RELIGIONS

OF THE
WORLD
BUDDHISM

CHRISTIANITY

CONFUCIANISM

HINDUISM

INDIGENOUS RELIGIONS

ISLAM

JUDAISM

NEW RELIGIONS

SHINTO

SIKHISM

TAOISM

RELIGIONS
OF THE
WORLD

BUDDHISM
Leslie D. Alldritt
Associate Professor of Religion and Philosophy
Northland College
Series Consulting Editor Ann Marie B. Bahr
Professor of Religious Studies,
South Dakota State University
Foreword by

Martin E. Marty

Professor Emeritus,
University of Chicago Divinity School

FRONTIS: There are approximately 360 million Buddhists worldwide, most

living on the continent of Asia. The countries with the largest per-capita
population of Buddhists are Thailand (95 percent) and Cambodia (90 percent).

CHELSEA HOUSE PUBLISHERS

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LAYOUT 21st Century Publishing and Communications, Inc.
2005 by Chelsea House Publishers,
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All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America.

www.chelseahouse.com
First Printing
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Alldritt, Leslie D.
Buddhism /Leslie D. Alldritt.
p. cm.(Religions of the world)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7910-7855-8 (alk. paper) ISBN 0-7910-8354-3 (pbk.)
1. Buddhism. I. Title. II. Series.
BQ4012.A55 2004
294.3dc22
2004011864
All links and web adresses were checked and verified to be correct at the time
of publication. Because of the dynamic nature of the web, some addresses
and links may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid.

CONTENTS
Foreword by Martin E. Marty
Preface by Ann Marie B. Bahr

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

vi
xi

Introduction

Foundations

18

Scriptures

39

Worldview

73

Worship

84

Growing Up Buddhist

95

Cultural Expressions

112

Holidays

127

Memories

141

Buddhism in the World Today

154

Chronology and Timeline

168
1 72
1 76
180
186
191
192

Notes
Glossary
Bibliography
Further Reading
Websites
Index

Foreword
Martin E. Marty

n this very day, like all other days, hundreds of millions

of people around the world will turn to religion for
various purposes.
On the one hand, there are purposes that believers in any or
all faiths, as well as unbelievers, might regard as positive and
benign. People turn to religion or, better, to their own particular faith, for the experience of healing and to inspire acts of
peacemaking. They want to make sense of a world that can all
too easily overwhelm them because it so often seems to be
meaningless and even absurd. Religion then provides them
with beauty, inspires their souls, and impels them to engage in
acts of justice and mercy.
To be informed citizens of our world, readers have good
reason to learn about these features of religions that mean so
much to so many. Those who study the faiths do not have to
agree with any of them and could not agree with all of them,
different as they are. But they need basic knowledge of religions
to understand other people and to work out strategies for
living with them.
On the other handand religions always have an other
handbelievers in any of the faiths, and even unbelievers who
are against all of them, will find their fellow humans turning
to their religions for purposes that seem to contradict all those
positive features. Just as religious people can heal and be healed,
they can also kill or be killed in the name of faith. So it has been
through history.

vi

Foreword

This killing can be literal: Most armed conflicts and much

terrorism today are inspired by the stories, commands, and
promises that come along with various faiths. People can
and do read and act upon scriptures that can breed prejudice
and that lead them to reject other beliefs and believers. Or
the killing can be figurative, which means that faiths can be
deadening to the spirit. In the name of faith, many people are
repressed, oppressed, sometimes victimized and abused.
If religion can be dangerous and if it may then come with
Handle with Care labels, people who care for their own
security, who want to lessen tensions and inspire concord,
have to equip themselves by learning something about the
scriptures and stories of their own and other faiths. And if
they simply want to take delight in human varieties and
imaginings, they will find plenty to please them in lively and
reliable accounts of faiths.
A glance at television or at newspapers and magazines on
almost any day will reveal stories that display one or both sides of
religion. However, these stories usually have to share space with
so many competing accounts, for example, of sports and entertainment or business and science, that writers and broadcasters
can rarely provide background while writing headlines. Without
such background, it is hard to make informed judgments.
The series RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD is designed to provide
not only background but also rich illustrative material about
the foreground, presenting the many features of faiths that
are close at hand. Whoever reads all the volumes in the series
will find that these religions have some elements in common.
Overall, one can deduce that their followers take certain things
with ultimate seriousness: human dignity, devotion to the sacred,
the impulse to live a moral life. Yet few people are inspired
by religions in general. They draw strength from what they
hold particularly. These particulars of each faith are not always
contradictory to those of others, but they are different in
important ways. It is simply a fact that believers are informed
and inspired by stories told in separate and special ways.

vii

viii

Foreword

A picture might make all this vivid: Reading about a religion,

visiting a place of worship, or coming into the company of those
who believe in and belong to a particular faith, is like entering a
room. Religions are, in a sense, spiritual furnished apartments.
Their adherents have placed certain pictures on the wall and
moved in with their own kind of furnishings, having developed
their special ways of receiving or blocking out light from such
places. Some of their figurative apartments are airy, and some
stress strength and security.
Philosopher George Santayana once wrote that, just as we do
not speak language, we speak particular languages, so we have
religion not as a whole but as religions in particular. The
power of each living and healthy religion, he added, consists in
its special and surprising message and in the bias which
that revelation gives to life. Each creates another world to
live in.
The volumes in this series are introductions to several spiritual
furnished apartments, guides to the special and surprising
messages of these large and complex communities of faith, or
religions. These are not presented as a set of items in a cafeteria
line down which samplers walk, tasting this, rejecting that, and
moving on. They are not bids for window-shoppers or shoppers
of any sort, though it may be that a person without faith might
be drawn to one or another expression of the religions here
described. The real intention of the series is to educate.
Education could be dull and drab. Picture a boring professor
standing in front of a class and droning on about distant realities.
The authors in this series, however, were chosen because they
can bring readers up close to faiths and, sometimes better, to
people of faith; not to religion but to people who are religious
in particular ways.
As one walks the streets of a great metropolis, it is not
easy and may not even be possible to deduce the faithcommitments of those one passes unless they wear a particular
costumesome garb or symbol prescribed by their faith.
Therefore, while passing them by, it is not likely that one

Foreword

can learn much about the dreams and hopes, the fears and
intentions, of those around them.
These books, in effect, stop the procession of passersby and bid
visitors to enter those sanctuaries where communities worship.
Each book could serve as a guide to worship. Several years ago,
a book called How to Be a Perfect Stranger offered brief counsel
on how to feel and to be at home among worshipers from other
traditions. This series recognizes that we are not strangers to
each other only in sanctuaries. We carry over our attachments
to conflicting faiths where we go to work or vote or serve in the
military or have fun. These carryovers tend to come from the
basic stories and messages of the several faiths.
The publishers have taken great pains to assign their work to
authors of a particular sort. Had these been anti-religious or
anti the religion about which they write, they would have
done a disservice. They would, in effect, have been blocking
the figurative doors to the faiths or smashing the furniture in
the sanctuaries. On the other hand, it would be wearying and
distorting had the assignment gone to public relations agents,
advertisers who felt called to claim Were Number One!
concerning the faith about which they write.
Fair-mindedness and accuracy are the two main marks
of these authors. In rather short compass, they reach a wide
range of subjects, focusing on everything one needs to advance
basic understanding. Their books are like mini-encyclopedias,
full of information. They introduce the holidays that draw
some neighbors to be absent from work or school for a day
or a season. They include galleries of notable figures in each
faith-community.
Since most religions in the course of history develop different
ways in the many diverse places where they thrive, or because they
attract intelligent, strong-willed leaders and writers, they come up
with different emphases. They divide and split off into numberless
smaller groups: Protestant and Catholic and Orthodox Christians,
Shiite and Sunni Muslims, Orthodox and Reform Jews, and many
kinds of Buddhists and Hindus. The writers in this series do

ix

Foreword

justice to these variations, providing a kind of map without which

one will get lost in the effort to understand.
Some years ago, a rabbi friend, Samuel Sandmel, wrote a
book about his faith called The Enjoyment of Scripture. What
an astonishing concept, some might think: After all, religious
scriptures deal with desperately urgent, life-and-death-andeternity issues. They have to be grim and those who read them
likewise. Not so. Sandmel knew what the authors of this series
also know and impart: The journeys of faith and the encounter
with the religions of others include pleasing and challenging
surprises. I picture many a reader coming across something on
these pages that at first looks obscure or forbidding, but then,
after a slightly longer look, makes sense and inspires an
aha! There are many occasions for aha-ing! in these books.
One can also wager that many a reader will come away from
the encounters thinking, I never knew that! or I never
thought of that before. And they will be more ready than they
had been to meet strangers of other faiths in a world that so
many faiths have to share, or that they get to share.
Martin E. Marty
The University of Chicago

Preface
Ann Marie B. Bahr

he majority of people, both in the United States and around

the world, consider religion to be an important part of their
lives. Beyond its significance in individual lives, religion also plays
an important role in war and peace, politics, social policy, ethics,
and cultural expression. Yet few people feel well-prepared to
carry on a conversation about religion with friends, colleagues, or
their congressional delegation. The amount of knowledge people
have about their own faith varies, but very few can lay claim to a
solid understanding of a religion other than their own. As the
world is drawn closer together by modern communications, and
the religions of the world jostle each other in religiously plural
societies, the lack of our ability to dialogue about this aspect of
our lives results in intercultural conflict rather than cooperation.
It means that individuals of different religious persuasions
will either fight about their faiths or avoid the topic of religion
altogether. Neither of these responses aids in the building of
healthy, religiously plural societies. This gap in our knowledge is
therefore significant, and grows increasingly more significant as
religion plays a larger role in national and international politics.
The authors and editors of this series are dedicated to the task
of helping to prepare present and future decision-makers to deal
with religious pluralism in a healthy way. The objective scholarship found in these volumes will blunt the persuasive power of
popular misinformation. The time is short, however. Even now,
nations are dividing along religious lines, and neutral states as
well as partisan religious organizations are precariously, if not

xi

xii

Preface

always intentionally, tipping delicate balances of power in favor

of one religious group or another with doles of aid and support
for certain policies or political leaders. Intervention in the affairs
of other nations is always a risky business, but doing it without
understanding of the religious sensitivities of the populace
dramatically increases the chances that even well-intentioned
intervention will be perceived as political coercion or cultural
invasion. With such signs of ignorance already manifest, the day
of reckoning for educational policies that ignore the study of the
worlds religions cannot be far off.
This series is designed to bring religious studies scholarship to
the leaders of today and tomorrow. It aims to answer the questions
that students, educators, policymakers, parents, and citizens might
have about the new religious milieu in which we find ourselves.
For example, a person hearing about a religion that is foreign to
him or her might want answers to questions like these:

How many people believe in this religion? What is its

geographic distribution? When, where, and how did
it originate?

What are its beliefs and teachings? How do believers

worship or otherwise practice their faith?

What are the primary means of social reinforcement?

How do believers educate their youth? What are their
most important communal celebrations?

What are the cultural expressions of this religion? Has

it inspired certain styles of art, architecture, literature,
or music? Conversely, does it avoid art, literature,
or music for religious reasons? Is it associated with
elements of popular culture?

How do the people who belong to this religion remember

the past? What have been the most significant moments
in their history?

What are the most salient features of this religion today?

What is likely to be its future?

Preface

We have attempted to provide as broad coverage as possible of

the various religious forces currently shaping the planet. Judaism,
Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism,
Sikhism, and Shinto have each been allocated an entire volume.
In recognition of the fact that many smaller ancient and new
traditions also exercise global influence, we present coverage
of some of these in two additional volumes titled Indigenous
Religions and New Religions. Each volume in the series
discusses demographics and geography, founder or foundational
period, scriptures, worldview, worship or practice, growing up
in the religion, cultural expressions, calendar and holidays,
history, and the religion in the world today.
The books in this series are written by scholars. Their approach
to their subject matter is neutral and objective. They are not
trying to convert readers to the religion they are describing.
Most scholars, however, value the religion they have chosen to
study, so you can expect the general tone of these books to be
appreciative rather than critical.
Religious studies scholars are experts in their field, but they
are not critics in the same sense in which one might be an art,
film, or literary critic. Religious studies scholars feel obligated
to describe a tradition faithfully and accurately, and to interpret
it in a way that will allow nonbelievers as well as believers to
grasp its essential structure, but they do not feel compelled to
pass judgment on it. Their goal is to increase knowledge and
understanding.
Academic writing has a reputation for being dry and uninspiring. If so, religious studies scholarship is an exception. Scholars of
religion have the happy task of describing the words and deeds of
some of the worlds most amazing people: founders, prophets,
sages, saints, martyrs, and bodhisattvas.
The power of religion moves us. Today, as in centuries past,
people thrill to the ethical vision of Confucianism, or the dancing
beauty of Hinduisms images of the divine. They are challenged
by the one, holy God of the Jews, and comforted by the saving
promise of Christianity. They are inspired by the stark purity of

xiii

xiv

Preface

Islam, by the resilience of tribal religions, by the energy and

innovation of the new religions. The religions have retained such
a strong hold on so many peoples lives over such a long period
of time largely because they are unforgettable.
Religious ideas, institutions, and professions are among the
oldest in humanitys history. They have outlasted the worlds
great empires. Their authority and influence have endured far
beyond that of Earths greatest philosophers, military leaders,
social engineers, or politicians. It is this that makes them so
attractive to those who seek power and influence, whether such
people intend to use their power and influence for good or
evil. Unfortunately, in the hands of the wrong person, religious
ideas might as easily be responsible for the destruction of the
world as for its salvation. All that stands between us and that
outcome is the knowledge of the general populace. In this as in
any other field, people must be able to critically assess what
they are being told.
The authors and editors of this series hope that all who seek
to wield the tremendous powers of religion will do so with
unselfish and noble intent. Knowing how unlikely it is that that
will always be the case, we seek to provide the basic knowledge
necessary to critically assess the degree to which contemporary
religious claims are congruent with the history, scriptures, and
genius of the traditions they are supposed to represent.
Ann Marie B. Bahr
South Dakota State University

1
Introduction

All that we are is the result of what we have thought:

it is founded on our thoughts.
If a man speaks or acts with an evil thought,
pain follows him, as the wheel follows
the foot of the ox that draws the carriage.
The Buddha, The Twin-Verses

Introduction
IMPRESSIONS OF BUDDHISM

hat do you think of when you hear the word Buddhism? Do

you think of places in Asia, such as China or Japan? Maybe you
think of martial arts, such as karate or kung fu. Until very recently,
these were the impressions many people in the United States
had of Buddhism. However, Buddhism is now becoming better
known and different images of Buddhism may come to mind.
Perhaps you have heard of the Dalai Lama, the Nobel Peace
Prize winner and great advocate for human rights. Maybe you
have seen movies that featured Buddhism such as Kundun or
Little Buddha, which starred Keanu Reeves as the Buddha. If
you have visited a bookstore recently, you may have encountered
a section that contained books on Asian thought and marveled
at the many books on the shelves. You might even know that
some famous people are Buddhists, such as Richard Gere, Steven
Seagal, Tina Turner, and members of the music group the Beastie
Boys. You may actually know someone or even have a friend
who is a Buddhist.
DEMOGRAPHICS AND DISTRIBUTION

Buddhism is considered a world religion because it has spread

all over the globe. Listed below are the five most populous
religions in the United States, by number of devotees, and changes
from 1990 to 2000:
RELIGION

2001 EST.
POPULATION

Christianity

159,030,000

76.5%

+5%

Nonreligious

27,539,000

13.2%

+110%

Judaism

2,831,000

1.3%

-10%

Islam

1,104,000

0.5%

+109%

Buddhism

1,082,000

0.5%

+170%

(Source: adherents.com, ARIS )

PERCENT OF
U.S. POP.,
2000

PERCENT
CHANGE
19902000

BUDDHISM

The fact that there are approximately as many Buddhists as

Muslims in the United States is surprising to many, and so is the
fact that Buddhism is increasing more rapidly as a percentage of
the United States population than any other group listed. The
growth in the number of Buddhists has come from two sources:
(1) Buddhists who have immigrated to the United States from
other countries, and (2) people already residing in the United
States who have converted to Buddhism or been raised Buddhist.
The above data underscore the importance of learning about
other religious traditions. While Christianity dominates the
religious sphere in the United States, the substantial percentage
increase of Muslims and Buddhists should encourage us to study
these traditions. Some estimates of the number of Buddhists who
reside in the United States actually range up to three million,
which, if true, would mean that more self-identified Buddhists
live in the United States than self-identified Jews!
There are approximately 360 million Buddhists worldwide,
making Buddhism the fourth-largest religion in the world after
Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. The countries with the largest
per-capita population of Buddhists are all found in Asia:
COUNTRY

PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION
THAT IS BUDDHIST

Thailand

95%

Cambodia

90%

Myanmar

88%

Bhutan

75%

Sri Lanka

70%

Tibet

65%*

Laos

60%

Vietnam

55%

Japan

50%*

Macau

45% (below 50 percent but with

Taiwan

43%

a substantial population)

(Source: adherents.com. * The accuracy of the data on Tibet and Japan is

questionable; this point will be taken up later in the text.)

Introduction

We have now seen that there are millions of Buddhists in the

West and hundreds of millions of Buddhists in the world. The
next logical questions might be, Where did Buddhism begin?
and When did it arrive in all of these other countries?
HISTORY OF BUDDHIST EXPANSION ACROSS ASIA
India

Buddhism began in India around 500 B.C.E., where it grew and

flourished. The three major types of Buddhism (Theravda,
Mahyna, and Vajrayna) had their beginnings in India. In
the third century B.C.E., Indias Emperor Asoka (Ashoka) sent
Buddhist missionaries to surrounding areas and countries. The
first set of Buddhist scriptures, the Pali Canon, was composed in
India. Great monastic universities were built, and scholars
from the rest of Asia traveled to India to learn in these universities. Buddhist art and philosophy originated in India. However,
after the thirteenth century C.E., Buddhism almost disappeared
from India, leaving only small remnant Buddhist communities
in the land of its birth.
Sri Lanka

In the middle of the third century B.C.E., Emperor Asoka sent

Buddhist missionaries to Sri Lanka, where the king was converted
to Buddhism. By the second century B.C.E., Buddhism had
become the dominant religion in Sri Lanka. The form of Buddhism
that flourished here is called Theravda Buddhism. Sri Lanka was
a center of Buddhist culture and scholarship in the first centuries
of the Common Era. Buddhism never died out in Sri Lanka, as it
had in India, but it suffered periods of decline. The most recent
of these occurred under Portuguese, Dutch, and British colonial
rule. However, a successful movement to revive Buddhism in
Sri Lanka began in the latter half of the nineteenth century;
this movement bore fruit that is still evident today.
Central Asia

Emperor Asoka also sent missionaries to the northwest, into

BUDDHISM

The three major branches of BuddhismMahyna, Theravda,

and Vajraynaall originated in India. Today, the largest branch is
Mahyna Buddhism, with 185,000,000 adherents worldwide.
present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. This region, which
straddled the ancient trade routes, became another center of
Buddhist learning. Two giant Buddha statues were carved out of
a mountain in Afghanistan between the second and the fifth
centuries C.E., and destroyed by the Taliban in FebruaryMarch
2001. The Buddhists had left the area by the fifteenth century,

Introduction

but long before that occurred the Chinese were exposed for
the first time to Buddhism as they traveled along these central
Asian trade routes.
China

The Han dynasty extended its power into Central Asia in the
first century B.C.E., and the Chinese people learned about
Buddhism, most likely from the monks dwelling in the cave
monasteries located along the trade routes. A community of
Chinese Buddhists existed by the middle of the first century C.E.
The first major task of Chinese Buddhism was the translation
of texts from Indian languages into Chinese. As Buddhism grew
in importance, a number of different schools developed. After
a persecution by a Taoist emperor in the middle of the ninth
century, the different schools of Buddhism were combined, and
this combined form of Buddhism has continued to the present
day in China.
Korea

A Chinese monk introduced Korea to Buddhism in the second half

of the fourth century C.E. Shortly after, a monk from Central Asia
arrived in a different part of what is today Korea, but the Central
Asian influence quickly died out. Korean Buddhism derived from
Chinese Buddhism; many Korean monks traveled to China to
study. Buddhism enjoyed royal support in Korea until the fourteenth century. From the end of the fourteenth century to the
beginning of the twentieth century, Confucianism was the only
official religion in Korea. Buddhism was forcibly suppressed during
this period, but it clung to life. Following the Japanese annexation
(1910) and subsequent occupation of Korea, Buddhism was
allowed to grow, and the revival has continued to the present time.
Today, Buddhism is once again an important influence in Korea.
Japan

In the sixth century C.E., Buddhism was introduced to Japan by

a Korean king, who sent images of the Buddha and Buddhist

BUDDHISM

texts as a way of establishing peaceful relations between the two

kingdoms. Prince Shotoku, a devout Buddhist who extended
royal patronage to the religion, did much to promote Buddhisms
growth in the early seventh century. During his reign, monks
were sent to China to study Buddhism. Beginning in the Nara
period (eighth century), Chinese monks brought many Chinese
Buddhist schools to Japan. Japanese monks continued to enjoy
royal patronage, and they served in administrative positions
and performed other government roles. When political power
was transferred to the samurai warriors at the close of the
twelfth century, Buddhism continued to be treated favorably
by the new rulers for several centuries. During this period,
distinctly Japanese forms of Buddhism arose. From the
sixteenth to the nineteenth century, Buddhism fell out of
favor with the military rulers. In the twentieth century, many
new religious movements developed out of the older forms of
Buddhism. The older forms continued to grow and develop
alongside the newer forms of Buddhism.
Southeast Asia: Myanmar/Burma, Thailand, Cambodia,
Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Malaysia

By the early centuries of the Common Era, both Hindu and

Buddhist merchants from India had established trading stations
in Southeast Asia. Various forms of Indian Buddhism were
established in these countries. Sometimes there was also an
infusion of Chinese forms of Buddhism. The type of Buddhism
that eventually came to dominate in each of these countries is
listed below:
Myanmar/Burma

Theravda

Thailand

Theravda

Cambodia

Theravda

Laos

Theravda

Vietnam

Mahyna

Malaysia and Indonesia

Mahyna

Introduction

As you can see, Theravda Buddhism is the most prevalent form

of Buddhism in Southeast Asia. With the exception of Sri Lanka,
this form of Buddhism does not dominate in any Asian country
outside of Southeast Asia.
Tibet

Tibet lay beyond the main trade routes between China and
present-day Afghanistan. Even though Buddhists lived in other
places in Central Asia by the beginning of the Common Era,
Buddhism did not enter Tibet until much later. King Srong-tsangam-po united the warring Tibetan clans for the first time in the
seventh century. His two wives, one from China and the other
from Nepal, were both Buddhists. Before long, the king had
adopted the faith. Tibets Buddhism developed through contact
with India. Tibetan kings invited famous Indian scholars and
meditation masters to come to Tibet. After Buddhism faded in
India, Tibetan Buddhism kept many Indian traditions alive, and
used them to develop its own unique form of Buddhism. In the
sixteenth century, the institution of the Dalai Lama was officially
recognized for the first time. In the middle of the twentieth century, Tibet came under the control of the Communist leaders of
the Peoples Republic of China, and Buddhism was suppressed.
By the seventh century C.E., Buddhism had spread across
Asia. It had subdivided into various schools and made its
home among numerous nationalities. Is there anything that all
these people who practiced Buddhism had in common? What
distinguishes a Buddhist from a non-Buddhist? Or, in other
words, who is a Buddhist?
WHO IS A BUDDHIST?

What makes a person a Buddhist? While this book will try to

answer this question in more detail over the course of its pages,
it is useful to offer a short definition. A Buddhist is a person who
believes in the major tenets of Buddhist thought as articulated
by the respective traditions of the school of Buddhism that the
believer follows.

10

BUDDHISM

What are the major tenets of Buddhism? All Buddhists look to

Gautama Buddha as the founder of their religion. Importantly,
Buddhists do not claim that the Buddha was a god but only a
human being. This view will be made more complex when we
briefly examine Buddhist history and learn that most Buddhists
are devotional (they worship a deity). Nonetheless, Buddhists
view the founder of their religion as a human rather than a god.
As we will learn, there is not a single sacred book in Buddhism
that would offer an exact parallel to the Jewish Bible, the Christian
Bible, or the Quran of Islam. There is a textual tradition in
Buddhism, but Buddhists differ on the importance of one book
or sutra over another. Some schools assert that one sutra is more
complete than others, while others are adherents of a series of
texts, and still others argue for not following any texts.
Buddhists follow an ethical code that includes many of the
same ethical priorities found in other religious traditions: do not
murder, lie, steal, etc. Buddhists apply their ethical code to their
words as well as their deeds. They believe in acting in ways that
are consistent with benevolence and love. A Buddhist views
another person as identical with her or his own self and thus
attempts to treat people and other sentient (conscious) life with
high regard. Correspondingly, many Buddhists may not engage
in such activities as hunting, military service, or eating meat;
however, this is not true for all Buddhists.
Buddhists, with some notable exceptions, are not aggressive
proselytizers. While they do believe that Buddhism is the
correct path, and they furthermore believe that it is an act of
compassion to acquaint others with the dharma (Buddhist
truth or Buddhist teaching), they also acknowledge that some
people may not be ready to pursue the path at this point in their
lives, at least not exclusively. In religious studies, we sometimes
speak of the three missionary traditions of Christianity, Islam,
and Buddhismall three have intentionally spread throughout
the world. Yet, of these three, the global migration of Buddhism
has not been as exclusivist or extensive (or, for that matter, as
bloody) as has the spread of Islam or Christianity. That is not to

Introduction

11

say, as is sometimes suggested, that Buddhist history is without

its violent episodes and periods of oppression. As with Islam
and Christianity, it is a religion that promotes both peace and
traditions of peace, but it has fallen short of its authentic message
at times.
Most Buddhists are devotional Buddhists: They pray or chant
to a deity similar to the way in which a Christian, Jew, Muslim,

LOVE IN BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY

Love is an important term in every religion in the world. The Christian
theologian, Paul Tillich, regards love as the drive towards the reunion
of the separated. Tillich considers the criterion and corrective of
every act of love to be the distinctively Christ-like love called agap.
Agap is Gods love for humans in spite of their unworthiness. While
the love between God and the human person can be a very close
relationship, even to the extent of Christ being in the believer and
the believer being in Christ, the distinction between the believer
and either God or Christ remains. In this kind of love, the reunion of
the separated is a participatory love, with the one participating in
the life of the other. It is not, however, a non-dual love because the
distinction between the divine and the human person remains.
Using Tillichs definition, the Buddhist experience of Awakening
might be described as Fulfilled Love because in it the separated are
reunited through the realization that there is no other apart from
oneself. Or, in other words, love arises at the same time as one realizes
the non-dual nature of the Universe. In Awakening to Fulfilled Love,
all obstacles to love are, at last and evermore, overcome.
Love in Buddhism is not simply self-denial for the sake of the other,
for as long as there is a self to be denied and an other to be
served, one is still living in duality. As long as there is duality (self
and other), the taint of self-interest (hubris) can be mitigated but
not extirpated. Buddhism proposes that genuine love transcends all
dualities and retains no vestige of self-interest.
One might say that as agap is love in spite of [our unworthiness],
Buddhist love is love just because of [our identity, our non-duality].
While the theistic traditions focus on a participatory love,
Buddhism proposes what we might call an identity-participatory love
because it includes both the lover and loved in a dynamic, synergistic
at-one-ment.

