A master's degree (2nd) cycle is preferred for most positions and
is a requirement for management-level positions. A doctorate (3rd cycle) is preferred
for the senior student affairs officer.
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Student affairs is generally lodged under administration or international affairs. Most
institutions do not have a senior student affairs officer at a vice-president (pro-rector)
level within the institution.

z
There is little institutional understanding as to the strategic role student affairs

can play with regards to student learning.
Student affairs is largely focused on international students whereas the national

student associations are largely focused on Lithuanian students.
Lack of recognition of student affairs as a profession and viable career option.
Lack of professional training programmes.
Lack of a national association for student affairs educators.

z
LCC International University, Student Life Division: http://www.lcc.lt/studentlife/
National Student Union: http://www.lss.lt/
National Union of Student Representatives: http://www.lsas.lt/
Siauliai University, Office of Student Affairs: http://www.su.lt/article/archive/914
Vilnius University, Student Affairs Office:

http://www.vu.lt/en/international/general_info/student_affairs_office/
Vytautas Magnus University, Office of Student Affairs: http://www.vdu.lt/

z
http://www.proquest.com/
Resources
Humphreys, M. J. 2007. Predictors of socially responsible leadership: Application of the
social change model to an eastern European undergraduate population. Dissertation
Abstracts International, Vol. 176 (UMI No. 3292177) http://www.ila-net.org/
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Sheridan, D. and Humphreys, M. 2004. Strengths-based leadership development in

Lithuania: The Lithuania Christian College story. Building Leadership Bridges 2004,
pp.107-14.
Luxembourg
Virginie Mucciante
The student affairs department of the University of Luxembourg was created in 2005,
two years after the foundation of the University. It is the common service providing
support to students in Luxembourg.

The service deals with administrative and academic matters such as helping students
in the choice of their study, enrolment, student accommodation, the compulsory
semester of mobility (for undergraduates), careers and job offers. It also aims at
promoting culture and student life within the three campuses of the university and in
the city of Luxembourg.
The ten members of the service have different academic backgrounds. Some have a
university degree, some others do not. There are no formal student affairs generalist
academic preparation programmes.

The structure of the student affairs is represented by a head of service in charge of
the different units of the department (i.e., deals with different responsibilities/tasks).
One person is in charge of student accommodation, one of the culture and sport
units, two of the mobility unit and five for academic aspects and the enrolment of the
3,500 students.
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z
Improving the welcome and the administrative procedure of enrolment of

students (especially non-European students) due to the internationalization and
the growing number of students.
Offering more services to students to provide a student organization and a real

sense of student life within the university.
Increasing the quantity of student accommodation.

z
http://www.uni.lu/vie_etudiante
http://www.lus.lu
Malaysia
R. Ambihabathy
Currently, there are 17 public universities and university colleges, and around 670
private colleges and universities. University colleges, unlike universities, are set up by
the government to offer specialized courses or training which is at the moment
predominantly in the fields of technology and/or engineering. Public and private
universities are now being coordinated and monitored by the Higher Education
Department, a department within the newly established Ministry of Higher Education.
The hereditary roots as far as the student affairs profession and the setting up of the
department of student affairs may be traced back to the Universities and University
College Act 1971 (as amended 1975). Initially, establishment of the department was
more geared to regulating and monitoring student activities and movement.

Services and programmes typically include advising of student organizations, student
accommodation services, counselling services, career and industry relations, student
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health services, sports and recreation, and in recent years, entrepreneur advisory
service and support.
Qualification/training of staff
The deputy vice-chancellors/deputy rectors and deans who head the department are
mainly from the academia. Other student affairs personnel, who are often known as
'assistant registrars', are mostly career administrators, having at least a basic university
degree, with the exception of student counsellors who are required to have
professional qualification in counselling. Professional development and formal
preparatory programmes are still in its infancy stage.

All public universities are headed by a deputy vice-chancellor and, in the case of
university colleges, by a deputy rector. A dean and/or deputy registrar with a number
of student affairs personnel assist them in overseeing or coordinating the activities of
various sections including student life and development, accommodation, counselling,
career, student discipline and judicial services. Residential colleges and their activities,
which are also under the purview of the deputy vice-chancellor/deputy rector, are
headed by college masters who are faculty members and assisted by fellows who are
from the academia and career administrators. These officers are appointed for a fixed
term and compensated, among other privileges, with free accommodation in
residential colleges.

While the original purpose of the department was regulatory in nature, the presentday challenge and approach is geared more towards the development of students.
Student services work, as a whole, is at the periphery of the overall university
organizational setting in terms of its importance. However, student development and
the goal towards producing holistic, quality students, given the demands of
globalization, have gained importance. Soft skills modules are embedded in the formal
curriculum teaching as a catalyst towards producing 'market fit' students. Generally,
student affairs personnel and administrators enjoy less recognition and status than do
academics. They could be deployed to other administrative departments as student
affairs work is seen as a generalist function. With the emphasis on student
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development of late, more funding is available for student-related and developmental

activities. In the quest to promote student development and total education,
departments have formed alliances and partnerships with faculty members and
various agencies.
Faculty members are appointed to various student bodies as mentors to give valueadded input and to enrich student life in campus. With increasing intake of
international students of diverse culture and understanding, departments of student
affairs need to take innovative approaches in dealing with student problems.

In public universities, the student affairs has a secretariat of deputy vicechancellor/vice-rectors which provides a forum to deal with student-related issues.
This secretariat, which also reports to the Ministry of Higher Education, is a central
forum that seeks to coordinate and regulate student-related matters generally, while
they are free to depart on operational aspects. There is no website for the secretariat.

Not available; however, articles and conference proceedings are available on the Asia
Pacific Student Services Association website at:
z
http://home.ust.hk/~sanet/apssa.htm.
Write-ups and presentations on student affairs and services in Malaysian universities

and colleges have been reported in NASPA publications and the 2008 NASPA
International Symposium.
Mexico
Jess Enrique Ramos Resndiz and Santiago Castiello
The Mexican higher education sector, both private and public, has provided student
services in an organized way for a long time. However, there are few higher education
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institutions that provide these services through a well-developed and professionalized

student affairs division. The structure and ways through which student affairs provide
student services is, as expected, heavily dependent on factors such as size, budget and
institutional mission, among others. Despite the significance of the student services
provided by student affairs in Mexico, it can be argued that in most Mexican higher
education institutions student affairs is far from reaching its full potential.

The most common services offered by student affairs offices in both private and
public Institutions are: varsity and intramural sports, cultural activities, student
organizations, counselling, drug prevention, food services, student transportation,
student health/medical services, career services, alumni relationships and registrar.
Other not so common services offered mainly by some private institutions include
housing, parent-related programmes, transportation services and student web
services.
Probably the most significant difference between student affairs in Mexico and other
countries is related to the professional development of its staff members. For
example, in the United States and Europe, most of the areas that constitute student
affairs are members of professional associations corresponding to their fields of
expertise. Being a member of these associations provides staff members with
opportunities for professional development such as the following: networking
possibilities with peers from a wide variety of higher education institutions that share
their same area of expertise, contact with senior staff members that provides them
with expert advice regarding specific matters, access to books and journals with stateof-the-art practices in their field and career services opportunities that increase their
mobility opportunities outside their own institution and thus further their professional
career. Most of these opportunities are not necessarily available for student affairs
staff members in Mexico.
There are few areas within student affairs in Mexico that have the possibility of
providing student personnel with the abovementioned opportunities. Among those
are counselling and health services, which, because of their nature, are already
professionalized areas. To some extent, both sports and cultural activities staff
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members have some of these opportunities through workshops and occasional

conferences addressing some specific issues. However, these workshops and
conferences are not necessarily targeted to higher education institutions and as a
result the knowledge gained might not be readily applicable to students.
It is clear that student affairs in Mexico, in general, is far from reaching a point at which
its student affairs staff members have access to state-of-the-art training and
development programmes. Although this has a significant impact on the professional
development of student personnel, more importantly, it might seriously affect the
quality of the services provided to students.

A typical student services division consists of number of departments (sports, cultural
activities, career services, student organizations, etc), with the coordinator of each
department reporting to a director for student affairs/services. In most cases, the head
of the student affairs/services division reports directly to the campus president.

Some of the most important issues faced by student affairs in Mexico are the
following:
z
The lack of both state and national professional associations regarding student
affairs.
The need for academic preparation programmes for student affairs personnel
at both the master's and doctoral level.
The lack of research regarding student-affairs-related issues within the Mexican

higher education context.
The need to assess the impact of student services in the students' learning
process.
The lack of any kind of government agency or department inside the national
education secretariat devoted to and specialized in student affairs.
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Morocco
Mohamed Ouakrime
With 14 universities (83 institutions), an average yearly growth of 5.3 per cent and a
student population of over 290,000 in 2005, the Moroccan higher education system
is facing up to challenges of the kind characteristic of most developing nations.
Student affairs services in the Moroccan university system were the responsibility of
a central department of the Ministry of Higher Education up until the implementation
of the 2001 Reform that introduced relative autonomy and made the management
of student affairs and services relatively decentralized. In 2001, the Office national des
uvres universitaires sociales et culturelles (ONOUSC), the equivalent of French
CNOUS and CROUS was set up as part of the reform of the Moroccan system of
higher education to provide students with housing, meals, medical care, scholarships,
and cultural and sports activities.

The department responsible for student affairs at the Ministry of Higher Education
(Department of Student Affairs and Social Action) is made up of three divisions that
provide various services:
246
The Scholarship Division (home students, graduate students and students

abroad). Higher education is free and approximately one-third of the students
receives a state scholarship to cover living expenses.
The Sports and Social Affairs Division (housing and catering services, inspection
and programming of university sports, university healthcare services and social
action services)
The Information and Documentation Division (student information services,

university information, documentation services and publication services).
The Irshad Attalib (student counselling) centres are institutions intended to fulfil
four main functions as services for students:
1.
Welcoming, informing and orienting students concerning academic learning,

training programmes and scholarships for studies in Morocco and in other
countries, as well as career orientation.
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2.
Collecting and making available information on studies, scholarships and careers.
3.
Publishing and disseminating information supports concerning studies in higher

education, training programmes and employment opportunities.
4.
Organizing and conducting information sessions about studies and training

programmes, and conferences and forums at the local, regional and national
levels.
The staff involved in providing student services are considered as state employees
(fonctionnaires) who, in most cases, are not required to hold special qualifications
related to their functions in a given department or division within the administration.
Quite a number of them are former primary- or secondary-school teachers who hold
a baccalaureate or a B.A. degree with no relation to any of the functions they may be
called upon to perform as student affairs personnel. No university degree or training
programme specifically targeted to prepare graduates for a career in the student
affairs/services is available in the system of higher education in Morocco.

In most institutions, the office of student affairs/services is headed by a senior
personnel officer (General Secretary or registrar) who reports to the dean and who
is responsible for registration, the administrative organization of exams, cultural and
sports activities, etc.
The ONOUSC is a financially autonomous institution, administered by a council made
up of representatives of the Ministry of Higher Education and of the presidents of
universities. It is managed by a director appointed by the Ministry of Higher Education.

z
As demonstrated by the budget allocated to the provision of student services

(11.5 per cent of the budget of the Ministry of Higher Education), this
component is not high on the agenda of decision makers.
The existing infrastructure provides accommodation and other amenities for no

more than 30 per cent of the student population; housing, catering and health
care facilities need to be modernized and extended.
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The inability of student affairs/services staff to provide adequate psychological

and counselling services due to their lack of training in such areas.
The obvious lack of coordination between teaching/learning and student

affairs/services.
As demonstrated by research on this issue, all these problems have contributed in

a direct way to the appalling rates of attrition (up to 75 per cent in some
institutions) that have plagued Moroccan higher education ever since its inception.

z
Education: http://www.tarbiya.ma/
Irshad Attalib: http://www.dfc.gov.ma/CIAT/droite.htm
Ministry of Higher Education: http://www.dfc.gov.ma/
Morocco higher education:

http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/inhea/profiles/Morocco.htm
Morocco Universities: http://www.findaschool.org/index.php?Country=Morocco
ONOUSC: http://www.dfc.gov.ma/
http://www.jamiati.ma/Etudiants/vie_etudiante/cites/Pages/cites_accueil.aspx

z
Publications: http://www.dfc.gov.ma/
http://www.etudiant.ma
New Zealand
Jan Stewart
Established student service groups in New Zealand universities have been here for
over 20 to 25 years. The extension of services took place largely when the widening
of access to tertiary institutions occurred in the 1980s. There are 31 tertiary
institutions (8 universities, 20 polytechnics and 3 wanangas) in New Zealand with
about a student population of 448,000.
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Though there is institutional variance, student services mainly consists of a mix of the
following service groups - student health and counselling; learning services including
mentoring; disability services and equity programmes; child care; student housing;
career development and employment; recreation; financial aid and advice; student
administration; retention and transition/orientation programmes; and international.
Services are funded through universities operational grants but are supported also
through a student services levy paid directly by students plus commercial income and
government subsidies for health, child care, disability, and Maori and Pacific
programmes.
Qualifications for student services staff depend on the role of the staff member, but
most positions require a tertiary degree qualification and the appropriate professional
qualifications and experience. There is currently no dedicated student services
education programme or career pathway but student services professional groups are
looking at the possibilities in this area.

many student services are grouped together and, through a director of that group,
report to the teaching and learning pro vice chancellor or equivalent.

The wider issues in Australia and New Zealand inevitably revolve around the
following:
z
Uncertainty of funding and pressure in some institutions facing financial

cutbacks; the business model where client replaces student.
Managing the changing needs of student cohorts and dealing with the issues
that these bring. This includes increasing mental health issues and more diverse
student groups as well as the higher demand and expectations of generation
'Y' students.
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Mainstream recognition of the importance of the role of student services in

student success in universities; avoiding marginalization and knowing how to
show we make a difference.
Professional skills development through professional organizations

The pivotal organization for student services and centre for publications in Australia
and New Zealand is ANZSSA:
z
http://www.adcet.edu.au/anzssa/
Other groups are also important such as:

z
ATLAANZ (association of professionals working in learning advisory roles in

tertiary institutions in Aotearoa)
http://www.atlaanz.org/index.php?page=home
University Careers Advisers of New Zealand (UCANZ), part of Career

Practitioners Association of New Zealand (CPANZ):
http://www.cpanz.org.nz/cpanz_home.php

Research is undertaken by a number of student services staff and this is a growing
area that provides valuable data for practice. Further information may be obtained
from ANZSSA.
Pakistan
Faisal Ferozali Notta
Pakistan is a young country that got its independence in 1947. At the time of
independence Pakistan had only one higher education institution (World Education
News and Reviews).
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Currently there are 124 public and private universities in Pakistan. Recognition of these
universities is based on criteria set by the Higher Education Commission in Pakistan.
The Higher Education Commission was set up by the Government of Pakistan to
enable local universities to become world-class centres of education, research and
development. With the recent trend of globalization, a few overseas universities, in
partnership with local universities, are establishing their campuses in Pakistan. Some
international university campuses in Pakistan are not recognized by the Higher
Education Commission; as they do not fulfil the set criteria. To address the need to
enhance the quality of higher education in terms of teaching, research, student
enrolment numbers, facilities and services, the Higher Education Commission recently
developed and shared the criteria on which universities are ranked in Pakistan.
International students in Pakistan are drawn from developing countries such as:
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, the Syrian Arab Republic and other
Middle East countries, Tajikistan, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania.
The Government of Pakistan does not have official, designated student affairs offices.
As a result, no prescribed students affairs programmes or activities are set by the
Government. However, with the increasing need for student affairs services and
programmes, it is becoming a defined area at higher education institutions in Pakistan,
particularly in the private sector and to some extent in public sector. In 2001/2002
the Government of Pakistan started to provide interest-free education loans to
students through local banks. All student affairs offices facilitate student learning and
development.
By 2008, not all universities in Pakistan had student affairs offices as uniform units. The
responsibilities of student affairs are divided among various offices of the university,
e.g., academic administrative offices, educational management office, programme
office, student support services office, admission office and communication centres.
Some services that are purely administrative such as dining, housing and
transportation are handled by general administration offices.