12

BUDDHISM

or Hindu might. While meditation is an important Buddhist

practice, not as many Buddhists actually meditate as the stereotypical portrayal of Buddhism would suggest.
The Buddhist place of worship is called a temple. In addition
to attending worship services, Buddhists will also visit the temple
for special occasions, such as weddings, funerals, or festivals, and
for special blessings. Many Buddhists also practice at home.
They have small altars in their residence, which serve as the focal
point for their prayers or other rituals.
In terms of its social structure, Buddhism is more like Catholic
or Orthodox Christianity than it is like Protestant Christianity.
Buddhism has monks and nuns, that is, it divides the Buddhist
community up into monks, nuns, and laypeople. In Theravda
Buddhism,1 sangha refers only to those who have chosen a
monastic lifestyle. In Mahyna Buddhism, sangha often
means the entire Buddhist community, including monks, nuns,
and laypeople. Buddhist monks and nuns frequently live in
temples and are financially supported by the laypersons. The
laypersons, usually called householders in Buddhist literature,
gain merit for this good deed, and receive services from the
monastery (e.g., sermons, performance of rituals) in return for
their economic support. Buddhist temples can vary widely in
scale and designfrom simple houses to elaborate multiacre
properties with many subtemples contained within the walls
that enclose the perimeter of the property.
In sum, many of the ethical precepts and even much of the
social structure of Buddhism is very similar to what one might
find in other religious traditions, even Western traditions. When
we turn to consider the worldview of Buddhism, we will find less
similarity with Western religions (although some remains) and
more similarity with Hinduism. Hinduism and Buddhism both
participated in the ancient South Asian worldview. (The two
religions eventually separated geographically and, as they did so,
their worldviews correspondingly diverged.) Ancient Buddhism
was different from ancient Hinduism exactly to the extent that
the Buddhas teachings differed from the teaching of his Hindu

Introduction

contemporaries. In other words, what distinguished the first

Buddhists was that they were disciples of the Buddha. And what,
exactly, were or are the teachings of the Buddha? The answer to
that question depends on which subgroup of Buddhists you are
asking, and therefore a full explanation will have to wait until a
later chapter. At this point, however, I will touch briefly on a few
teachings that apply to all Buddhists.
KARMA AND REBIRTH

Perhaps one of the most common ideas that people in the

West associate with Buddhism is karma. Buddhists do believe
in karma, but they are not the only ones. All the major religions
born in the South Asian cultural realmnot only Buddhism
but also Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhismshare the doctrine
of karma.
Since the word has entered Western vocabulary, you may
already have some idea of what karma means. Karma is the
principle of return: What you give you receive back. So, if I kick
a dog this morning and in the afternoon that dog bites me (or
maybe some other misfortune besets me), that is karma playing
itself out. Contrary to this example, the action that led to the
result is usually unknown, but Buddhists will still say, It is his
good [or bad] karma that has brought this on, when something
either positive or negative happens to a person.
Karma literally means action, but it is action as accompanied
by the consequences of the action for the doer of the action.
Buddhism is primarily concerned with the moral character of
actions. In every action, there is a moral element that determines
whether it is a good or bad deed. That moral element is determined not by the results but by the motive of the action. If you
intend to do good but your action has bad results (e.g., if you
hold a door for someone to walk through and they inadvertently
trip and break an ankle), your karmic accumulation for that
deed is good not bad.
The doctrine of karma provides a sense that we live in a world
where justice is done, where bad deeds are punished, and good

13

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BUDDHISM

deeds are rewarded. In retributive fashion, karma is at work.

Some people also like the idea of karma because it suggests that
there is a reason for everything that happensthe universe is
not chaotic but logical. Others may be attracted to karma
because judgment isnt necessarily handed down at death but
rather during ones life.
However, if we take karma without the idea of rebirth, then
we really dont have an accurate picture. According to Buddhist
thought, rebirth is the lot of all humans.2 We have all lived many
lives before, and we will live many lives in the future until we
gain release from this cycle of birth-death-rebirth (samsara)
through Awakening.
What determines the conditions in which we will live our
next life is the karma we have accrued over this and previous
lifetimes. For a Buddhist, then, the idea is to do as much good
as one can from right intentions, thereby accumulating good
karma, which will result in a favorable rebirth. And, hopefully,
one of these rebirths will be such that it will result in the state
of Awakening after which no karma will be accumulated and
therefore no subsequent rebirth experienced.
Allow me to underline that last point: Continuous rebirth is
not desirable in Buddhism. The goal is to escape from this cycle.
This is different from how Westerners sometimes perceive
reincarnation. They like the idea of multiple births and deaths,
but this is not a Buddhist attitude.
After hearing an explanation of karma-rebirth, people frequently ask, If people are continuously reborn, how do we
account for the number of people who are currently alive as
opposed to those who existed before? If there are no new souls
who enter the universe, then how can Buddhism account for the
increase in the worlds population?
The question may be answered several ways (including the
answer that it truly doesnt benefit the Buddhist practitioner to
be concerned with this problem), but the most common answer
appeals to the idea of lokas. Lokas are other levels of sentient
existence (deities, animals, hungry ghosts, etc.). A being can

Introduction

enter the human realm from any other loka. Human life is the
preferred form of existence; only a human can reach Awakening
and be released from continued rebirth. Yet, although Buddhism
does proffer an answer to this questionone that may help to
make numerical sense of the doctrinein the end the Buddhist
simply takes it on faith that the doctrine of karma-rebirth is
operative in his or her life and that this will be confirmed at the
moment of Awakening.
THE BUDDHIST IDEA OF AWAKENING

The idea of Awakening is another essential aspect of Buddhism.

It was previously noted that Awakening is the goal of Buddhism
and that it marks the end of the karma-rebirth cycle.
As you read how various Buddhists define this term, you may
associate it with beliefs from other religious traditions, and
appropriately so, as one could argue that the Hindu idea of
moksha, the Taoist idea of realizing the Tao, or even the descriptions of Christian, Muslim, or Jewish mystics seem similar. So,
while arguably the Buddhist endpoint or solution to lifes dilemmas may not be unique to Buddhism, it is an essential part of
Buddhist belief.
The Buddhist Awakening is often referred to by different
terms, including nirvana, enlightenment, and satori. As with the
term karma, nirvana has come to be widely used in American
popular culture. There was, of course, a famous rock band of
that name, but you also find the term used in newspapers and
popular magazines to connote something that is mystical or a
peak experience (a nirvana-like experience). (The Japanese
Buddhist term Zen is used in almost the same fashion and with
a similar meaning in popular publications.) Nirvana is defined
in a dictionary as follows:
1) Hinduism a blowing out, or extinction, of the flame of life
through reunion with the Brahma 2) Buddhism the state of
perfect blessedness achieved by the extinction of individual
existence and by the absorption of the soul into the supreme

15

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BUDDHISM
spirit, or by the extinction of all desires and passions 3) any
place or condition of great peace or bliss.3

The third definition is the one that likely applies to the popular
usage of the term nirvana. The definition ascribed to Buddhism
(#2) is actually a conflation of Hindu and Buddhist ideas. Two of
the terms, namely the soul and the supreme spirit, find no
place in Buddhism, although they would be acceptable translations for the Hindu concepts of the Atman and the Brahman,
respectively. So, the first thing we can learn from this definition
is the importance of seeking expert advice and double-checking
the accuracy of anything you read about Buddhism! However,
the remainder of the definition (the state of perfect blessedness
achieved by the extinction of individual existence . . . or by the
extinction of all desires and passions) does provide an adequate
provisional idea of what nirvana actually means for a Buddhist.
All Buddhists strive to reach nirvana, if not in this life, then in
their next life. Buddhism differs from those religions that place
the resolution of lifes drama postmortem; it insists that nirvana
can be attained prior to death. However, nirvana can only be
attained by a human being. It cannot be attained from either
a subhuman or a superhuman realm of existence. Buddhism
strongly encourages believers to strive for nirvana in this very
lifetime. After all, due to the effects of karma-rebirth, one may
not be born human in the next life or, even if born human, one
may not come to encounter Buddhist thought at all.
Though all Buddhists strive to reach nirvana, they do so in
different ways. Some forms of Buddhism teach that only monks
can hope to attain nirvana. Laypersons try to accumulate as
much positive karma as possible in this life in anticipation of a
next life where they may be better placed to pursue monastic
practice. Other Buddhists believe that it is through devotion to a
Buddha that one can be delivered at death into a pure land of
Awakening (this will be elaborated on later in the text). Still
other forms of Buddhism teach that even laypersons who work
diligently at it may experience Awakening prior to death.

Introduction

What is the actual experience of Awakening? This will require

a detailed explanation, but for now we can say that Awakening
is not the same as understanding. That is, I can read and intellectually understand Buddhist thought, but this is not what is meant
by Awakening. Awakening is an actualization, a realization of
the authentic nature of existence, including ones own existence.
Without experiencing Awakening, the person remains in ignorance
(avidya) and suffering (dukkha).
Lets turn now to the life story of the Buddha and his first
teaching. In the discussion of his first teaching, we will better
come to understand why Buddhists believe that we are currently
living an inauthentic existence, as well as why they believe that
Awakening is the ultimate answer for all human beings.

17

2
Foundations

The story of the Buddhas personal life . . . is the

story of someone who attained full enlightenment
through hard work and unwavering dedication.
Tenzin Gyatso, His Holiness,
the Fourteenth Dalai Lama,
in The World of Tibetan Buddhism

Foundations

he name of the founder of Buddhism was not, as many people

think, Buddha. Buddha is a title, not a proper name. It means
the Awakened One. As we look at the biography of the Buddha,
it is important to remember that there are disagreements about
the particulars of his birth, life, and death, and there are legendary
elements entwined with historical memories. Although the
Buddhas story was lovingly and faithfully transmitted from
generation to generation, the concern of the storytellers was not
historical accuracy but rather the importance of his life as a
model for Buddhist life. In this chapter, I will follow the lead of
those ancient storytellers and seek to answer this question: What
was it about the Buddhas life that enabled an entire religion to
be built upon his experiences?
THE BUDDHAS EARLY LIFE

According to the story, the Buddha was born in Lumbin, in

what is now Nepal. The most commonly conjectured year of his
birth is 563 B.C.E. His family name was Gautama, and his given
name was Siddhartha, which means he who has achieved his
goal. 4 He was also called Skyamuni, meaning sage of the
Skyas (his fathers clan and therefore his clan). His ancestral
home was Kapilavastu, a nearby town.
Siddhartha was born into a royal family (his father was a local
chieftain) and grew up as a prince. His birth was miraculous. His
mother, Queen My, gave birth to Siddhartha while standing
up and holding to a branch of a tree. It was not a normal birth;
instead, the infant emerged, painlessly, from his mothers side.
Interestingly, as author John Strong notes in his excellent
account, The Buddha: A Short Biography, This lack of passing
through the birth canal is often said to reflect a concern for
purity, but it may also be connected to a pan-Indian tradition
that asserts that the trauma of vaginal birth is what wipes out
the memory of previous lives. 5 Strongs point is important
because, according to the doctrine of transmigration or rebirth,
Siddhartha would have experienced multiple births prior to the
one in which he became the Buddha. The Buddhist tradition

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BUDDHISM

recounts some of these previous lives in texts called Jtakas

(birth stories). Siddhartha was subsequently able to recall
all of his previous lives as a result of attaining the Awakening
experience. A week after giving birth to Siddhartha, Queen My
died and the king married her sister, Prajpat.
The accounts of Siddharthas birth include indications of his
coming auspiciousness. Some accounts say that he immediately
stood up and walked and talked, declaring that this would be
his last birth, and that he would bring others to liberation.
Siddharthas father, King Suddhodana, had several holy men
predict his sons future through a process called divination. In
examining the childs body, they found thirty-two physical
manifestations that indicated the infant would grow up to be
either a great king or a great spiritual leader and teacher.
Suddhodana wanted his son to succeed him on the throne.
Determined that Siddhartha should become a great king,
Suddhodana surrounded his son with the pleasures of life, hoping thereby to deter him from developing any interest in religion.
In this way, Siddhartha grew up to become a young man, married
a princess named Yasodhar, and had a son named Rhula
(which means to fetter, perhaps indicating that Siddhartha
felt confined). It seemed that Suddhodana had successfully
steered his son toward kingship and away from religious life.
However, it was not to be. Siddhartha lived a very sheltered
life, secluded in a castle and showered with all of lifes luxuries.
He eventually grew bored and wanted to travel beyond the
castle walls to a beautiful park he had heard about. His father
granted him this wish but had his subjects prepare the road
that Siddharthas chariot would take so that there would be no
distractions. At twenty-nine years of age, the prince stepped into
his chariot with his charioteer and embarked on a trip that
would change the world forever.
As Prince Siddhartha was traveling on the road, he encountered an old man who piqued his interest. Due to his fathers
protection, he had never seen a person slowed by extreme age.
Siddhartha asked Chandaka, his charioteer, to explain the mans

Foundations

condition. Chandaka replied, Old age, it is called, the destroyer

of beauty and vigor, the source of sorrow, the depriver of
pleasures, the slayer of memories, the enemy of sense organs.
This man has been ruined by old age. He too in his infancy has
taken milk and, in due time, had crawled on the ground; he then
became a handsome youth, and now he has reached old age. 6
Siddhartha very naturally then asked whether this condition
is unique to this person or if all humans grow old. Chandaka
retorted, Advanced age will certainly come upon you through
the inescapable force of time, no matter how long you may live.
People in the world are aware of old age, yet they seek [pleasures]. 7
The prince, learning that he too would grow old, was shaken,
and decided to forego the anticipated pleasantness of the park
and return at once to the protection of the castle. The castle did
provide physical protection for the prince but his mind was no
longer protected, and he began to think deeply about the idea of
aging, which troubled his thoughts. But he shared his unease
with no one.
Soon he decided to travel once again from the castle and
asked his father for permission to visit the park he failed to reach.
The king, unaware of any consternation in his son, granted his
wish and prepared the road as before to be free of distraction
or disturbance.
Again, the prince set out in his chariot for the park and, again,
the path provided a lesson as the prince this time came upon a
novel sight: a man who appeared very ill. As he had with the old
man, Siddhartha queried his driver about the situation and
learned that the man was sick. Siddhartha asked if he too might
suffer a similar fate at some point in his life. The charioteer
assured the prince that he would at some time fall prey to sickness
saying, Prince, this evil is common to all; yet the world filled with
suffering seeks enjoyment, however oppressed it is by disease. 8
The prince became agitated and fled back to the castle fraught
with concern over his inevitable fate. Siddhartha did not know
where to turn. What had been a sheltered world was turned
upside down, and the corporeal pleasures of food, fine clothes,

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BUDDHISM

and viewing dancing girls were becoming pointless. He reasoned,

If one inevitably falls prey to sickness and age, what is the point
in the pleasures of the day?
A third trip eventually followed in which Siddhartha witnessed
the most sobering sight of all: a funeral where he saw the body
of a dead man. This is the last state of all men. Death is certain
for all; whether they be of low, middle, or high degree, 9 averred
his charioteer.
This sight shook the prince to his very core and robbed him,
once and for all, of satisfaction with his life of privilege and
position. He could no longer stand to live and returned to the
palace to contemplate his ultimate fate.
Fortunately, he encountered a fourth sight. He saw a holy
man, a Hindu saddhu. This encounter, though, was different: It
did not represent a problem for Siddhartha but a solution. The
holy man seemed to have found peace despite the sickness, old
age, and death that awaited him. The saddhu told Siddhartha,
In this world which is characterized by destruction, I eagerly
search for the blessed and indestructible state. 10 Hearing this,
Siddhartha knew what he had to do . . . and he conspired to leave
the only world he had ever known and seek the truth of his
human existence.
One night, after furtively kissing his wife and son good-bye, he
snuck away into the woods and took up the life of a wandering
holy man, just like the one he had encountered.
In Buddhism, the four events Siddhartha witnessedsick
man, old man, dead man, and the holy manare referred to as
the Four Passing Sights. The Great Renunciation refers to the
night when Siddhartha fled the palace to begin his new life.
Siddhartha spent the next few years studying and practicing with the most esteemed Hindu holy men of his time. In
Hinduism, someone who renounces the world to spend all his
time seeking truth is called a sannyasin. The sannyasin, or worldrenouncer, removes himself from life to devote all his efforts to
freeing himself from the bonds of karma and attaining the
deathless state.11

Foundations

Yet, despite or perhaps because of these efforts, Siddhartha

still felt that the basic problem of human existence was not
answered to his satisfaction. This part of his story serves to
illustrate Siddharthas great determination, and also to show
that Hinduism did not provide the answer he sought. He had to
traverse a new path.
In desperation, he took a severely ascetic12 approach, which
meant he practiced extreme breath control and lived on small
amounts of water and food. These were time-honored yogic
practices employed by ascetics at that time. They were used to
generate certain mental and spiritual states. Siddhartha subjected
himself to a fast so severe that he became emaciated and almost
died. While Siddhartha was not impressed with the results of
this course of action, others admired his strong will and ascetic
proficiency. He became the recognized leader of a small band
of five ascetics.
When he found himself at the brink of death from starvation,
Siddhartha realized that the life of deprivation was no more
valid than the life of excess that he had enjoyed as a prince.
Surely, he thought, a middle way was best. He decided to eat
again, beginning with an offering of milk-rice from a passing
local woman named Sujt, and his health was soon restored.
One of the consequences of his abandonment of extreme
asceticism in favor of the middle way was that his five ascetic
companions became alienated and then left him in disgust.
(According to Buddhist tradition, these five ascetics would
subsequently return to listen to the Buddhas first sermon and
become his first disciples.)
Siddhartha then took a fateful step: He sat down under a fig
tree with the firm intent of not moving until he had realized
authentic truth. My body may shrivel up, my skin, my bones,
my flesh may dissolve, but [I] will not move from this very seat
until I have obtained enlightenment. 13
Settling himself under the tree, he meditated and waited. Over
the course of a momentous night, he withstood the attempts of
Mra, the Great Tempter, to dissuade him from his mission.

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BUDDHISM

Mra was a liar and a deceiver, a sort of Buddhist version of the

devil. He tried to distract Siddhartha by parading voluptuous
goddesses before him, by pelting him with fiery missiles, and
by impugning his moral right to pursue Awakening rather
than fulfilling his roles in society. Siddhartha steadfastly continued to meditate. At last, as dawn broke, Siddhartha experienced
Awakening. He is said to have gained knowledges, both mundane
and divine.
The knowledge Siddhartha gained as part of his Awakening
included supernormal powers (he was able to hear all sounds
and could recall all of his former lives) as well as the foundational dharma or truth of Buddhism.14 His search had taken six

THE BUDDHAS SECOND SERMON

Studies of Buddhism usually emphasize the Buddhas First Sermon
after his Awakening as it is said to encapsulate the primary teaching of
Buddhism. There is some truth to the claim, but the Buddhas second
sermon, preached at Benares (in modern-day northern India), is also
worthy of special consideration.
In his second sermon, the Buddha connected his discourse on the
nature of suffering to two other important doctrines: non-self
(antman) and impermanence (anitya). Along with dukkha, these
three comprise what are called the Three Marks of Existence.
Non-self is a challenging concept, even for someone who has studied
Buddhism for many years. The idea is not that one has no self or that
one does not exist, as Westerners often understood it when they
first learned of this doctrine. It is rather that this ordinary self, this
collection of physical and mental aggregates, is impermanent, relative,
and nonexistent in and of itself. One suffers or is unsatisfied because
of a failure to fully realize this limited nature of the self. We do not
know that this is the reason for our suffering, however, and therefore
we look outside the self for answers to our problems.
Zen Buddhism speaks of the realization of the True Self. The True
Self sees the nondual nature of the Self as naturally as he or she
previously viewed the inauthentic self. The True Self is grounded in a
permanent, absolute, and ever-existing reality. It was as a result of
this teaching, and by profoundly experiencing this truth, that the five
ascetics that the Buddha was teaching attained Awakening.

Foundations

full years; he was thirty-five years old when he at last became

a Buddha (an Awakened One).
LIFE AS THE BUDDHA AND PARINIRVN

Siddhartha began to teach, and to attract followers, beginning

with the five ascetic companions who had left him. His teaching career lasted approximately forty-five years. The Buddhas
converts included mainly members of the lower classes but also
some Brahmins and Kshatriyas, and also many members of
his own family. (Brahmins and Kshatriyas were members of
the highest social classes, including priests, teachers, rulers,
and warriors.)
Why was the Buddha able to attract so many followers? One
reason was that Buddhism was a religion that intentionally
tried to spread its message. The sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E.
were a period of religious ferment in ancient India; many people
were looking for spiritual solutions to lifes problems. Some
holy men waited for seekers to come to them and beg to be
taught their wisdom, while others used their homeless state as
an opportunity to travel and preach their message. The Buddha
was one of the latterhe and his band of monks traveled the
roads of India, preaching and teaching. Buddhism later became,
along with Islam and Christianity, one of the worlds three large
missionary religions.
Another reason for the popularity of the new religion was
Buddhisms relatively progressive social attitude. Buddhism
offered women an independent spiritual path, one in which
they were not dependent on their husbands or fathers. (We will
discuss the addition of women to the sangha later in the text.)
Buddhism accepted the second son in a family, even though
second sons were not usually included in the inheritance, and
therefore did not bring any wealth into the sangha. It even
accepted the so-called outcastes, the poorest of Indias poor.
Perhaps a third reason for Buddhisms popularity was that it
retained some of the essential teachings of Hinduism (karma
and rebirth), and it had a guru (spiritual teacher) in the person

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BUDDHISM

of the Buddha. In other words, there was some common ground

between the two faiths, making conversion from Hinduism to
Buddhism less dramatic and traumatic than conversion to a
Western religion. Finally, the strength of the Buddhas message
and the fact that he was a charismatic teacher also contributed
to the rapid spread of Buddhism.
Prior to his death, the Buddha and his closest disciple and
cousin, nanda, traveled throughout India delivering messages
that focused on the continued existence of the sangha after
the Buddhas death. Although he was eighty years old and ill, the
Buddha was still abledue to his strength of mindto forestall
death and continue to impart dharma (the Buddhist teaching).
He traveled to Pp, a small town where he was provided a
meal by Cunda, a devotee and a blacksmith by trade. The traditional accounts of this meal and its resulting effects upon the
Buddha are inconclusive, but it is often conjectured that he ate
tainted food, which contributed to his death, though it is quite
likely that the Buddha was near death prior to the visit. Some
sources have suggested the meal contained pork, others mushrooms or other foods. The Buddha did praise the food and
Cunda was able to receive only positive karmic benefit from
feeding the Buddha and his party.
The Buddha finally returned to the outskirts of Kusinagar,
which was to be the site of his parinirvn. He lay down on his
side in what has become known as the position of parinirvn.
Others assembled around him and various encounters ensued,
but the time finally arrived for his death. He then uttered his
final words: Now monks, I declare to you: all conditioned
things are of a nature to decaystrive on untiringly. 15
The Buddha is said to have passed into parinirvn, the state
beyond Awakening. He was therefore released from the cycle
of birth and rebirth (samsara). At the Buddhas departure,
an earthquake occured. The monks and others near to him
mourned his death and preparations followed for handling his
body and cremation. As in Hinduism, the Buddhist tradition is
to cremate the body rather than to bury it.

Foundations
GAUTAMAS FIRST TEACHING:
THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

Upon finally achieving Awakening, the question Siddhartha

was required to answer was, What am I to do with this wisdom,
this bodhi ? His initial thought was to keep this knowledge
to himself, fearing misunderstanding and negative reprisals,
but he ultimately decided that he should tell others of this
experience and help them realize the same reality. After all, not
only wisdom but compassion as well was at the heart of the
Buddhas Awakening experience.
The Buddha then traveled to Sarnath, where he found his five
former ascetic companions, and expounded the first teaching
of Buddhism before them. This incident is sometimes called
the Sermon at Deer Park. This first teaching is critical to an
understanding of Buddhism because it describes the fundamental
tenets of the religion. Every Buddhist believes in the Four Noble
Truths, which is the name given to the content of the Buddhas
first sermon.
The first Noble Truth taught that human life is suffering
(dukkha). The second Truth is that this suffering is caused by
craving or desire (tanha). The third is that this craving or desire
can be made to cease. And the fourth is the Eightfold Path, the
way to make the craving cease. A way to explain these four Truths
is that the first is the nature of human existence, the second
the problem with human existence, the third the answer to the
problem, and the fourth the way to solve the problem. Since the
Four Noble Truths are the core of Buddhist teaching, understanding them will make the rest of our study of Buddhism easier.
The First Noble Truth

Since Buddhist teaching begins with the statement that life is

suffering, some people immediately conclude that Buddhists are
pessimistic, that is, negative in their outlook. Not being interested
in anything negative, they may end up dismissing Buddhism.
However, it is important to remember that many of the worlds
religions would agree that there is something radically wrong

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BUDDHISM

with the world, though they have a different term for it: original
sin, ignorance, selfishness, impurity, etc. These religions would
further agree that the radical wrong in the world is responsible for
the sufferings we endure: Original sin leads to deathignorance
to going round and round in the world as it is, rather than
finding and grasping salvation, selfishness to alienation from
other people, impurity to alienation from the sacred, and so
forth. Religious thought points out the radical wrong and offers
a way to avoid the suffering it entails. Buddhist doctrine states
the same thing: Human life without realizing the Buddhist
answer is a life of suffering.
However, is life really suffering? We usually say that if something
isnt broken, dont fix it. Sure, there is unpleasantness in life
but generally I am not in pain, hungry, or thirsty. Actually, I am
much better off than most people! Why should I complain and
see my life as suffering? A Buddhist may answer that this is true
for you. You may be a fortunate person who, for the most part,
is able to minimize or forestall suffering in your life. However,
Buddhism would go on to suggest that your peaceful life might
not be absent of suffering after all.
For one thing, as Prince Gautama realized, sickness, old age,
and death lie in wait for all of us and all those we know. Though
one may enjoy youth, wellness, and life for now, this will not last.
Sickness or death may be only minutes away, rather than, as we
like to think, in some distant future.
Another way to think about dukkha is to translate it, not as
suffering but as dissatisfaction. In this case, the First Noble Truth
states that life is unsatisfactory. We tend to live our lives from peak
experience to peak experience, almost biding time in between.
When an eagerly anticipated experience actually occurs, it often
seems not to live up to its advance billing. Almost immediately
after attaining what you desired, you begin to wonder what the
excitement was about. Then, almost by impulse, you begin to
look forward to another event or thing. From a Buddhist
perspective, it is the nature of ordinary human consciousness
that we tend to never be satisfied with what we have. We seemingly

Foundations

always want something more or different, which leads us to the

Second Noble Truth: Suffering is caused by craving.
The Second Noble Truth

The doctrine of dependent co-arising (prattya-samutpda)

illustrates how the relationship between craving (tanha) and
suffering (dukkha) works in human life. Briefly stated, samsara is
characterized by a cause-and-effect cycle perpetuated by ordinary
consciousness. Trapped in this cycle of births and deaths, we travel
from life to life, always craving, always suffering. Each time we
are born, we are born in ignorance of the true reality that is
illuminated only by Awakening. The unawakened consciousness
works in ignorance (avidya) and therefore it generates karma.
This generation of karma results in a continuation of ordinary,
samsaric consciousness, both in this life and the next. So, we are
born in ignorance and generate karma because we are ignorant,
and this karma then leads to a new birth in ignorance. It is a
perpetual cycle; for as long as the self continues to exist it moves
around this circle from birth to death to birth again.
What is ordinary consciousness? It is samsara. It is consciousness that perceives objects, good or bad feelings, and the self.
The self is the subject; the self is Inot the I made into
an objective, visible self (as when I look in a mirror, or describe
myself), but the subjective I, the I that sees everything else
but cannot see itself because the subject-I (as versus the object-I)
is invisible. The subject-I is not what is seen but what sees; it
is not what is spoken about, but what speaks; not the action
but the actor. Invisible, not able to be described because it is
not an object, this I is nonetheless assumed as the center of all
perception, expression, or action. Without it, nothing is seen,
said, or done.
In addition to the self, objects are another part of ordinary
consciousness. The two poles of ordinary consciousness are the
subject-I and objects. We see everything as an object, even
though we presume that other persons are subjects just as the
I is a subject. What is the source of the objects that we perceive

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BUDDHISM

in the world? Buddhists believe that the source of these objects

is the mind. The world is a seamless whole, but in order to
understand the world we need to break it down into smaller
parts, parts that we can name and manipulate. We fragment the
world into objects for our conscious apprehension.
The third element of ordinary consciousness (in addition to
the subject-I and objects) is the feelings that are generated as we
come in contact with objects. In apprehending objects, we utilize
our senses, and our senses rely on our body and consciousness
to function. This functional, sensory engagement with the world
inexorably brings feelings into our consciousness, which are
distinguished as good or bad feelings, desirable or undesirable.
We seek to attain the objects that we view as good or desirable,
and we seek to avoid the objects that we consider bad or undesirable. This craving or grasping after those objects that we deem
desirable does NOT lead to relief from suffering or dissatisfaction
(although we think it will). Rather than release us from the
fundamental ignorance from which we began, it simply leads us
to a death that results in a rebirth that only lands us back in a
new cycle of ignorance. Release from the round of births and
deaths requires a fundamental change in consciousness (Awakening), whereas craving is only ordinary consciousness. So craving
only lands us back in suffering.
This is a difficult concept, so lets back up and have another go
at the Second Noble Truth from another direction. In the second
noble truth, the assertion is made that our suffering or dissatisfaction is caused because we crave or desire. In our discussion of
the First Noble Truth, it was pointed out that we never seem to
reach an end in our desires. We wish for a new car, a date with that
handsome boy or beautiful girl, or perhaps even for spiritual
gain. Buddhism argues that this is the basic human problem: We
are egocentric human beings who strive to feel satisfied but are
ultimately unable to achieve fulfillment, and this results in pain
and anxiety.
One way to understand how this problem works in Buddhism
is to consider the way we encounter the world. Take a look

Foundations

around you. What do you see? Perhaps you see a desk, another
person, a pencil, and certainly you see this book in front of you.
In ordinary speech, we call these things objects. There are many
objects around you that you can see, touch, taste, smell, or hear.
To engage these objects, you have to have an objectifier. That
is, you have to have a person who sees these things as objects.
A pencil is not a pencil until someone sees it as an object that
has that meaning for the objectifier. So, in order to have an
object, you need a subject (the objectifier). In seeing the pencil,
this book, or any object, you are necessarily involved as the
objectifier. You are not an objectbut a subjectso we can call
you the subject-I.
Normally human consciousness posits a self, that is, it includes
self-consciousness. Just because my consciousness functions
the way it does, I believe I have a self, even though I can never
see the self directly. Consciousness works by using a subjectobject polarity, and the self is consciousness subject. With the
self occupying the role of the subject, everything else, including
other persons, becomes an object.16 This subject-object view of
the world is our ordinary way of seeing and being in the world
and so it is not considered unusual or strange. However, for
Buddhists, this way of seeing and being in the world is the cause
of craving.
Buddhists would say, as you are a subject-I and everything and
everyone else is an object, you will, by necessity, need to relate to
the world. In relating to the people in the world, you may realize
that you cannot get beyond thinking of all persons as objects
even though you know that they must be subjects toosubjects
who correspondingly regard you as an object-you. So, how can
you regard a person both as a subject and an object? Buddhism
would say that we cannot until we gain Awakening. Until then, we
cannot really know a person completely, not even our spouse or
child, because as hard as we try, we cannot penetrate our limitation of engaging them only as objects. There is then, a split, a gap
between what they really are (both subject and object) and what
I can relate to them as (only an object).

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BUDDHISM

So, too, even when I think of myself, I objectify myself. That is,
in stating, I am Leslie, I am at once saying there is a subject
(I) asserting an object (Leslie). If I try to get to the I
(subject-Leslie), I only end up saying something like, I am
asserting I am Leslie. Every time I try to get to the subject of
another or myself, I inevitably end up objectifying and so creating
an ever-regressing distance from the subject. This incompleteness
in my engagement with myself is the source of suffering and
dissatisfaction, or as Buddhist theologian Masao Abe puts it:
Self-estrangement and anxiety are not something accidental
to the ego-self, but are inherent to its structure. To be human
is to be a problem to oneself, regardless of ones culture, class,
sex, nationality, or the era in which one lives. To be human
means to be an ego-self; to be an ego-self means to be cut off
from both ones self and ones world; and to be cut off from
ones self and ones world means to be in constant anxiety.
This is the human predicament.17

For Buddhism, our root problem is that we do not see either

ourselves or others completely or authentically. Our ordinary
self-consciousness does not allow us to do so. Unlike many
religions and philosophies that would agree with this analysis
but not find it a problem, Buddhism believes it is the root cause
of unhappiness. As the Oracle of Delphi admonished, Know
thyself. If to know oneself is the purpose of all humans, as
long as we are limited by our ordinary consciousness, we will
never be able to fulfill this purpose. Buddhism does suggest an
answer and that is the Third Noble Truth.
The Third Noble Truth

That Buddhism provides an answer to the human problem

counters the charge that Buddhism is pessimistic. If it were truly
pessimistic, Buddhism would tell you that you have a problem
and not give you any answer!
The answer that Buddhism provides is the Third Noble Truth,
which states that craving and consequently suffering can be made

Foundations

to cease. This is realized when the person gains Awakening.

What is Awakening?
We mentioned Awakening in passing in the opening chapter
but lets expand upon those comments. In Buddhist literature,
you will not find a solid definition of Awakening. This may be
frustrating to usif it is so important and the secret to being
fully a human person, then why doesnt Buddhism tell us all
about it!
Buddhism has good reasons for not spelling out the answer.
First, if Buddhism simply supplied the answer then it wouldnt
be our discovery. As you know, any religion that simply tells you
what you should believe does not automatically make you
believe. As in studying math, if the teacher provides you the
answer to a problem, it does not mean you know the math. That
is why your teacher always wants you to show your work and
prove that you understand the way to solve the problem. So,
too, for the Buddhist teacher who says, Show me how you get
Awakening rather than me telling you what it is like.
Still, we want to know what Awakening is and, as with the
math example, it may help us show our work if we know what
answers we are supposed to get. So, can we better understand
the Buddhist Awakening?
It is first important to emphasize again that intellectually
understanding Buddhism is not the answer. You can read
every book on Buddhism ever written (which would take you
a long time) but that will not help you achieve the Buddhist
experience of Awakening. What is needed is an actualization
rather than simply an understanding. That is, you need to
experience Awakening yourself.
Remember that the problem of craving and its resulting suffering came from our ability to see the world only as objects. The
answer then, for Buddhism, is to see the world completely, as
subjects and objects, which Buddhism declares is the true picture of
the world. Awakening to the True Self, the genuine way of being in
the world, is analogous to waking from a dream that seemed real and
is only dispelled as a dream when we awake and discover that it

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BUDDHISM

was only a dream. When Awakened, one can see the objects of
the world and oneself as complete and total. The Chinese Zen
Master Ching-yan Wei-hsin wrote the following quatrain that
may help us better understand:
Thirty years ago, before I began the study of Zen, I said,
Mountains are mountains, waters are waters. After I got an
insight into the truth of Zen through the instruction of a
good master, I said, Mountains are not mountains, waters are
not waters. But now, having attained the abode of final rest
[that is, Awakening], I say, Mountains are really mountains,
waters are really waters.18

In the first line, we see again the subject-object distinction of

ordinary consciousness. Mountains are seen as objects, that
is, as discrete from waters (rivers), and I am, as the viewer of
both, acting as a subject-I, looking at mountains and waters
as objects.
Wei-hsin then states that after he received an insight in Zen,
the mountains were now waters, the waters mountains. Clearly
in this second stage, there is a negation of the first consciousness,
or as Masao Abe puts it, we realize there is no differentiation, no
objectification, . . . no duality of subject and object. 19
Abe goes on to argue that there are two aspects to this second
stage realization: first, that it marks an end to the ever-regressing
objectification of self and otherthe ordinary self has died (Zen
Buddhism refers to this point as the Great Death) and what one
might call an onto-existential block (in Zen terminology, a
great doubt block) has been manifested as a self that has
come to a deadlock, and collapse through the total realization of
endlessness and unattainability with its whole body and mind. 20
The second aspect is that although the ordinary self and its
objectifying nature have been extirpated and its dualistic matrix
of subject-object voided, there still persists a dualistic framework
between the first stage (dual) and the newly emerged second
stage (nondual). In order to attain a completely nondual position, there needs to be a third movement into a consciousness

Foundations

that includes dual and nondual, difference and nondifference.

We see this completely nondual stage in the third statement of
the passage, which states, But now, having attained the abode
of final rest [that is, Awakening], I say, Mountains are really
mountains, waters are really waters. Or, as we may render it,
mountains are mountains and mountains are waters, waters are
waters and waters are mountains, or, if one wishes to speak
about persons, I am I and I am you [and every other thing]. This
posits Awakened consciousness as a paradoxical nondualisticdualistic consciousness, a selfless-self-consciousness that is
viewed as the True Self by Zen Buddhist thought. Turning again
to Masao Abe:
Thus in the Zen Awakening attained by Wei-hsin, on the one
hand, mountains are really mountains in themselves, waters
are really waters in themselvesthat is, everything in the
world is real in itself; and yet, on the other hand, there is no
hindrance between any one thing and any other thing
everything is equal, interchangeable, and interfusing.21

This may not clear up what Buddhism means by Awakening, and

you may now see why the Buddhist tradition has avoided an
explanation of the term. Explanations can become complicated
when one tries to explain what can really only be experienced
for oneself. Yet, perhaps an intellectual explanation may still be
useful to us, as it may be useful to a Buddhist practitioner as long
as he or she does not mistake having an intellectual understanding with having the actualization of Awakening. As a Zen phrase
puts it, one should not mistake a finger pointing to the moon
with the moon itself.
With the Great Wisdom (Mahprajn) that is Awakening
comes Great Compassion (Mahkaruna). What is this Great
Compassion? How can it help us to understand the Buddhist
Awakening?
The previous discussion on Awakening used the idea of
subject and object to typify ordinary consciousness. That is to
say, as we engage another person, we engage that person as an

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BUDDHISM

object to our consciousness. Certainly we may have different

associations with that person, depending on who he or she is
and how well we know him or her but nevertheless, he or she
remains an object to our consciousness. The Buddhist analysis
would argue that no matter how close we may get to that person
in a love relationship, there still is a gulf between us. We may
have moments of what one may call a nondualistic or at-one
feeling with this other person, but these feelings do not last and
fade away since they are conditioned by the separateness that
typifies the subject-object matrix.
When one is Awakened, this separateness no longer typifies
human relationships. It is replaced with a constant nondualistic
engagement of the other that can be rendered as fulfilled love.
A love that is defined as both dual and nondualone where
the lover and the loved are both one and two, both the same yet
distinct. No longer estranged from the other, the Awakened
person opens his or her eyes in the morning to a unification of
all things bright and beautiful. Buddhism argues that this is the
desideratum for all humankind as it is the fulfillment of who we
truly are as humans.
The Fourth Noble Truth: The Eightfold Path
The Buddha replied, Subhadda, it is not important whether
they are fully enlightened. The question is whether you want
to liberate yourself. If you do, practice the Noble Eightfold
Path. Wherever the Noble Eightfold Path is practiced, joy,
peace, and insight are there. (Mahaparinibbana Sutta, Digha
Nikaya, 16)22

Now that Buddhism has revealed the answer, it needs to tell us

how to get to the answer. This is called the Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path can be rendered in different ways, but it
basically follows a pattern like this:
1) Right View
2) Right Intention

Foundations

3) Right Speech
4) Right Action
5) Right Effort
6) Right Livelihood
7) Right Concentration
8) Right Mindfulness
Lets briefly examine each of these steps on the path, remembering that these are not to be approached one at a time, as if one
were ascending a ladder but should rather be viewed holistically
as if each were the ladder itself. As Thich Nhat Hanh put it, Each
limb contains all the other seven. 23
Right View means that the person believes in the Buddha and
his teachings. This is a very important first step because Buddhism
is a religion of faith. A Buddhist needs to believe he or she too
can realize an Awakening that is not a hairs difference from
the experience of the Buddha. A novice practitioner takes
refuge in the Three Jewels, namely, the Buddha, the Dharma,
and the Sangha.
Right Intention means that the Buddhist is practicing Buddhism
for the right reasons and is not being forced to, or does not have
bad motives for following the path.
Right Speech is one of the ethical (sila) steps in the Eightfold
Path and it holds, as the name implies, that one should tell the
truth, not gossip or engage in empty talk but rather try to speak
positively and affirmatively about oneself and others.
Right Action is another ethical step. It states that the Buddhist
should not engage in harmful actions such as murder, stealing,
or violence of any sort. A Buddhist should seek out people of
peace and seek to make peace with all living things.
Right Effort is necessary because the actualization of Awakening is a difficult task. A Buddhist must strive vigilantly, with a
positive attitude and tireless resolve.
Right Livelihood means that ones job should be consistent
with the Buddhist path. This step is closely connected with Right

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BUDDHISM

Action. A Buddhist should not cause any sentient (conscious) being

to suffer violence. This generally means a Buddhist will not hold
a job as a butcher, a hunter, or a fisherperson. Nor will a Buddhist
serve in the military in a role that involves harming anyone.
Right Concentration relates to Buddhist practice, specifically
to the discipline of the mind. A Buddhist works to concentrate
on present reality and not dwell on past events or anticipate
future events. Another name for this is mindfulness. It means
being fully present to each moment as one lives it. A Buddhist
strives diligently to develop good concentration skills, because
they are crucial to moving closer to Awakening.
Right Mindfulness occurs contemporaneously with Awakening. Until there is Awakening, one is not truly able to practice
right mindfulness.

3
Scriptures
The definitive sutras [scriptures] are the wisdom sutras,
such as the Heart of Wisdom (Prajaparamutaahrdaya),
in which the Buddha spoke of the ultimate nature of all
phenomena: that form is emptiness and emptiness is
form, and apart from form, there is no emptiness.
Tenzin Gyatso, His Holiness,
the Fourteenth Dalai Lama,
in The World of Tibetan Buddhism

40

BUDDHISM
EARLY BUDDHIST WRITINGS

uring the Buddhas lifetime, no Buddhist texts were created.

It wasnt until he passed into parinirvn that the sangha
became very concerned about continuing the teachings. A short
time later the leaders of the Buddhist community got together in
a great meeting to share the teachings and begin to write down
what they had learned.
These texts allowed Buddhism to persist even though its
founder was no longer living. Furthermore, once a tradition
has a written record, it becomes easier for it to move to other
countries where it will be translated into other languages, thus
enabling people to read the texts in their own language and offer
their own interpretations of them.
Buddhism began to spread ever further as the timeline on the
following page indicates. As Buddhism spread to other countries,
different understandings of the Buddhas teachings emerged.
With these different understandings came the birth of different
types of Buddhism. Although there are many smaller subdivisions, the two primary branches of Buddhism are Theravda
Buddhism and Mahyna Buddhism.
THERAVDA AND MAHYNA BUDDHISM

The moments surrounding the death of the founder of a religion

are always critical; the Buddhas parinirvn forced the sangha
to determine how the movement would carry on. While still
alive, the Buddha had given indications that the movement
was to rely on his teachings and the discipline that had been
established for the sangha.
The sangha convened in two important councils: the first in
Rjagraha soon after the Buddhas death and the other a hundred
years later. The task in Rjagraha was to determine the exact
teachings and discipline that Buddhists were to follow and to
codify them. The tradition describes this meeting as a debriefing
of nanda and Upli, two of the leading disciples, informing
them of what the monks remembered the Buddha to have taught
with respect to both doctrine and practice. These reports were

500 400
B.C.E.

300

200

100

China

100
C.E.

200

300

Korea

500

600

700

800

900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000

TIME SCALE (spans approximate)

400

Mongolia

Euro-America

This graph shows the spread of Buddhism, beginning in India approximately 500 B.C.E. and continuing to the
present day in Europe and the Americas.

India

Nepal

Kashmir

Sri Lanka

Central Asia

Japan
Java, Sumatra

Tibet

Thailand

Burma

THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM

Scriptures

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BUDDHISM

passed down over time and ultimately became the Buddhist

scriptures known as the Tripitaka (Three Baskets). The Tripitaka
consists of three collections: the Vinaya Pitaka, the Sutra Pitaka,
and the Abhidharma Pitaka.
The Vinaya Pitaka is basically a book of Buddhist discipline. It
provides guidance on how both monastics (monks and nuns)
and laypersons are to conduct themselves.
The Sutra Pitaka contains the discourses of the Buddha. In
them, the Buddha discusses the main ideas of Buddhism with
his followers. The Socratic question-and-answer form is seen
throughout these sutras.24
The Abhidharma Pitaka comprises the philosophical or
scholastic part of the collection. Although the Buddhist tradition
ascribes this text to the recitation of nanda at the first council,
Western historians say that it really evolved over time and only
began to be composed in the fourth century B.C.E.
How does this textual history relate to the differences between
Theravda and Mahyna? Perhaps it isnt surprising that disagreements arose among members of the sangha in regard to the texts
and their interpretation. The second council, this one in the city of
Vaisl, was called to deal with these disagreements, which were
probably already long-standing at that time. Ultimately there was a
schism of the Buddhist sangha, dividing it into two factions: the
sthaviras (seniors) and the mahsaghika (great community).
The sthaviras formed Theravda Buddhism and the second
group is connected with Mahyna Buddhism.
We turn now to consider the differences between the two primary
branches of Buddhism. It is important to remember, however, that
Theravda and Mahyna have more similarities than differences. All Buddhists believe in the same basic Buddhist teachings
(dharma) and in the importance of nirvana or Awakening.
THE BASIC TENETS OF MAHYNA BUDDHISM

If you are able to travel to East Asia and visit Japan, Korea, or
Taiwan, you will undoubtedly see many temples that belong to
Mahyna Buddhist sects. As you enter these temples, you will

Scriptures

encounter statues that supposedly represent the Buddha but may

look very different from one another. Statues of the Buddha not
only vary widely in appearance, but they also have many different
names associated with them. The sightseer may conclude that
Buddhism is as polytheistic as Hinduism! Or, is it that all of these
are representations of the Buddha but with different names?
To answer this question, we need to examine what transpired
as Mahyna Buddhism began to develop. As we have mentioned, there was a schism or split in the Buddhist community
that resulted in factions, one being the Mahsaghika. Buddhist
scholars used to maintain that this movement gave birth to the
Mahyna movement but as Donald Mitchell notes:
. . . more recent scholarship has noted that perhaps the
Mahyna writings and practices actually influenced
Mahsaghika positions. In fact, there is evidence that
Mahyna was not originally associated with just one sect but
was a kind of esoteric spirituality of interest to persons in
many schools.25

Mahyna literally means great vehicle. Its viewpoint has

been shaped over many centuries and many writings. For the
Mahyna sect, the writings contained in the Tripitaka, though
critically important, were not the only acceptable texts. They
believed that additional texts could be canonical and important
for guiding the sangha. Mahyna Buddhists came to see these
texts as the culmination of the earlier texts and differing subgroups came to extol some texts or sutras above others. These
texts contained ideas that are seminal to Mahyna Buddhism,
and by examining a few of these ideas we can better define this
type of Buddhism. The ideas we will examine are the doctrine of
Trikya and the bodhisattva ideal.
THE DOCTRINE OF TRIKYA

The Buddha passed into parinirvn and no longer continued

his cycle of birth and rebirth. One might ask, however, why
he did not return in a different body to help bring others to

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BUDDHISM

Awakening. Mahyna Buddhist texts answered this question

with the doctrine of Trikya.
The doctrine of Trikya posits that the Buddha actually
exists in three bodies (Tri=three, kya=body)the body of
essence (Dharmakya), the body of bliss (Sambhogakya), and
the body of transformation (Nirmnakya). This last body was
the body that the Buddha manifested during his corporeal life
on earth. However, even while in this body, there were two
other levels that the Buddha simultaneously inhabited. The
Sambhogakya was the next level; on this level the Buddha
dwelt in a sort of everlasting heaven. This idea expanded to

THE DHAMMAPADA
One of the most popular Buddhist texts is the Dhammapada. The title
means the path of dharma. The book is composed of a little more
than four hundred verses on how to live a Buddhist life. It is part of
the Sutra Pitaka and was presented at the First Council by nanda.
Translations of this Theravda text date back to the beginning of
the Common Era. A few sample verses may serve to demonstrate the
flavor of this text:
The quivering, wavering mind,
Hard to guard, hard to check,
The sagacious one makes straight,
Like a fletcher, an arrow shaft. (verse 33)
[A fletcher is someone who makes arrows]
By standing alert, by awareness,
By restraint and control too,
The intelligent one could make an island
That a flood could not overwhelm. (verse 25)
Engage not in unawareness,
Nor in intimacy with sensual delight.
Meditating, the one who is aware
Attains excessive ease. (verse 27)

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45

include numerous bliss bodies that inhabit a higher plane, and

that is how the various Buddhas and bodhisattvas (see following section) with their differing looks and attributes developed
in Buddhism. For example, there is Amitbha Buddha (Skt.)*,
the Buddha venerated by Pure Land Buddhists (see page 54),
and Avalokitesvara (Skt.), the bodhisattva of compassion.
Avalokitesvara, also known as Kuan-yin (Ch.) and Kannon
(Jp.), is often portrayed with many arms to better assist
petitioners with their many tasks. Tibetan Buddhism considers
the Dalai Lama to be a manifestation of this bodhisattva. It was
the Sambhogakya doctrine that allowed for the development

Let one tell the truth, let one not be angry.

Asked, let one give even when one has but little.
By these three factors,
With these three factors,
One would go into the presence of the gods. (verse 224)
Refraining from all that is detrimental,
The attainment of what is wholesome,
The purification of ones mind:
This is the instruction of the Awakened Ones. (verse 183)
When a need has arisen, friends are a blessing,
A blessing is contentment with whatever [there be],
A blessing is the wholesome deed at the end of life,
A blessing it is to relinquish all sorrow.
A blessing in the world is reverence for mother,
A blessing, too, is reverence for father . . .
A blessing is virtue into old age,
A blessing is faith established,
A blessing is the attainment of insight-wisdom,
A blessing is to refrain from doing wrongs. (verses 331333,
abridged)
(All translations are from John Ross Carter, Mahinda Palihawadanas translation,
New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.)