The primary goals for student affairs services are student recruitment, admissions,
academic record-keeping, course scheduling, academic progression, grades, elective
courses, examination administration, transcript production, management support to
academic committees, and student financial assistance, grants and scholarships.
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In a larger perspective, student affairs practitioners design orientation programmes for

each new intake of students, organize English-language support courses, take a lead
role in policy implementation, make recommendations in policy-making, provide
student counselling, support field work activities for courses, and play an active role
in internal and external examination, course and facilitator evaluation, programme
evaluations, quality assurance, summer internship activities for students, international
students services, convocation, opening and graduation ceremonies, student
development activities and student social engagement activities.
Student affairs is not yet fully developed and recognized as a career in Pakistan.
Current practitioners who work in student affairs offices have diverse educational
backgrounds. They possess higher education degrees in areas such as education and
international development, psychology, business administration, counselling and public
administration. Staff serving in counselling have relevant qualifications specific to their
fields of practice. There is no degree programme specifically focused on student affairs
as a career destination. As more people enrol in higher education, professionals in
student affairs will be needed.
Organizational structure of student affairs

In general, the registrar is head of the student affairs office. The position is supported
by associate and assistant registrars. The registrar has a reporting relationship to the
provost or rector of the university, while the assistant registrar has a dotted-line
relationship to deans and directors who are academic heads of specific entities. The
residential or campus life of student is considered a very important part of university
education. Only very few private universities are deliberating on this important aspect
and where to place the head of student affairs within the organizational structure.
Issues and challenges for student affairs

In order to recognize the area of student affairs, student affairs professionals need to
be given considerable priority by the academic side of the university. The student
affairs professionals play major roles in students' lives while they study and prepare
them for overall success.
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Furthermore, changing student profiles, and exposure to media and the internet
create challenges calling for the services of student affairs. The recent trend of
internationalization of higher education further adds to the challenge of the need for
qualified professionals in area of student affairs. There are no ready-made markettrained student affairs professionals available. A great challenge is to prepare and train
in-house personnel for the student affairs profession as no such courses are available
in this area.
Websites of student affairs/services professional associations

There is no national professional association of student affairs in Pakistan. Student
affairs services and programmes can be found at most university websites.

There is little or no research on student affairs practice in Pakistan published in
academic journals. However, with the growing demand to publish, development of
research is required in student affairs in Pakistan.
Some of the important websites that provide details of higher education in Pakistan
and financial loans, grants and scholarships for students are as follows:
z
Higher Education Commission in Pakistan http://www.hec.gov.pk/main/abouthec.htm
Ministry of Education, Pakistan - http://www.moe.gov.pk
Student Loans - http://www.paklease.com/index/student_loans.htm
Private universities in Pakistan - http://www.wes.org/ewenr/05jan/feature.htm
Reference
World Education News and Review, January/February 2005, Volume 18, Issue 1.
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Peru
Bertha Yolanda Quesihuallpa De La Sota
Peru has some 91 private and public universities, accredited and in the process of
accreditation. They offer 162 undergraduate programmes, according to the most
recent census of the Asamblea Nacional de Rectores del Per. There is a population
of 568,095 students.
Since the process of the educational reform in Peru (1940-1945), the recent Oficina
de Bienestar Universitario was recognized as the Oficina de Servicios Generales. This
is true at the oldest universities in Peru such as the Universidad Mayor de San Marcos
in Lima (1551) and La Universidad Nacional San Antonio Abad del Cusco (1692).
Currently, most of the universities in Peru have an office of student support. This
dates from 1940 and its objective is to promote and facilitate the academic success
of students in higher education.

The universities chosen as a sample for this report have the following common
services:
254
1.
Scholarships, with or without financial aid (reserved for students of good

academic standing, disadvantaged family and socio-economic status, sports skills,
and orphans, and agreements with other institutions).
2.
Health centres: medical/dental and psychological services, and personal

counselling.
3.
Academic support: professional orientation and specialization for post-graduate

studies through national and international programmes, psychological counselling,
partnerships with international universities for student exchange programmes,
advice for international students, employment, internships, and pre-professional
practices, library, labs, computer and language labs, internet and conference
rooms.
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Philippines
Bella M.Villanueva
As of December 2007, there are 2,016 higher education institutions in the Philippines:
522 public and 1,494 private universities/colleges with a student enrolment that
ranges from 50 to 50,000 per institution. Most of these institutions have student
affairs offices, albeit with different names. The mission of student affairs offices,
generally, is to provide support to the academic and research functions of the
university. The number of student affairs personnel varies according to the
organizational structure.

Specific programmes and services include supervision of student activities, counselling
and guidance, scholarships and financial assistance, health services, food service,
residence halls, learning assistance, international student services, student publications,
testing and placement/career services, student discipline and student development
programmes.
No formal academic training in student affairs administration is available in the
Philippines. However, a few graduate schools do offer student affairs as an area of
specialization in the master's programme in education. Hence, student affairs
administrators and staff come from various disciplines, with at least a bachelor's
degree. It is common that some administrators or heads of student affairs offices have
master's or doctoral degrees. Heads of student affairs offices are usually faculty
members.

In general, the head of a student affairs office is a dean or director of student affairs
reporting to a vice-president or a chancellor, depending on the structure of the
university. A few will be reporting directly to the head of the institution. Likewise, the
number of 'sections' that provide services to students within a student affairs office
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varies, depending on the structure of the college/university. Some student affairs

offices do not have sections. In 2006, the Commission on Higher Education
prescribed various services or programmes that each student affairs office should
provide and they fall under two main categories: 'student welfare' and 'student
development'.

Student services work in the Philippines has always played the supportive role in the
teaching and research functions of colleges and universities. As such, the student
affairs practitioners are given a lower status than academic personnel. Lack of funds
and limited facilities/services and staff is a common problem among public higher
institutions. Another challenge is the variation in position titles used for the head of
student affairs offices.

The professional association of student affairs administrators is known as the
Philippine Association of Administrators of Student Affairs (PAASA, Inc.). Established
in 1994, PAASA, Inc. is very active in the Asia Pacific Student Services Association
(APSSA). At present, there are seven regional chapters: National Capital Region,
Regions II, III, IV, V, XI and Cordillera Administrative Region. Each year, PAASA, Inc.
holds a convention to tackle issues affecting student affairs/services in addition to what
the regional chapters do. The PAASA, Inc. website is still under development.
z
APSSA - at http://home.ust.hk/~sanet/apssa.htm

There are none currently. However, PAASA, Inc. has created the Journal on Student
Affairs Administration, although of late no issues have been published.
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Portugal
Osvaldo Regua
Students Affairs (SA) of the Polytechnic Institute of Bragana is an organization which
provides services for students of all schools from this Institute. It is directly responsible
for the food service in canteens and bars, residences, scholarships, culture, sport,
medical support, socio-psychological support, in perspective of improving the
conditions of those who study in the Institute, specially the students in need of
money.
The SA, created by the Government, exists since 1993; it has financial and
administrative autonomy.

Scholarship. The SA gives scholarships to their students and the amount of them
depends on the economic resources of each one. Every year, students have to apply
for them at the SA's scholarship department, filling in the application forms or
applying by the Internet. All declarations have to be justified. Scholarships are given
by the Government taking account of economic situation, grades and special
conditions, applying established rules. The non-refunded benefits are awarded
monthly, in money. The SA can also provide residence, transport and traineeship
funds, among others.
Besides SA Scholarships, students can apply for other scholarships from Calouste
Gulbenkian Foundation, the regional government of Madeira and Azores, city halls
and other foundations.
Residence. For students from out of town, the SA has rooms in their own residences,
equipped with kitchen, study rooms, laundry, telephone, television, internet,
photocopy machine, etc. These rooms are provided as a function of the amount of
the student's scholarship, any urgent situations and the distance from the parental
home. Payment is deducted from the scholarship. The SA also provides private
homes for those who cannot stay in the residences.
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Food. The SA has a central canteen for campus, and a bar in each school, as well as a
canteen in Mirandela School. The canteens are run directly by the SA. The canteen
in Bragana has three rooms with several meals available, with prices ranging from 2
to 5 . To go to the canteens, students have to bring some school identification (a
student identification card). Meals are also available at school bars.
For some students, it is possible to have work part-time in the canteens or residences
or do some other services as collaborators, for some pay.
Culture and sport. The SA is associated with the Studentenwerk of Munich, Germany,
and with the 'Azienda Regionale per il Dirittoallo Studio Universitrio de Florena',
Italy, to encourage student mobility and cultural exchanges, and organize study visits
for students from Germany and Italy. These cultural contacts are made reciprocally
without any costs to students, except the trips.
Students' associations find SA an important ally when they are looking for sponsors
to common parties and festivals, such as Academic Week, the First Year Students
Week, Queima das Fitas (Final Academic Year Celebration), Magustos (a special
occasion when people celebrate the beginning of the chestnut season), etc.
Feminine and Masculine Tunas (band formed by students, singing traditional songs and
using traditional instruments) are associations of great reputation, not only in Portugal,
but also in foreign countries, and the Polytechnic Institute of Bragnais proud of their
achievements.
The SA has expressed a special interest in sport events, theatre, music and journalism,
providing direct and indirect financial support.
Medical and socio-psychological support. The health office was inaugurated in March
2007 with consultations in the social and psychological areas. This office is formed by
three psychologists, two social assistants and three nurses. They support students in
terms of psychological and social problems, drugs addiction and family planning. These
supports are available to any student who asks for it and, as long as the student shows
some financial difficulties, it will be free of charge.
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Qatar
Abdulla Al-Thani and Dennis Roberts
The Qatar Foundation for Education, Science, and Community Development is a
private, chartered, non-profit organization, founded by Sheikh Hamad Bin Khalifa AlThani, Emir of Qatar. Guided by the principle that a nation's greatest resource is the
potential of its people, Qatar Foundation aims to develop that potential through a
network of centres devoted to progressive education, research and community
development.
While Qatar Foundation funds and oversees a variety of programmes and entities,
one of the major projects of the Foundation is Education City, a one-of-a-kind centre
for higher education in Doha, Qatar. Education City is a collection of world-renowned
universities including, at present, Virginia Commonwealth University, Cornell
University, Texas A&M University, Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown
University and Northwestern University. These six partner institutions (and more to
be added in the future) contribute their best academic programmes to the students
of Education City in order to provide the students of Qatar, the Arabian Gulf, and
other countries around the world, the chance to study together in one place with the
world's greatest universities. Admission standards, curriculum and the collegiate
experience for students at the partner institutions are identical to those of the home
campuses.
The work of student affairs is a distributed and shared responsibility among Education
City-Branch partners and the Qatar Foundation. The low faculty-to-student ratio
provides the opportunity for very high levels of interaction. Active pedagogical
approaches are used both in and out of class, and the role of student affairs staff is to
be catalysts for deeper learning everywhere.

A full array of student affairs services and programmes has been available to the
students of Education City for about 10 years. The unique institutional culture of each
Education City-Branch partner is created by staff members who focus specifically on
their own students. For example, Carnegie Mellon University provides a Meeting of
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the Minds poster session where students' individual or group research work is
displayed in a conference setting. Northwestern University provides opportunities for
students to learn about media by being involved in producing a student newspaper.
Other programmes such as intramural sports, Education City-wide speakers and
programmes, and leadership development opportunities such as the LeaderShape
Institute are provided cooperatively across all the branches and with the support of
Qatar Foundation staff. Services such as testing, financial aid, counselling and health,
and residence halls are provided by Qatar Foundation, and students from all
campuses are intermingled in their living experiences.
Because Education City is so new, many of the relationships and programmes are still
emerging. A commitment that Qatar Foundation and the Education City-Branches
have made is to constantly seek the most effective and efficient means to provide the
programmes and services that are so necessary to enhancing student learning and
development. The other commitment that Qatar Foundation and Education CityBranch student affairs staff members make is to keep faculty involved in the lives of
students. Student affairs serves as a catalyst in retaining a commitment to holistic
learning among all faculty and staff.
Staff members of Qatar Foundation and the Education City-Branches come from a
variety of backgrounds. Two factors influence this; 1) Branches frequently hire staff or
faculties who have been advocates for student engagement back at the base campus
and 2) the purpose of Qatar Foundation is to develop the capacity of the Qatari
people. The first factor results in Branch personnel who may emerge through work
with student affairs at the home campus, rather than directly from those who have
been trained in student affairs work itself. The capacity-building goal is essential to the
future of the Education City initiative so every opportunity is used to identify Qatari
staff who might be interested in studying student affairs work or higher education in
general.
Partnerships are being developed to provide Qatari staff with the opportunity to
pursue advanced degrees in student affairs. Education City also serves as a site for
graduate students who seek internship-abroad opportunities. An ongoing staff
learning community provides the opportunity for on-the-job development as well.
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The Qatar Foundation and the Education City-Branches establish agreements that
serve as a guide for the academic courses and co-curricular programmes students will
experience. The Qatar Foundation has a staff member in the faculty and student
services area who coordinates key student services. The Education-City Branches
each have additional student affairs staff members who provide co-curricular
opportunities focused on their own students. Where appropriate and desired,
Education City-Branches cooperate with one another and with the Qatar Foundation
in providing programmes for all students.

The Qatar Foundation initiative is one of a kind. Other campuses are being established
elsewhere in the Middle East and Asia that involve education institutions from the
United States and Europe. It appears that there are no other institutions in which the
admission requirements are identical, the curriculum the same and where students
receive degrees comparable to those of the home base campus. Education CityBranch campuses provide some of the highest quality and most rigorous programmes
in the world, providing higher education to the best-prepared and most able students
in their home country, rather than having to study abroad in other settings.
The purpose of the Qatar Foundation is to attract and sustain relationships with
world-renowned institutions and to provide them autonomy in creating the base
campus experiences for students in Qatar. Qatar Foundation also seeks to create
connections, integration and synergy across the Education City-Branches. Maintaining
a commitment to autonomous collaboration that makes both autonomy and synergy
possible requires constant monitoring and vigilance.
Highly rigorous academic experiences require commensurate student affairs support
systems. Students who are highly dedicated to excellence in learning have high
expectations of services such as residences, food, health, counselling, career advising
and others. Providing consistent excellence across such a breadth of institutional
functions is difficult and costly. Due to the unique organizational model of Education
City, the strategies and approaches employed to fulfil the vision of Qatar Foundation
must also be unique. As a young institution, all systems and models are being
established simultaneously.
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Qatar Foundation is providing transnational, rigorous educational experiences for its

students. Students who are attracted to this type of learning environment come from
broad national, cultural, governmental and socio-economic circumstances. The
tensions that emerge from intermingling such a diverse student body are both exciting
and challenging. Managing the inevitable differences of perspective requires highly
skilled and mature students, staff and faculty.

z
Qatar Foundation homepage - http://www.qf.org.qa

Publications and research efforts are just beginning and will be available on the general
Qatar Foundation website as well as individual Education-City Branch partner sites.
Addendum
Emily Yates
The concept of student affairs and services is a relatively recent trend in Qatar. There
is one public university in Qatar (Qatar University) and several other higher education
institutional affiliate partners from the United States and Canada. There are
approximately 13,000 university students in Qatar, including 9,000 at Qatar University
and the other 4,000 spread among the international institutions. Qatar University is
approximately 84 per cent Qatari; Education City has about 2,000 students and 45
nationalities across its affiliate institutions with approximately 50 per cent of the
population Qatari. With the exception of Qatar University, all other higher education
institutions have been in operation for less than 11 years.
The universities that make up Education City have been working closely with their
counterparts in the United States to establish important services and programmes
such as student activities, leadership development, disability services, counselling,
athletics, a student code of conduct, etc. In addition, universities have been working
to share with students the rich history and traditions of the home campuses.
Education City is unique in that the Qatar Foundation manages residence life and
campus-wide events.
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The qualifications/training of student affairs professionals in Qatar varies widely.

Each university has placed emphasis on different criteria, so that no two
universities have the same qualifications. Some staff members have degrees in
student affairs or a related field, but some come from business or psychology
backgrounds. Some professionals have been hired based on their degrees from the
granting institutions, while for others it is their experience in the gulf region and
working with Arab students. There have been some professional development
opportunities offered for student affairs practitioners in Qatar and this trend is
very likely to continue.
Typically, the head of the student services area is a director or assistant dean reporting
to an associate dean or dean of the college.
A major challenge facing universities in Qatar is the lack of identification with a
university. The institutions have a large commuter population, so there is not the
built-in community that residence halls often provide. Education has the added
challenge of bringing together several diverse and unique institutions all under the
Qatar Foundation umbrella.
Russian Federation
Natalia V. Ralyk
Student life is a complex, complicated and many-sided process including academic,
scientific, personal, creative and leisure aspects to name a few. In order to develop a
student and prepare a professional specialist, much attention is paid to students'
extracurricular life in Russian universities. Student affairs services are distributed
among and administered by various administrative and academic units of higher
education institutions (commonly known as extra-educational students' activities
departments). As an integrated part of the university process, they create student
learning through programmes and services that promote leadership, development
and tolerance, and that communicate the values and standards of the university
community.
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The concept of student affairs/services as a formal institutionalized single unit is a fairly

new trend in the Russian Federation. It is very difficult to make any generalizations
about higher education institutions in the Russian Federation, so additional research
is necessary. This report is based on description of current practices in the country's
leading
universities
(for
further
information
refer
to
http://new.hse.ru/sites/international_mobil/partners_en.aspx

Russian higher education institutions have well-developed systems of extracurricular
activities for/with students, which are run by special divisions for extracurricular
activities. They are typically led by vice presidents and associate vice presidents at the
university level, and deans in faculties. The main goal of these divisions is any work for
and with students that leads to their personal and professional advancement.
Objectives of these divisions include the following:
z
Commitment to extraordinary learning by students, staff and community

members - both within and outside the universities.
Support for enterprising students and engagement with the world.
Current and future trends affecting students and campus life to meet students'
needs.
Support of students' self-governance and initiatives.
Ensuring social protection of students.
Financial aid information assistance.
Pre-admission and post-admission orientation.
Alumni affairs.
Academic departments are responsible for academic admission, advising, registration

and records. Students' academic life is guide lined through general rules and
regulations and academic and examinations rules. The system of advisers (curators) is
very well developed. Students' extracurricular life is commonly carried out through
student representative councils, a variety of clubs and different units (choirs, chorales,
consorts, skiffle-groups, and companies). Athletics receives considerable attention.
The student support network includes career development and counselling, student
health clinic, scholarship and financial assistance, health insurance and medical
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treatment. Student services also includes accommodation, facilities, dining halls,

advisory services, university preparatory services, study abroad programmes,
programmes for international students. They are offered through various
administrative units and centres for students' development at higher education
institutions.
Advocacy of students' rights is primary a goal of the students' union/students'
governance body. The student council is represented in every state university and
many private institutions. In addition to advocacy, its activities include disseminating
information about available financial aid; overseeing fair student housing
administration, assisting students searching for jobs, recreational activities, etc.
Student affairs senior administrators hold kandidanauk degrees (Ph.D.), usually in
humanities. Middle-level administrators have diplomas of higher education
(university). Student services staff are typically administrators with relevant
qualifications specific to their fields of practice. No degree programme specifically
focused on student affairs is offered in the Russian Federation. Consequently, there is
a need for professional education programmes to train student affairs administrators.

The organizational structure varies in different higher education institutions mirroring
their sizes, needs and requirements. Typically, the vice-president for extracurricular
activities coordinates the work of the departments for extracurricular activities. This
includes coordinating academic and extracurricular activities, enhancing students' selfgovernance and protecting the students' rights and social guarantees. This
organizational structure (whatever name it has) is aimed at contributing to the general
mission of the universities by providing an opportunity for students to develop their
lives, becoming enlightened citizens and contributors to their country. This goal is
accomplished by planning and administering services that contribute to the learning
environment and augment the functions of teaching, research, creative scholarship
and public service.
Senior positions such as the dean of students typically do not exist. Their functions
and responsibilities are distributed among the deans of faculties. Each faculty is headed
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by the dean who is responsible for students' academic and extracurricular activities.
The dean's main role is directly support the faculty, department programmes, and
students to facilitate their obtaining an education. There may be some assistant deans
responsible for different fields of student services.
Russian universities tend to administer their international cooperation and work with
international students through a separate unit. For example, it may be an office for
development of international relations at the State University - High School of
Economics. Typically, the office for international affairs provides assistance to
international students in the following: admission, Russian language instruction,
housing, pre-departure orientation and legal status guidance. There also may be
special offices, centres and groups. They report to the vice-president for international
affairs. Office staff may include an international students affairs coordinator, student
and faculty advisors, and educational and post-graduate international programmes
advisors.

The main issues and challenges of the Russian higher education system centre on how
to effectively assure the integration of the Russian higher education system into the
European higher education area, launched by the Bologna Declaration, as well as into
the European research context. The integration and protection of the own interests
raise many questions. What is the role of the university in this process? Which
strategies of universities are the most effective? What is the role and place of student
affairs/services? A more unified and institutionalized approach is needed for student
affairs in the Russian Federation. Further research into student affairs and current
practices across the higher education sector is necessary.

All Russian universities provide student affairs/services, often under the name of
extracurricular activities. A few websites are listed below:
266
Moscow State University - http://www.msu.ru/students/
Novosibirsk State University - http://www.nsu.ru/english/campus/facilities.xml
Tomsk Polytechnic University - http://iie.tpu.ru/pages_en/4_student_affairs.php
Tomsk State University - http://www.tsu.ru/Webdesign/TSU/coreen.nsf
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Saint-Petersburg State University http://www.spbu.ru/e/Intaffairs/exchange/students.html
Saratov State University http://www.sgu.ru/english/administration/rectorate/mitrokhin.php
State University - Higher School of Economics:

http://www.hse.ru/org/hse/studentlife/index.html
State University - The Higher School of Economics in Nizhny Novgorod:
http://hse.nnov.ru/student_life/index.html
Ural State Technical University - http://ustu.ru/?sid=5&sub=1924#pt
Irkutsk State Railway Transport University - http://www.irgups.ru
Far Eastern National University - http://www.fenu.ru/
For current practices in the leading universities, go to

z
http://new.hse.ru/sites/international_mobil/partners_en.aspxl

Great attention is paid to research on different aspects of extracurricular activities for
and with students in high education institutions. There is a special federal educational
website with links to different resources including journals, books, dissertations,
various research centres, internet resources, conferences, glossary, etc.
z
http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/univman/msg/244364.html
Saudi Arabia
Rania Mohammed Ibrahim
Important Notification from the author: The information below is necessarily
pertaining to the context of Effat College and does not represent the status of
student affairs in Saudi Arabia. For more information about the status of the student
affairs kingdom-wide, the researcher needs to communicate directly with the ministry
of higher education through Professor Walid Al-Daly at one of the following websites:
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http://www.mohe.gov.sa/Arabic/Pages/default.aspx or:
http://www.mohe.gov.sa/ENGLISH/EDUCATION/Pages/default.aspx
Background information on student affairs

Saudi Arabia is the largest and most oil-rich country. All Saudi students have access
to higher education paid for by the government. In addition, a monthly allowance is
provided by the university regardless of the student academic performance.
Private higher education is the Kingdom started to grow in the past ten years and is
continuing to expand steadily to meet the increasing demand for qualified labour in
one of the most booming economies in the world. Currently, the number of
institutions in the Kingdom seeking affiliations with American or European universities
is increasing and the number of partnerships is expected to grow with the
establishment of more private institutions. The student affairs role varies from one
institution to another, from private to public, and from one region to another. In
general, student affairs practices are mainly dedicated to the development of students
outside the classroom.
A recent study, conducted by Dr Al-Shaman, an associate professor at the University
of King Saud, College of Education, and published by the Ministry of Higher Education,
explains the need for developing the student affairs senior administration particularly
in women's universities and colleges in specific areas more than in others.
The active roles and importance of responsibilities associated with deputy heads are
social, followed by academic and finally administrative; the deputy department heads
in administrative development worked in areas of computer use, time management
and stress management. The improvements least needed were in the areas of conflict
management, feasibility studies and the art of negotiations. (Al-Shaman, 2006)

Student affairs usually oversees admissions and registration, personal counselling,
sports and recreational activities. Less frequently, student affairs will provide quasiacademic support services, community work and career and professional
development.
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The notion of qualification or training is quite new in the field of student affairs. Most
of the appointed staff have advanced degrees in education but not in the area of
student development. Training in most cases is needed for student affairs
administration staff.
Organizational structure of student affairs services

Student affairs offices are usually represented by deanships or vice deanships in
universities and colleges, under which the areas of enrolment and scholarships,
student life and career development are represented in the organization. Student
affairs staff turnover is characterized as stable.
Issues and challenges for student affairs

On a professional level, student affairs professionals, as part of education institutions,
are faced with the necessity to structure their work, to present policies and
procedures, and develop strategic planning to seek accreditation via the National
Committee for Academic Accreditation and Assessment. This step is a requirement
for seeking worldwide accreditation.
On a pragmatic level, students' guardians' expectations of student affairs exceed that
of developmental educators. The guardians usually expect a parental role and
guidance for their daughters/sons from the education institution. To them, this
contributes to the level of care given to the student. In spite of the burden that it
apparently places on the administration, especially with greater numbers of students,
student affairs offices undertake this role willingly, since it is a cultural demand.
Furthermore, it is quite an influential service in the evaluation of the institution
performance.

The Ministry of Higher Education website serves as a hub for student information
kingdom-wide:
z
http://www.mohe.gov.sa/Arabic/Pages/default.aspx
http://www.mohe.gov.sa/ENGLISH/EDUCATION/Pages/default.aspx
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Reference
z
Al-Shaman. 2006. The Saudi Journal of Higher Education, No. 4, Issue 2, RajabThoulhegea 1427H, September.
Singapore
Suan Eng
Student affairs programmes and management in higher education in Singapore
became viable in the late 1990s. Student affairs offices share the common mission of
providing students with services and programmes aimed at enriching campus student
life. Currently, the three state-funded universities and five polytechnics in Singapore
have a combined student enrolment of 135,000, supported by about 400 student
services personnel.

Services and programmes include advising student organizations and organizing
student activities, student counselling services, careers and employment services,
personal development services, student housing services, international student
services, sports and recreation, and student health service (not necessarily a part of
the student affairs/services office).
Student services personnel are mainly administrators who have at least one university
degree, whereas personnel in counselling and physical education have relevant
qualifications specific to their fields of practice. There are no formal academic
preparation programmes for student affairs generalists. In recent years, there has been
a trend to appoint academic staff as deans of students and heads of student affairs
departments.
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Typically, the head of a student affairs operation is the dean of students, most often
reporting to the educational leader of the institution such as the vice provost for
education. The dean of students usually supervises two or three sections which often
include student life, housing/accommodation and sports/recreation. In student
residential life, it is common to appoint a faculty member or an administrative staff to
serve as the residential advisor. Students are appointed as residential assistants to help
organize activities for residents. These administrators are appointed for a fixed terms
and are compensated with free accommodation in student residences.

Student services work has not been given much priority by senior management as the
leadership generally focuses more on academic excellence than student life.
Administrators generally receive less recognition and are perceived to have a lower
status. They can also be redeployed to other administrative departments. Funding for
student services work is also limited, with student organizations having to seek
external sponsorships for many of their major events. There is a growing trend for
student affairs practitioners to be regarded as 'law enforcement officers', expected to
discipline students rather than serving as student advocates. Student affairs
administrators are now creating new initiatives to collaborate with the faculty
members, encouraging them to appoint vice-deans (faculty members) to oversee
student matters and to work with the deans to better serve and educate students.
Student affairs administrators increasing dialogue with students' unions to discuss
student affairs concerns, involving them in certain policy-making committees.

Although currently there is no professional association for student affairs personnel in
the country, the universities and polytechnics generally enjoy good relations and cooperate fully with each other on major projects. Some of them are members of
APSSA.
z
APSSA - http://home.ust.hk/~sanet/apssa.htm.
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South Africa
Cecil Bodibe
Africa has had tremendous influences through colonization by the English, French,
Portuguese, Belgians, Germans and Dutch. Models of higher education adapted from
these countries impacted heavily on African universities and student affairs practice.
No other continent has had so many and such diverse influences as Africa.
The concept of student affairs and alumni affairs had only cursory attention paid to it,
at least in South Africa, from 1959 (with the establishment of the 'non-white
universities) until 1976. Student affairs generally would be catering for the following
during this earlier period: residences, sports and recreation, and student government.
Post-1976, counselling and judicial services were added to student affairs, as well as
health services, later to be followed by campus protection services and students with
disabilities.
Throughout this period, black university campuses were what Colin Bundy (a former
President of Wits University) called 'laboratories of protest and crucibles of
discontent'. Gessler Nkondo (1976) submitted in a book, Turfloop Testimony: The
Dilemma of a Black University in South Africa, that education and politics in Africa are
inextricably entwined. You cannot touch on one, and leave the other unscathed.
When politics impact higher education, your most eloquent strident voices with
regard to espousing democracy, are muffled. Gagging those who can articulate the
'burning issues' of the day simply postpones the inevitable. At some point, the dam
bursts at the seams and the whole country gets drenched.
Incubation of leadership: While no formal programmes existed in the earlier years of
student affairs practice in South Africa, particularly student leadership education, an
inexplicable phenomenon developed. The following leaders, who have made a huge
positive impact on the life of South Africans, and indeed also impacted the world
immensely, were at one stage or the other members of their student governments,
Student Representative Councils (SRCs), and had close relationships with staff
members who cared about them and nurtured them.
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Cyril Ramaphosa (about whom a biography was recently released by Anthony Butler
(2007), who led the National Union of Mineworkers and at some stage brought the
mining industry of South Africa to its knees, was a student leader at the University of
the North. Without exception, students who took up leadership in the SRCs cut their
teeth of leadership in these student associations and concerned themselves with
challenges facing South African society of the time, which were in the main the
following:
z
Repression and suppression of the majority of the population of Africans in the

country.
Unfair business/labour practices (unequal pay for equal work).
Disparities in per capita expenditures on children in South Africa based on race

with white children getting the most allocation and African children the least,
and coloureds and Indian in between. White children would get a per capita
expenditure on education four times that of African children. The South
African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR) recorded this discrepancy in 1978
as R480 - R120.
Unequal opportunities around gender.
Challenging white privilege and supremacy.
One can only surmise that these and other challenges served as a crucible for the
development of the finest of leadership qualities. What seemed like discord at first
has turned into misunderstood harmony.
Mergers and acquisitions: Since coming into power in 1994, the new government
concerned itself with leveling the playing field and reversing the imbalances of the
past. The second Minister of Education (1999-2004), Professor Kader Asmal, pursued
the merging of institutions with unparalleled vigour and assiduousness, cutting down
the number of institutions from 37 to 21. There seemed to have been no method in
the mergers, in terms of criteria to merge, although in some cases proximity to each
other, in the sense of geography, seemed to be the criterion.
Ripples of mergers for student affairs: A disturbing trend emerged following the
mergers. All the newly appointed vice chancellors (presidents) of the merged
institutions got rid of their experienced deputy vice-chancellors (vice-presidents) of
student affairs in each of the merged institutions. The senior student affairs
professional became a casualty.
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It is against this background that student affairs is addressed, taking into account what
a thinker of yore once observe, that 'governing a great nation is like cooking a small
fish - do not overdo it' (Sunter, 2001).

Residences: Caters for the boarding, lodging and catering services. In the main ensuring
that students live in an environment that allows them to study effectively and have
the basic needs, as per Maslow's theory -adequately met.
Sports and recreation: The adage 'a healthy mind in a healthy body' applies in this
instance. The following sports were on traditionally (historically) white campuses:
rugby, cricket, tennis, soccer, boxing, athletics, table tennis, basketball, baseball,
gymnastics and surfing. Historically, black campuses only had soccer, softball, netball,
boxing, athletics and tennis. Racial segregation also contributed to the type of
resources students would have by way of recreational facilities.
Student government: This area covered in the main, the SRCs. These are statutorily
catered for in the Higher Education Act of 1997.
Counselling services: In addition to caring for the mental health needs of students,
such efforts as life-skills training and academic support for students struggling with
their academic programmes are some of the functions of student counselling. Trained
(licensed psychologists) work in these counselling centres, and they are registered
with the South African Health Professionals Council (SAHPC).
Health centre: The health centre is staffed by health personnel, usually nurses and doctors.
Their raison d'tre is to ensure the physical health of students and to offer prophylactic
advice on health-related matters like the importance of exercise, healthy eating habits and
pursuing a healthy lifestyle. Their services, therefore, range from curative to preventive.
Programmes to inform students about all aspects of HIV and AIDS are high on the
agenda. Preventive measures, anti retroviral drugs (ARV) and healthy sexual choices are
highlighted on many a campus health programme. Health is pursued not only as the
absence of disease, but rather as a state of being in optimal functioning!
Campus protection services: Campus protection services are essentially about
promoting law and order on campuses, and ensuring the safety of students.
Campuses sometimes report high incidences of vandalism and rape, stolen property,
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illegal residents in hostels, parking violations and infringements, lack of respect for
curfews room searches, and all the issues attendant upon a safe and accessible
campus are within the remit of campus protection services!
Students with disabilities: Although the percentage of students with disability is between
0.75 and 2.5 per cent, such students do need the allocation of time, talent and funding
to them. Disabilities generally catered for include visual impairment, hearing impairment
and physical impairment (quadriplegics). Advocacy for students with disabilities,
educating the general university community on disability and providing resources (e.g.,
Braille texts, computers for the visually impaired, elevators with knobs written in Braille
and ramps to allow free movement of wheelchairs) are some of the challenges that are
met by a department devoted to students with disabilities.
Student judicial services: Campuses are replete with students who get involved in
infractions of the law and university policy. These students are then subjected to
substantively and procedurally fair processes to reach decisions that are fair and
punishments commensurate to the infraction.
There is no set qualification for staff in student affairs in South Africa. While most
upper level managers have advanced degrees, entry-level staff members seldom have
degrees related to the practice of student affairs. One master's level programme in
student affairs exists at the University of KwaZulu Natal in Durban and some higher
education studies programmes are in place around the country.