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of theistic Buddhism and its veneration of various Buddhas and

bodhisattvas. In Theravda Buddhism no attempt was made
to contact the Buddha or to pray to him after his death. No
one imagined him as dwelling in a heavenly realm. Theravda
Buddhism did not encourage speculation as to what happened
to a Buddha after death.
The Dharmakya was even further removed from the other
bodies and was depicted as omnipresent and the substrate of the
universe. The Dharmakya, in other words, is the essence of
Buddha-nature that resides in all things, animate and inanimate.
* Skt. = Sanskrit, Ch. = Chinese, Jp. = Japanese, K. = Korean
THE BODHISATTVA IDEA

A central doctrine that distinguishes Mahyna from Theravda

Buddhism is the idea of the bodhisattva. Bodhisattva literally
means something like being of wisdom (Awakening). So, a
bodhisattva is a being that is Awake. The bodhisattva is the ideal
person in Mahyna Buddhism.
The Mahyna Buddhists forwarded the concept of the
bodhisattva in opposition to the Theravdan notion of the
arhat. The arhat was the Theravdan ideal personhe was
someone who had burned off all his karma, like a fire burns
fuel, and is then extinguished. The arhat has entered into
nirvana and will never enter samsara again. The Mahynists
thought this was a selfish way of approaching the bliss of
nirvana, lacking in the Buddhist virtue of compassion. The
arhat also displayed a lack of wisdom,26 they thought, because
he seemed to view entering nirvana as an individual enterprise,
thereby displaying a belief in the permanence of the self.
Mahyna depicted the arhat as a pratyeka-buddha, a person
who has gained Awakening but does not communicate his or
her Awakening to others. Consider this exchange between
Gautama and one of his disciples Shriputra:
What do you think, Shriputra? Do any of the disciples and
private buddhas [pratyeka-buddha] ever think: After we have

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gained full enlightenment, we will bring innumerable beings
. . . to complete Nirvna?
Certainly not, Lord!
But, said the Lord, the bodhisattva [has this resolve] . . . A
firefly . . . doesnt imagine that its glow will light up all India
or shine all over it, and so the disciples and private buddhas
dont think that they should lead all beings to Nirvna . . .
after they have gained full enlightenment. But the disc of the
sun, when it has risen, lights up all India and shines all over it.
Similarly the bodhisattva . . . when he has gained full enlightenment, brings countless beings to Nirvna.27

You may recall that the term Buddha means one who is
Awake. What, then, is the difference between a bodhisattva (a
being who is Awake) and a Buddha? The answer that is usually
given is that a Buddha is fully Awakened and a bodhisattva is
Awakened but has foregone complete Awakening and, due to his
or her great compassion (mahkaruna), stays among ordinary
human beings and helps guide them to Awakening. I believe it is
more accurate to say that there is no distinctionMahyna
Buddhism used the term bodhisattva to underline the importance
of the great compassionate nature of the Awakened person.
Since compassion is a defining characteristic of Awakening,
certainly Buddhas must have this great compassion as well.
A bodhisattva takes a vow to lead all beings to Awakening, no
matter how long it takes, and no matter how often he or she
needs to be reborn in samsara in order to accomplish this task.
The practice of a bodhisattva focused on the Mahyna virtues
known as the Six Perfections (pramits): giving (dna), morality
(sila), patience (ksnti), striving (virya), meditation (dhyna),
and wisdom (praj).
RELIGIO-PHILOSOPHICAL DEVELOPMENTS
IN MAHYNA

Even as Mahyna Buddhism developed the new interpretations

of the dharma that allowed theistic Buddhism to develop and

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BUDDHISM

flourish, it also gave rise to new philosophical treatments of

Buddhism. In the remainder of this chapter, I will describe some
important Buddhist schools and the most important ideas found
in the scriptures of those schools. I will begin in India, followed
by East Asia, then Southeast Asia, and finally Tibet. The two most
important Mahyna philosophical systems to develop in India
were those of the Mdhyamika and the Yogcra schools.
Mdhyamika

The major progenitor of the Mdhyamika position was one

of the greatest Buddhist thinkers in history, Ngrjuna (ca. C.E.
150250). Ngrjuna posited that objects, as we perceive them in
ordinary consciousness, make up a provisional reality and that,
in authentic reality, all objects are emptiness (snyat).
What is emptiness? It is a doctrine that takes early Buddhist
philosophy to its logical conclusion. Early Buddhism stressed that
everything is impermanent. The Abhidharma philosophers interpreted the doctrine of impermanence to mean that everything
was composed of real elements that continuously originated and
were continuously destroyed. Ngrjuna taught that the elements
were not just impermanent, but that they lacked any real being at
all. Because everything is empty of real being, Ngrjunas view of
the world is called emptiness. Emptiness is not the same thing
as nihilism (the view that existense is senseless and useless). It is
closely associated with the Buddhist philosophy of the middle
way, which stated that one should steer away from extremes.
Existence is one extreme, nonexistence is the other extreme.
Emptiness is neither; rather, it is a teaching that demonstrates
why claims to either existence or nonexistence are wrongheaded.
Another way to look at emptiness is to see it as an example
of dependent co-arising (prattya-samutpda). Everything arises
dependent on causes and conditions, so nothing has own-being
(independent existence). Objects only exist interdependently
with all existence. Or, to use the language we have been using, all
things are existent and nonexistent, dual and nondual simultaneously. Therefore, it is not a simple nonexistence set against

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existence that Ngrjuna is elucidating here but a complete

notion of emptiness that paradoxically includes both existence
and nonexistence.
This kind of reasoning had implications for the traditional
way in which Buddhism had opposed nirvana and samsara.
These, too, were opposite extremes, just like existence and nonexistence were opposite extremes. They, too, could only exist
simultaneously and interdependently. Hence the Mahyna
teaching that nirvana is samsara, and samsara is nirvana. These
were not two separate places, but two levels of truth.
Ngrjunas aim was to disassemble other arguments that were
prevalent in his day, including the nihilistic argument. He taught
that it was critical to distinguish between conventional truth and
absolute truth in order to reach the experience of s nyat.
His theoretical writings supported developments in Buddhist
logic and directly influenced Chan Buddhism (Japanese Zen
Buddhism). Zens emphasis on nonattachment to intellectual
positions is a corollary of Ngrjunas philosophy of the two
levels of truth: conventional truth and absolute truth.
Yogcra

Yogcra Buddhism taught the philosophy of mind-only,

which is often described as a form of idealism that asserts that
mind or consciousness is the only reality. Yogcra philosophers
asserted that the phenomenal world only exists in the consciousness of the perceiver. That is, if you remove the perceiver,
the world does not exist.
The most significant architects of this school of thought
were Maitreyanntha (ca. C.E. 270350), the Asanga brothers
(ca. 310390), and Vasubandhu (ca. 320400). How is it, they
asked, that many different people can have the same perceptions? Furthermore, how can we explain internal visualizations
like dreams that seem so real even though they are not real?
The Yogcra view was that there must be a common place
from which these perceptions are drawn, a storehouse of perceptions (laya-vijna) that persons are able to access. Objects

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BUDDHISM

in this storehouse are similarly perceived by similar beings.

As was the case with the Mdhyamika, the Yogcra school of
philosophy also stated that there was an authentic reality that
transcended this proto-reality of perceived objects. They termed
this authentic reality suchness (tathat).
In Yogcra philosophy, Awakening was said to occur when
the duality between the storehouse perceptions and suchness
was extirpated. Meditation and visualizations were used to
achieve this nonduality.
EAST ASIAN MAHYNA BUDDHIST SCHOOLS
Buddhism in China

Although it is difficult to determine precisely when Buddhism

came to China, it probably arrived in the first century of the
Common Era. Its arrival presented some interesting challenges
for China and for Buddhism as well.
Gautama Buddha was embraced by the Chinese court as an
Indian deity and placed alongside the Taoist figure Lao-tzu.
However, the relationship between the Confucian and Buddhist
traditions was more challenging.
Buddhists constructed temples that were tax exempt. As these
temples became more influential, native opposition and resentment grew. Buddhism had a monastic tradition, and its monks
were celibate. Confucian thought, which was very family centered,
disapproved of the monastic lifestyle. The Chinese took a dim
view of the monks shaven heads. Buddhist belief in rebirth
was contrary to the ancestor veneration of the Chinese. The
Buddhists were thoroughly imbued with the Indian virtue of
ahimsa (non-harm, non-injury) and therefore did not join the
military at a time when all Chinese men were subject to military
duty.28 Although the Taoists were more receptive to Buddhism,
their emphasis on attaining physical immortality led them to
hope that Buddhist medical knowledge would aid in that
endeavor. They were disappointed that Buddhist medical
knowledge did not tend in that direction. It is important to
note, however, that the knowledge of herbs and healing that the

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Buddhists brought with them from India was and is a significant

part of their success in gaining converts.
Buddhism changed as it settled into China. Even to translate
Buddhist texts into the Chinese language required knowledge of
Chinese religious and cultural traditions. The translation project
was monumental and continued in earnest for several centuries.
By then, Buddhists were becoming Chinese as much as China
was becoming Buddhist. Consequently, new forms of Buddhism
developed in China.
The Chinese Buddhist schools were the heirs of the translations project. They were the new interpreters of Mahyna
Buddhism, and they shaped both doctrine and practice in
unique ways. The Chinese Buddhist schools set the stage for the
advent of the Korean and Japanese schools.
Chinese Buddhist Schools
Tien-tai School

The Tien-tai (Heavenly Terrace) school is sometimes referred

to as the Lotus school. Tien-tai Buddhists look to the Lotus Sutra
as their primary text, and they consider it to be the highpoint of
the Buddhist sutra tradition. Chih-i (C.E. 538597) is extolled as
the foremost interpreter of this text. The school derives its name
from a mountain in Chekiang Province where Chih-i taught.29
Tien-tai doctrine, which is Mahyna in flavor, stressed the
importance of both meditation and philosophy. This school
attempts to elucidate the threefold truth.
The first truth is that all things are empty, including the self.
The second truth states that all things have a relative or temporary reality. The third truth states that the two realities (the
relative as discerned by ordinary consciousness and the absolute
as discerned by the Awakened consciousness) are in fact one.
The threefold truth is another way of stating the samsara is
nirvana, nirvana is samsara argument. It also echoes our earlier
description of the nondualistic-dual nature of reality.
The lokas (or levels of sentient existencedeities, animals,
hungry ghosts, and so forth), which were mentioned in the

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BUDDHISM

karma and rebirth discussion in Chapter One, derive from

Tien-tais elaboration of the relative realm of reality. More
importantly, Tien-tai is responsible for breaking down the
Awakened-Unawakened duality by positing that all sentient
beings have the Buddha nature. The claim is not simply that
each person has the potential to actualize the Awakened Mind
but that we all are, in fact, Awakened. As important as the distinction between the ordinary mind and the Awakened Mind
is, it is a conceptual structure that posits a duality. (This is true
of all conceptual structures.) Because Mahyna stresses the
importance of nonduality, all such conceptual structures must
be jettisoned once they have made their point. Beyond the duality
of conceptual structures, the Tien-tai Buddhist seeks tathat
(suchness), which is the Awakened Consciousness in play. The
methodology employed by Tien-tai is actually a combination
of meditation and devotionalism.
Tien-tai is considered the first indigenous school of Chinese
Buddhism. It subsequently was carried to Korea, where it is
known as Chntae, and to Japan, where it is called Tendai.
Tendais headquarters on Mount Hiei, just outside of Kyoto,
were established by the eminent Japanese monk, Saich.
Hua-yen School

The Flower Garland school of Chinese Buddhism recognizes

two people as being most instrumental in its formation: Tu-Shun
(557640) and Fa-tsang (643712). The latter played the leading
role in the shaping of Hua-yen thought.
The Hua-yen school has much in common with the Tien-tai
school: It argues that all things are codependent, coarising,
and so ultimately one. While attempting to introduce Chinas
Empress Wu to Hua-yen philosophy, Fa-tsang used the metaphor
of a golden lion. Gold, he said, has no self-nature; it is only the
fact that it exists in the form of a lion that makes it something.
Likewise, the form of the lion has no own-being; it is dependent
upon the substance of gold to actually exist. Thus, it is only
because of the interdependence between the form (lion)

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and the substance (gold) that the golden lion exists as a golden
lion. Neither of the elements (form or substance) can manifest
without the other. Everything in the world is like the golden
lion, according to Hua-yen. It has no being within itself, but
only arises because of mutually arising codependent causes.
The causes do not have own-being either, because neither can
manifest without the other.
As we pursue this and ask, What is the lion? we must answer
that it is gold in the shape of a lion but that materially, there is
only gold. The shape of the lion does not actually exist except
due to our senses of perceiving the object and our knowledge of
what a lion looks like, or as Professor Donald Mitchell extols:
[8] The lion is spoken of to demonstrate the result of
ignorance, while its golden essence is spoken of in order to
make clear its true nature . . . . [9] This lion is a created
dharma, arising and passing away in every moment . . . Yet,
since the different periods of time are formed dependent
on one another, they are merging harmoniously and
mutually penetrating together without obstruction in
each moment of time . . . [10] The gold and the lion may
be hidden or manifest . . . but neither has any own-being.
They are constantly being evolved through the transformation of the mind.30

If we consider the gold as emptiness and the form of the lion

as the cosmos, Fa-tsangs metaphor can be extended to explain
that emptiness and form arise together and this coexistence
results in distinct forms. Though distinct, all forms also interpenetrate one another, influencing and conditioning each other.
Hua-yen uses the image of Indras Net to explain this mutual
interpenetration. Indras Net is a spiderweb-like net with
mirrors set at each point of intersection of the threads. These
mirrors reflect endlessly into and out of each other. The idea is
that everything is limited in itself but simultaneously reflects
all other realities.

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Similarly, consider a wave on the ocean. Although the wave may

seem only a small part of the ocean, a small and transient part
that rises and falls, it holds within it both emptiness and form.
The Awakening comes when one sees that all phenomena are
causally determined and ultimately empty. The Hua-yen school
suggests meditation as the most likely means of facilitating such
an Awakening.
Pure Land School

Today the Pure Land school is the most popular type of Buddhism
in China, and its counterparts in Japan and Korea are the most
popular schools of Buddhism in those countries. It is a devotional form of Buddhism, emphasizing faith and devotion as
vehicles to liberation rather than meditation or philosophy.
The Chinese name for this school is Ching-tu. A particular
Buddha named Amitbha stands at the center of Ching-tus
belief system. The Pure Land Scripture tells the story of
Amitbha, once a bodhisattva named Dharmkara. En route
to his Awakening, Dharmkara took forty-eight vows. The
eighteenth vow reads:
If, O Blessed One, when I have attained enlightenment,
whatever beings in other worlds, having conceived a desire for
right, perfect enlightenment, and having heard my name,
with favorable intent think upon me, if when the time and
moment of death are upon them, I, surrounded by and at the
head of my community of mendicants, do not stand before
them to keep them from frustration, may I not, on that
account, attain to unexcelled, right, perfect enlightenment.31

As Dharmkara did in fact become a Buddha, the recitation of

his name became the primary practice of Buddhists in this
school. Anyone seeking to join Amitbha in the Pure Land
(which is also called the Western Paradise) is to recite A-mi-to-fo
(in Chinese).
Since Buddhism began as a movement emphasizing monasticism, meditation, and philosophy, why is it that the most popular

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form of Buddhism today emphasizes none of those things but

only faith and devotion? Buddhists have their theories as to why
this has happened. Believers in Mahyna Buddhism frequently
hold that the dharma is strongest when a Buddha is present on
Earth, but after the Buddha leaves there is a period of degeneration in the dharma. During Siddhartha Gautamas lifetime, the
dharma was at its pinnacle and many people were able to reach
nirvana. Now, however, we are in the final degenerative phase of
the dharma, referred to in Japanese as the mapp. Given these
circumstances, the only real chance that believers have to attain
nirvana is to generate faith in Amitbhas beneficence and call on
his name.
Chan: The Meditation School

In the West, one of the best-known Buddhist schools is that of Zen

Buddhism; however, Zen traces its heritage back to the Chinese
meditation school known as Chan. Chan means meditation,
as does dhyana and Zen. So, not surprisingly, the primary practice
of Chan Buddhist believers is meditation.
Meditation had been a spiritual practice in Asia for many
centuries; dating back at least as far as the earliest beginnings
of Hinduism. A stone stamp with the unmistakable image of
a person in the lotus meditation position (both legs folded
over ones thighs in a seated position) has been traced to the
Indus Civilization that predates the Aryan incursion into India
(ca. 1500 B.C.E.). Yoga as it subsequently developed in India maintained the use of seated meditation as part of a spiritual practice.
Among the Buddhist schools, it was Chan Buddhism that
elevated meditation to the position of being its central practice.
Meditation was given a status even higher than that of the
scriptures. Indeed, Chan is often described as:
A special transmission outside the scriptures;
With no dependence upon words and letters;
A direct pointing into the mind;
Seeing there ones own nature and attaining Buddhahood.32

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Chan Buddhism places utmost importance on the masterstudent relationship. The master stands as the living expression
of Awakening and he or she drives and verifies the students
advancement toward the realization of a mind that is and yet is
not different from the masters mind. In Chan Buddhism, the
journey toward Awakening is a mind-to-mind transmission that
is not scripturally derived or sanctioned.
Different methodologies are employed by Chan teachers to
move the student from an unawakened state to Awakening.
One of the best known is the kung-an (Jp.: koan). The kung-an
(literally, public record or case) has been defined many ways
but perhaps most directly by Richard DeMartino, who said, A
koan is a Zen presentation in the form of a Zen challenge. 33
Over time, encounters between Chan masters and their
students began to be recorded. By the eleventh century, written
collections of these encounters were being used and commented
on by masters and students.34 It was through the teachings of
such masters as Dahui (10891163), Dait (1282 1336), and
Hakuin (1686 1769), that koans came to be seen as the major
element in instruction in Chan Buddhism in China and Zen
Buddhism in Japan.
Chan traces the history of the koan and its contextual mondo
(dialogue between a master and a student) all the way back to
Gautama Buddha and the exchange he had with one of his
foremost students, Kashyapa, on Vulture Peak. It seems that an
audience had gathered and was waiting for the Buddha to
speak. The Buddha did not say a word but merely held up a
flower. In response, Kashyapa smiled, and the Buddha knew he
had understood. The Buddhas Awakening had been passed on
to Kashyapa.35
This is regarded as the first transmission of the Chan lineage.
The Chan lineage became a patriarchal tradition in China and
subsequently an organizational lineage. Chan masters trace
their linage, their dharma transmission, back to this patriarchal
lineage. This structure acts to legitimize the masters Awakening
experience and provides an organizing framework for Chan.

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As Chan continued to develop in China, a Southern school

and a Northern school emerged, giving rise to two different
types of Chan. The Southern school eventually gave rise to a
school that prized silent, seated meditation (the Tsao-tung
school). In Japan, this school was popularized by Dgen
(12001253), where it became known as St Zen Buddhism.
The Northern School gave rise to the Lin-chi school, founded
by Lin-chi (d. 867). This school was renowned for its use of
koans. Lin-chi influenced the Korean school called Son. Eisai
(11411215) brought the version known as Rinzai Buddhism
to Japan.
Buddhism in Korea

Buddhism officially entered the Korean Peninsula in the fourth

century (although there is a good possibility that Buddhism was
unofficially present prior to that time). In the fourth century,
Korea consisted of three kingdoms: Kogury, Paekche, and Silla.
Korea and China had fashioned a pact, and Shun-tao, a Chinese
Buddhist monk, took advantage of the new relationship between
the two countries and traveled to Kogury.
Buddhism arrived in Paekche in C.E. 384 and was adopted as
the state religion of Silla in 527. In the seventh century, the kingdom of Silla conquered both Kogury and Paekche, inaugurating
a unification that would last until 918. This political stability
assisted in the development of Korean Buddhism; devotional
Buddhism in particular increased in popularity.
The development of Korean Buddhism took an interesting
path. Five Buddhist schools were established: three transplanted
Chinese schools and two indigenous Korean schools. Chontae
(Tien-tai), Son (Chan), and tantric practices were present
as well. Despite the presence of all these various forms of
Buddhism, Korea strove for unification of Buddhism within
its borders. In the eleventh century, Uichon, a notable scholar,
worked toward such a unification. Perhaps the preeminent
Buddhist figure in Korean history, Chinul (11581210), should
also be mentioned for his contributions to unification.

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Chinul was a religious reformer. He entered a Son Buddhist

monastery as a novice when he was young. However, Chinul basically educated himself in the sutras and the practice of meditation.
Chinul longed to create a sangha where a purer form of
Buddhism could be practiced. Over his lifetime, he worked toward
that goal. In a series of Awakening experiences, Chinuls vision
of this sangha gained increased clarity. He shaped an approach
to Buddhism that combined meditation and sutras, utilized the
hwadu (Jp.: koan) methodology, and supported the growth of
Pure Land Buddhism in Korea. His vision greatly affected the
development of Buddhism in Korea; his influence continues to
this day.
Buddhism in Japan

Buddhism came to the Japanese Islands approximately in the

middle of the sixth century via Korea. Japan presented Buddhism
with a new and a very different situation than what it had seen in
India or in China. Japan had an indigenous religious tradition,
Shinto, but it lacked a textual tradition and many other
attributes of the Indian and Chinese civilizations. In fact,
Buddhism brought tremendous change to Japan, not only in
religion, but by introducing myriads of forms of culture and art,
primarily of Chinese origin. The entirety of the Japanese aesthetic,
from architecture to the language, was affected dramatically.
As Buddhism spread from country to country, whether or
not it was adopted or not often depended largely on whether
it was able to attract the sponsorship of an influential leader.
Japan was no exception: Prince Shtoku (574622) was the
figure who stood at the forefront of Buddhist history in
Japan. In his famed Seventeen Article Constitution, he
implored all Japanese to revere the Three Treasures 36 of
Buddhism.
Prince Shtoku authored commentary on Buddhist sutras
and was responsible for building the first significant Buddhist
temples in Japan. One of these is Horyji (607) in Nara, where
one can still see incredible examples of Buddhist art, including

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the Kudara Kannon. The Kudara Kannon has been designated a

national treasure. It is a carving of the bodhisattva of mercy
(Kannon). We do not know who created it, or when it was
carved, but it is called the Kudara Kannon because a legend says
that it came from the ancient Korean kingdom of Kudara
(Paekche). The nearby Chg-ji monastery (a womens
monastery) houses a Miroku (Skt.: Maitreya) that still attracts
many Buddhist pilgrims. Maitreya is the future Buddha, who
many believe will arrive on earth after Gautama Buddhas teachings have disappeared. Maitreya is derived from the Sanskrit
maitri, meaning universal love.
Japanese Buddhist Schools

The expansion of Buddhism into Japan occurred during several

active periods. The early establishment of Buddhist schools
occurred during the Nara period (710784), so-called because
Nara was the capital at the time. Six schools (Kusha, Jjitsu,
Ritsu, Sanron, Hoss, and Kegon) established their residency
there. All six were based on Chinese schools. The great temple
complex, Todaiji, was also built at this time (we will examine
Todaiji more closely when we examine Buddhist temples in
Chapter Five). During the Nara period, Japan also made its
first connections with other Buddhist schools that would prove
to be more enduring and influentialthe Tendai and Zen
schools. It was in the subsequent Heian period (7941185),
when the capital of Japan was moved from Nara to nearby Kyoto,
that there was a rich development of the Tendai and Shingon
schools. During the third period of note, the Kamakura period
(11851333), the Pure Land, Zen, and Nichiren schools flourished. It might be argued that post-World War II Japan
merits consideration as a fourth period, because it has seen the
growth of newer expressions of Buddhism such as the Ska
Gakkai movement.
We lack the space to consider all the Japanese Buddhist schools,
but, in order to get the flavor of Japanese Buddhism, lets look
briefly at the Shingon, Pure Land, Zen, and Nichiren schools.

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Shingon School

Atop Mount Kya in Japan, one can walk through the darkened
forest of immense cypress treeswith thousands of tombs
on either side of the stone pathtoward the tomb of Kkai
(774835). His tomb, called the Goby, lies at the end of the path
behind the Tr-d Hall, a temple lit with hundreds of lamps. It
is said that Kkai retreated to this cave and still resides there in
meditation rather than death. Pilgrims and tourists travel from
all over Japan to visit this sacred spot and even Japanese people
who do not follow Shingon Buddhism know very well the name
of Kkai. Who was this man and what is Shingon?
Kkai, who was posthumously given the honorary title Kob
Daishi (propagator of the dharma), developed the Shingon
school. His own studies led him to the conclusion that Japanese
Buddhism of his day was not satisfactory and that a modification was necessary. He traveled to China where he was trained
in tantric37 practice and was ordained to teach. He returned
to Japan (806) and ultimately was allowed by the emperor to
build a temple on Mount Kya.
Shingon (literally,True Word) is an esoteric tradition. It claims
that its teachings come from the Dharmakya Buddha, whereas
other forms of Buddhism receive their teachings from Siddhartha
Gautama, the Nirmnakya Buddha (see The Doctrine of
Trikya on pages 4346). In Shingon Buddhism, the Dharmakya
Buddha is called Vairocana. Recall that the Dharmakya is the
essence of Buddha nature that resides in all things.
This leads to the central teaching of Shingon, which is that
one becomes a Buddha with ones current physical body. One
does not become a Buddha after one has died, nor does one
become a Buddha through ones mind alone, but rather this
present living, physical body is able to attain Buddhahood. We
see here the influence of Tantrism, which underscores the
utility of the passions in attaining nirvana. When one becomes
a Buddha in this very body, ones body becomes the body of the
Buddha, ones speech becomes the speech of the Buddha, and
ones mind becomes the mind of the Buddha. In Shingon

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Buddhism, the Mahyna teaching of nonduality is used to

argue that human beings are not distinct from the Buddha. We
all have the Buddha nature.
Tantric practices are used to realize ones own Buddha-nature.
These include the use of mandalas, mantras, and mudras. A
mandala is a picture or any symbolic representation of the universe
(or a part of the universe). It is used in meditation. Shingon
reveres two mandalas that were brought to Japan from China by
Kkai. Both contain all of the buddhas meditated on in Shingon
Buddhism, with Vairocana Buddha at the center. Each mandala
is a schematic portrait of the world as seen with the eyes of
perfect wisdom. A mantra is a verbal formula. Magical properties are often ascribed to mantras. Mudras are hand positions
used in meditation and in iconography. The point is to use these
instruments to penetrate the Dharmakya, the enveloping
Awakened nature of the universe, so that the person meditating
can dissipate the erroneous belief that his or her Buddha nature
is different from the reality of Dharmakya (Vairocana Buddha).
As with all tantric practice, the believer requires the guidance of
a tantric master who can introduce rituals at an appropriate
level as the believer progresses on the path.
The Shingon sect is not one of the larger Buddhist sects, but
the Japanese people know the name of Kkai due to his skill at
calligraphy (Jp.: Shdo), poetry, and his overall learnedness.
Many of them live near one of the countless wells or springs
ascribed to Kkais mystical power to produce water by striking
the ground with his staff in thanksgiving for a drink of water
given when he was thirsty. In Japan, Kkai has been the subject
of countless biographies and folklore.
Pure Land School

As we have seen, Pure Land Buddhism originated in China. Its

primary orientation, devotion to Amitbha Buddha (Amida
Buddha in Japanese), persisted when it spread to Japan. There
were several notable contributors to the development of the
Pure Land school (Jp.: Jdo) in Japan, including such luminaries

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as Kya (903972), Rynin (10721132), and Geshin (9421017).