Most senior student affairs positions are entitled executive dean of students. Before
merger took place, most institutions had a deputy vice chancellor for student affairs.
The vice chancellor is the senior executive officer in South African institutions.
Effectively, the organizational chart of student affairs on many South African campuses
will look as follows:
Student Affairs
Residences
Sports
Student
and
Governement
Recreation
Students with
Disabilities
Counselling
Health
Judical
Services
Campus
Protection
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The primary challenges facing South African student affairs are also those that are
experienced by tertiary education in general, i.e., student financing, institutional
budgets, funding of student affairs, HIV/AIDS and other health issues, governance and
management, student retention and graduation, professional development, racism and
crime/security.

z
Association of College and University Housing Officers - International

(ACUHO-I) Southern Africa Chapter - http://www.acuhoi.org/Communities/ACUHOISouthernbrAfricaChapter/tabid/712/Default.aspx
Campus Protection Society of Southern Africa (CAMPROSA) http://www.camprosa.co.za/
Centre for Higher Education Transformation (CHET) http://www.chet.org.za/index.jsp
Financial Aid Practitioners of South Africa - http://www.ru.ac.za/org/FAPSA
Higher Education South Africa (HESA) - http://www.hesa.org.za/hesa/
National Association of Student Development - http://www.nasdev.org.za/
Southern Africa Association of Counselling and Development in Higher

Education -http://www.sscsa.org.za/
South African Association of Campus Health Services (SAACHS) - Email:

Antoinette Goosen, SAACHS National Chairperson at: Antoinette.Goosen
@nmmu.ac.za
South African Association of Senior Student Affairs Officers (SAASSAP) - Email:

SAASSAP President, Lulu Ngalo-Morrison at [email protected]
276
South African Department of Education, Higher Education Branch http://www.education.gov.za/dynamic/dynamic.aspx?pageid=325&bid=3&branch

=Higher%20Education
SouthAfricanStudentSportsUnion (SASSU) - Email: [email protected]
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SAASSAP published one issue of its journal, Thuso in 2003. The other organizations
have done some writing and there are some scholarly articles published on an
occasional basis.
Little research exists in student affairs. One study conducted as a part of a Kellogg
Foundation grant on student retention and presented at the 2007 Conference of the
Southern Africa Association of Institutional Research can be found by contacting
Amanda Lourens, Director of Research Support, North West University, at:
[email protected].

Butler, A. 2007. Cyril Ramaphosa (a biography). Johannesburg, Jacana Media.
Gutierrez, E.F. 2008. Personal Communication aboard Oceanic II, 29 March 2008.
Mandela, N. R. 1994. Long Walk to Freedom. Cape Town, Longman.
Acea de Fuentes, Maria del Carmen. 2008. Former Minister of Education in
Guatemala, personal communication aboard Oceanic II, 20 March 2008.
Nkondo, G. M. 1976. TurfloopTestimony: The Dilemma of a Black university in South
Africa. Johannesburg, Ravan Press.
South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR). 1978. Manual.
Sunter, C. 2001. Mind of a Fox. London, Cambridge Press.
Spain
Enrique Iglesias H.
In mid-2007 the resident population of the Spain was 45,120,000, including 1.5 million
students, 74 universities and 165 Colegios Mayores (university centres integrated into
the university and providing a great service to the university community).
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The Colegios Mayores do not restrict themselves to providing lodgings and food, but
provide a complete spectrum of academic, cultural and sports activities.
According to the Spanish Law, the State has transferred all powers with regard to
education and science to the different autonomous regional governments and to the
universities. Thus the universities have considerable autonomy and self-government,
and have faced, under the protection of the Law of University Autonomy, the
challenge of looking after the students' social, cultural and sport life. In this way, most
of the services that have been carried out by the Colegios Mayores are now being
offered by the university authorities through the vice-rectors and other departments
or offices.
This results in a parallel way of rendering services to the university community.
In Spain, each university decides how to structure the student services. For this
reason, these services could vary from an institution to another. The advice services
are generally very well established and equipped in all the universities and each
university is responsible for the service of advice to the students.
In Spain there is not a specific government policy for lodging students. This is a totally
private field, apart from the Colegios Mayores of each university. Native, European or
foreign students planning to study at any university not in their native city face the
lodging problem. This advice service can help them.
Applications to the Colegios Mayores have to be made specifically to each centre.

The student services of the Spanish universities tries to help the students in their
academic life as well as in their social needs through the vice presidents of students.
At present this service consists of the following areas: grants and other economic aids;
enquiries and documentation; legal advice; welfare centre; general affairs; orientation
and information; counselling centres; disability services; health service (widely covered
by the national health system); student associations; and sports. Colegios Mayores are
under the vice-president of students (or another) or directly under the rector of the
university. In many universities a special commission of Colegios Mayores is chaired by
the rector of the university for all the affairs in relation to them.
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The universities also offer an off-campus housing service. Although Spanish

universities offer a variety of Colegios Mayores located in areas around the city or on
the campus, there are unfortunately not enough available for all who may apply. As a
result, the universities support an off-campus listing service. It is a computerized
database of private residences, apartments, houses and flat shares offered by private
owners in the area. This service is available via the Web pages of every university, but
the university is not responsible for the applications. Applications have to be made
directly to the private institutions.
All other cultural activities such as theatre, cinema, art exhibitions, concerts, etc. are
encouraged and promoted by another vice president.
As a complement to syllabuses and teaching curricula, the students are also offered a
wide range of support services to make life more agreeable and profitable during their
university stay. When they arrive they can take advantage of orientation, advice and
psycho-pedagogic services, and ask for social assistance and grants where applicable.
During their studies, they have access to libraries, computer services, cultural and
sporting activities, lodgings services and so on, and before they leave they may ask for
advice and help in finding employment at the Centre for the Promotion of
Employment and Practice in Industry.
In the Spanish university system there are no professional programmes specifically
aimed at training professional student affairs administrators. Directors (or rectors) of
the Colegios Mayores are elected or appointed by the rector (president) of the
university and his government among the faculty of the university. The remaining vicepresidents and directors of offices or departments related to the student services are
appointed by the rector (president) from his team; all the administrative staff
members working in the offices of the student services belong to different levels of
the civil servants of the State.
One point to be considered is that the rectors of Spanish universities and their
governments are elected by all the university members - students and faculty -from
among the faculty.
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As mentioned above, all the education competencies belong to the universities. The
Ministry of Education and Science retains responsibility for very few. For this reason
the student affairs policy is carried out by each university under a vice-rector's
supervision. At the same time there is a Consejo of Colegios Mayores Universitarios
de Espaa (CCMU).
The CCMU is a legally constituted association according to the Spanish Constitution
whose members are all the Colegios Mayores of Spain from all the Spanish universities,
founded by public or private institutions. The governing body is made up of one
representative from each university and an Executive Board of five members is elected
from among them. A general delegate is elected mainly for international relations.

In the Spanish university there is a long, deep-rooted tradition in relation to the
Colegios Mayores and the implementation of student services.
New winds are now blowing and new student services' approaches are cropping up,
coming from private companies or private groups whose main aim is to make money.
They are not primarily interested in the education of the students. For this reason,
private 'residences for students' are spreading all over the country, while the Colegios
Mayores are not growing as much as would be desirable. The 'market view' of
globalization is reaching student services too. From this point of view, the student is
considered not as a person to be educated but as a consumer.
The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) and the Bologna Process are expected
to be more than a phrase. Considerably more public and private investments in
education and services will be needed to carry out this project with success.
280
Homepage of Consejo de Colegios Mayores Universitarios de Espaa with links

to 165 CCMM - http://www.consejocolegiosmayores.es
Homepage of Ministry of Education and Science (MEC) with links to all Spanish
Universities where their Student Services can be found htttp://www.mec.es/educa/ccuniv/html/interna/enlaces.html
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Homepage of Servicios de Informacion y OrientacionUniversitarios (SIOU) http://siou.um.es/home.php

z
CCMM - http://www.consejocolegiosmayores.es
Sweden
Kerstin Broln
There exists no national organization for student affairs/services in Sweden. The social
services are provided by the local universities and therefore differ between places.
On national organization exists for grants and loans, Centrala Studiestdsnmnden
(CSN). It is government-based. Another is an authority coordinating admission to the
university programmes, Verketfr Hgskoleservice (VHS). However, the local
university is responsible for the final admission. VHS provides service to the local
universities and also offers expertise in the juridical and economical areas. There is
also the national agency for education, Hgskoleverket (HSV).

z
All services are offered locally at the individual universities.
It is compulsory that every university offers the students health services.
Typical services that may be offered at the different universities are include
academic advising/educational counselling, orientation programmes, counselling
for psycho-sociological problems, counselling related to study financing (to
provide information), counselling for students with disabilities, career services
and counselling for study abroad programmes.
The universities do not offer student accommodation; instead, companies own

these and the students apply directly here to them. Up until 1 November 2007
the universities did not have a legal possibility to own and/or sublet student
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accommodation. The recent change will probably affect student services in the
future. Svenska Studentbostadsfreningen(SSBF) owns and operates the
national student accommodation portal, which was established to help students
in finding companies offering student accommodation.
z
The universities do not offer legal counselling (students' own responsibility),

dining/food services/student restaurants and cafeterias (private companies at
campus), child care (local government), student jobs (students' own
responsibility), sports (local government, private companies and student
organizations), cultural activities (student organizations), travel agencies (private
companies) or bookstore services (private companies and student
organizations).
None specific, differs between universities.

Since no national organization exists and all is locally based, the organizational
structure differs between the universities.

None specific, differs between universities.
282
http://www.hsv.se
http://www.vhs.se
http://www.csn.se
http://www.ssbf.se
www.sokstudentbostad.se
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Ukraine
Iryna Matveeva
In Ukraine student affairs services are distributed among and administered by various
administrative and academic units of individual education institutions. Student
affairs/services as an institutionalized single unit is a fairly new concept in Ukraine.
Additional research is necessary to make generalizations.
This report is based on description of current practices in the three leading
universities of Ukraine: National University Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, Kyiv National Taras
Shevchenko University and Kyiv Technical University.

General oversight of student affairs is typically conducted typically by the dean's office
of work with students (as in Kyiv-Mohyla Academy), specifically: support of student's
self-governance; ensuring social protection of students; financial aid information
assistance; organizational support of student's actions; pre-admission and postadmission orientation; and alumni affairs.
Academic departments are responsible for academic advising, admission of students,
student registration and records.
Student housing, student dining halls, advisory services, recreational and cultural
activities, university preparatory services, study abroad programmes, programmes for
incoming international students are offered through various administrative units of
individual education institutions. Student jobs and career counselling is available
through centres for student employment.
Advocacy of students' rights and mediation with the university administration are
primary goals of the national student professional association. The student association
is represented in every state university and many private institutions. In addition to
advocacy, its activities include disseminating information about available financial aid,
overseeing fair student housing administration, assisting in student job search and
recreational activities.
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Student services staff are typically administrators with relevant qualifications specific to
their fields of practice. No degree programme specifically focused on student affairs
is offered in Ukraine.

Organizational structure may vary in different institutions. Typically, the vice-president of
academic and student affairs (Navchalno-Vyhovna Robota in Kyiv Technical University)
coordinates the work of the department of academic and student affairs as well as the
department/office of the work with students. The vice-president of academic and student
affairs oversees academic and extracurricular activities, enhancement of student selfgovernance and protection of the student rights and social guarantees.
In case of the Kyiv-Mohyla University, the office of the work with students is headed by
the dean who reports to the vice-president. The office may also include the centre of
student employment as in case of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy or it may be a separate entity.
Large universities tend to administer work with international students through a
separate unit. For example, at the National University of Kyiv-Mohyla University the
department of foreign cooperation provides assistance to international students in the
following: admission, Ukrainian language instruction, housing, pre-departure
orientation and legal status guidance. The staff includes an international students
affairs coordinator, students and faculty advisors, and educational and post-graduate
international programmes advisors. In the case of Kyiv National Taras Shevchenko
University, the preparatory department is responsible for assisting incoming
A more unified and institutionalized approach is needed for student affairs in Ukraine.
Further research in student affairs and current practices across the sector is necessary.

z
284
National University Kyiv-Mohyla Academy http://www.ukma.kiev.ua/eng_site/en/students/dean/index.php
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Kyiv National Taras Shevchenko University - http://www.pfku.univ.kiev.ua
Kyiv National Taras Shevchenko University - Student life:

http://www.univ.kiev.ua/ua/geninf/
Kyiv National Taras Shevchenko University - Professional Student Association

(in Ukr) - http://www.univ.kiev.ua/ua/stud
Kyiv Polyechnic Institute: student employment centre - http://sec.ntu-kpi.kiev.ua
Kyiv student association -www.spa.com.ua
National Technical University of Ukraine:student association www.studprofkom.ntu-kpi.kiev.ua

Little research is available on student affairs in Ukraine in English. More analysis of
available research in the native language is necessary.

Denise Gifford
The United Arab Emirates is a small, oil-rich country located on the Persian Gulf to
the East of Saudi Arabia. All United Arab Emirates young people have access to
higher education paid for by the government. Federal institutions of higher education
are increasing with the 12 campuses of the Higher Colleges of Technology, the very
large United Arab Emirates University and the three campuses of Zayed University
developed for women of the United Arab Emirates only but recently opened to
international students and male students as well. The Emirates College of Advanced
Education is a federal university located in Abu Dhabi. The private higher education
sector continues to grow with the participation of both recognized and little-known
institutions from Canada, India, Pakistan, the United Kingdom and the United States.
Student affairs services vary by university and are only fully functioning in a handful of
universities as the educational role of student affairs is not yet clearly understood. On
each campus, student affairs personnel may include 2 to 15 persons depending on the
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configuration of the services provided. A recent event for student affairs professionals
from throughout the country generated a group of 100 with estimates that there are
at least 150 to 200 student affairs staff members employed at institutions in the
United Arab Emirates.

Registration services, academic advising, personal counselling services, student
activities, recreational sports and activities, student housing services, international
student services, services for students with disabilities, career and placement services,
and health services. While all these services are provided in at least one university in
the country, most institutions provide some of the services listed.
There are no graduate preparation programmes in Student Affairs in the United Arab
Emirates and therefore student affairs administrators with master's and doctoral
credentials are recruited from the United States and Canada for upper level positions
such as dean of student affairs. Most student affairs staff members have bachelor's
degrees and often have experience in the area of specialization. An effort to hire
citizens of the United Arab Emirates results in the hiring of citizens with bachelor's
degrees and no previous work experience to student affairs positions.

Typically the head of the student affairs staff, i.e., dean of students, supervisor of
student services or director of student services, reports to the chief academic officer.
The head of the student affairs area typically has staff reporting in a number of the
specialty areas listed above, including counselling, housing, activities, recreation, etc.
The size and maturity of the institution usually determines the richness and breadth
of the student services offered. Staff and administrators are hired for fixed terms and,
because most student affairs staff members are expatriates, the turnover of staff is
higher than in countries where the student affairs staff is comprised primarily of
citizens working in their home country.
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AThe issues and challenges relate to specific cultural issues of the country, supervision
of an international expatriate staff with a multiplicity of work habits and expectations
due to their own cultural heritage and the inherent challenges involved in a society
that expects university administration to serve as in loco parentis to an extreme not
common in the West. Due to the protective nature of Arab families, especially
regarding female children, students are monitored when they enter and leave the
campus, and perimeter walls and proximity systems that record all entries and exits
of students are common. Student affairs administrators are expected to administer
these functions as well as ensure that students never leave campus unchaperoned.
Student services is still often considered secondary in status and administrators
receive less recognition then do their academic counterparts. Student affairs
administrators are commonly expected to act in a punitive manner towards students
rather than as developmental educators. There are many parallels between the youth
and immature nature of student affairs in the United Arab Emirates and the growth
and development of student affairs in North America from the 1950s until today.