But inarguably the two dominant personalities of Pure Land
Buddhism in Japan were Hnen (11331212) and his disciple,
Shinran (11731263).
Hnen argued that Pure Land was superior to all other forms
of Buddhism. In Japanese, the difference between Pure Land and
other Buddhist sects can be rendered as the difference between
depending on the power of the self (jiriki) as opposed to the
power of the other (tariki). Pure Land was the latter, for a Pure Land
believer relied entirely upon Amida for his or her salvation. Hnen
did advocate the use of the nembutsu, which is the repetition of
Amidas name (Namu Amida ButsuPraise Amida Buddha). As
Hnen wrote in a final note two days before his death:
The method of final salvation that I have propounded is
neither a sort of meditation, such as has been practiced by
many scholars in China or Japan, nor is it a repetition of the
Buddhas name by those who have studied and understood
the deep meaning of it. It is nothing but the mere repetition
of the Namu Amida Butsu, without a doubt of His mercy,
whereby one may be born into the Land of Perfect Bliss.38

Shinran was a disciple of Hnen. Both had suffered persecution due to their teachings, including banishment. Shinrans
mission was to carry out what his master had started, but he was
willing to reach even further than Hnen in order to spread their
teachings to the ordinary person.
Shinran taught that the efficacy of the Nembutsu resides not
in the numerous repetitions of the words but in the earnestness
of the speaker. He inveighed against the presumed usefulness of
honoring other Buddhas and bodhisattvas and the monastic
path. He initiated the practice of allowing monastics to marry;
a practice that persists in Japan today.
Zen School

As mentioned previously, Zen is the Japanese term for meditation. This Japanese school derives from Indian and Chinese

Scriptures

sects. In the West, Zen is much better known than Chan, because
it was Japanese teachers who brought this form of Buddhism to
the West. As was the case with Pure Land, there are once again
two dominating personalities in the development of Japanese
Zen. They are Eisai (11411215) and Dgen (12001253).
Eisai began his study of Buddhism at Mount Hiei among
the Tendai practitioners. He determined that a trip to China
was vital to his development as a monk, and in fact he traveled
there twice. Since the Chan school was the only school of note
at the time in China, he studied in a Chan temple. He returned
in 1191 as an ordained Chan teacher in the Lin-chi school
(Jp.: Rinzai).
Eisai did much to popularize Zen in Japan. He accomplished
this by aligning himself with the power of the shogun 39 and
by upsetting the political tactics of the competing twelfthand thirteenth-century Buddhist schools. The Rinzai school
employed the koan method along with strict discipline to
support the monks quest for Awakening.
Dgens early life was a mixture of good fortune and tragedy.
He enjoyed a privileged birth into an aristocratic family and
received a corresponding education that prepared him well for a
life of study. Unfortunately, he suffered the loss of both of his
parentshis father at the age of two, his mother at the age of
sevenand this likely played a large part in his decision to seek
a religious life.
Like Eisai, he became a monk and studied at Mount Hiei. He
found it wanting and unable to answer his questions, so he left
the Tendai sect. Dgen sought out Eisai at Kennin-ji Temple just
down the mountain from Hiei in Kyoto. He was struck by Eisais
teachings but Eisai died the following year. So Dgen studied
with Myzen, one of Eisais students who had received the
transmission of the dharma from his master. It was with
Myzen that Dgen, at age twenty-three, journeyed to China
to seek further training. He even studied at the temple
(Tien-tung) where Eisai had labored in China but still
remained dissatisfied. Fortunately, a new master came to this

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temple, Ju-ching (11631228), and it was this relationship that

proved the catalyst for Dgens Awakening.
Dgen subsequently returned to Japan in 1227 and established the Sto Zen school there. He carried on a teaching
career until he passed into parinirvn. He authored several
notable writings, his most famous work being the Shbgenz
Zuimonki. He also established the major training temple for the
sect at Eihei-ji, a temple compound in Fukui-ken.
Dgens methodology can be distinguished from that of the
Rinzai school by its pronounced use of shinkan-taza, which
simply means to sit. The koan system was not employed systematically within the Sto school. As Dgen wrote, In the pursuit
of the Way [Buddhism] the prime essential is sitting (zazen) . . . 40
Nichiren School

Unlike the other Japanese Buddhist schools we have considered,

Nichiren Buddhism has no predecessors in China or India. The
school is named after its founder, Nichiren (12221282), who,
like the founders of the other Japanese schools we have considered, studied at Mount Hiei. Nichiren did not view himself as
the progenitor of a new form of Buddhism but as someone who
was attempting to restore a Japanese Buddhism that had strayed.
Nichiren asserted that the key text for Buddhist revival was the
Lotus Sutra. Correspondingly, the operative mantra should be,
Namu Myh Renge Ky, which means, Praise the mysterious
law of the Lotus Sutra. This claim for the Lotus Sutra, which
reflected the Tendai position, was not well received by the clerical
and martial powers of the time. Nichiren was persecuted and
ultimately banished. The fact that he was confrontational about
his beliefs did not help his situation.
Nichiren espoused three other important ideas: (1) that Japan
occupied a central place in redemption for the world, (2) that we
were indeed in mapp, a period of degeneration of the dharma
that could only be combated by drastic, immediate action, and
(3) that he had a mission to be a prophet to the masses. Nichiren
Buddhism persists in Japan today, most obviously in the form of

Scriptures

new religious movements like Ska Gakkai (Value-creating

Society) and Rissh Ksei-kai (Society for the Perfection of
the Nation and of the Community of Believers in Accordance
with Buddhist Principles).
THERAVDA BUDDHISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Theravda Buddhism is found today in such countries as

Myanmar, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Laos, and Thailand. According
to the Tripitika, Gautama Buddha said that Buddhism was to
spread throughout the world. This validated the sending of
Buddhist missionaries to regions outside of Northeast India.
The Indian King Asoka sent missionaries to the west and, in
approximately C.E. 247, he sent some to Sri Lanka. This began
the eastward migration of Theravda Buddhism and it was also
the advent of Buddhism as a world religion.
Theravda Buddhism understands itself to be the original,
unchanged form of Buddhism. Theravdans assert that their
teachings and practice are exactly as Gautama Buddha intended.
This form of Buddhism looks to the Tripitaka alone for its
guidance and eschews the addition of other canonical texts.
As we discussed in the Eightfold Path, the elements of
morality, concentration, and wisdom are the larger categories.
The Theravdan believer works within the three important
areas of morality, concentration, and wisdom to bring about
his or her Awakening. Morality includes right action, right
speech, and right livelihood, all of which are part of the Noble
Eightfold Path. There are precepts forbidding harming life,
lying, stealing, sexual immorality, and consuming forbidden
substances like alcohol. The application of these precepts
differs depending upon whether one is a monk or a layperson.
For example, monks must practice celibacy whereas laypersons must limit their sexual relations to their marital partner.
For the Theravdan (and for a Mahyna Buddhist as well),
the culmination of living morally occurs when one instinctively acts ethically. At that point, one no longer requires a
rigid code of conduct with implicit or explicit threats of

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punishment for transgressions, but rather one naturally does

what is right.
Likewise, the closer one draws toward Awakening, the more
natural the practice of concentration and wisdom becomes.
However, the development of these virtues requires long and
strenuous practice. For that reason, Theravda Buddhists
maintain that the monastic life, which allots a large proportion
of time to meditation and study of the scriptures, is most
conducive to the development of concentration and wisdom.
Only monks are expected to attain Awakening in their current
lifetime, but laypersons are encouraged to build good karma so
that they may perhaps become monks in their next lifetime.
VAJRAYNA BUDDHISM

Over the past several decades, Westerners have shown an

increasing interest in Vajrayna Buddhism. The plight of the
Tibetan refugees, led by their popular spokesman, the Dalai
Lama, has certainly played a large role in this expanded interest.
The Dalai Lama and also many other lamas (teachers) from
Tibet have visited one or more of the Western nations and
established a following. Some have promulgated Vajrayna
teachings and practices by writing books in English. Consequently,
Westerners now have more access to information about
Vajrayna Buddhism than in any previous period in history.
Increased access has certainly helped to promote increased
interest in Vajrayna, but another reason for Western curiosity
about this form of Buddhism is the fact that it has secret rituals,
some of which involve activities normally forbidden by the
Buddhist moral code (more about this in a while).
Vajrayna is also sometimes called Tibetan Buddhism because
that is the country with which it is most closely associated. Some
religious studies scholars classify it as a type of Mahyna
Buddhism, because it accepts additional scriptures beyond the
Tripitaka, embraces the ideas of the trikya and the bodhisattva
and is in other ways similar to Mahyna. However, other
scholars consider it to be in a category all its own because of

Scriptures

its unique geographic setting (Tibet rather than East Asia), and
because of its many distinct beliefs and practices, as will be
explained below.
Schools of Vajrayna Buddhism

Buddhism arrived relatively late in Tibet as compared with

the rest of Asia. With the coming to power of Songtsen Gampo
(ca. 617649), Buddhism had an opportunity to gain a foothold.
The first Buddhist temple in Tibet was constructed during his
reign. In the same time period, linguistic and scholarly efforts
that would allow Buddhist texts and ideas to be transmitted to
the Tibetan people were promoted.
Under Songtsen Gampo, Tibet expanded in all four directions
and became an important Asian power. This king was Tibets
first lawgiver, handing down ten moral rules and sixteen rules of
public conduct. He sent seventeen Tibetans to India to learn
Sanskrit and Buddhism. The most famous of these, Thonmi
Sambhota, created the Tibetan alphabet and grammar on the
basis of two Indian scripts and translated several important
Buddhist texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan.
Songtsen Gampo was married to two foreign princesses, one
from Nepal and the other from China, both of whom brought
with them a treasured statue of Gautama Buddha. The Government of Tibet in Exile is very proud that both of these statues have
been preserved, although one had to be repaired. Considering
that Tibet had more than six thousand monasteries prior to the
Cultural Revolution (19661976)during which China attempted
to suppress Tibetan nationalismand of those only thirteen
survived the revolution, it is indeed amazing that both statues
dating from Songtsen Gampos seventh-century court survived.
Trisong Detsen (ca. 742798), who came to power in 755, was
also a patron of Buddhism. He invited famous Indian Buddhist
teachers to Tibet, and with their help he had Tibets first Buddhist
monastery built at Samye (consecrated 775). He presided over
debates between Indian and Chinese Buddhist scholars and
decided who had won. During his reign, many more Buddhist

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texts were translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan and the first
Tibetan Buddhist monks were initiated.
Lang Dharma (r. 841846) provides an example of a Tibetan
king who opposed Buddhism and worked to suppress it. His
reign culminated in a domestic upheaval that fragmented Tibet.
Buddhism emerged diminished but still vital.
Over a century later, Buddhisms second opportunity for
growth in Tibet was led by the esteemed Indian scholar, Atisa
(9821054). Atisa combined elements of Theravda, Mahyna,
and Tantrism. His approach proved to be very popular and dramatically shaped the distinctive character of Tibetan Buddhism.
Atisas formulation of Buddhism led to the initial Tibetan
school of Buddhism, Kadam. Two other schools soon followed,
the Sakya and Kagyu. The latter was founded by another notable
educator, Marpa (10121096), who was the teacher of the even
more famous Milarepa (10401123).
A fourth school, Nyingma, was an orthodox response to the
formation of these new schools. It based its teachings and
practice on ancient texts. (Nyingma means Ancient School.)
With the development of internal schools and the compilation of the Tibetan canon, Buddhism was firmly established in
Tibet. Perhaps you are wondering to which of these four schools
the Dalai Lama belongs. The answer is that he belongs to none
of them. There is yet one more school to be consideredthe
Dalai Lamas school.
The Geluk School

Tsong Khapa (13571419) was a follower of the Kadam school

but as a result of his own Awakening experience, he worked to
create a new school that would articulate a syncretistic vision for
Buddhism. (Recall that Atisa had done something similar.)
Initially called New Kadam, this school was eventually renamed
the Geluk school.
Tsong Khapas successor was Gendn Drubpa (13911474).
Drubpa is believed to have transmigrated as Gendn Gyatso
(14751542). Gyatso subsequently was reborn as Snam Gyatso,

Scriptures

who, in an encounter with the Mongol warlord Altan Khan,

received the Mongolian name Dalai, which means ocean
and implies deep wisdom. As Snam Gyatso was viewed as the
third rebirth, he is referred to as the third Dalai Lama. The
current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, is the fourteenth Dalai
Lama. That is to say, the current Dalai Lama is considered the
transmigration of the first Dalai Lama who has continued
through many lives. The Dalai Lama is also believed to be an
emanation of Avalokitesvara, the bodhisattva of compassion.
Following the bodhisattva ideal, the Dalai Lama continues to
return to the human realm in order to assist all sentient beings
to reach Awakening.
Vajrayna Methodology

Vajrayna Buddhism is distinguished by its emphasis on

Tantrism. You may have heard this term before. Forty or fifty
years ago, there was a great flurry of interest in Tantrism as
people associated it with esoteric sexual practices. One can still
find books extolling the virtues of tantric sexual practice. The
connection between Tantrism and sexual practices is not entirely
wrong, but it is important not to form a one-sided image of
Tantrism. Rather than being one-dimensional, Tantrism is a
system of great complexity and depth.
The term tantra (Tibetan: rgyud) refers to systems of practice
and meditation derived from esoteric texts emphasizing cognitive
transformation through visualization, symbols, and rituals. 41
The different schools of Tibetan Buddhism mentioned previously have their own versions of tantric elements.
It is important to remember that tantric practices are esoteric
(meaning private, secret, or confidential). They are private
practices that are given to a student by a master only when the
student is thoroughly prepared. They are therefore not to be
used by everyone or without the supervision of a qualified
teacher. Given this, one can immediately see that the popularization of Tantrism in the West poses a problem for genuine
Tantrism. Although credible masters have written books

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describing tantric practices for the layperson, some of the tantric

practices are in fact dangerous to practice apart from the guidance
of a gifted teacher. Perhaps the best one can say is that it is a
changing situation, and one wonders what the implications are
for Tantrisms future. As Professor John Powers wisely remarked:
Although tantra is generally considered in Tibet to be the
culmination of Buddhist teachings, it is not suitable for
everyone. Tantric practice is a powerful and effective means of
bringing about spiritual transformation, but for this very reason
it is also thought to be dangerous. Thus Tibetan teachers
contend that it is only suitable for certain exceptional individuals, while others should follow the slower but less dangerous
path of the Mahyna sutra system or Hinayna.42

The general organizing principle of Tantrism is inspired by

the experience of Awakening. As all things are ultimately the
same, and samsara is not different from nirvana, all efforts
to separate practice from attainment, sacred from secular,
and delusion from Awakening are necessarily wrongheaded.
Better to incorporate the perceived antithetical elements into
ones practice than to perpetuate their perceived independent reality. Furthermore, every action, whether it be as noble
as a heroic deed or as mundane as going to the bathroom,
can be incorporated into tantric practice. How, then, does
one practice Tantrism?
It is very important to understand that genuine tantric practice
depends upon the involvement of a teacher who has been
trained in a recognized spiritual lineage. The teacher guides the
student through stages in his or her practice, beginning with
initiation. The primary purpose of initiation is to establish a
strong bond between the teacher and the student. An initiation
ritual should only be undertaken by a serious-minded student
who is able to keep the details of the initiation ritual secret.
Other preliminary practices include the taking of refuges
(I take refuge in the Buddha, I take refuge in the dharma, I
take refuge in the sangha), prostration, and meditation:

Scriptures
Tantric initiation is often a complex ritual involving detailed
visualizations, prayers and supplications, offerings, special
ritual implements and substances. The purpose is to establish
the initiate in the proper frame of mind, forge a karmic bond
with the lama [teacher] and meditational deity, purify defilements, grant permission to practice a particular tantra, and to
give instruction concerning how this should be done.43

In the quote above, a meditational deity was mentioned. A

meditational deity is a central element in deity yoga, an
important tantric practice. Deity yoga involves a practitioner
visualizing him or herself as an Awakened deity, such as
Avalokitesvara (Tibetan: Chenrenzig). Buddhists ascribe great
power to the mindone becomes what one thinks about or is
influenced by. As the student meditates on Avalokitesvara and
learns to habitually think in this way, the consciousness of
the visualizer (the person meditating) and the visualized
(Avalokitesvara) become one.
There are four types of tantric practice: action, performance,
yoga, and highest yoga. These types can be said to constitute a
progression toward nonduality. In action Tantrism, one visualizes oneself as the servant of the deity; in performance, as the
friend or companion of the deity; and yoga and highest yoga
involve actual nondualistic consciousness with the deity.
The use of sexuality in Tantrism deserves a further word. A
few rituals prescribe the use of a partner, a seal. The practitioner and partner are visualized as specific deities, and ones
sexual union is used as a way of generating very subtle minds. 44
This practice is reserved for very advanced practitioners who
have attained a higher level in the yoga tantras. In certain ritual
practices, the seals used are imaginary and in others they are
actual persons.
SYMBOLS OF TANTRISM

In our previous discussion on Shingon, I mentioned the tantric

elements of mandalas, mantra, and mudra. Some of these

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mandalas, or symbols of Tantrism, are becoming more familiar

in the West. In the Minneapolis Museum of Art, one can find
a sand mandala preserved in a case. Increasingly, one sees
mandalas represented on posters or in books.
A mandala is a diagram used in tantric meditation as an aid
to visualization, which represents the residence and perfected
attributes of a Buddha. 45 The tantric practitioner uses the
mandala to strengthen the awareness of his or her own spiritual
identity by concentrating on this articulated celestial realm. The
purpose of this practice is to overcome the dualistic distinction
between the visualized and the visualizer.
The mantra serves a similar purpose. Perhaps you have heard
of the Hindu syllable Omthis is a mantra that has gained
some degree of recognition in the West. Whereas the mandala is
a visual aid, the mantra is a verbal aid. It is a spoken or chanted
formula that invokes a deity. Once again, the idea is to overcome
the misperceived distinction between the deity and oneself.
The mudra is a body movement or gesture. For example, in
many Buddhist statues one will see the deity with a raised palm.
This gesture, termed abhaya mudra, is meant to convey peace
and it carries the meaning Fear not! There are many other
gestures, and seated and standing positions, that convey a certain
meaning. In tantric practice, the person will use these movements
ritually. In fact, the practitioner often combines the mudra,
mantra, and mandala in one ritual thereby unifying the body,
speech, and mind.
There are other notable symbols of tantric practice that are
used in Tibet as well as in esoteric Chinese and Japanese sects.
One of these is the symbol that gives Vajrayna Buddhism its
name: a thunderbolt-scepter that Tibetans call a vajra. The vajra
symbolize (as absolute weapons) the victorious power of
knowledge over ignorance, of the spirit over the passions . . .
They are considered to annihilate spiritual poisons and to be an
effective weapon against evil thoughts and desires. 46 One can
find the vajra represented with different numbers of points
(there is a three-pointed vajra and also a five-pointed vajra).

4
Worldview
He who takes refuge with Buddha,
the Law, and the Church;
he who, with clear understanding,
sees the four holy truths:
pain, the origin of pain,
the destruction of pain,
and the eight-fold holy way that
leads to the quieting of pain;
that is the safe refuge,
that is the best refuge;
having gone to that refuge,
a man is delivered from all pain.
The Buddha, The BuddhaAwakened

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uddhism developed in South Asia, so it is not surprising that

Buddhism adopted some South Asian religious ideas. Karma,
rebirth, ahimsaall of these ideas existed prior to the time of
Siddhartha Gautama. Hinduism and Jainism were the two most
significant pre-Buddhist religions to use these ideas.
Buddhism also developed some notions that were uniquely
its ownthe concepts of anatman (no-self ), of s nyat
(emptiness), of Awakening, and of the Buddha may serve as
examples of these. As is the case in most religions, some of
Buddhisms key concepts are unique and some are shared.
The distinctively Buddhist worldview contains some of both
types of concepts. In this chapter, we examine some of the
distinguishing features of Buddhism that collectively shape its
view of the world.
THE THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF EXISTENCE

Buddhism speaks of the three characteristics or marks of existence. These are: 1) impermanence (anicca), 2) suffering (dukkha),
and 3) no-self (anatman). We have mentioned these terms
before, but let us take a moment to underscore the significance
of each to the Buddhist worldview.
Life Is Suffering

Recall from our discussion of the Four Noble Truths that

dukkha means suffering or unsatisfactoriness. The idea that
there is something wrong with life is certainly not unique
to Buddhism. All religions are transformative, that is, they try
to move us from an imperfect present condition to a better
future condition. If something were not wrongif we were
not sinners, or ignorant, or mortal, or suffering, etc.there
would be no reason to get started on a religious path. But,
even though Buddhisms emphasis on the trouble with life is
not unique, it is a very important and pervasive part of the
Buddhist worldview.
Buddhism shares Hinduisms belief that every thought or
action arises because of desire. Desire makes the world go

Worldview

round could be the theme song of both of these religions. But

whereas Hinduism sees this world as a middle place, with some
pleasure and some pain, Buddhism underscores the connection
between desire and suffering. The very fact that we desire, rather
than feel contentment or fulfillment, indicates that something is
not right. This insight, which grounds the Buddhist worldview,
provides a powerful incentive to get started on the Buddhist path
so that things might improve.
Impermanence, Emptiness

Early Buddhism underscored the impermanence of all elements

of existence, and Mahyna stressed the emptiness or lack of
own-being of all phenomena. Both are ways of pointing to
Buddhisms conviction that there is no changeless, permanently
enduring reality. Everything comes into being, reaches a point of
fullest development, and then fades out of existence. Or, as this
truth is otherwise stated, everything arises depending on causes
and conditions and does not persist in the absence of those
causes and conditions.
Unlike many other religions, Buddhism does not posit any
unchanging reality. It has no unchanging God or eternal soul.
Buddhism offers no base on which we might affix a permanent
identity for ourselves or for anything else. For this reason, there
is no reason to get attached to anything. Buddhists attempt to
act mindfully in the moment; they do not attempt to secure a
permanent future state. Life, for a Buddhist, can only be meaningfully lived in the here and now. If we try to live in the past
or for the future, we are not paying attention to the only reality
we can really have, and that is the reality that is right here and
right now.
Anatman (No-Self )

The Buddhist notion of no-self is not only a central doctrine of

Buddhism but also one that is frequently misunderstood. As
we study the idea of no-self, reflect back on our discussion of
Awakening and the subject-object dilemma.

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When non-Buddhists learn that Buddhism argues that there is

no self, they are invariably confused. Such questions arise such
as, How can Buddhism assert there is no self when clearly I am
conscious of my-self? How can Buddhism believe there is no
self and yet have a doctrine of rebirththat is, what is it exactly
that moves from birth to death to birth again? Lets address
each of these questions and in so doing perhaps clarify what
Buddhism means by no-self.
To say one doesnt have a self seems contradictory; that is,
dont I need a self to say there is no self ? Someone familiar with
the history of Western philosophy would recall Descartes
assertion, Cogito Ergo Sum (I think, therefore I am). To
formulate a Buddhist answer to this question, we need to go
back to the idea of self.
Buddhism recognizes the difficulty with defining the self
and actually offers its own attempt. Gautama asserted that
the self is made up of five parts or aggregates, in Sanskrit, the
five skandhas. The five skandhas are the form or body (rpa),
sensations (vedan), perceptions (samj), mental formations
(samskra), and consciousness (vijna).47
Buddhism answers the question What is the self? with the
proposal that the self is an aggregate of body, sensations, perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness. The idea
that I am the sum of all my parts seems like a reasonable
solution, and one with which many people might willingly
agree. Gautama Buddha once compared the individual human
life to a river:
O Brhmana, it is just like the mountain river, flowing far
and swift, taking everything along with it; there is no
moment, no instant, no second when it stops flowing, but it
goes on flowing and continuing. So Brhmana, is human life
like a river.48

The Buddha goes on to state that each of these skandhas is

impermanent and that this results in suffering, demonstrating
how all three marks of existence are interconnected.

Worldview

Many people would agree that the body is not permanent, but
could one not claim that the body is not the self, and therefore
there could still be a permanent self ? One might argue, for
example, that consciousness persists after death. In terms of
this argument, it matters little whether one believes in heaven
or in reincarnationeither way, consciousness could be said to
continue after death.
Further, why did the Buddha say that the impermanence of
the skandhas produces dukkha for the human person? In fact,
his assertion was in the strongest possible form: these five
Aggregates together, he said, which we popularly call a being,
are dukkha itself. 49
Of the five skandhas, body and sensations appear to be
physical. We can acknowledge the impermanence of physical
phenomena, and we can also acknowledge that their impermanence brings with it some degree of anxiety and dissatisfaction
with this state of affairs. But what about the other three skandhas?
Perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness are not
physical. Perceptions and mental formations are actually part
of consciousness, so perhaps that is where we should focus
our examinationwhat is consciousness and how does it
relate to dukkha?
Recall our discussion on the nature of consciousness in the
section on the Four Noble Truths. Our ordinary consciousness,
we said, bifurcates the world into subject and object, I and others.
Ordinary consciousness is dualistic, that is, it divides the world
into an inner awareness of myself as a subject and an outer
awareness of things and other persons as objects. According to
Japanese philosopher Keiji Nishitani, who was also trained in
Western philosophy, This standpoint of separation of subject
and object, or opposition between within or without, is what we
call the field of consciousness. 50 Consciousness as the fifth of
the five aggregates simply is this underlying division between
inner and outer, subject and object, self and others. Existence
bears this same fundamental division, as existence is simply what
consciousness is conscious of. The root of suffering is inherent

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in this dualistic structure of consciousness and existence: I can

never fully know either self or other because it is impossible to
look at the subject-I objectively and it is impossible to look at
others and objects subjectively and still maintain my normal
mode of consciousness. That can only happen when the ordinary
structure of consciousness is sundered in the experience of
Awakening.
Recall, however, that Buddhism teaches that all sentient beings
have the Buddha nature. This Buddha nature is not the self
posited by ordinary consciousness, but the genuine self or the
selfless-self. No-self does not simply point to the impermanence
of the self or the invisibility of the self, but most importantly
(at least for Mahyna) it points to the nondual nature of both
Truth and Reality. Highest truth is nondual, and therefore it is
nonconceptual and unspeakable. Absolute reality is nondual,
and therefore distinct selves and others do not exist there. The
genuine self or the selfless-self transcends the ordinary consciousness of self to include both self and not-self.
In regard to the question of what transmigrates at death,
the Buddhist could then argue it is the self (atman) that moves
until its no-self (anatman) is realized in Awakening. Historically,
one of the most important differences between Hinduism and
Buddhism has been with respect to the notion of the atman.
Hinduism teaches that the atman is permanent and that it is
the same as Brahman, Atman-Brahman being the Self-Universe.
Buddhism has argued for the nonpermanence of the self as
distinct from the universe. The contention here is that the
difference is a linguistic one rather than an existential one. For
Buddhism, the ordinary self will continue to transmigrate until
Awakening occurs whereupon the cycle ends:
Faced with the mortal illness of the problematic self, the only
cure is radical surgery. The entire dualistic consciousness must be
uprooted and replaced with an Awakened consciousness that
is not simply nondualistic but rather a nondualistic-dualistic
consciousness, or, more succinctly rendered, a selfless self.51

Worldview

This is the Mahprajn (Great Wisdom) that a Buddhist

expects to experience when he or she is finally Awakened. The
time of Awakening is also the point when Mahkarun (Great
Compassion) comes into being. How does great compassion or
love manifest as a result of Awakening?
The Buddhist Awakening results in a state of nonduality
between self and other, where the one is truly seen as the other
and the other as the self. When the reality of I am I and I am
not-I or I am I and I am the Universe is experienced, the
obstacle of egocentricity that taints all interpersonal relationships is extirpated and unobstructed compassion; regard for the
other is lucidly manifest. This is the Buddhist understanding of
Mahkarun or love.
AHIMSA (NON-HARM)

Ahimsa is a Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist principle. It precludes the

causing of suffering to any being, whether human or animal. The
causing of any type of painpsychological or financial as well as
physicalis forbidden. The principle of ahimsa often, though
not always, leads to the adoption of a vegetarian diet, or at least to
the perception that that would be the ideal diet from a spiritual
perspective. It also often leads to a refusal to engage in military
combat or even in sports that intentionally hurt or kill animals.
You might be wondering what harm a little more harm could
do, since Buddhists believe that life is already full of suffering.
In the face of a life of suffering, why not espouse a tough guy
attitude as the best way to cope? Buddhists believe that compassion and empathy are part of our original nature. They believe
that no one harms another living being except out of hatred,
greed, or ignorance. Hatred, greed, and ignorance disappear
with Awakening, and our original nature, which is the Buddha
nature, manifests in their stead. In other words, although
Buddhists believe that suffering is ubiquitous, they do not
believe that it is natural. We are not doomed to suffering and
harm but capable of following a path (the Buddhist path) that
leads to wisdom and compassion.

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However, this line of reasoning leads to further questions. If

Buddhists believe that our original nature is compassion and
love, why are there Buddhist monks? Why do some Buddhists
avoid romantic and family attachments? Are not monks choosing lives of dispassion rather than compassion?
NONATTACHMENT

Buddhists believe that what we normally call love is really

attachment. In its grossest form, it is attachment to pleasure, the
pleasure of being with and enjoying a sexual or romantic partner.
In its subtler forms, it is attachment to a parent, a child, a
spouse, or a friend. As our ordinary way of referring to such
relationships reveals, they are more a matter of emotional
dependence and social status than they are a matter of altruistic
compassion. Such relationships form a larger self but only
to the extent that the participants think in terms of us
versus you rather than in terms of I versus you. Even more
revealing is the fact that we speak of having a friend, having a
wife (or husband), having children, and even having sex.
When we are dependent on something or someone, we want to
have it, that is, to control or possess it. When we love someone
without ego involvement, we want to free that person rather
than control her or him. Buddhist compassion is a matter of
liberating others, not forming dependent relationships with
them. The monastic lifestyle, rightly lived, is a matter of freedom
from such attachments.
However, a householder can be further along the Buddhist
path and closer to nirvana than someone who lives in a
monastery. That is because real relationships dont work very
well when they are a matter of attachments and dependencies.
The relationship itself can be a guide to freeing love rather than
attached love, to genuine overcoming of dualistic thought and
action rather than a furthering of our tendency to want to grasp
at things and persons and have them.
As in all religions that have both monastic and family
lifestyles, the monastics embody the principle of liberation

Worldview

from the ordinary, deluded ways of the world, while those who
live in the world without succumbing to its ways embody the
nonduality of freedom from the world and compassionate
commitment to it.
TIBETAN BUDDHIST VIEW OF
TRANSMIGRATION AT DEATH

You may have heard of The Tibetan Book of the Dead. It has
been available in translation in the West for several decades and
was a popular book on college campuses in the 1960s. This book
describes what happens when a person dies, according to
Tibetan Buddhism. Because the book serves as a manual to assist
in both the process of living and the process of dying, Sogyal
Rinpoche has called it the Tibetan Book of Living and Dying. 52
I close this chapter with The Tibetan Book of the Dead because
it provides an example of how Buddhist teachings and Buddhist
beliefs about karma and rebirth are applied at this important
time in a persons life. It provides an example of how the Buddhist
worldview works in practice.
The book describes the stages of the dying process. Even as
one is dying, a certain consciousness is still active. Therefore,
we experience different things at each stage. Tibetan Buddhist
scholar Robert Thurman presents the eight stages of death in
this fashion:
THE STAGES OF DEATH: DISSOLUTION AND EXPERIENCES 53
DISSOLUTION
EXPERIENCE
1. earth to water

mirage

2. water to fire

smokiness

3. fire to wind

fireflies in the sky

4. wind to consciousness

clear candle flame

5. gross consciousness to luminance

clear moonlit sky

6. luminance to radiance

clear sunlit sky

7. radiance to imminence

clear pitch-darkness

8. imminence to translucency

clear light of clear predawn sky

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THE TIBETAN ART OF DYING

The Tibetan Book of the Dead describes what the transmigrating self
experiences postmortem. As Robert Thurman notes, this text is
known in Tibet as The Great Book of Natural Liberation through Understanding in the Between. It provides guidance to help people deal with
the death of others close to them. It is, in a sense, a map of human
dying and death.
To use the book as it is designed to be used one needs to be a
believer and to work under the guidance of a qualified teacher. However,
for our purposes we can examine the book as an argument for a
certain view of death. The book attempts to provide its readers with a
clear view of what happens when one dies and how one should prepare
for the inevitableness of death.
According to Thurman, the book argues for two levels of preparation for death: ordinary and extraordinary. We will deal only with
ordinary preparation here. Ordinary preparation can be subdivided
into five areas of preparation: informational, imaginational, ethical,
meditational, and intellectual.
Informational means to inform oneself about the interior physical
aspects of death by studying the Tibetan (and Western scientific)
views of what happens when one dies. Imaginational means to use
ones imaginative powers to visualize death and positive realities
such as parinirvn
. Asian art and story are replete with examples of
positive realms that one might encounter after death. One should
study the sutras that describe these lands of bliss or, if one is a
Westerner, one can read of the visions of the mystics in such traditions
as Christianity, Judaism, or Islam for guidance.
According to Thurman, the most important ethical practices are
generosity, compassion, and tolerance. It is also important to infuse
ones life with an awareness of the transitoriness of life; this will
temper ones greed, selfishness, and tension.
Meditational preparation involves doing contemplative practices
that induce calm, fire the imagination, generate loving-kindness, and
stimulate mindfulness. It is important to note that these preparations
are not anti-intellectual but rather are supported by ones intellectual
interest and drive to understand.
For the components of extraordinary preparation, the interested
reader is encouraged to consult Thurmans book (The Tibetan Book of
the Dead, Bantam Doubleday Dell, 1994) and others that relate to the
Tibetan art of dying.

Worldview

The purpose of The Tibetan Book of the Dead and several other
Vajrayna Buddhist practices is to enable the dying person to
retain lucidity and recognize the various stages as he or she progresses through them. Although ones physical body moves into
death at stage four, ones consciousness persists. Consequently,
the dying person is able to continue to benefit from his or her
practice and instruction while alive. He or she can also benefit
from oral instructions provided by a trained teacher who sits
with the dying person. Robert Thurman writes:
The meditative practices associated with between-state
training are crucial for sharpening attention so you can
become aware of the process, slow down the transitions, and
remain lucidly aware of the changes as they occur.54

The goal of The Tibetan Book of the Dead is to bring the dying
person into Awakening and not have him or her transmigrate
into a new life.
If one has been trained properly and has the guidance of a
trained lama, one may still gain release from samsara even
postmortem. If not able to gain this eleventh-hour release, then
one moves into the next life.
Tibetan Buddhists use this book to prepare for the experience of death. Rather than fearing death, they want to use the
dying experience to consolidate their spiritual prowess so that
Awakening will ensue. The Tibetan Book of the Dead is a fascinating treatise that challenges the dominant Western view of what
happens when we die.

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5
Worship
In a quiet and untrammeled spot the practitioner
should resplendently arrange a single chamber
to use as the ritual sanctuary [daochang]. . . .
A fine altar-piece should be installed in the sanctuary
and on it placed a single copy of the Lotus Sutra.
There is no need to enshrine any
other images, relics, or scriptures.
From Fahna sanmei chanyi,
ed. Junjiro Takakusu and Watanabe Kaigyoku,
Tokyo: Taisho issai-kyo kanko-kai,
19141922, no. 1941: 949954, vol. 46.

Worship

Buddhist place of worship is called a temple. Most of the large

temples built in one of the classical architectural styles are
located in Asia, but there are Buddhist temples all over the
world, including in major metropolitan areas in the United
States and Europe. Wherever you live, you are most likely within
a few hours of a Buddhist place of worship.
Simply because Buddhist temples are found everywhere, it
is difficult to generalize about their appearance, furnishings,
and services. That said, there are some elements that appear
in most Buddhist temples. In the following section, I will
describe some of those common characteristics. Later in this
chapter I will describe some specific temples in Japan and in
the United States.

THE STRUCTURE OF A BUDDHIST TEMPLE

The Temple Complex

The Buddhist temple has historically been not only a place of

worship but also a center for learning, healing, and celebrations.
Not infrequently it also served as a monastic residence (a
monastery). The monks, as custodians of societys knowledge,
doled out what was often the only type of medical help available.
Because a Buddhist temple fulfills many purposes, it is almost
invariably a set of buildings located on a large parcel of land. In
other words, temples are not usually single buildings but an
entire complex of structures and the land on which they are
located (the temple grounds).
Most Buddhist temples have an entrance gate that provides
access to the temple grounds. However, in smaller temples with
only a single building, this may not be the case. There will be a
sign in front indicating the name of the temple and perhaps its
school or affiliation.
Two buildings commonly found on the temple grounds are
the main hall and a lecture hall. The main hall contains objects
used in worship, such as statues. Lecture halls may also display
objects of worship, but their primary purpose is to serve as the
site for meetings and lectures.

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Upon entering the main hall, the worshipper may be asked to

remove his or her shoes. If so, it will be clearly evident that this
is the expectation. The purpose of shoe removal is to maintain
the cleanliness or purity of the temple. It is also easier to sit in
prayer or meditation if one is not wearing shoes. A third reason
for removal of shoes is to protect the sometimes fragile materials
used in the construction of the worship space. For example, the
straw mats (Jp.: tatami) used for flooring in Japanese temples are
easily damaged by shoes.
Buddhist Altars

Every worship space has at least one altar present somewhere in

the room. There may be several altars in one room or in several
different buildings, if the temple is a compound made up of
several buildings.
Buddhist altars vary greatly in design, but one will usually
find some representation of a Buddha or bodhisattva, perhaps
represented in a statue, painting, scroll, etc. The Buddhist figure
represented may indicate with which sect of Buddhism the temple
is associated. For example, in a Pure Land temple a representation of Amida Buddha will be on the main altar.
Often there is a main altar flanked by side altars on either
side. The side altars will be smaller, but they will also contain a
Buddhist figure, perhaps a Buddha, bodhisattva, or the founder
of the sect.
Candles or incense are customarily placed on the altar or in
the area around it. In some cases, the worshipper is invited to
light the candles or incense. There may be a small coin box
present, in which case the worshipper may put a coin in, take a
candle or stick of incense, and place it in the appropriate place.
The incense might be placed in an incense burner that, when
filled with burning sticks, gives rise to a cloud that fills the air.
The altar and its contents are usually made of natural materials,
such as wood or metals. The altar may include candles or candelabras that are lit and maintained by the devotees who live at the
temple. Fruit, flowers, or other objects that have been donated to

Worship

the temple by believers will be placed on the altar. One may also
find prayers, fortunes, portions of sutras, and other instructional
material near the altar.
Temple Art

In many temples, the visitor finds artistic representations

intended for pedagogical or instructional purposes. These may
include paintings, quotations, and even gardens, such as the
famous rock gardens associated with certain Japanese Zen
Buddhist temples.
Vajrayna temples often have prayer wheels. These are cylindrical drums that have prayers written on them. When a
believer spins the prayer wheel with his or her hands, the prayer
is symbolically sent to the wind and so out into the world to
benefit others. Sometimes there will be a long row of prayer
wheels, enabling the worshipper to walk down the path and
spin many prayer wheels in a very short amount of time.
Temple Visitors and Residents

Of course, when one visits a Buddhist temple, one also will see
Buddhist practitioners, both lay and monastic. The layperson
may be there for individual prayer or meditation, to attend a
regularly scheduled service, or perhaps for a special service or
ceremony that was arranged on his or her behalf. Examples of
special services would be a birth ceremony, a wedding, a funeral,
or a commemoration on the anniversary of a death.
Often a believer will pause in prayer before the altar. He or she
may intone a set prayer or devise one of his or her own. The
believer may also choose to chant a mantra or sutra before the
altar. Many Buddhists employ a rosary (Skt.: mala), which is a set
of prayer beads. A rosary will often have 108 beads (representing
the 108 human passions or worldly desires). It should be noted,
however, that rosaries do differ in number of beads and in the
materials of which they are made.
Monks or nuns are present to take care of the temple, to preside
over the ceremonies, and to provide other services to laypersons.

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In return for these services, laypersons donate time and money

to the temple for its upkeep and expenses. Many Buddhist temples
are also monasteries, but not all Buddhist temples have monks
or nuns who live in the temple.
Other Items Found in Temples

The lotus is a common Buddhist symbol. Within a temple, a

statue of the Buddha or a bodhisattva might be sitting or standing on a lotus. The lotus usually symbolizes purity. The lotus
plant grows in water; the leaves extend out of the water and so
are not touched by any dirt in the water. The lotus symbolizes
the Buddhist practitioner, who is in the world but also
untouchedunsullied by the world. In some Buddhist interpretations, the lotus is a symbol of the feminine principle or the
female sex organ.
The temples of Tibetan Buddhist sects, and also of esoteric
sects in China and Japan, might contain a vajra. The vajra is a
thunderbolt-like symbol that may appear in pictures or be cast
in metal. The vajra is a symbol of the knowledge and power
needed to overcome spiritual ignorance and bad thoughts. It
sometimes symbolizes the male sex organ and in such cases it
might accompany the lotus.
Very often a bell will be found at a Buddhist temple. In Japan,
you may find a separate belfry with a bell so large that a large log
on a chain is used as the clapper. These bells were used for time
keeping, in ceremonies, and for maintaining the daily schedule
of the temple.
The wheel is a common symbol of Buddhism. It represents
Buddhist teaching, which may be referred to as the turning of
the wheel of the law (dharma). Other items that might be found
at a Buddhist temple include vases, mirrors, books of Buddhist
sutras, and a reliquary known as a stpa.
A stpa is a dome-shaped structure that may be quite large
or quite small. It is a symbolic burial mound; in ancient India
the cremated remains of great kings were enshrined in stpas.
In some cases, Buddhist stpas may actually contain a relic of

Worship

Gautama Buddha, such as a lock of hair or a tooth. Whether they

contain an actual relic or not, stpas are sites where offerings
and devotions take place.
A BUDDHIST TEMPLE IN JAPAN

There are thousands of temples in Japan, ranging from large

temple complexes to smaller, single edifices. Indeed, even a single
large city, like Kyoto, may have several thousand temples, while
almost every smaller city has at least one temple.
One of the most-visited Buddhist temples in the world, Todaiji
is a temple of the Kegon sect of Buddhism. It is most famed
for the great statue of the Buddha that resides in what is said
to be the worlds largest wooden building, the Great Buddha
Hall. Originally built in the eighth century C.E., the building was
burned twice (1180, 1567) as well as being reconstructed in the
early eighteenth century.
Visitors to Todaiji are struck by the presence of people and
of deer. The park where the temple is located is called Deer Park
(in recognition of Deer Park at Srnth, the location of Gautama
Buddhas first sermon) and deer freely amble around begging food
from the tourists and pilgrims. The popular temples in Japan also
have a large number of stalls lining the paths, where merchants
sell everything from film, toys, and postcards to Buddhist articles.
The entrance to Todaiji is through the great south gate (Daimon)
that permits passage into the sacred space within. Two enormous
guardians stand on either side of the gate protecting all within
from evil spirits.
Once through the gate, the pilgrim approaches the inner
temple through a side door that requires an admission fee. The
popular temples in Japan frequently charge an admission fee to
help cover their costs. Stepping through the side door, one is
immediately struck by the size of the large temple building that
houses the great Buddha, the Daibutsu.
An immense incense urn, consistent with the scale of the
temple building, stands in the middle of the path close to the
temizuya, the purification basin that pilgrims and tourists alike

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use to ritually purify themselves before approaching the altar.

After the optional purchase of an incense stick, the pilgrim
ascends the great staircase of the main hall.
To the right of the massive doorway stands a weathered
Yakushi, a so-called Medicine Buddha. Petitioners approach to
ask for healing. The person generally places a few coins in the
coinbox at the base of the altar, touches the part of the seated
statue that corresponds to the part of his or her own body that
requires healing, and ties a mikuji (fortune) on the banister
behind them.
Stepping over the threshold into the main hall, one is immediately struck by the immensity of the Buddha figure who rises
up out of the dim light. The Daibutsu, ordered by Emperor
Shmu to be constructed in 743, is a representation of Vairocana
Buddha. The casting of the statue actually began early in 747 and
was finally dedicated on April 9, 752. Work continued even after
this on the statues pedestal and aureole (ring of light, halo). One
of the devotional pictures that one can buy at Todaiji states that
more than ten thousand priests and musicians from India,
China and Korea as well as Japan attended the dedication.
The Rushana (Vairocana) Daibutsu is a Japanese National
Treasure standing forty-nine feet in height. It required five
hundred tons of copper to construct. Two other statues, smaller
but still immense, flank the main altar.
Although Todaiji is obviously unique in many ways, it appropriately serves as our example of a Japanese Buddhist temple.
More Japanese Buddhists visit this temple than visit local
neighborhood temples. In addition, this early Buddhist temple
in Japan includes all the elements that one can see in considerably smaller temples all over Asia.
A BUDDHIST TEMPLE IN THE UNITED STATES

Buddhist places of worship can be found throughout the United

States and Europe, increasingly not only in urban settings but also
in rural areas. There is not a major city in the West without
several Buddhist centers representing different Asian Buddhist

Worship

TIBETAN MONASTERIES
In his recent book, The Sound of Two Hands Clapping, Georges Dreyfus
provides a wonderfully insightful look inside Tibetan monasticism.
Currently a Professor of Religion at Williams College, Dreyfus spent
many years as a Tibetan Buddhist monk.
Dreyfus describes the Tibetan monastery as one centered on
rituals regardless of whether the monastery community is made
up of a handful or thousands of monks. He describes his own
efforts to memorize the ritual manual that guided practice within
the temple. The routine of ritual inside Dre-pung Monastery during
debate sessions included a morning service, then a brief prayer
in the courtyard. Following a debate, another service ensued,
another courtyard prayer, and then another debate. In the afternoon, there may be yet another debate and then the main ritual
of the day: the prayer of the evening debate. This last ritual
contained more than fifty prayers and lasted more than two hours,
Dreyfus reports. (44)
The rituals are usually performed in the assembly hall, which is particularly valued for this reason and also because it is the location
where the monks receive support (food, money) from their sponsors.
One could draw a parallel with a Christian chapel, which is likewise
the site where important rituals occur and the place where the church
receives offerings from its parishioners.
Beyond the daily rituals, the temple is busy with rituals prescribed
by the Vinaya Pitaka and with the Buddhist holy days, e.g., the commemoration of the Buddhas Awakening. Temples will also celebrate
school-specific rituals (those related to a particular school or type
of Buddhism) as well as temple-specific rituals (e.g., the celebration of
the foundation day of the temple).
Dreyfus describes rituals called foot firming, which are performed
for supporters of the temple. This type of ritual may be done for a
variety of different purposes, such as healing or repelling evil spirits.
The timing of these rituals is either astrologically determined or determined by a diviner. Monks, individuals, corporations, or governments
can request such rituals, and the monks may come to depend on these
rituals as an essential part of their support.
A local monastery operates as we have described. A central
monastery has additional functions because it serves as a training
center for monks. However, whether the monastery is local or central,
all of monastic life centers on rituals.

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sects. Large numbers of Americans now live within easy

driving distance of a Vietnamese Buddhist temple that is the
social center of an immigrant community; a Zen temple
largely peopled by thirty-something Caucasian Americans;
or a meeting of Ska Gakkai Buddhists, a form of Buddhism
with a strong following in the African American community.
Buddhist temples in the United States range from large,
dedicated buildings to residential homes that have been
converted to a weekly gathering place for prayer. In short,
Buddhist temples are no longer filled solely with Asians.
The American Buddhist temple that we will focus on is
located in a house in a residential neighborhood in a city in the
Midwest. It has been in existence for about twenty-five years
and is affiliated with a larger network of temples that originated
with an esteemed Japanese Zen teacher who came to the United
States in the 1950s and established a home temple. One of his
students, a fifty-year-old American-born male, who first became
interested in Zen Buddhism in the 1960s, was sanctioned by this
master as his dharma heir and empowered to teach at and then
run this subtemple. Within the national network of temples
founded by the original Japanese Zen teacher, we see a second
generation of teachers, the dharma heirs of the original set of
students, moving into positions of leadership.
The temple is set up as a nonprofit organization. It has
an attractive Web site that provides meditation schedules,
announces special events, posts newsletters, etc. Each weekend
offers an opportunity to learn how to meditate so that one
may feel more at ease in participating in the daily practice or
the weekly session (offered on a Sunday morning). The Zen
Center also offers opportunities for families to be involved in
practice and other support activities. There are several retreats
(sesshin) per year, open to both members and nonmembers
(membership often requires a small, yearly fee). Sesshin may
be held in the city temple or outside the city in a rural temple.
The temple is growing very slowly and financially it is, at
best, a break-even affair. Sources of revenue include the

Worship

memberships, selling of tapes and books, and donations from

members and friends of the temple. Some larger annual gifts
help as well.
PRACTICE IN A BUDDHIST CENTER

The number and type of practice sessions provided by a Buddhist

temple depend upon its location and the type of Buddhism it
represents. In this section, we will look at the practice schedule
in an American Zen Center.
The Clouds in Water Zen Center is located in downtown
St. Paul, Minnesota. It has been in existence for about a decade.
The home page of their Web site states, We are a dharma center
that offers intensive Zen training in practice-realization that this
very life is a field of boundless emptiness from the beginning.
We offer many gateways to Buddhist practice and welcome all
who seek clear wisdom and radiant compassion. 55
One can register for classes on-line and donate money to the
Center on-line. The News and Updates section indicated a busy
schedule at the beginning of 2004, with a fifteen-week program
on the teachings of the Buddha and making peace, the visit of a
noted Zen scholar for several lectures with zazen practice, numerous
classes, and a notice that an article on the Centers children and
youth practice program had appeared in the St. Paul newspaper.
The Sunday Morning Meditation schedule is as follows:
8:008:45
9:00
9:15
9:30

10:30

Compassion Practice
First meditation period, fifteen minutes
Second meditation period, sitting or
walking meditation
Dharma talk by either our guiding teacher
or a guest teacher, or a student talk by a
senior student
Tea and conversation in our social hall 56

Sunday worship is open to anyone and instructions on how to

meditate consistent with the Centers practice are made available
either at the Center or on-line. Daily meditation is offered at the

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Center on Mondays through Thursdays with sitting starting

at 5:30 A.M. and ending with a liturgy from 6:50 to 7:05. There
are also noontime, evening, Tuesday afternoon, and Saturday
morning practice schedules.
The Compassion Practice mentioned in the Sunday Morning
Meditation schedule is a special practice that lasts for a hundred
days. It is the practice of invoking compassionate energy for
those close to us and for the world through chanting the Ten
Line Kannon Sutra of Timeless Life. 57 Cards are filled with joys
or concerns that are read during the service.
LEARNING ABOUT BUDDHIST PRACTICE

Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, a popular magazine on Buddhist

practice, lists many opportunities to study Buddhism. The list
includes speaking tours of esteemed Buddhist teachers, retreats,
visits to monasteries, and a classified listing of Dharma Centers.
Both domestic and international opportunities are available. A
simple Internet search will provide additional information
about Buddhist places and practices.
Today, one can travel to historic Buddhist sites in Asia as a
tourist or pilgrim and in a matter of days see sites that not
too long ago no one person had collectively ever seen. Many
Buddhist sutras have been translated into English and some are
even available on-line. In todays world, opportunities to explore
the many dimensions of Buddhist practice abound.

FROM THE
BUDDHIST
TRADITION

A painting of the Birth of the Buddha, Temple of Yongju,

Suwon, South Korea. The Buddha, or Siddhartha Gautama,
was born in Lumbin, in what is now Nepal, in 563 B.C.E.
It is said that Siddhartha miraculously emerged from his
mothers side and thus did not experience the trauma of a
typical birth. He therefore was able to remember all of his
previous lives due to this Awakening experience.

Housed in the School of Ratanakosin, Thonburi District,

Thailand, this mural displays the miraculous nature of the
Buddha as he raises himself up in front of his family.