NASPA Region III has taken the United Arab Emirates under its wing and the United
Arab Emirates branch is commonly known as NASPA/UAE. For two years, a one-daydrive in NASPA professional development workshop has been hosted by Zayed
University to bring student affairs professionals from throughout the United Arab
Emirates together. Over 100 student affairs professionals have attended each year.
The first year focused on NASPA and student affairs as a profession rich with
professional development opportunities for United Arab Emirates student affairs staff
and the theme of the NASPA/UAE Workshop was Creating a Climate of Academic
Integrity, with Dr Donald McCabe from Rutgers University, United States, as keynote
speaker. Small group sessions in the afternoon allowed staff to meet and discuss
common issues with their counterparts from throughout the country. An interest has
been expressed by student affairs professionals in Qatar and Oman to join
NASPA/UAE which will broaden its appeal and focus, and require a name change as
well. The student affairs staff in the Emirates are thirsty for professional development
opportunities and extremely appreciative of the smallest of offerings. Zayed
University hopes to create a website for the organization in 2008/2009.
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United Kingdom
Andrew West
Student services departments are now a well-established feature of higher education
institutions in the United Kingdom. The function has a longer history in the former
polytechnics ('new universities'), with the concept spreading across all institutions
following the national restructuring of the higher education sector in 1992. Typically
there is some crossover of responsibility with the department responsible for student
administration, often called the academic registrar's department. Student associations
are also active throughout the sector. These are independent organizations based on
each campus with a funding subsidy from the higher education institution to which
they relate. Depending on the size of the university, this association (or 'union' or
'guild') may deliver a significant range of commercial and support services to students
(such as catering services and housing advice) alongside the provision of student
activities and social events, as well as opportunities for student development and
leadership.
288
Welfare and support services, including provision for disabled students.
Residential services and support.
Financial assistance.
Support for student complaints, appeals and disciplinary/judicial procedures.
International student support.
Services relating to student health and wellbeing, such as health promotion,

medical consultation, counselling.
Student induction and orientation.
Study skills provision, including academic and social mentoring.
Community liaison activity, such as student volunteering.
Student activities and events.
Outreach to schools and colleges, including involvement in recruitment and

admissions work.
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Careers guidance.
Agencies for part-time employment.
Sports and recreation services.
Child care provision.
Chaplaincy and faith-related activities.
Many members of staff hold generic academic qualifications, such as a first or higher
degree (in particular for more senior staff). Some possess education or managementrelated qualifications such as a M.Ed. or M.B.A. Where relevant, specific professional
qualifications are also required (e.g., in healthcare and counselling). A number of
degree programmes related to the profession of higher education administration and
management now exist in the United Kingdom. These may include elements or
specialist tracks relating to student services. Such qualifications are increasingly
encouraged by employers but tend not to be a formal requirement.

A typical student services department comprises a number of functional units (e.g.,
disability support, careers and student housing), with the manager of each unit
reporting to a head of student services. Depending on the size and type of institution,
the head of student services may report upwards to the head of a larger service
department, a head of university administration, or to an academic manager (such as
a pro-vice-chancellor) responsible for teaching or for the student experience across
the institution. A head of student services may or may not be part of the senior
management group for the institution.

z
Increasing student expectations and the emergence of the concept of student

as 'customer'.
Improving services for international students.
Mental health provision.
Professionalization in the field of university administration.
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An increasingly competitive higher education sector.
The implications of the Bologna agreement in the European Union.
Capitalizing on the effective use of information technology systems in student

support.
Widening participation in the sector (for example, in terms of student socioeconomic background) and the implications for enhanced support.
Resourcing/budgeting challenges.

z
The Association of Managers of Student Services in higher education is the key

professional association for senior student affairs officers http://www.amosshe.org.uk
A significant proportion of the membership of the Association of University

Administrators (a cross-sector and cross-functional association) work in the
field of student support - http://www.aua.ac.uk/
Members of the Academic Registrars' Council may also have responsibility for
student services, as referred to above - http://www.arc.ac.uk/
The umbrella body for student associations is the National Union of Students http://www.nusonline.co.uk/.
Professional managers of these organizations may be members of the

Association for Managers in Students' Unions - http://www.amsu.net/
Student health - http://www.bahshe.demon.co.uk/
Student accommodation - http://www.unipol.leeds.ac.uk/National/
International student services - http://www.ukcosa.org.uk/
Disabled student support - http://www.skill.org.uk/

z
290
The Journal of the Association of Managers of Student Services in Higher

Education - http://www.amosshe.org.uk/microsite/about.htm.
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Perspectives (Journal of the Association of University Administrators) http://www.aua.ac.uk/publications/perspectives/
Additional research and other publications are available from the websites of
the professional associations and other organizations referred to above, as well
as from sector-wide bodies such as Universities United Kingdom, which
supports a research theme relating to the student experience http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/
There are also more specific journals and publications, such as in the field of
student counselling - http://www.aucc.uk.com/journal.html

Aminiel E. Mara
At the University of Dar es Salaam, all students' welfare is entrusted to the office of
dean of students. The vision of this office is to create an enabling environment, to
nurture and empower students to behave in a mature and responsible way. This is to
enable them to become loyal citizens of their respective communities and countries.
Likewise, the mission of the office is to oversee and coordinate effectively and
efficiently all students' affairs and related policies formulated by the university.

The office of dean of students has specific objectives for the personal growth and
academic development of individual student. These objectives include:
z
To advocate for the provision of opportunities that respond to specific needs

of female and disabled students and other disadvantaged groups within the
student community.
To facilitate healthy and mutual communication that helps students utilize

available opportunities and hence contribute to the university community of
which they are integral part.
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To supervise and follow-up in order to ensure that students are provided with
adequate health services, accommodation, sports and games, catering, individual
counselling and guidance, and judicatory and control services.
The overall head of this department holds a Ph.D. and is also a member of the
academic staff. Other members of staff hold masters' and first degrees from this and
other universities. The majority of staff specialized in counselling/psychology,
education, sociology, public administration, and sports and games. The university
remains the sole educator of its employees. The office of the dean of students
conducts internal training programmes that focus on providing quality student services
and welfare.
Organizational structure
The dean of students has overall charge of the department, assisted by a deputy dean
of students.
Five units provide various services to the students and other members of the
university community: counselling and guidance; sports, games and recreation;
catering, health and accommodation; student governance; finally the University
Students' Accommodation Bureau (USAB). Each unit is supervised by a coordinator
and all five coordinators are assistants to the dean of students.

The university is a public institution; in this regard administration and financial support
come from the government. Given the low income of its citizens, the government has
limited funds and hence provides a meagre budget which renders the university
incapable of fulfilling its vision and mission.
Introducing formal counselling to the university community seems an incongruous
task. African lifestyle encourages community life and extended family. However, due
to formal education, globalization and the like community life is gradually changing. As
a result, students have to seek counselling services.
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There is gender imbalance in student leadership. For instance, in 2007/2008, of the

29 student leaders, only 10 were females, about 34.4 per cent of the leadership team.

There is a national organization of university students, the Tanzania Higher Learning
Institutions Student Organization (TAHLISO) which brings together all university
students in public and private institutions. Its goal is to address issues that affect the
academic lives of students in higher education institutions.
z
The homepage of the office of the dean of students is within the University of
Dar es Salaam -www.udsm.ac.tz

Jeanna Mastrodicasa and C. Carney Strange
Higher education institutions in the United States differ widely in history, culture,
mission and traditions, as well as size, reputation, resources, geographic region, and
academic specialization. The 4,276 American colleges and universities also fit into
other categories, such as two-year and four-year colleges, historically Black colleges
and universities, Hispanic-serving institutions, tribal colleges and universities, religiously
affiliated schools, women's colleges and for-profit institutions.
Student affairs began as a function of United States universities after the First World
War and have since been a part of American colleges and universities. Early student
affairs professionals sought to provide educational services that focused on the whole
student and original functions included vocational guidance, career placement and
data collection on students' interests. Student affairs professionals and colleges acted
in the place of parents - in loco parentis. Most U.S. institutions created two parallel
student affairs organizations based on gender, led by a dean of men and a dean of
women. From 1910 until about 1960, these positions were the standard
organizational structure in student affairs, assuming that different policies and
procedures were necessary for men and women. A massive influx of students to U.S.
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campuses after World War II as well as unrest on college campuses in the 1960s led
to the elimination of student affairs professionals acting in loco parentis. Today, student
affairs is considered to be a major part of the general administration and educational
programme of the American university.

Student affairs divisions are organized with different missions depending on the type
of institution they serve, but American college campuses across the country tend to
have many of the same student affairs functions. Student affairs functions have
become highly professionalized and specialized in the past 25 years, resulting in
improved quality of staff and effectiveness of services.
There are a tremendous number of core functions of student services in the United
States, including the following areas: academic advising; admissions; assessment,
research and programme evaluation; athletics; campus safety; career development;
college or student unions; community service and service learning programmes;
commuter services and off-campus housing; counselling and psychological services;
dean of students office; dining and food services; disability support services; enrolment
management; financial aid; fund-raising and fund development; graduate and
professional services; Greek affairs; health services; international student services;
judicial affairs; leadership programmes; lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT)
services; multicultural student services; orientation and new student programmes;
recreation and fitness programmes; religious programmes and services; registration
services; residence life and housing; student activities; and women's centres.
United States student affairs professionals include entry-level staff members who
provide direct educational service to students, mid-level supervisors of complex
functional areas and executive-level managers with direct responsibilities for
supervising other educators and staff members, and managing multimillion dollar
budgets. In addition, some student affairs professionals may be functional specialists
and others are more generalists. Student affairs professionals are undertaking a
growing number of administrative functions due to increased numbers and diversity
of students and the addition of more educational functions at institution.
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Student affairs professionals in the United States typically attend a master's degree
preparatory programme in student affairs. The curriculum for the master's degree
typically includes theoretical background and knowledge related to understanding
college students, higher education and the practice of student affairs, as well as the
development of effective student affairs practitioners through guided and supervised
experiences in student affairs through a practicum, internship or assistantship. As part
of this preparation, master's students learn student development theories including
psychosocial development, identity development and campus ecology theories.
Entry-level positions most often require completion of a master's degree in college
student personnel or a related discipline. Leadership positions require additional
preparation at the doctoral level along with significant experience. Professional
development is available in an extensive system of conferences, workshops and online opportunities conducted at institutions, or regionally and nationally through
professional associations. A listing of graduate-level training programmes can be found
at http://www.myacpa.org/c12/directory.htm.

Institutional size, mission, culture and traditions determine the organizational structure
of the student affairs division. For example, if a college's mission is to educate
underprivileged students, their recruitment, financial aid and retention programmes
would be likely to have more staff and resources. Small private residential colleges
may feature a dean of students who supervises the principal services. Large public
universities are served typically by a vice president of student affairs, who is a member
of the president's cabinet and who manages a complex portfolio of specialized offices
attending to all of the student affairs/services needs. Other factors that affect the
organization of a student affairs division are the professional background of the
student affairs staff, student characteristics, the presidents and senior academic
officers, the academic organization, financial resources, technology, and legislation and
court decisions. Generally, student affairs divisions are charged with the oversight of
campus life beyond the classroom and the complementarity of learning that occurs in
those venues.
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Student affairs in the United States faces several challenges and opportunities in its
relationships with other entities. Those relationships often depend on the
personalities and backgrounds of the individuals involved as well as the size and type
of institution. Mandates from the United States government have created additional
work and also affected the priorities and budgets of higher education institutions.
There has been a recent focus on the issue of accountability in higher education, with
federal and state governments taking an interest in the results of its colleges and
universities. Rising costs of providing services are creating the need for additional
external sources of funding. Quality of campus life is a significant predictor of student
enrolment and retention. Key questions of student learning and measures of student
success are driving outcomes assessment and institutional accountability.
Coordination and integration of academic and student affairs continues to be a
challenge as institutions invest in learning communities and the creation of whole
learning experiences.

Major professional organizations in student affairs/services include:
z
ACPA - College Student Educators International - www.acpa.nche.edu
NASPA - Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education - www.naspa.org
Numerous regional and specialized organizations are associated with all of the student
service functional areas. Websites for these organizations and other higher education
groups can be found at:
z
NASPA http://naspa.org/programs/internet.cfm?category=Associations%20in%20Higher%
20Education

Both NASPA and ACPA publish journals, books, and other publications related to
student affairs practice and research. Many of the specific journals and magazines
require membership in the organization for access. Those include the on-line NASPA
Journal, the Journal of College Student Development, About Campus, NASPA Net
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Results, and many more. Those professional associations' websites have links with
information about those publications.
z
Journal of College Student Development (ACPA members only) http://www.myacpa.org/pub/pub_jcsd.cfm
About Campus (ACPA members only) http://www.myacpa.org/pub/pub_jcsd.cfm
NASPA NetResults - http://www.naspa.org/netresults/index.cfm
NASPA Journal (NASPA members only) - www.naspa.org (click on

publications)
Journal About College and Character - http://www.collegevalues.org/
NASPA Leadership Exchange http://www.naspa.org/membership/mem/leadership.cfm
Extensive listings of student services and student development resources can

be found at Jossey-Bass Press - www.josseybass.com.
Uruguay
Adriana Fernndez Otero and Luisa Peirano
Editor's note: most of the following information refers to student services for
international students. Some also applies to domestic students, although these
services are decentralized and vary for each education centre.

For 150 years the Universidad de la Repblica has been the one accredited university
in Uruguay. In 1995, a change in regulations governing higher level education in
Uruguay permitted the establishment of four private institutions: Universidad Catlica,
Universidad ORT, Universidad de Montevideo and Universidad de la Empresa. Other
accredited university institutions offer degrees at the university level, but do not have
the status of 'universities' because they do not have at least three fields of knowledge.
Although Uruguay has traditionally developed a high quality education at the
university level, it lacks academic degrees to qualify staff to better provide services to
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students, mainly for international students. However, in recent years, the public and
the private universities have developed international offices in order to provide
guidance and assistance to students. Some institutions offer academic advisory
services and assist students in the allocation of places to live. At the national level the
Instituto Nacional de la Juventud, through its Centro de Informacin para la Juventud,
provides information on student financial aid.

Students usually live in rented apartments or university residences. Hotels are
expensive for long-term courses. Each education centre offers different services, so it
is important for students to do research before coming to the country to make sure
that they can find those items that cater best for their needs.
The most common services offered are: academic advising/tutoring, sports and
recreation activities, peer mentoring, orientation and student volunteering.
Each institution hires staff for its international offices. Private institutions tend to hire
staff with bachelor's degrees and master's degrees. However, qualification of the
office staff is not necessarily a formal requirement.

This depends on the institution. There is usually a director or vice-president for
international affairs, coordinators and assistants in different areas.

Reduced budgets for these areas make difficult the development of big student
offices. Creativity is, therefore, an important issue to offer a good service with limited
resources. The major challenges include:
298
Improving lodging conditions.
Providing better health assistance.
Professionalization of education centres personnel.
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The principal national institution dealing with international cooperation and exchanges
in higher education is the Oficina de Planeamiento y Presupuesto:
z
www.opp.gub.uy

z
www.universia.edu.uy
Zambia
Hector Chiboola
Zambia, geographically located in the Southern African region, is a developing country
sandwiched among eight countries, namely, clockwise: Malawi and Mozambique to
the east, Zimbabwe and Botswana to the south, Namibia and Angola to the west, and
the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the United Republic of Tanzania to the
north. It attained political independence from British rule in October 1964. At the
time of independence, Zambia had no university; it had a few colleges offering
courses, mainly in teacher education.
During the first ten years after independence, Zambia witnessed a heightened
expansion and establishment of tertiary institutions of higher learning. The University
of Zambia were established in 1966. A teachers' training college and a trades training
institute was established in each of the nine provinces of the country. This was
possible because of the favourable economy and education policy prevailing at the
time. The Government viewed human resource development through education as
cardinal to Zambia's emancipation. However, there was a slackening in the
heightened expansion of tertiary institutions of higher learning in the years that
followed, primarily because of a shift in policy and priority directions. The country only
has three public universities, the second established in 1987 and the third in 2007. In
addition, seven private universities had been established by the end of 2007, making
a total of 10 universities in the country with close to 12 million people.
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Student enrolment in universities and other institutions of higher learning is very

competitive and in high demand. As a result, not every school leaver is finding a place
in these establishments. Notwithstanding the foregoing, however, there were close to
30,000 students enrolled countrywide in universities and other institutions of higher
learning at the beginning of 2008. Of that total, 10,000 are enrolled at the University
of Zambia. This remarkable enrolment at university level is a clear indication that
many Zambians want a university education for personal advancement. Although
student personnel services may be similar in universities and other institutions of
higher learning countrywide, this presentation focuses on the University of Zambia as
a case study for Zambia.