This Pancharaksha manuscript, housed at the Newark

Museum, Newark, New Jersey, dates to the twelfth
century C.E. These two folios are written in Sanskrit on
palm leafs.

This eighteenth-century gilded bronze prayer wheel contains

a long prayer scroll and is housed at the Musee des Arts
Asiatiques-Guimet, Paris, France. Known as chhos-hkor in
Tibetan, prayer wheels are often carried by pilgrims on
visits to temples. When the wheel is spun, it is said to bring
spiritual blessings and well-being to the world.

The shrine to the Golden Buddha at Deskit Monastery in

Nubra Valley, India.

The Buddha of Bamiyan.

This two-hundred-foot
statue located in central
Afghanistan dates to
the fifth century C.E.
Though it was one of
two statues of the
Buddha destroyed by
the Taliban in 2001,
there are plans to have
it rebuilt.

After achieving enlightenment, Gautama

Buddha traveled to
Sarnathlocated in
present-day Uttar
Pradesh, Indiawhere
he preached the first
discourse on the Four
Noble Truths. Indian
Emperor Ashoka is
said to have erected
these stupas on the
site where the Buddha
preached his famous
sermon.

Tibetans believe that prayer flags carry their prayers and

mantras to heaven as offerings to their deities, and benefit
those who hang them, as well as all sentient beings. These
flags have been strung near Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet, the
original home of Tenzin Gyatso, the fourteenth Dalai Lama.

A replica of Byodoin Temple, Kyota, Japan. The original

temple, which was built in the twelfth century, still stands
today and is one of the few temples that remain from
Japans Heian period. This reproduction is located on the
island of Oahu, Hawaii.

6
Growing Up
Buddhist
A child is innocent but lacks the maturity
and the wisdom to handle his own life.
Adults have the maturity to some extent,
but lack the innocence.
This innocence bestows wisdom,
it can only be achieved through the practice
of direct seeing into ones own mind.
Dr. Thynn Thynn, Childrens Direct Seeing,
Sakyadhita Newsletter, 1994, vol. 5, no. 1.

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BUDDHISM

he Buddhist temple historically has occupied a central role in

Buddhist societies. As we learned in the last chapter, it served
as a center of learning, study, healing, guidance, work, celebration,
and mourning. Today, young men in some Southeast Asian
countries continue to depend upon the temple and monasticism
to supply an important part of their formal education. In some
areas, a young man is not deemed ready for marriage until he
has received this type of education.
Lay Buddhists continue to rely upon the monks and their
understanding of herbal medicine for medical treatment, and
this is oftentimes the only medical treatment available. They
visit the temple to pray, socialize, and confer with the monks and
nuns who support the spiritual and psychological health of the
community-at-large. And, certainly, over the course of their lifetimes there will be many visits to the Buddhist temple to attend
rituals of celebration and mourning. The myriad ways in which
Buddhism intersects the lives of its believers are often specific to
certain countries, towns, and even temples, but a few examples
may serve to illustrate how Buddhism impresses itself upon the
lives of its followers.
THE BUDDHIST FAMILY

In rebirth, a person is born into this world with a karmic legacy

derived from past lives. Buddhist parents are also connected to
preconception as they might have offered petitionary prayers:
They may have prayed for the ability to conceive, or asked that
their baby might be a boy, healthy, and so forth. Even prior
to that, prayers had likely been offered as each prospective
partner sought another person with whom to raise a family!
The Buddhist Family in Japan

As we consider Japanese Buddhist families, we need to keep in

mind that Shinto is the other major tradition in Japan and that
it also plays a significant role in rites of passage. For example, the
babys first visit to a Shinto shrine after birth (Jp.: Miyamairi) is
a cause for celebration, as are the traditional visits to the shrine

Growing Up Buddhist

of children who are seven, five, and three years old. In Japan this
is known as the Shichi-go-san festival, from the Japanese words
for seven (shichi), five (go), and three (san). The relationship between Shinto and Buddhism in Japan is syncretistic, as is
evident in the fact that even as people pray for protection of
their children at a Shinto shrine they simultaneously look to a
Buddhist temple for the same reason.
Japanese children of school age may seek out spiritual assistance at the family temple in preparation for a critical exam or
as an aid in social relationships. Occasionally, a Buddhist priest
is sought out for advice in raising a child or to perform a ritual
for a special purpose, such as for healing. Special rituals may be
solicited by grandparents as well as parents. The traditional Asian
household contains three generations, and it is very often the
grandparents that encourage and lead the religious practices
of the family.
As the child comes of age, his or her visits to the temple may
be focused on securing a promising job or a spouse. Marriages
themselves are most often conducted by a Shinto priest. However,
as the couple has children, cares for their aging parents, and in
turn age themselves, the practical application of Buddhism to
every aspect of the lifespan continues. Prayers, devotions, and
other Buddhist practices assist in achieving goals and in maintaining well-being at every age.
As happens in every religious tradition, there are those
who do not seem to have much faith in the prayers recited on
the temple grounds, demonstrating at best an it can only
help attitude toward their devotions. There are also, of course,
many genuinely devout Buddhists in Japan and in other
Buddhists countries.
In many Buddhist temples in Japan, one may purchase
amulets. These are thought to protect the believer from various
concerns such as fire, specific illnesses, pregnancy (or infertility),
failure of entrance exams, or business failure. Certain temples
are renowned for being particularly efficacious in protecting the
believer from one or another of these concerns, and people will

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travel great distances to visit these temples and benefit from

their famed power.
Fuda (flat pieces of inscribed wood) and omamori (small cloth
brocade bags with an inscription) are the most common types of
protective amulets available in Japanese Buddhist temples. Train
or bus companies will often place these items on their trains or
buses to protect passengers from an accident. The household, too,
may have its own omamori to protect it from fire or intruders.
Similar practices are found in other Buddhist countries. Indeed,
the popularity of such practices helps Buddhism to retain its
relevance in the day-to-day life of believers. It should be noted,
however, that many of these practices originated with the indigenous traditions in the country and predated the transmission of
Buddhism to that country.
The Buddhist Family in Myanmar (Burma)

In Myanmar (formerly called Burma), Theravda is the dominant

form of Buddhism. About eighty-eight percent of the population
is Buddhist. The majority of these are very devout, and the
Buddhist temple is almost invariably the center of village life.
In a short essay entitled A Buddhist Family in Burma, U Kin
Maung 58 describes how his own family practices Buddhism:
From his childhood, a Buddhist is taught to respect Buddha,
Dhamma, Sangha, his parents and Teachers. During the
month of Thadingyut, which marks the end of the Buddhist
lent, young persons would approach their parents and
Teachers to pay their respects by bowing down deeply before
them and receive their blessings, while fruits, tinned provisions, candles and other such articles are placed before them
as token for their respect.59

Upon rising in the morning, his children bow before the

family shrine that is on the south side of the house (south
and east are the preferred directions). As is the case in Buddhist
families across Asia, Maungs live-in mother-in-law is the
person primarily responsible for household practice and

Growing Up Buddhist

maintenance of the shrine. In front of the numerous Buddhist

statues that have been collected are three goblets filled with
seasonal flowers, little silver cups and plates for offerings of
food and water, which are really a symbolic gesture on our
part as if Buddha were alive and with us. 60 Maungs motherin-law also meets the monks who visit the home as part of
their daily rounds to collect alms and provides them with
small amounts of food.
The entire family will pray at the home shrine each morning,
intoning the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts. Laypersons
ordinarily follow only the Five Precepts, but they may increase
the number of precepts they follow during certain times of
the year. The entire family visits the monastery and pagodas
often. They usually bring food and have a family picnic there.
The monks meet the children and provide them with plantains
or sweets.
At the end of the day, the children will pray before the family
shrine. Usually the parents will be present to listen to the prayers
of their children.
JIZ BOSATSU: A BUDDHIST DEITY FOR CHILDREN

Jiz Bosatsu (Skt.: Ksitigarbha) plays an important role in

Japanese society. Inarguably, the most commonly encountered
bodhisattva image in Japan is his. You may see him standing by
himself on a busy street corner, on a playground, or in a cemetery;
or you may see great numbers of Jiz statues standing side-byside in a virtual pyramid of statues.
Jiz means He who encompasses the earth. Bosatsu is the
Japanese word for bodhisattva. Jiz Bosatsu appeared early
in Mahyna history in India but didnt become popular
until coming to Chinawhere he is known as Dizangin the
fifth century C.E.
Dizangs myth is related in a sutra named after him. Prior to
becoming a bodhisattva, he was a young Brahmin girl who
vowed to save all beings from the torments of hell. Although Jiz
works to help beings in all of the Six Realms of Existence (those

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in hell, hungry ghosts, animals, demons, humans, and deities),

he is especially determined to aid those in hell:
In hell, his mission is to lighten the burden caused by previous
evil actions, to secure from the judges of hell an alleviation of
the fate of the condemned and to console them. Thus in the
popular mind, Ksitigarbha has become the Bodhisattva of
hells par excellence.61

Jiz is the guardian of children who are stillborn, lost through

miscarriage, or aborted. Children who die prematurely are
believed to go to the underworld, which is a place of suffering.
Jiz works to lessen the intensity and duration of their suffering.
Little heaps of stones around Jiz statues reflect the belief that a
stone offered in faith by a parent will reduce the amount of time
his or her child spends in hell. (In Hinduism and Buddhism, hell
is not a place of eternal punishment. As soon as ones negative
karma is used up, one is released to enter one of the other realms
of existence.)
A Japanese story about Jiz locates him in hell, on a sandy
beach called Sai-no-Kawara, [where] dead infants spend their
time building votive structures with small pebbles to increase
their merits and those of their parents. But every evening,
demons, especially an old woman named Szu-no-Kawara no
Uba, demolish their work. Ksitigarbha then consoles the unhappy
children, telling them, In this land of shades, I am your father
and your mother: trust me morning and evening. 62
Sometimes grieving mothers will take a dead childs tiny
garments and dress a Jiz statue in them, hoping that the gift will
result in special protection for their child. A tiny hat or bib on a
Jiz statue, on the other hand, is usually the gift of a rejoicing
mother whose child was healed after she prayed to Jiz.
Jiz may be known by different names, depending upon which
of his powers is being invoked. For example, Taue Jiz helps
farmers to plant rice, while Koyasu Jiz, who in a feminine form
is considered as a bestower of children, 63 protects children and
helps ease childbirth. Enmei Jiz Bosatsu serves as a celestial

Growing Up Buddhist

babysitter; fieldworkers will leave their children playing in the

vicinity of this Jiz while they work.
In modern Japan, Jizs most important function is to offer
aid in the event of a mizuko (literally water baby), an aborted
or stillborn child. Japan has a high abortion rate, and Jiz helps
both the parents and the aborted fetus, both here and in the next
life. Some Buddhist temples have developed rituals to avert the
suffering resulting from an ignoble death so that the aborted or
stillborn fetus does not need to endure that agony.64
BUDDHISM AND DEATH IN JAPAN

At the time of a death, Buddhism takes center stage in the life of

a Japanese family. Ian Reader, a scholar of Japanese religions,
reports that a 1984 survey found that of the more than eighteen
hundred people who were asked the reasons they would visit
their temple and consult a Buddhist priest, seventy-eight percent of
the respondents indicated they would do so for reasons connected
to funerals, whereas only eight percent would do so for spiritual
reasons. The remaining fourteen percent gave no response.65
As Shinto has become connected with marriage in Japan,
Buddhism has become connected with funerals. All the Buddhists
sects in Japan have developed mortuary rituals, and it seems that
the primary function of Buddhism in the eyes of the Japanese
populace is to carry out these rituals. Buddhism assumed this
role almost from the beginning of its presence in Japan in the
sixth century. An imperial edict in C.E. 685 decreed that all
households should have a butsudan (Buddhist altar) to venerate
the ancestors of the family. The first cremation of a Buddhist
monk took place in 700 and members of the Imperial family
were thereafter cremated.66
Japanese Buddhism found its niche relative to Shinto by
articulating a view of the afterlife, something that Shinto did
not offer. Shinto did encourage veneration of the ancestors,
however, and Buddhism adopted the practice of ancestor veneration. This was an accommodation on the part of Buddhism,
since its doctrines of rebirth and no-self should have precluded

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the possibility of an enduring individual person after death. Yet

Buddhism in Japan acknowledged an enduring spirit after death
that needed to be venerated by the living.
The mixing of Shinto and Buddhist beliefs and practices
persists in modern Japan. It bewilders the observer of Japanese
religiosity and sometimes it confuses the Japanese people
themselves:
It was the apparent spiritual and magical powers accumulated
by those who trained in the Buddhist tradition, aligned to
the powers possessed by Buddhism in the form of its Buddha
figures, statues, prayers, incantations and rituals, that were
responsible for convincing the Japanese that Buddhism had
the ability to transform the spirits of the dead and lead them
to enlightenment after death, thereby eradicating the impurities and pollutions associated with death.67

The above quotation makes reference to the impurities and

pollutions associated with death. The idea that death is a
source of pollution is an ancient and powerful aspect of
Japanese culture. It is for this very reason that Shinto priests
do not conduct funerals, leaving this polluting work to the
Buddhists. The emphasis on purity is evident in the Japanese
fondness for onsen (hot springs) and sento (public baths), and
in the multiple uses of salt as a purifier, including inside the
sumo ring. The connection between death and impurity is
underscored in the ancient Japanese myths, which describe
how the male partner of Japans founding couple, Izanagi,
ritually cleansed himself in order to remove the pollutants
that he had come in contact with as a result of his descent into
the underworld.
Although funeral observances vary from region to region,
we can offer a general portrayal of what happens at the time of
a death.68 As occurred in the West, funerals in Japan are transitioning from being largely home affairs to being funeral-home
experiences. But, as of today, the home continues to be an
important setting.

Growing Up Buddhist

Upon death, the body is washed either at home or in the

hospital and the orifices are stuffed with cotton. The body is
then dressed and taken to where the service will be held, usually
in the deceaseds home temple. In modern Japan, it is not always
readily apparent which temple should be contacted, because
people relocate more often now than they did previously.
Once the proper temple has been determined, its priest is
contacted by whomever is overseeing the details of the funeral
service, whether that be the mortuary or a family member.
Traditionally, the eldest son decides on the day of the funeral,
the setting of the altar, the food that will be served, and so on.
The body is placed on dry ice, either before the family altar at
home or in the mortuary hall. A family member remains with
the body until it is placed in a coffin. When placed in the coffin,
the body is dressed in white, the Buddhist color signifying death.
Paper money is placed in the coffin, for the deceased to pay for
the toll across the River of the Three Hells, 69 along with other
items that the deceased may have enjoyed in life.
When the actual service commences, a white tent is erected
outside the door of the home. This serves the dual purpose
of indicating the location to arriving mourners, and informing passersby and neighboring residents that a death has
occurred.
A table is set up with a registry in which guests will sign their
names. Mourners may also place condolence money (koden)
for the family in a special envelope. The amount of money is
indicated on the outside of the envelope and varies depending
on the relation of the mourner to the deceased and other factors.
The amount of money that is received is recorded in the registry
that will be given to the family later.
As one enters the room where the body is laid to rest, one is
greeted by the smell of incense. Buddhism utilizes incense in
many of its rituals; in funerals it is used because of its purifying
effects. New arrivals stand or sit before the body and the altar;
they bow, utter a prayer, ring a bell, and place a pinch of incense
in the already smoldering pile of loose incense. The family

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members are present, and greetings and condolences are shared

with each person at this time.
When the priest arrives, he speaks with the family and then
begins the wake with a sutra reading. As he reads, the family
members, in hierarchal order, bow, offer incense, and return to
their seats. Then all the participants do the same in turn. When
the sutra reading is finished, everyone bows and the wake is over.
A small present from the family is given to each person as he or
she leaves. Depending on their relation to the family, some
people will only attend the wake and not the funeral.
The funeral is often the next day (the Japanese have not traditionally practiced embalming). It will be held at the temple, and
the body is placed before an altar that the mortuary has created
for the occasion. A wooden tablet with the death name (kaimyo)
of the deceased is set up. This tablet is called an ihai. The death
name has been given to the deceased by the priest and recorded
in the temple registry.
As at the wake, the priest intones an appropriate sutra as the
mourners take their turns coming forward individually. Upon
conclusion of the sutra reading, the priest leaves the room. A
representative of the family, the eldest son if possible, gets up
and thanks everyone for attending the service. Those who were
not able to attend will often be represented by the reading of
letters that were sent to the family. The coffin that has been open
to this point is now sealed.
As everyone stands, the pallbearers carry the coffin out of the
temple and to the hearse. In Japan, the hearse is designed to look
like a temple on wheels. It conveys the body to the crematorium
with the family members following.
At the crematorium, the coffin is placed on a sliding tray that
will move into the crematory oven. The family watches as the
coffin moves into the oven. They are told when they can return
to pick up the remains. The family returns home or to the
funeral hall, sometimes by a different route than the one they
used in coming, so as to not have the deceased spirit follow
them. They wait until the appointed time whereupon they

Growing Up Buddhist

return to the crematorium. There the cremated body is displayed

for the family and each member is provided special hashi
(chopsticks). With these hashi, the bones of the deceased are to
be picked up and placed in the urn. An attendant is present to
assist. Each bone is picked up by two members of the family at
the same time (this is why you will never see two Japanese
people pick up food at the same time when eatingthis is only
done at funerals). It is particularly important to find the Adams
apple and place it in the urn.
Upon completion of this task, the urn is covered and wrapped
in a white cloth. The urn will be placed on the family altar in the
home for a period of time. Ultimately, the urn or parts of the
remains are placed at a family grave site and regular memorial
services are held thereafter at determined intervals.
In all Buddhist sects, the time period immediately following
physical death is considered very important. The Tibetan
Buddhist tradition in particular has paid considerable attention
to this period of time, and it is the subject of The Tibetan Book
of the Dead.
Across the Buddhist world, similar death rituals are performed.
The preparation of the body, the reciting of sutras, and cremation will be carried out as we have described; whether the funeral
takes place in Thailand, China, or Sri Lanka.
BUDDHIST MONASTICISM

As one visits a Buddhist temple throughout the world, he or

she may encounter a monk or nun praying, chanting, selling
religious items, or sweeping a walk. One may rightly wonder,
How does one become a Buddhist monk or nun and how do
they live their lives?
As you may recall, the early canonical doctrines that pertained
to being a monk or nun appeared in the Vinaya Pitika. This
document still lies at the heart of monastic practice; although
over time it has been transformed and reinterpreted.
The early Buddhist monastics were organized into districts.
Each district had an observance hall (uposatha) that served as

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a gathering place for all the monks in the area. Here they would
assemble to recite the ptimokkha, or rules of discipline, with
a view toward maintaining both personal and collective
adherence to the monastic rules of conduct. There were many
such rules of conduct, but we will only take a brief look at
some of the more important rules that monks and nuns were
obliged to follow.
Violation of the following rules would result in permanent
expulsion from the sangha: 1) killing a human person,
2) thievery, 3) sexual intercourse, and 4) claiming false
spiritual attainment. Monastic life was designed to be an assault
on egoism and the passions; one can readily see that these four
actions would not be conducive to that end. No human society
can condone the killing of one member by another. Unless
murder is severely dealt with, the mutual trust and cooperation that defines a community is at risk. Thievery not
only promotes avarice but also corrodes trust in ones fellow
monks. Monks and nuns were to be celibate and so free to
concentrate their energies on their practice rather than on
the worldly concerns of marriage, children, and physical
appearance. Sexual intercourse was therefore forbidden,
although this prohibition is modified in some Mahyna
sects that allow monks to marry. Even in those cases, the
impetus to simplify ones life remains.
The most grievous breach of honesty in monastic life is to
claim that you have achieved a goal that all your fellow monks
are earnestly striving for when in fact you have not. This egotism
strikes at the heart of the Buddhist spiritual community, not
least of all because Buddhism espouses a disintegration of
egoism as its goal. Other rules in the Vinaya Pitika deal with
violations that require a gathering of monastics to deliberate,
offences that require a level of punishment short of permanent
expulsion, size and site of monastic quarters, required decorum
that a monk should show to his senior, and so on.
The applicant for monastic life must meet strict criteria. A
person applying for full ordination has to be a minimum of

Growing Up Buddhist

twenty years of age, but one can enter the novitiate (which is
a preparatory period for monastic life) any time after the age
of eight. Young novices are provided tutors and placed under
the guidance of a senior monk who helps to instruct the
youngster. To become a monk, a person must be male, of
good physical and mental health, unencumbered by military
service, free of debt, and carrying his parents permission.
Ordination includes tonsure, which is the shaving of the
head. Tonsure signals that the person has left the world.
Hair is seen as a sexually attractive feature; it is not needed
in the monastery.
The newly ordained monk takes the Three Refuges (I take
refuge in the Buddha, I take refuge in the Dharma, I take refuge
in the Sangha.) and vows to abide by the Ten Precepts. The
Ten Precepts involve abstention from 1) taking life, 2) stealing,
3) sexual misconduct, 4) lying, 5) drinking alcoholic beverages,
6) eating after noon, 7) watching entertainment, 8) adorning
oneself with jewelry or perfumes, 9) using a high bed (here the
idea is that a padded bed encourages excess sleep or lounging),
and 10) receiving gold or silver. (Buddhist laypersons abide by
the first five of these precepts.) The newly ordained monk also
receives the robes he will wear as a monk.
The ordination ceremony requires a quorum of at least
ten ordained monks. The candidate is presented to the
congregation, and it is attested that he has met the minimum
requirements. This is followed by a public request for
approval by silence. If none of the assembled monks speaks,
the person is ordained. The date and time are noted and are
important for establishing seniority. If you are ordained five
minutes before me, you remain my senior regardless of our
relative ages.
The monk then begins his monastic life and duties. You may
think that a monk spends his entire day in prayer, meditation, or
some other devotional activities. While it is certainly true that
monks do engage in prescribed spiritual practice each day, much
of the monks time is filled with routine physical work.

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BUDDHIST MONASTICISM: NUNS

According to Buddhist tradition, Gautama Buddha was reluctant to let women into the monastic order but relented due
to the entreaty of his disciple, nanda. Again, according to
tradition, the Buddha stated that if women were indeed allowed
to enter monastic life, the dharma would not survive as long as
it would with their exclusion. Whether or not the Buddha ever
actually made that remark, there appear to have been early
Buddhist nuns who were as zealous for the dharma as their
male counterparts.
The Therigtha, a collection of songs (gthas) attributed to
elder nuns (theri), sheds light on the womens reasons for
entering the monastery. The women came from varied backgrounds. Some were princesses, others housewives, and others
courtesans. Some were fleeing poverty, or a difficult marriage,
or the boredom of housework. More than half, however, came
from a favorable situation and entered the monastery for
purely religious reasons: faith in the Buddhas teachings and
missionary zeal.
The Buddhist nuns ordination resembles that of a monk,
except that she must stand before both a quorum of monks
and a quorum of nuns. Nuns must pledge to abide by eight
additional regulations that the monks do not follow; these
include rules that subordinate the nuns to the monks.
The womens order never received as much financial support
as the mens order. Eventually, the Theravda order of nuns
dwindled to almost nothing. There are female monastics in
some Mahyna sects, but they usually prefer to be called
monks rather than nuns, and at least those in the more
modern Buddhist sects are not subordinate to male monks.
THE BUDDHIST LAYPERSON

The Buddhist layperson financially supports the temple and

patronizes temple events. Laypeople also support the monastic
community. It is designed to be a mutually beneficial situation: The patron receives good karma, Buddhist teaching, and

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109

spiritual guidance in return for their financial contributions.

Lay contributions may be given in the form of alms dispensed
to a specific monk during his begging rounds, or as a large
annual gift to the temple. Many families do both. Even the
small amounts of change given to purchase incense, amulets,
or postcards at a temple are part of the economics of the
Buddhist temple. The omnipresent expectation that visitors
should place coins in a coin box as they pray or receive blessings underscores the mutually assumed dynamic of financial
and spiritual exchange. Without the vital and varied support
of the lay community, monastic Buddhism could not exist.
The core beliefs of a Buddhist, whether lay or monastic, reside
in the Four Noble Truths. The layperson is expected to take the
Three Refuges and abide by the Five Precepts. The Five Precepts

FALUN GONG AND LAY BUDDHISM IN CHINA

In the West, many people seem to believe that the Peoples Republic
of China is a Buddhist country. Perhaps they think of it as a country
where the kinds of Buddhist beliefs and practices discussed in this
book are widely practiced. They may even believe that it has always
been predominantly Buddhist and that its people have practiced
Buddhism for centuries.
This is not quite an accurate picture. Buddhism was transmitted
to China early in the first millennium C.E. It went through historical
periods of growth and decline. The current Communist government
offers no support for religious belief of any variety, and it certainly
considers Buddhism to be a religion. Consequently, lay Buddhist
practice in China today is very much on a folk level. It would
be wrong to leave the reader with the impression that children
who grow up Buddhist in China today are extensively schooled in
meditation or learn to read Buddhist sutras. In the Peoples Republic
of China today, laypeople who practice Buddhism do so primarily at
home altars. They may also go to the temple and pray before the
main altar.
There are also new religions that have a Buddhist component. An
example of such a new religion is the Falun Gong (also called Falun
Dafa) movement. It is one of the more popular religio-philosophical

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movements in China today. You may have even heard about it on the
news, as the Chinese government is very concerned about its rapid
growth. What are the basic tenets of Falun Gong, and how do they
relate to Buddhism?
Falun Gong is often translated as Buddhist Law movement. It
was founded by Li Hongzhi (b. 1952) who wanted to combine
Buddhist and Taoist ideas into a set of morality and meditation
practices. It does not call itself a religion as only five religions
(Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Protestantism, and Catholicism) are
currently viewed as legal religions by the Chinese government.
Anything other than these five religions is deemed illegal and may
even be in danger of being labeled a dangerous cult. That is what
happened to Falun Gong.
The primary purpose of Falun Gong is to promote mental and
physical health. It is such a popular mass movement (with some
forty million followers according to some estimates) that the Chinese
government views it as a threat to the well-being of the nation. They
have likened Falun Gong to the Aum Shinrikyo movement in Japan.
Aum Shinrikyo was responsible for killing people in a Tokyo subway
by releasing sarin gas. (There is no reason to believe that Falun
Gong ever has or ever would do anything similar.) The Chinese
government banned Falun Gong in 1999. Following a very large
protest by Falun Gong followers, government suppression of the
movement began the following year and continues today.
How many Buddhist elements are found in Falun Gong? The
movement teaches karma and rebirth. It utilizes physical exercise as
part of a spiritual philosophy that stresses truthfulness, benevolence,
and forbearance. Using five key exercises, the practitioner seeks to
unleash the power of the Falun (which is viewed as a power centered
in the lower abdomen), so it can travel throughout his or her body,
thus ensuring physical and spiritual well-being. Falun Gong also
teaches that its practices can replace traditional medical treatments
for illnesses. The symbol of Falun Gong is a swastika (an ancient
Asian symbol often employed by Buddhism) surrounded by yin-yang
symbols (the yin-yang circle is a Taoist symbol).
We would have to conclude that Falun Gongs connection with
traditional Buddhist teachings is limited. It does, however, use
Buddhist and Taoist ideas to attract Chinese people (and an increasing number of people in other countries) to a new philosophy.