Besides the core business of teaching and learning and research characteristic of most
universities worldwide, the University of Zambia is also responsible for the
organization, coordination and administration of various student services. These
include student accommodation, personal counselling and career guidance, health and
social welfare, student governance and industrial relations, security and disciplinary
control, socio-cultural and extramural activities, and campus hygiene and sanitation.
All these student services are directed and coordinated by the office of the dean of
students.
The primary goals of student services at the University of Zambia are:
1) Application of policies and guidelines on general counselling services, life skills and
career development, social welfare amenities, student governance and industrial
relations.
2) Participation in sport, recreation and socio-cultural activities for the enhancement
of students' personal development, growth and potential.
3)
Provision of support services and systems for the enhancement of non-academic

aspects and social welfare needs of students.
4) Promotion of information flow and communication between the various

structures of student organizations and the university management systems.
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Members of staff in the office of the dean of students can be classified in three
categories, those with post-graduate qualification (i.e. master's or Ph.D. degree); those
with undergraduate qualification (i.e. bachelor's degree); and those with secondary
school level qualifications (i.e. with minimal or no formal training in professional
careers). At present, the first category includes the dean of students, deputy dean of
students and the head of counselling services; the second category includes assistant
deans, student counsellors, sports and recreation officers, student affairs officers and
administrative officers; and the last category includes junior administrative officers,
assistant student affairs officers, and the general rank and file. The fields of
specialization for most members of staff administering student services include
counselling, psychology, social work, education and human resource development.
Most members of staff in the rank and file category do not hold any professional or
occupational qualifications.

The dean of students is the professional and administrative head of the student affairs
unit of the University of Zambia; he is directly answerable to the vice chancellor. He
is assisted by the deputy dean, senior counsellor and two assistant deans. The
operatives include the student counsellors, student affairs officers, sports and
recreation officers and administrative officers. The lower level consists of the rank and
file staff.

The provision of student services is dependent on the university budget, largely
through the Government grant and tuition fees. The budget is generally inadequate
due to the many competing needs, including staff welfare and retention. The other
challenge relates to inadequate infrastructure and facilities (e.g., student
accommodation, cafeteria services, lecture theatres and library) to support the
gradual increase in student enrolment that has spanned the past 35 years. The
university has existed for 42 years. The resultant effect has been perpetual
overcrowding and poor living conditions in student hostels.
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Although the need to foster a collegiate relationship with other universities and
institutions of higher learning is apparent, inter-varsity associations or/and professional
associations are lacking in Zambia. For instance, the University of Zambia has a unitary
students union. The same arrangement applies at some tertiary institutions of higher
learning countrywide. In the past two years or so, there has been a movement toward
the establishment of a national students union whose mandate draws on
representation and membership from all registered tertiary institutions of higher
learning in Zambia. It is anticipated that once this national students union is
operational, greater benefits will accrue in areas such as student politics, student
advocacy and militancy with national impetus.
Zimbabwe
Sarafina Mudavanhu
Since the attainment of independence in 1980, there have been calls by the
Zimbabwean government for reforms in higher education. In 1980, there was only
one university in Zimbabwe, the University of Zimbabwe, but due to reforms and
assessment movements, largely initiated by educationists and state legislators
concerned about educational quality, the country now has nine universities, two of
which are privately owned. The Chitsanga Commission of Inquiry of 1995 is one
example of such movements, that later saw the establishment of four state
universities. The commission proposed the transference of Teachers and Technical
Colleges into degree-awarding institutions that would eventually become universities
in their own right. Meanwhile all the other administrative logistics were being run
under the University of Zimbabwe with the dean of students being at the University
of Zimbabwe and deputy deans at the helm of the Division of Student Affairs in the
institutions. These new institutions took in smaller numbers; dealing with student
matters/issues, therefore, was not a problem.
The University of Zimbabwe in the capital Harare is the largest and oldest university
in Zimbabwe. It was formed through a special relationship with the University of
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London and opened its doors to its first students in 1952. This also marked the
beginning of student affairs in Zimbabwe with proctors and senior proctors then
responsible for what was called student welfare. Later on the dean of students title
was employed to denote the person heading the division of student affairs.
Institutions of higher learning in Zimbabwe are accredited through the National
Council for Higher Education under the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education.
English is the medium of instruction in all institutions. Although once a very successful
and highly rated education system in Africa, higher education has declined over the
past decade in Zimbabwe due to political unrest, economic hardship and poverty in
general, all hitting the nation hard. This has led to student unrest within institutions
countrywide, which has destabilized the education system in Zimbabwe, especially
higher education.
Today, all nine universities have an established division of student affairs. The main aim
of student affairs in Zimbabwe is to provide a student-centred, co-curricular
environment that enhances the academic mission of the university concerned through
the provision of a wide range of campus support services that promote student
development. Student affairs in Zimbabwe is also guided by the belief that learning is
not solely confined within the four walls of the classroom, but rather that a lot of
learning takes place outside the lecture room. Student affairs practitioners also believe
that students can best attain their professional goals in a supportive environment;
hence the office of the dean of students is primarily concerned with students'
personal, social and intellectual welfare, from enrolment to graduation. The hallmark
of student affairs in Zimbabwe is also to create partnership and encourage interaction
between students and faculty, students and administration, and among students
themselves, without any form of discrimination at any level. Other values that are
upheld by student affairs include the commitment to acknowledging, valuing and
celebrating a diverse multicultural student population within our institutions, removal
of barriers to students' academic and personal achievements, the enhancement of
decision-making skills and the development of ethical values. Above all, student affairs
is committed to collaborating and working with other departments within the
institution, all to create a conducive living-learning environment for students.
There are two main national student associations that represent students at a national
level. These are Zimbabwe National Students Union (ZINASU) and Zimbabwe
Congress of Student Union (ZICOSU). Over the past decade, these two student
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associations have been influenced by national politics with ZINASU being mainly
aligned to the opposition party and ZICOSU the ruling party. However, national
politics is not allowed on university campuses; hence no political societies are allowed
or encouraged on campus.

Clubs and organizations - Institutions offer many opportunities on/off campus for
including student-run organizations, societies and clubs ranging from social, technical,
professional, spiritual, and ethnical to sports. Study trips to different industries,
organizations and tourist attractions are arranged for students by the division of
student affairs. Guest speakers from reputable institutes, industries and organizations
are invited and seminars/workshops are held regularly.
Accommodation - The division of student affairs is also responsible the provision of
student accommodation on campus. Due to limited accommodation on campus, the
office of deputy dean of students liaises with the local community, from the city
fathers to the business community, to secure off-campus accommodation. Various
halls-of-residence programmes are run within the residences.
Chaplaincy - The university chaplaincy is staffed by a senior ecumenical chaplain, a
religious leader who offers general support and guidance while also drawing attention
to the spiritual values within the various faiths. The services of the chaplaincy are open
to the entire university. Some of these services include counselling, conducting of
religious ceremonies such as weddings, baptisms and burials, conducting regular
workshops, services and hosting seminars for the university.
Counselling and advisory services - A trained and qualified counsellor heads the
department in most institutions. It offers personalized counselling services to students
faced with personal, emotional, social, academic, career, financial and health problems.
The department also seeks to empower students to solve or cope with their own
problems so that they are able to concentrate on their core university activities. Most
importantly, the department cherishes the value of confidentiality and informed
consent.
Student health services - This department supports and promotes student health in
all aspects. A qualified chief nursing sister usually heads the department with a
sessional doctor coming in on designated days to attend to referral cases. Student
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health also provides health education, counselling, curative treatment, family planning
and peer education programmes. Universities also subscribe to medical aid societies
of their choice, with every registered student automatically becoming a cardholder in
order to be eligible for clinic services. The student contributes a minimal charge to
the medical aid and in return gets care and treatment at any government clinic or
hospital. The health department also cherishes the ethics and values of anonymity,
confidentiality and informed consent.
Sports and recreation - A director of sports in most institutions heads the department
of sports and recreation that focuses on physical and mental activities that relieve
students from academic stress. By so doing, students from all walks of life, tribes, races,
colour and beliefs are united. Sporting activities offered in most institutions include
football (male/female), netball, tennis, hockey, cricket, basketball, volleyball, table
tennis, squash, darts, chess and rugby. Sports at the University of Zimbabwe are
centred in the sports pavilion built with a donation from then Rhodesian (now
national) breweries. Most universities' football teams play in the country's first or
second division one/two football competitions. Students compete in the annual
Zimbabwe Universities Sports Association (ZUSA) games. Sporting grounds and
facilities are available on campus and their maintenance is the responsibility of the
director of sports. In recent years, accessing funds from the state procurement board
for such purposes has been a challenge.
Student liaison - The welfare/liaison department is responsible for the provision of
advice and relevant information on students' grievances and queries in relation to
their welfare on campus. These include the securing of loans, safety and the social
welfare of students in collaboration with all stakeholders. In some institutions students
with disabilities are also dealt with in this department. The University of Zimbabwe
and more-established institutions have a separate department called the disability
resource service that oversees facilities and accommodation issues and other specific
needs for students with disabilities. The main purpose of the office is to create a
favourable learning environment through handling students' welfare concerns.
Cultural affairs - The culture and theatre arts department is a unique dimension of the
division of student affairs. At the moment, this office exists only at Great Zimbabwe
University whose vision is to be the centre of excellence in creative arts and culture.
It exists to ensure that students make profitable use of their leisure time by engaging
in cultural and theatre activities of both local and international standing, such as
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speech nights, modelling, theatre performance (poetry, dance and drama), scriptwriting and directing. During international culture week Great Zimbabwe University
usually celebrates the cultural heritage of other nations and of Zimbabwe as
embodied in its vision and mission.
HIV and AIDS life skills - This department in most institutions is headed by a
coordinator who is trained in issues to do with HIV/AIDS. In addition to basic
HIV/AIDS services, the department offers training in student leadership development
through various government and NGOs on issues that have to do with day-to-day
life skills.
Student affairs staff members are required to be holders of at least a first degree
(bachelor's). Besides that, there are no set qualifications. The dean of students,
however, should be a holder of at least a master's degree with relevant experience
in administration. Former student leaders stand a higher chance of working in student
affairs as they are considered people with the experience of working with students.
No specific training programmes for student affairs practitioners are available in the
country at the moment. Great Zimbabwe University has managed to send two of its
staff members to the University of KwaZulu Natal in Durban, South Africa to
undertake some higher education graduate programmes specializing in student affairs.
One has already graduated and is expected to train others through workshops and
even go beyond staff to faculty and students at the institution and the nation at large.

At the top of the division of student affairs is the executive dean of students. Most
departments are headed by directors, coordinators or administrative assistants,
depending on the institution.

The main challenges facing Zimbabwe student affairs are similar to those affecting
higher education in general. The division is greatly affected by under-funding that
makes it difficult for student affairs activities to succeed. The country is generally facing
very high inflation coupled with economic hardships and political unrest. These have
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not spared student affairs as students fail to access government grants and other
privileges that assist them during their years at university. Other challenges include
inadequate and expensive accommodation on and off campus, limited institutional
budgets, inadequate infrastructure (staff offices, lecture rooms, recreational facilities
and residence halls), HIV/AIDS and other health issues, and catering services as there
are no funds to buy food for students on campus. Generally there is a gap between
student affairs and faculty. Not much out-of-class interaction between students and
faculty exists. The division of student affairs is therefore seen as the last priority on
the university list of priorities and, if budget cuts are to be inflicted, it will be in the
student affairs budget.

At the moment no established boards or organizations to deal with student affairs are
available in Zimbabwe. Deans of students at times meet for workshops/seminars but
without an established association. It is, however, imperative that such organizations,
websites and links be put in place if networking among the divisions of student affairs
in Zimbabwean institutions is to be enhanced. With the current economic hardships
and political instability, it will be some time before such links are effectively put in
place.
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Regional and
international higher
education, student and
government associations/
organizations related to
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Regional and international higher education, student and government

associations/organizations related to student affairs andservices
Regional and international higher education, student and

government associations/organizations related to
Roger B. Ludeman
Africa
z
All-Africa Students Union (AASU) - [email protected];

[email protected]
Association of African Universities (AAU) - http://www.aau.org
Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA) http://www.adeanet.org
Fdration africaine des parents d'lves et tudiants(FAPE) http://www.actufape.org
Forum for African Women Educationalists (FAWE) - http://www.fawe.org
Southern Africa Association of Counselling and Development in Higher

Education (SSCSA) - http://www.sscsa.org.za/
Asia
z
Asia Pacific Student Services Association (APSSA) http://apssa2008.hust.edu.cn/
Association of Southeast Asian Institutions of Higher Learning (ASAIHL) http://www.asaihl.asia
Association of Universities of Asia and the Pacific (AUAP) http://auap.sut.ac.th/
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Europe
z
European Association for the Education of Adults (EAEA) http://www.eaea.org
European Association of International Education (EAIE) - http://www.eaie.org/
European Council for Student Affairs (ECStA) - http://www.ecsta.org/sam/
European Democrat Students (EDS) - http://www.edsnet.org/new/
European Forum for Student Guidance (FEDORA) http://fedora.plexus.leidenuniv.nl/
European Law Students' Association (ELSA) - http://www.elsa.org
European Students' Forum/Association des tats Gnraux des tudiants de

l'Europe (AEGEE Europe) - http://www.aegee.org
European University Association (EUA) - http://www.eua.be/eua
European University Centre For Peace Studies (EPU) - http://www.aspr.ac.at
European University Colleges Association (EUCA) - [email protected];

website:http://www.euca.eu
European Youth Forum (CENYC) - http://www.youthforum.org
The National Union of Students in Europe (ESIB) - http://www.esib.org/
Middle East
z
Association of Arab Universities (AARU) - http://www.aaru.edu.jo
North America and the Caribbean

z
Association of Caribbean Higher Education Administrators (ACHEA) http://sta.uwi.edu/achea/index.htm
Caribbean Tertiary Level Personnel Association - http://www.ctlpa.org.jm/
Council of Higher Education Management Association (CHEMA) www.chemanet.org/
Inter-American Organization for Higher Education (IOHE) - http://www.ouiiohe.qc.ca
Oceania
z
310
Australia/New Zealand Student Services Association (ANZSSA) - www.anzssa.org/
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South America
z
Inter-American Organization For Higher Education (IOHE) - http://www.ouiiohe.qc.ca
Latin American Continental Students Organization (OCLAE) http://www.oclae.cu
Pan-American Association of Educational Credit Institutions http://www.apice.org.co
International
z
Association of Arab Universities - http://www.aaru.edu.jo/
Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU) - http://www.acu.ac.uk
Catholic International Education Office - http://www.infoiec.org
College and University Home Pages, Geographical Listing Website http://www.mit.edu:8001/people/cdemello/geog.html
Community of Mediterranean Universities (Cmu) - http://www.ei-ie.org
Education International - http://www.ei-ie.org/en/index.php
International Association of Campus Law Enforcement Administrators

(IACLEA) - http://www.iaclea.org
International Association for Counselling (IAC) - http://www.iac-irtac.org
International Association of Dental Students (IADS) http://www.iads.ndirect.co.uk/
International Association for Educational Assessment (IAEA) http://www.iaea.info/index.php
International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance http://www.IAEVG.org/
International Association for the Exchange of Students for Technical

Experience(IAESTE) - http://www.iaeste.org/
International Association of Students in Agriculture and Related Sciences

(IAAS) - http://www.iaasworld.org
International Association of Students in Economics and Management (AIESEC)

- http://www.aiesec.org
International Association of Student Affairs and Services (IASAS). Contact:

Roger B. Ludeman, Executive Director - [email protected]
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International Association of Universities (IAU) - http://www.unesco.org/iau/
International Association of University Presidents (IAUP) - http://www.ia-up.org
International Association of University Professors and Lecturers (IAUPL) [email protected]
International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO) - http://www.ibo.org
International Consortium of Educational Development (ICED) http://www.abo.fi/ied/iced.htm
International Coordination Council of Educational Institutions Alumni (Ex:

Corporation Incorvuz)- http://www.incorvuz.ru (site in Russian)
International Council for Adult Education (ICAE) - http://www.icae.org.uy
International Council for Education of People with Visual Impairment (ICEVI) http://www.icevi.org/
International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and

Dance (Ichper) - http://www.ichpersd.org
International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE) - http://www.icde.org
International Cultural Youth Exchange (ICYE) - http://www.icye.org
International Federation of Catholic Universities (IFCU) - http://www.fiuc.org
International Federation of Medical Students Associations (IFMSA) http://www.ifmsa.org
International Federation of University Women (IFUW) - [email protected]
International Forestry Students Association (IFSA) - [email protected]
International Movement of Catholic Students/Mouvement International des

tudiants Catholiques (IMCS - MIEC) - [email protected]
International Network for Cultural Diversity (INCD) - http://www.incd.net
International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education

(INQAAHE) - http://www.inqaahe.org
International Organization for the Right to Education and Freedom of

Education - http://www.oidel.ch
International Pharmaceutical Students' Federation (IPSF) - http://www.ipsf.org
International Student Union (ISU) - http://www.stud.unit.no/studorg/fsu/
International Union for Health Promotion and Education (IUHPE) http://www.iuhpe.org
International Union of Students (IUS) - http://www.stud.unihannover.de/gruppen/ius
International Youth Hostel Federation (IYHF) - http://www.iyhf.org
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Pax Romana - International Movement of Catholic Students and International

Catholic Movement for Intellectual Cultural Affairs (IMCS-ICMICA) http://www.paxromana.org; http/www.imcs-miec.org
Union of Latin American Universities (ULAU) - http://www.udual.org
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

Education Information Service - http://www.education.unesco.org
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

Division of Higher Education, Unit for the World Conference on Higher
Education - http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.phpURL_ID=44351&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
United World Colleges (UWC) - http://www.uwc.org
World Assembly of Youth (WAY) - http://www.way.org.my
World Association for Cooperative Education (WACE) http://www.waceinc.org
World Association For Educational Research (WAER) http://amseamcewaer.educ.usherbrooke.ca/
World Council of Comparative Education Societies (WCCES) http://www.wcces.net/
World Student Christian Federation (WSCF) http://www.wscfglobal.org/index.php
World Union of Jewish Students (WUJS) - http://www.wujs.org.il/
Other international resources

z
Global Alliance for Transnational Education (GATE). An informational database

for the evaluation of academic credentials, transnational education, and training
opportunities from accredited institutions worldwide http://www.jones.com/gate/
Global Education Database (GED). Complete database developed by the

United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Center for
Human Capacity Development to provide the Agency and its development
partners with selected statistical data on international education in an easy-touse electronic format - http://qesdb.cdie.org/ged/index.html
International Handbook of Universities http://www.unesco.org/iau/directories/handbook.html
World Higher Education Database (WHED) http://www.unesco.org/iau/directories/index.html
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Annex 1.
List of authors and
editorial team
members
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Annex 1. List of authors and editorial team members
First Name
Family
Name
Full Name
Full contact details
Abdulla
Al-Thani
Abdulla AlThani
Abdulla Al-Thani
Vice President for Education
Qatar Foundation
Education City
Doha
Qatar
Email: [email protected]
Philip G.
Altbach
Philip G.
Altbach
Philip G. Altbach
Director
Center for International Higher Education
Monan University Professor
Boston College
Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
United Stages
R.
Ambihabathy R.
R. Ambihabathy
Ambihabathy Principal Assistant Registrar
Student Affairs and Alumni Department
University Malaya
Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
Annie
Andrews
Annie
Andrews
Annie Andrews
Director, Counseling Service/Compass
Programs
The University of New South Wales
Sydney
Australia
Nazrin
Baghirova
Nazrin
Baghirova
Nazrin Baghirova
Muskie Scholar
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah,
United States (native of Azerbaijan)
Diane
Bailiff
Diane H.
Bailiff
Diane H. Bailiff
Vice President of Student Affairs, Retired
Emporia State University
Emporia, Kansas
United States
Email : [email protected]
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First Name Family Name
316
Full Name
Lisa
Bardill
Moscaritolo
Lisa Bardill
Moscaritolo
Lisa Bardill Moscaritolo

Dean for Students
Pace University, Pleasantville
Pleasantville, New York
United States
Janel
Bayastanova
Janel
Bayastanova
Janel Bayastanova
Former Senior Director of Student Affairs
Kazakhstan Institute of Management,
Economics and Strategic Research
Almaty
Kazakhstan
Jessica del
Carmen
Benites
Ronquillo
Jessica del
Carmen
Benites
Ronquillo
Jessica del Carmen Benites Ronquillo

Faculty Member
Universidad Estatal de Milagros
Milagros
Ecuador
Jennifer L.
Bishop
Jennifer L.
Bishop
Jennifer L. Bishop
Call Centre Manager, Admin. Assistant
Telecommunications
Binghamton University
Binghamton, New York
United States
Colleen
Blaney
Colleen
Blaney
Colleen Blaney
Student Adviser
College of Engineering
University College Dublin
Dublin
Ireland
Cecil
Bodibe
Cecil Bodibe
Cecil Bodibe
Director
WAMCILT Consultancy
Johannesburg, Gauteng
South Africa
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First Name
Family
Name
Full Name
Tammy
Boyd
Tammy Boyd Tammy Boyd

Assistant Professor
University of Central
Orlando, Florida
United States
Pietro
Brandmayr
Pietro
Brandmayr
Pietro Brandmayr
President
Associazione Nazionale degli Organismi per
il Diritto allo Studio Universitario (ANDISU)
Centro Residenziale dell'Universita della
Calabria
Arcavacata di Rende (CS)
Calibria
Italy
Kerstin
Broln
Kerstin
Broln
Kerstin Broln
Generalsekreterare
Svenska Studentbostadsfreningen (SSBF)
Gteborg
Sweden
Juan Pablo
Caballero
Medina
Juan Pablo
Caballero
Medina
Juan Pablo Caballero Medina

Coordinator for Representative Teams
ITESM, San Luis Potos Campus
San Luis Potos, Mexico
Santiago
Castiello
Santiago
Castiello
Santiago Castiello
Assistant, Student Success Center
Tecnolgico de Monterrey, Guadalajara
Campus
Guadalajara, Jal
Mexico
Christopher
Chaves e
Silva
Christopher Chaves e Silva

Residence Hall Director
Office of Faculty and Student Services
Education Division
Qatar Foundation?Doha
Qatar
Christopher Chaves e
Silva
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Hector
Chiboola
Hector
Chiboola
Hector Chiboola
Dean of Students
Student Affairs Unit
University of Zambia
Lusaka
Zambia
Rahul
Choudaha
Rahul
Choudaha
Rahul Choudaha
College of Education
University of Denver
Denver, Colorado
United States (native of India)
Bill
Crome
Bill Crome
Bill Crome
Group Manager, Student Support
University of Auckland
Auckland, New Zealand
Annie
CushmanKosar
Annie
CushmanKosar
Annie Cushman-Kosar
Assistant Director, UCLA LGBT Center
Los Angeles, California
United States
Sharon L.
Davie
Sharon L.
Davie
Sharon L. Davie
Director, Women's Center
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia
Danielle M.
De Sawal
Clinical Assistant Professor and Master's
Program Coordinator
Higher Education and Student Affairs
Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana
United States
318
Full Name
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First Name
Family
Name
Full Name
Barbara
Duppich
Barbara
Duppich
Barbara Duppich
Studienbeihilfenbehrde
Wien (Vienna)
Austria
Jodi
Ebner
Jodi Ebner
Jodi Ebner
Center for Global Education
Loyola Marymount University
United States
Wadad
El-Husseiny
Wadad ElHusseiny
Wadad El-Husseiny
Director of Student Activities
American University of Beirut
Beirut
Lebanon
Jim
Elliott
Jim Elliott
Jim Elliott
Manager, START (Student Transition and
Retention Team)
Curtin University of Technology
Perth, Western Australia
Australia
Suan
Eng
Suan Eng
Suan Eng
Deputy Director (Student Services)
Office of Student Affairs
National University of Singapore
Singapore
Gonzalo
Erazo Anaya Gonzalo

Erazo Anaya
Gonzalo Erazo Anaya

ITESM, Quertaro Campus
Quertaro, Mexico
319
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320
Full Name
Adriana
Fernndez
Otero
Adriana
Fernndez
Otero
Adriana Fernndez Otero

International Programs Coordinator
Universidad de Montevideo
Montevideo
Uruguay
Raywen
Ford
Raywen Ford
Raywen Ford
Director of Student Services
Roehampton University
London
United Kingdom
Jane
Fried
Jane Fried
Jane Fried
Professor, Department of Counseling and
Family Therapy
Central Connecticut State University
New Britain, Connecticut
United States
Denise
Gifford
Denise Gifford Denise Gifford

United Arab Emirates University
Al Ain
And
Dean of Student Affairs and Professor of
Educational Leadership
Zayed University
Abu Dhabi
Sr.
Antoinette
P.
Goosen
Sr. Antoinette Sr. Antoinette P. Goosen

P. Goosen
Senior Manager Campus Health Service
National Chairperson of SAACHS
Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
Port Elizabeth, South Africa
Brian
Gormley
Brian Gormley Brian Gormley

Manager - Campus Life
Dublin Institute of Technology
Dublin, Ireland
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First Name
Family
Name
Full Name
Steven
Green
Steven Green Steven Green

Former Dean of Student Affairs and
Faculty Member
Political Science Department
Kazakhstan Institute of Management,
Economics and Strategic Research
Almaty
Kazakhstan
Dennis E.
Gregory
Dennis E.
Heather
Hare
Heather Hare Heather Hare

Associate Director, Center for Leadership
and Community Engagement
George Mason University
Fairfax, Virginia
United States
Cynthia
Howman
Cynthia
Howman
Cynthia Howman
Dean of Student Affairs
College of the North Atlantic-Qatar
Doha, Qatar
Edward C.
Hull
Edward C.
Hull
Edward C. Hull
Duke University
Dean of Residence Life and Executive
Director of Housing Services
Durham, North Carolina
United States
Melanie
Humphreys
Melanie
Humphreys
Melanie Humphreys
Vice President, Student Life
LCC International University
Klaipeda
Lithuania
Dennis E. Gregory
Associate Professor of Educational
Leadership and Counseling
Old Dominion University
Norfolk, Virginia
United States
321
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322
Full Name
Lai Kwok
Hung
Lai Kwok
Hung
Lai Kwok Hung

Senior Student Affairs Officer
The Hong Kong Institute of Education
New Territories, Hong Kong
China
Rania
Mohammed
Ibrahim
Rania
Mohammed
Ibrahim
Rania Mohammed Ibrahim

Vice Dean for Student Affairs
Effat College (the first private non-profit
women's college in the Kingdom)
Jeddah
Saudi Arabia
Enrique
Iglesias H.
Enrique
Iglesias H.
Enrique Iglesias H.
General Delegate, CCMU Spain
Consejo of Colegios Mayores Universitarios
de Espaa (CCMU)
Universidad de Granada
Granada
Spain
Email: consejcm@ ugr.es
Glen
Jacobs
Glen Jacobs
Glen Jacobs
Director, Center for Academic Development
Executive Director, International Center for SI
University of Missouri-Kansas City
Kansas City, Missouri
United States
Reynol
Junco
Reynol Junco
Reynol Junco
Associate Professor
Director, Disability Services
Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania
Lock Haven, Pennsylvania
United States
Ulla-Mari
Karhu
Ulla-Mari
Karhu
Ulla-Mari Karhu
Finnish Student Housing
Toiminnanjohtaja
Helsinki
Finland
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First Name
Family
Name
Full Name
Menachem Kellner
Menachem
Kellner
Menachem Kellner
Professor of Jewish History (and former
Dean of Students)
Department of Jewish History
Faculty of Humanities
University of Haifa
Haifa
Israel
Lydia
Krise
Lydia Krise
Lydia Krise
Dean of Students
American University in Bulgaria
Blagoevgrad
Bulgaria
Jacqueline
Lewis
Jacqueline
Lewis
Jacqueline Lewis
Professor, Department of Counseling and
Student Personnel
Mankato State University
Mankato, Minnesota
United States
Fernando
Lpez Sosa
Fernando
Lpez Sosa
Fernando Lpez Sosa

Director of Physical Education and Sports
Coordinator for Intramural Activities
Quertaro, Mexico
Nancy
Low
Nancy Low
Nancy Low
Manager Business and Systems
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, British Columbia
Canada
Lic. Jorge
Lozano Lan Lic. Jorge

Lozano Lan
Lic. Jorge Lozano Lan

Monterrey Tech University
Monterrey, Nuevo Len.
Mexico
323
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324
Full Name
Randall B.
Ludeman
Randall B.
Ludeman
Randall B. Ludeman
University Conduct Officer
Bemidji State University
Bemidji, Minnesota
United States
Roger B.
Ludeman
Roger B.
Ludeman
Roger B. Ludeman
Executive Director, IASAS
Eugene, Oregon
United States
E-mail: [email protected]
Aminiel E.
Maro
Aminiel E.
Maro
Aminiel E. Maro
Deputy Dean of Students,
University of Dar es Salaam,
Dar es Salaam
Jeanna
Mastrodicasa
Jeanna
Mastrodicasa
Jeanna Mastrodicasa
Assistant Vice President for Student Affairs
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida
United States
Iryna
Matveeva
Iryna
Matveeva
Iryna Matveeva
2006 Muskie Scholar
Rutgers University, New Jersey
United States
Native of Ukraine?Email:
[email protected]
Roslyn
McCarthy
Roslyn
McCarthy
Roslyn McCarthy
Counselor, CQU Student Services
Central Queensland University
Rockhampton, Australia
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First Name
Family
Name
Full Name
Virginie
Mucciante
Virginie
Mucciante
Virginie Mucciante
Service des tudes et de la Vie tudiante
Universit du Luxembourg?Limpertsberg
Luxembourg?Email: [email protected]
Sarafina
Mudavanhu
Sarafina
Mudavanhu
Sarafina Mudavanhu
Acting Deputy Dean of Students
Great Zimbabwe University
Masvingo
Zimbabwe
Jonathan
Munro
Jonathan
Munro
Jonathan Munro
Manager, Student Support Services
Head Counsellor
Southern Cross University
Lismore, Australia
Jonathan
Norton
Jonathan
Norton
Jonathan Norton
Psychologist
Manager, Counselling Service/Wellbeing
Services
The University of Melbourne
Carlton, Melbourne
Australia
Michele
Nota
Michele A.
Nota
Michele A. Nota
Executive Director, Alumni Relations
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island
United States
Faisal
Ferozali
Notta
Faisal Ferozali Faisal Ferozali Notta

Notta
Assistant Manager
Academic Administration
Aga Khan University
Institute for Educational Development
Karachi
Pakistan
325
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326
Full Name
Charlie
Nutt
Charlie L.
Nutt
Charlie L. Nutt
Executive Director, NACADA
Assistant Professor
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas
United States
Lydia
NyatiRamahobo
Lydia NyatiRamahobo
Lydia Nyati-Ramahobo
Deputy Vice Chancellor, Student Affairs
Professor, Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences
University of Botswana
Gaborone
Botswana
Andrew
O'Brien
Andrew
O'Brien
Andrew O'Brien
Director
Organisations That Matter
Victoria, Australia
Manuel
Olave
Manuel Olave Manuel Olave

Rector
Universidad Privada Boliviana/Florida
International University
Cochabamba
Bolivia
Yuko
Omata
Yuko Omata
Yuko Omata
Assistant Director (Student Support Services)
Doshisha University
Kyoto
Japan
Kenneth J.
Osfield
Kenneth J.
Osfield
Kenneth J. Osfield
ADA Compliance Officer
United States
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First Name
Family
Name
Full Name
Danja
Oste
Danja Oste
Danja Oste
Head of Unit, International Relations
Deutsches Studentenwerk
Bonn
Germany
Osvaldo
Regua
Osvaldo
Regua
Osvaldo Regua
Student Affairs
The Polytechnic Institute of Bragana
Institute Campus
Bragana
Portugal
Mohamed
Ouakrime
Mohamed
Ouakrime
Mohamed Ouakrime
Coordinator: First Year Seminar
Professor, Department of English
Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences, Dhar
Mehraz
Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdallah University
Fez
Morocco
Sonia
Parker
Sonia Parker
Sonia Parker - South America

Salt Lake Community College
Salt Lake City, Utah
USA
Lauren
Payne
Lauren Payne Lauren Payne

Graduate Intern, Vice President of Student
Affairs
Central Connecticut State University
New Britain, Connecticut
United States
Luisa
Peirano
Luisa Peirano Luisa Peirano

Director of International Affairs
Universidad de Montevideo
Montevideo
Uruguay
327
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Brett
Perozzi
Brett Perozzi
Brett Perozzi
Associate Vice President, Student Affairs
Weber State University
Ogden, Utah
United States
Rudolf
Poertner
Rudolf
Poertner
Rudolf Poertner
Managing Director
Studentenwerk Dresden
Dresden, Germany
Bertha
Yolanda
Quesihuallpa
De La Sota
Bertha
Yolanda
Quesihuallpa
De La Sota
Bertha Yolanda Quesihuallpa De La Sota

Faculty
Universidad Del Cusco
Del Cusco
Peru
Di
Rachinger
Di Rachinger
Di Rachinger
Relationships Manager
Graduate Careers Australia
Victoria, Australia
Natalia V.
Ralyk
Natalia V.
Ralyk
Natalia V. Ralyk
E. Muskie Scholar 2006,
Educational Leadership and Policy Department
College of Education
University of Utah
Salt Lake City, Utah
United States
(Native of the Russian Federation)
[email protected]
Maria Elodia
Ramos
Maria Elodia Ramos

Universidad Nacional de San Juan
San Juan
Argentina
Maria Elodia Ramos
328
Full Name
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First Name
Family
Name
Full Name
Jess
Enrique
Ramos
Resndiz
Jess Enrique Jess Enrique Ramos Resndiz

Ramos
Director, Student Affairs
Resndiz
Tecnolgico de Monterrey
Monterrey, N.L.
Mexico
Chuck
Rashleigh
Chuck
Rashleigh
Jill
Rasmussen
Jill Rasmussen Jill Rasmussen

Utah State University Brigham City
Brigham City, Utah
United States
Tracey E.
Reeves
Tracey E.
Reeves
Tracey E. Reeves
Assistant Dean of Students
Director, Center for Leadership and Service
United States
Thelora
Reynolds
Thelora
Reynolds
Thelora Reynolds
Director, Student Services and
Development
The University of the West Indies at Mona
Mona
Jamaica
Gary M.
Rhodes
Gary M.
Rhodes
Gary M. Rhodes
Center for Global Education
Loyola Marymount University
United States
Chuck Rashleigh
Counsellor
Trinity College Dublin
Dublin, Ireland
329
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330
Full Name
Dennis
Roberts
Dennis
Roberts
Dennis Roberts
Assistant Vice President for Faculty and
Student Services
Qatar Foundation
Education City
Doha
Qatar
Carol A.
Ross
Carol A. Ross Carol A. Ross

Dean of Student Affairs
American University of Kuwait
Kuwait City
Kuwait
Michael C.
Sachs
Michael C.
Sachs
Michael C. Sachs
Associate Vice-President of Student Affairs
LIM - The College for the Business of Fashion
New York, New York
United States
Harald ge Sthre
Harald ge
Sthre
Harald ge Sthre
Project Manager
Student and Academic Affairs
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
University of Bergen
Bergen, Norway
Liana
Sanamyan
Liana
Sanamyan
Liana Sanamyan
Muskie Fellow, Bemidji State University
(Minnesota, United States), 2006-2008
Yerevan State University
Yerevan
Armenia
Ronni
Sanlo
Ronni Sanlo
Ronni Sanlo
Director, UCLA LGBT Center
United States
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First Name
Family
Name
Full Name
Marjorie
Savage
Marjorie
Savage
Marjorie Savage
Parent Program Director
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota
United States
John H.
Schuh
John H.
Schuh
John H. Schuh Distinguished Professor

Educational Leadership and Policy Studies
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa
Robert
Shea
Robert Shea
Robert Shea
Assistant Professor, Post Secondary and
Adult Education
Memorial University of Newfoundland
St. John's, Newfoundland
Canada
Luis Orlen
Silva Portillo Luis Orlen

Silva Portillo
Oscar
Sotelo
Pineda
Oscar Sotelo Oscar Sotelo Pineda

Pineda
Sports Director
ITESM San Luis Potos Campus
San Luis Potos, Mexico
Casey
Stafford
Casey
Stafford
Luis Orlen Silva Portillo

Coordinator for Sports Classes
Quertaro, Mexico
Casey Stafford
Intercultural Education Director
and Coordinator of First-Year Seminar
LCC International University
Klaipeda, Lithuania
331
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332
Full Name
Lucie
Stepanyan
Lucie
Stepanyan
Lucie Stepanyan
Charge de mission Europe
Sous direction des affaires internationales
Centre National des uvres Universitaires et
Scolaires (CNOUS)
Paris
France
Jan
Stewart
Jan Stewart
Jan Stewart
Manager and Learning Advisor
Student Learning Support Service
Victoria University of Wellington
Wellington
New Zealand
C. Carney
Strange
C. Carney
Strange
C. Carney Strange
Professor, Higher Education and Student
Affairs
Bowling Green State University
Bowling Green, Ohio
United States
Mary
Stuart
Hunter
Mary Stuart
Hunter
Mary Stuart Hunter

Assistant Vice Provost and Executive Director
University 101 Programs and The National
Resource Center for The First-Year
Experience and Students in Transition
University of South Carolina
Columbia, South Carolina
United States
Jude
Tate
Jude Tate
Jude Tate
Director, LGBT Center at the University of
Toronto
Toronto
Canada
Colette M.
Taylor
Colette M.
Taylor
Colette M. Taylor
Assistant Professor in Higher Education
Texas Tech University
Lubbock, Texas
United States
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First Name
Family
Name
Full Name
Patricia
Smith
Terrell
Patricia Smith Patricia Smith Terrell

Terrell
Vice President for Student Affairs
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky
United States
Joi
Thailoan
Ngo
Joi Thailoan
Ngo
Johann
van der Watt Johann van

der Watt
Johann van der Watt

Former Director, Student Life (Pretoria,
South Africa)
Tshwane University of Technology
Pretoria
South Africa
Lynne
Vaughan
Lynne
Vaughan
Lynne Vaughan
Director
University of Florida Bookstores
United States
Bella M.
Villanueva
Bella M.
Villanueva
Bella M. Villanueva
Office of Scholarship and Student Services
University of the Philippines
Diliman
Philippines
Rosalie
Vlaar
Rosalie Vlaar
Rosalie Vlaar
Senior Policy Analyst
Undergraduate Admissions
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, British Columbia
Canada
Joi Thailoan Ngo

Graduate Student, Student Affairs at UCLA
United States
333
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334
Full Name
Wayne
Wallace
Wayne
Wallace
Wayne Wallace
Director, Career Resource Center
United States
Howard S.
Wang
Howard S.
Wang
Howard S. Wang
Associate Vice President for Student Affairs
California State University, Fullerton
Fullerton, California,
United States
Pedro L. V.
Welch
Pedro L. V.
Welch
Pedro L. V. Welch
Dean, Faculty of Humanities and Education
University of the West Indies, Cave Hill
Campus
Cave Hill
Barbados
Andrew
West
Andrew West Andrew West

University of Sheffield
Sheffield
United Kingdom
Patricia
Powell
Willer
Patricia Powell Patricia Powell Willer

Willer
Assistant Vice Provost for International
Programs
University of South Carolina
Columbia, South Carolina
United States
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First Name
Family
Name
Full Name
Professor
Zengyu
Professor
Zengyu
Professor Zengyu
Carey College
Guizhou Province
China
Michael J.
Zoll
Michael J.
Zoll
Michael J. Zoll
Vice President
Enrollment Management and Student Affairs
Semester at Sea/Institute for Shipboard
Education
Charlottesville, Virginia
United States
Emily
Yates
Emily Yates
Emily Yates
Student Development Specialist
Department of Student Affairs
Texas A&M University at Qatar
Doha
Qatar
335
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Annex 2. Acronyms
and abbreviations
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Annex 2. Acronyms and abbreviations
ACRONYM
Organization or Term
AACUHO
Australasian Association of College and University Housing Officers
AAICU
Association of American International Colleges and Universities
ACHEA
Association of Caribbean Higher Education Administrators
ACHUHO-I
Association of College and University Housing Officers-International
ACPA
American College Personnel Association
ACPA
College Student Administrators International
ACPA
American College Personnel Association
ACT
American College Testing programme
ACUI
Association of College Unions International
AGCAS
Association of Graduate Careers Advisory Services
AGI
African Gender Institute
AHEAD
Association of Higher Education Access and Disability
AIDS
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
AIE
Association of International Education, Japan
AMOSSHE
336
ANDISU
Associazione Nazionale degli Organismi per il Diritto allo Studio

Universitario
ANZSSA
Australian and New Zealand Student Services Association Inc.
ANZSSA
Australia and New Zealand Student Services Association
APSSA
Asia Pacific Student Services Association
APSSA
Asia Pacific Student Service Association
ARC
Academic Registrars' Council
ARV
antiretroviral
ATEM
Association for Tertiary Education Management Inc.
ATLAANZ
Association of Tertiary Learning Advisors of Aotearoa/New Zealand.
AUA
Association of University Administrators
AUBG
American University in Bulgaria
CACEE
Canadian Association of Career Educators and Employers
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ACRONYM
CACUSS
Canadian Association for College and University Student Services
CADSPPE
Canadian Association of Disability Service Providers in Post-Secondary

Education
CAISJA
Canadian Academic Integrity and Student Judicial Affairs
CALEA
Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies, Inc.
CAMPROSA Campus Protection Society of Southern Africa

CAS
The Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education
CCCMU
Consejo of Colegios Mayores Universitarios de Espaa
CHET
Centre for Higher Education Transformation
CNOUS
Centre national des oeuvres universitaires et scolaires
CONDDE
National Council of Sports Education (CONDDE in its Spanish

acronym)
CPANZ
Career Practitioners Association of New Zealand
CROUS
Centre Regional des oeuvres universitaires et scolaires
CSN
Centrala Studiestdsnmnden
CSSI
Confederation of Student Services in Ireland - www.cssi.edu.ie
CTLPA
Caribbean Tertiary Level Personnel Association
CUCCA
Canadian University and College Counselling Association
CUSAI
Colleges and Universities Sports Association of Ireland - www.cusai.ie
DFAT
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)
DSW
Deutsches Studetenwerk
EAIE
European Association for International Education
ECSTA
European Council for Student Affairs
EHEA
European Higher Education Area
EOPHEA
Equal Opportunity Practitioners in Higher Education Australia
FAPSA
Financial Aid Practitioners of South Africa
FAWESA
Forum for African Women Educationalists, South Africa
FBFE
National Council on Faiths and Beliefs in Further Education
FYE
First Year Experience
337
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ACRONYM
338
GAIN
Gender in Africa Information Network
GCA
Graduate Careers Australia
GUNI
Global University Network for Innovation
HEA
Higher Education Administration (of Ireland)
HESA
Higher Education South Africa
HIV
Human immunodeficiency virus
HKSSA
Hong Kong Student Services Association
HSV
Hgskoleverket
IACLEA
International Association of Campus Law Enforcement Administrators
IASAS
International Association of Student Affairs and Services,
IOTI
Institutes of Technology Ireland
ISANA
International Education Association
ISB
Indian School of Business
ISE
Institute for Shipboard Education
IT
Information Technology
JASSO
Japan Student Services Organization
KBTU
Kazakhstan British Technical University
KIMEP
Kazakhstan Institute of Management, Economics and Strategic Planning
LGBT
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender
NACE
National Association of College Employers
NACE
National Association for Colleges and Employers
NACUC
National Association of College and University Chaplains
NAGCAS
National Association of Graduate Careers Advisory Services
NASFAA
National Association of Financial Aid Administrators
NASPA
Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education
NASSA
National Aboriginal Student Services Association
NFUCA
National Federation of University Cooperative Associations
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ACRONYM
NGOs
Non-governmental organizations
NMIMS
Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies (Mumbai)
NSS
United Kingdom National Student Survey
NZTEAP
New Zealand Association of Tertiary Accommodation Professionals
OACUHO
Ontario Association of College and University Housing Officers
OECD
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
ONOUSC
Office national des uvres universitaires sociales et culturelles
OVE
Observatoire national de la Vie Etudiante
PAASA, Inc.
Philippine Association of Administrators of Student Affairs
PMTCT
Preventing mother-to-child transmission
RLPA
Residence Life Professional Association
SA
Students Affairs
SAHPC
South African Health Professionals Council
SAIRR
The South African Institute of Race Relations
SASA
Student Affairs and Services Association
SIS
Student Information System
SRC
Student Representative Councils (South Africa)
SSAO
Senior student affairs and services officer
SSBF
Svenska Studentbostadsfreningen
STW
Studentenwerke
SWOT
Strengths (internal), Weaknesses (internal), Opportunities (external)

and Threats (external)
TAHLISO
Tanzania Higher Learning Institutions Student Organization
TCMA
Tertiary Campus Ministry Association
TEDCA
Tertiary Education Disability Council of Australia
UCANZ
University Careers Advisers of New Zealand
UCLA
UGC
University Grants Committee
339
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ACRONYM
340
UNE
Uniao Nacional des Estudantes
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USAB
Students' Accommodation Bureau
USAID
United States Agency for International Development
UVA
University of Virginia
UWI
University of the West Indies
VHS
Verket fr Hgskoleservice
WCHE.
World Conference on Higher Education
ZICOSU
Zimbabwe Congress of Student Union
ZINASU
Zimbabwe National Students Union
ZUSA
Zimbabwe Universities Sports Association

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Student Affairs and Services in Higher Education:

Global Foundations, Issues and Best Practices

Student Affairs and Services in Higher Education:

Meetings of student affairs/services practitioners

Inception of this publication

Foundations of student affairs and services

of out-of-classroom student services and programmes commonly referred to as

Purpose and use of this manual

a high-quality, well-rounded higher learning experience;

improved higher education access regardless of ability/background;

better retention and progress toward graduation; higher graduation rates;

enhanced career/employment prospects and lifelong learning interests; and

a life as a responsible, contributing community member and citizen.

Countries or institutions interested in evaluating the effectiveness of their current

countries particularly, students from previously underrepresented groups, such as

There is an unprecedented demand for and a great diversification in higher

The sharing of knowledge, international cooperation and emerging technologies

Societies have become increasingly knowledge-based so that higher learning

More diversified international cooperation and exchange comprise major

Access to higher education, despite possible limitations owing to institutional or

Women are under-represented in higher education. Equity in educational access

Information technology and telecommunications must play a major role in developing

Sound management and fiscal autonomy, with appropriate oversight by

Ongoing professional development of faculty and staff must be an integral part of

Assessment and evaluation of learning outcomes, instruction, research and services

Education of students must be done in a holistic fashion, treating the student as

Basic principles, values and beliefs that support an effective student

Basic principles, values and beliefs that

Purposes and partnerships

Higher education and student affairs professionals, as integral partners in

Basic principles, values and beliefs that support an effective student

Student affairs functions and services must be delivered in a manner that is

Access and diversity

Higher learning is enhanced by creative conflict, in particular as students, faculty

Higher education must address the personal and developmental needs of

Basic principles, values and beliefs that support an effective student

Students encounter three major transitions related to their higher education

All higher education stakeholders must promote independent, self-directed

The delivery of student services and programmes is based on a number of critical

Higher education must prioritize academic and career counselling programmes

Basic principles, values and beliefs that support an effective student

Student affairs and services professionals expect students to engage in their

Resources must be allocated to those student services and programmes that

Information technology (IT) is essential to efficient and effective management of

Research and assessment

Basic principles, values and beliefs that support an effective student

The central role of professional preparation and professional

The central role of professional

The central role of professional preparation and professional

Theoretical knowledge vs contextual realities

The central role of professional preparation and professional

Knowledge of students and their cultures

The central role of professional preparation and professional

Needs assessment, programme development and feedback

The central role of professional preparation and professional