Growing Up Buddhist

receive more emphasis in Thervda Buddhism than they do in

Mahyna Buddhism, but all Buddhists are obligated to live an
ethical life. As noted previously, all Buddhists believe in rebirth
and transmigration and seek nirvana, if not in this life then in a
future one.
The main difference between Buddhists is in the practice they
choose to employ. The devotional approach, involving praying
to a deity, is most common. Other Buddhists rely on meditation,
sometimes mixing meditation with prayer.

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7
Cultural
Expressions
Children ran to and froshrieking and laughing
stopping only for seconds to stare wide-eyed as a new
performer, clad in wild and colourful costume, made
his entrance. At this too, the expressions of the old men
who sat alone and stony-faced would brighten and for
a moment the old women would cease their chatter.
Tenzin Gyatso, His Holiness,
the Fourteenth Dalai Lama,
in Freedom in Exile

Cultural Expressions
BUDDHISM AND ART

uddhism has always been associated with art, probably

because Buddhism requires something that art provides,
namely, the ability to see things in dramatically unconventional ways. Buddhist paintings and sculpture serve as a focus
for meditation for monks and as teachings in pictures for
ordinary laypersons. The famed Borobodur Temple in Java
(C.E. seventheighth century) is one of the worlds great sights.
It is composed of 13.6 acres of lava, with close to four hundred
Buddha statues and nearly six thousand relief scenes.
Visitors to the Hill of Sanchi in the State of Madhya Pradesh,
India, can see chronicled on this one site the growth, flourishing, and decay of Buddhist art and architecture in India over a
period of around fourteen hundred years. The Buddha images
found here and elsewhere follow a carefully prescribed standard
of physical proportions, for they are designed to illustrate the
physical harmony and beauty of a perfected being, a Buddha.
Creating a Buddha image is therefore an exacting science.
Perfect proportions are also required in the design of religious
monuments like stpas. Hand positions (mudras) on statues
convey an entire spiritual vocabularygesturing, teaching,
compassion, fearlessness, and much more.
Mandalas, richly decorated and colored geometric designs,
are used for meditation. The person meditating is to realize
the spiritual power of the mandala within his own being. In
Dharamsala, India, Tibetan Buddhist monks spend close to a
month painstakingly creating a Kalachakra (Wheel of Time)
mandala from grains of colored sand. After the ceremony is
completed, this exquisite mandala is typically destroyed to
drive home the truth of impermanence, and the sands are
used in an offering for world peace.
Given the fact that Buddhism has produced such a vast array
of art, we will not be able to discuss all of it. Let us begin at the
beginning, with the earliest known Buddhist art, and proceed
from there to a consideration of several representative forms
of Buddhist art.

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THE BEGINNINGS OF BUDDHIST ART

There is no known surviving Buddhist art until centuries after

the time of the Buddhas death. During the Mauryan period
(ca. 323185 B.C.E.), we find the spread of stpas, stone burial
mounds that housed relics of the Buddha. The first recognizably
Buddhist buildings and the use of carved caves to serve as
temples, shrines, and monastic residences appeared contemporaneously with the spread of the stpas.
Some of the stpas have large stone gateways decorated
with Buddhist art. The one at Sanchi (near Vidisha in Madhya
Pradesh, India) has various Buddhist symbols and events from
the Buddhas life carved on it. The foundations for Sanchi date
back to the time of Asoka (273236 B.C.E.); the carving on
several of the gateways can be dated to the first century B.C.E.
Perhaps the earliest Buddhist art is found on As okas
pillars. Asoka inscribed his edicts on wood and stone pillars.
These pillars also contained a number of carved images that
subsequently served as Buddhist symbols: lotuses, wheels,
and lions.
Early Buddhist art did not employ images of the Buddha but
did utilize scenes from the Jataka stories and other instructional
materials. In scenes illustrating the Buddhas prior lives, he is
portrayed as an animal (e.g., a deer) rather than as a human
being. In scenes from his life as Siddhartha Gautama, he might
be represented by an empty throne, the wheel (of the Law), or a
stpa, rather than as a human figure. Portrayals of scenes from
these stories were advantageously placed so that pilgrims circumambulating the stpa would be engaged by them. Although
the Buddha was not shown as a human figure, other people were
drawn as human beings. Statuary at early sites like Sanchi was an
interesting mix of male and female figures, and this influenced
the subsequent development of Buddhist statuary.
The first human images of Gautama Buddha appeared in the
first century of the Common Era. The first statues differed
noticeably depending on whether or not they were influenced by
Greek artistic conventions introduced into India at the time of

Cultural Expressions

Alexander the Great. These early images set the pattern for later
artistic portrayals of Buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Also in the first century, we see the beginning of painting of
Buddhist images, such as in the Ajanta caves in India. Buddhist
art flourished in India until about the twelfth century. It also
traveled with Buddhism to Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, East
Asia, and Tibet. In each of these areas, Buddhist art blended
with local artistic conventions to produce a new and distinctive
form of art. While we lack the space to introduce all of these
varieties of Buddhist art, we can at least demonstrate the range
of Buddhist arts by considering a number of different art
forms. In the remainder of this chapter, we will consider the
tea ceremony, pagodas, and the haiku poetry form. Then we
will turn to a brief exploration of Zen art before we conclude
this chapter by discussing contemporary Buddhist influences
on culture.
A JAPANESE TEA CEREMONY

The way of tea (cha-no-yu), as embodied in the Japanese tea

ceremony, is in itself a miniature showcase of Buddhist arts.
Architecture, gardening, calligraphy, pottery, and flower arranging, all support the artistry of the tea ceremony itself. Tea
and Buddhism have enjoyed a long camaraderie: Tea drinking
began in China among the Zen [Buddhist] monks, who used
it as a method of preventing sleep. 70
Sen no Rikyu, the sixteenth-century Japanese tea master, said,
The art of Cha-no-yu consists of nothing else but boiling water,
making tea, and sipping it. His statement underscores the tea
ceremonys emphasis on simplicity.
A tea ceremony is a formal event, and one must be invited to
attend the event, which is held in a tea garden (chaniwa). The tea
garden, along with all the other elements of the tea ceremony,
is designed to convey yugen (mystery), wabi (restrained
expression), and sabi (individual objects). The tea ceremony
and its setting are designed to cultivate a calm mind and
demeanor in the participants.

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The traditional teahouse is made of natural materials. It has a

low door that requires the person entering to bow low in a spirit
of humility. The tea room is itself a work of art, and within it are
displayed other works of artmaybe an example of ikebana
(flower arrangement) or a kakemono (a hanging scroll). Often
the tea ceremony utensils are themselves objet dart to be seen
and admired. Silence permeates the ceremony; talk is sparingly
offered and only in hushed tones. The sounds that surround the
participants are those of the natural denizens of the garden, the
soft hissing of the teakettle, the slight shuffling on the straw
mats, the sipping of the tea.
In his book Zen and Japanese Culture,71 D.T. Suzuki identifies
four characteristics of the tea ceremony: harmony (wa), reverence
(kei), purity (sei), and tranquility (jaku). Balance or harmony
between the elements of the tea ceremony reflects, as Japanese Zen
monk Takuan Soho says, the spirit of a naturally harmonious
blending of Heaven and Earth. 72 The tea ceremony cultivates
reverence for all natural things and the humility that naturally
arises from that reverence. In a physical sense, purity underscores
the importance of keeping the tearoom immaculately clean.
Symbolically, purity points to the purpose of the ceremony, which
is to cleanse the mind and spirit of the accumulated dust of the
world. Tranquility permeates the tea ceremony, which is truly a
contemplative practice.
The purity and cleanliness of the tea ceremony is artistic, not
antiseptic. Not every leaf is raked up in the tea garden; Sen no
Rikyu would sweep the path to the tea room and then reach up to
a tree limb and shake it to allow new leaves to fall naturally on the
path. The tea ceremony endeavors to bring to the participants
awareness the purity that dwells within his or her breast. This is a
natural, embodied purity, not the sterility of a disinfected facility.
PAGODAS

Is there any image more characteristic of Asia than the silhouette of a pagoda against the evening sky? The pagoda (which is
a Portuguese word) evolved from the design of the stpa as

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Buddhism spread across Asia. In China, it assumed the nowfamiliar shape of a multitiered tower. There are generally an
odd number of tiers, and the number is symbolic: In a five-story
pagoda, each story may represent one of the five elements
(earth, metal, water, fire, and wood).
Pagodas were constructed in a variety of shapes and materials.
As Robert Fisher notes, A survey of East Asian pagodas reveals
a preference for a particular material in each culture, which in
turn affected the design. The Chinese preferred the basic shape
and brick construction with elaborate surface details that
emulate wood. The Koreans favored stone; while the Japanese,
with their abundant supply of timber (and relative lack of
granite), constructed pagodas of wood. 73
Like the stpa, the pagoda is a repository of Buddhist relics.
Pagodas had stairways to access the different levels. The Horyji
pagoda, the oldest one in Japan, has four scenes in clay on its first
level: 1) on the east side, Vimalakirti and Manjusri are engaged
in a conversation;74 2) on the north is represented Gautama
Buddha passing into parinirvn; 3) on the west, a scene depicts
the distribution of Gautama Buddhas relics; and 4) on the south,
Maitreya (the future Buddha) is giving a lecture. Paintings on the
exterior of the pagoda were also used for instructional purposes.
The pagoda was initially an essential part of Chinese temple
design. It stood between the main gate and the main hall, with
the assembly hall being placed behind the main hall, thus forming a line of structures. However, in the Sui and Tang periods
(581907), some temples had two pagodas and they were placed
on either side of the main hall.
The fact that the pagoda was no longer situated on the main
axis of the temple signaled its reduction in importance. The
dominant position in the temple now belonged to the main hall.
Robert Fisher has called this a victory for Chinese secularism, 75
because the design of the main hall was based on the design of
an imperial throne hall rather than on the design of any religious
structure. The removal of the pagoda from the main axis of
the temple, combined with the rise of Pure Land and Chan

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Buddhism (neither of which placed much importance on

relics), ultimately led to a reduced role of the pagodas presence
and usefulness.
HAIKU AND BSHO

Sometimes American schoolchildren are introduced to the

haiku form of poetry. You might remember being asked to
compose a haiku using exactly five syllables in the first line,
seven syllables in the second line, and five syllables in the third
and final line. Japanese poetry has come to be associated with
the haiku, but actually the haiku form is one of a larger assortment of poetic structures, including the tanka (thirty-one
syllables in five lines of 5, 7, 5, 7, and 7 syllables respectively) and
the sedka (57757 syllables).
In China, Korea, and Japan, we find both monastics and
laypersons using poetry to express Buddhist ideas. Not just in
these countries but in many parts of the world poetry is used to
express profound ideas that cannot easily be explained in prose.
The one name most universally associated with haiku is that
of Bsho (C.E. 16441694). Born in Ueno, a city near Kyoto,
Bsho followed a rather inauspicious path at the beginning of
his life: He became the servant of a relative of the local feudal
lord. His master, Todo Yoshitada, enjoyed the exchange of verse
(called haikai) and Bsho showed a talent for composing
poems. His masters death turned Bshos life in a new direction.
He journeyed extensively and wrote about his experiences in
his many books. He composed poetry constantly. In time, he
became quite famous.
He ultimately settled in Edo (present-day Tokyo) where his
students had built him a hut. A banana tree was planted in the
yard of the hut thus giving rise to his name, Bsho (basho is
the Japanese word for banana plant).
Bsho went on many pilgrimages, and these trips inspired
many of his writings, including the collection for which he
is best known, Narrow Road to the Far North. He also began
practicing Zen Buddhism under Priest Butcho (16421715).76

Cultural Expressions

I have included some examples of Bshos poetry below,

translated into English. The reader is encouraged to seek out
other examples published in books and on the Internet. The
poems below do not seem to follow the 575 syllable structure
of haiku, until one remembers that Bsho was composing in
Japanese not English.
Against the brushwood gate,
Dead tea leaves swirl
In the stormy wind.

As you ponder this first poem, recall that the Chinese have for
millennia read the configuration of tea leaves in a cup as a means
of divining the future.
The sound of hail
I am the same as before
Like that aging oak.

This second poem is a humorous one, reflecting upon the silliness of the authors feeling of security after the storm has passed.
He feels secure because nothing has changed, his world has
not been uprooted by the storm. That aging oak, for example,
doesnt look any different after the storm than it did before, but
the very fact that it is aging indicates that it has not escaped
change. Everything is impermanent.
Another year is gone.
A travel hat on my head.
Straw sandals on my feet.77

What does this third poem say to you? It was written at the end
of a year of traveling. Although the passage of time is once again
indicated, the author seems at ease with this now; indeed, he
appears quite content with his life of impermanence. Bsho died
in his fiftieth year but his contributions to world poetry and to
the expression of Buddhist ideas endure.

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ZEN ART

Shinichi Hisamatsu (18891980), a noted Zen Master, authored

a book translated into English as Zen and the Fine Arts.78 The
book includes many examples of what Dr. Hisamatsu identifies
as Zen art as well as his rendering of the philosophical basis
behind Zen art. He enumerates seven characteristics of the Zen
aesthetic: 1) Asymmetry, 2) Simplicity, 3) Austere Sublimity or
Lofty Dryness, 4) Naturalness, 5) Subtle Profundity or Deep
Reserve, 6) Freedom from Attachment, and 7) Tranquility.
Some of these characteristics echo D.T. Suzukis comments on
the tea ceremony (see page 116). Perhaps by examining each of

BUDDHIST CULTURE VIA TRICYLE

One of the more visible signs of the growing popularity of Buddhism
in the United States is the appearance of Buddhist-related periodicals.
Of these, Tricycle: The Buddhist Review is perhaps the best known.
(Tricycle refers to the three cycles of birth-death-rebirth.) The magazine was first published in the early 1990s and documents what the
Editor-in-Chief James Shaheen noted on the occasion of the fiftieth issue:
. . . if you look closely, youll see that the dharma has found its way
into nearly every nook and cranny of our culture, from intensive retreats
to often remote locations to the everyday lives of ordinary folks. (7)
Each issue offers a short dharma talk, suggestions on practice, an
interview with a famous Buddhist, book reviews, a directory of
dharma centers, etc. While the mere existence of this periodical
shows that Buddhism has arrived, the articles one encounters on its
pages provide even better examples of the spread of the dharma into
Western culture.
One finds articles on such topics as contemplation in corporate
culture, a Buddhist history of food, and Buddhism in Russia. There is
virtually no aspect of Western culture that it has not examined
through the lens of Buddhism. That is precisely the point: Western
Buddhists and others who are interested in looking at issues and
topics in a different way are asking questions like: What does Buddhism
have to say about abortion or the war in Iraq? What would Buddhist
ethics have to say about such matters as parenting or racial diversity,
the environment or gay marriage? Western Buddhists have created an

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121

Hisamatsus terms we may get a better glimpse not only into Zen
art but into the nature of Buddhist art in general. The forms and
even the specifics of the underlying philosophy of Buddhist art
vary with culture and sect, of course, but the larger intent of
Buddhist art, once grasped, will open the door to understanding
many different types of Buddhist art.
Asymmetry is closely related to naturalness. Nature is not
often symmetrical or perfectly ordered but rather irregular and
seemingly, from the human perspective, disordered. Thus, asymmetrical artistic expressions try to capture the way the world
truthfully is through a deformation of form and perfection.

expectation that there should be an applied Buddhist ethics to accompany their belief and practice.
While writing this, I am perusing the latest issue of Tricycle (Spring
2004). I see a special section on Buddhist practice within prisons in
the United States. The authors are a diverse group, including current
and recently released prisoners as well as those who bring the Buddhist
teachings inside the prison walls. The section describes the missionary
effort that Buddhism is undertaking in U.S. prisons. As have the
other two missionary religions (Christianity and Islam), Buddhism is
reaching out to an imprisoned audience. One article speaks of Scott
Darnell who is serving a life sentence for first-degree murder in a
prison in Illinois. Darnell writes:
I count myself fortunate to have learned the Buddha-way
during my time inside. I count myself blessed beyond measure
to have known people who strive for truth, understanding,
and transformation, both for themselves and others. If such
a thing is possible here, surely it is possible everywhere. Buddhanature shines forth right here, right now, for anyone willing to
look. Do any of us here see completely? No. But at the end of
our sangha gatherings each week, somehow things appear
different. If but for a moment, the gun towers seem not as
tall, the razor wire not as sharp. Instead, there is blue sky, the
warmth of the sun on our faces, and world engaged and
engaging. (77)

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Simplicity is present in the Japanese teahouse, the brushwork

of the calligrapher, and the core of the Buddhist belief system. Of
course, mandalas can be quite ornate, and certain Buddhist
rituals are elaborate, but even the most ornate examples of
Buddhist art retain a kind of simplicity because they put the
viewer in touch with childlike abandon and the freedom of
emptiness. As Hisamatsu explains:
Simplicity also has something in common with navet and
abandon. For, actually, it is abandon rather than deliberateness
that is in keeping with Simplicity. The ultimate Simplicity is
not a single thing, or the One. If, as the negation of holiness
results in the freedom of non-holiness, then simplicity as the
negation of clutter may be spoken of as being boundless
there is nothing limiting, as in a cloudless sky.79

Perhaps another way to approach the sometimes complex

simplicity of Zen art is to think of it as a simplicity on the far
side of complexity rather than a simple simplicity.
Austere Sublimity focuses our attention on the deeper,
mature aspect of nature. It is a becoming dried, with the
disappearance of childishness, unskillfulness or inexperience,
with only the pith or essence remaining. 80
Naturalness means not artificial in a general sense; however,
it has an additional meaning for Buddhists who believe that our
original nature is the Buddha nature. A genuine work of Buddhist
art is one that expresses Awakening in one way or another.
Subtle Profundity implies that Buddhist art should convey a
deeper level beneath the surface impression, a level that is
indicative of the artists spiritual state. An excellent example of
this is the dry-landscape garden at Ryanji in Kyoto, Japan.
Ryanji is a Rinzai Zen temple founded in 1450. It is renowned
throughout the world for its exemplary rock garden. Consisting of fifteen larger rocks and smaller rocks that are raked, the
garden appears rather stark and unassuming. The garden is
actually a meditation tool, not unlike the mandala. The monks
will meditate in its presence with the intent of realizing the

Cultural Expressions

nondifference between the garden and themselves. The garden

is, in essence, a koan.
The Zen rock garden may evoke some element of subtle
profundity in the casual observer, or it may not. The profundity
it exhibits is the reflection of the Awakened mind of its creator
and the mirroring of that reflection in the mind of the observer.
In Buddhist belief, there is nonduality, no distinction, between
the two minds. Hisamatsu refers to this reflection as an infinite
echo reverberating from a single thing. This single thing, as we
now know from our study of Buddhism, contains everything. 81
Hisamatsu associates this characteristic of Zen art with a
calm darkness such as one would encounter in the tearoom.
Such darkness may be understood as calming darkness, which
can bring tranquility and relief to the participant. He also refers
to this as a bright darkness. 82
Freedom from Attachment is a cardinal Buddhist idea as
embodied in the Four Noble Truthseach person is to be
released (Awakened) from his or her egoistic passions. Here the
emphasis is on the transcendence of the conventions, authority,
and rules that attend dualistic thinking. What is meant is not a
willful arbitrariness borne from embracing chaos but a byproduct of Awakened consciousness that allows the artist to be
naturally unrestrained in word or action. For example, in the
mndo (Zen dialogue) all conventions of grammar or meaning
are seemingly suspended, as can be seen in the following example:
When Yeh shan (Jp.: Yakusan) was sitting in meditation, a
monk asked,What are you thinking while sitting immovably?
The master said, I am thinking of the very matter of notthinking.
To this the monk asked, How do you think of the matter
of not-thinking?
The master replied, Non-thinking! 83

Again, this is not meant to be nonsensical or mere wordplay

but a display of the interlocutors spiritual state. Hisamatsu
notes that the Zen tradition calls this the Rule of No Rule. 84

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The Rule of No Rule applies not only in words but also in

other art forms.
Tranquility is the seventh characteristic. Zen art and, by
extension, Buddhist art is meant to convey a tranquility, a
composure within the participant. Even in the most elaborate
display of color, complexity, or noise, Buddhist art maintains
its peace-producing core.
BUDDHIST CONTRIBUTIONS TO CONTEMPORARY
WESTERN ART AND CULTURE

Many Westerners may associate Buddhist art with the Buddhist

statue of Maitreya in his Hotei incarnation. This was once a
very popular curio. It portrayed a rotund, seated Buddhaone
could even rub his belly for good luck!
The West has also displayed an interest in more serious
Buddhist art. Most major museums have at least some representative Buddhist pieces, and there are some amazing personal
collections of Asian Art, including Buddhist art. Buddhist art
has not generally been found in the homes of average Westerners,
but this is changing as more Westerners have access to information about Buddhism.
Another important factor in the increasing acceptance of
Buddhist art has been the personality of the Dalai Lama and the
corresponding growing popularity of Tibetan Buddhist art.
One is no longer surprised to see religious items such as prayer
flags, framed mandalas, or thangkas in peoples homes or displayed on the pages of popular magazines. One may wonder if
these objects maintain their sacred nature in the homes of nonBuddhists, where they are most often displayed for their unique
design and use of color. Chinese and Japanese Buddhist art has
been displayed in Western homes for centuries without any
religious connotations. To date, the Asian visual arts have had
the most influence in the West; the performing arts (such as
dance, music, and theater) have garnered only a limited audience.
Non-Asian converts to Buddhism provide another avenue by
which Buddhist art has influenced the West. Henry David

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Thoreau (18171862), famed naturalist and author of Walden,

was very interested in Buddhism. Thoreau learned about Eastern
texts from his friend, Ralph Waldo Emerson. Western philosophersincluding Arthur Schopenhauer, Martin Heidegger, Jean
Paul Sartre, and othershave become interested in Buddhism.
Western writers and poets connected with the Beat generation
(Gary Snyder, Alan Ginsberg, and Jack Kerouac, among others)
were or are influenced by Buddhism. Western interest in Zen
Buddhism has remained strong over the last fifty or so years.
More recently, Tibetan Buddhism has attracted the attention
of many in the West. Several noted celebrities have publicly
embraced Tibetan Buddhism. In a culture that closely follows
celebrities lives, such personal decisions can lead to a broader
acceptance of the religion in question. In centuries past, it
was critical to convert the king to Buddhism for Buddhism to
become established in a new country. Perhaps in the twenty-first
century, the new kings who need to be converted so that the
general populace will follow are the people seen on television
and in the movies!
Currently, the most outspoken and famous celebrity proponent of Buddhism is actor Richard Gere. He has starred in many
movies over a long career and won an Academy Award for Best
Actor in An Officer and a Gentleman. Gere has devoted much
time and money to the Tibetan Buddhist cause and considers
the Dalai Lama to be his teacher.
Recent movies with Buddhist themes include Kundun, Little
Buddha, and the Matrix series. Buddhists in the music world
include John Cage, Laurie Anderson, Tina Turner, and members
of the rock group The Beastie Boys. The New Age movement
has encouraged and supported many Buddhist musical presentations, both live and recorded. The West has also been treated to
the considerable musical talents of Tibetan monks on tour. The
monks use traditional instruments to accompany the chanting
of sutras.
Still, no form of Buddhism seems as cemented to the American
psyche as Zen Buddhism. The interest in Zen manifests in Zen

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garden design, two-dimensional and three-dimensional art forms,

poetry, and even Zen comics! Ironically, today the leading edge
of Buddhist art may well be in the West.

8
Holidays
Throughout the centuries
preceding Tibets invasion by China,
the seasons were marked by numerous festival days . . .
celebrated by monks and laymen alike.
For the latter, the time was passed in eating,
drinking, singing, dancing and playing games,
combined intermittently with prayer.
Tenzin Gyatso, His Holiness,
the Fourteenth Dalai Lama,
in Freedom in Exile

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sually Buddhists have sought to permeate cultures rather

than to dominate them. Buddhism, like most other religions,
is certain that it knows the truth, but its concept of truth is
inclusive rather than exclusive and allows for varying degrees
of understanding of truth. This means that Buddhism has often
been willing to cooperate with non-Buddhist cultural elements,
rather than competing with them. As you will observe in this
chapter, this element of cooperation is evident even in Buddhist
holidays, many of which have secular elements or elements
derived from other religions.
In some countries, Buddhist holidays are determined based
upon a lunar calendar; in others, the Western or Gregorian
calendar, which is a solar calendar, is used. This means that the
dates of certain holidays may vary from country to country.
Considering that Buddhists live in many different countries,
one would expect some variation in the dates of holidays even
without this complication.
There is no universal Buddhist calendar; the many different
schools or sects of Buddhism maintain separate calendars. While
almost every day of the year is a special observance for Buddhists
somewhere, there are major holidays that most Buddhists
observe. We begin this chapter with a discussion of several of
these more universally observed holidays.
NEW YEAR

Every country in the world celebrates the New Year, and Buddhist
countries are no exception. Many countries observe the New Year
with a mixture of secular and religious rituals and Buddhist
countries do too.
The year 2000 on the Gregorian calendar roughly coincided
with the year 2543 B.E. (Buddhist Era). The date of the Buddhist
New Year varies from country to country and according to the
type of Buddhism practiced. Chinese, Koreans, and Vietnamese
celebrate in late January or early February according to the lunar
calendar, while the Tibetans usually celebrate about one month
later. All of these are Mahyna Buddhist nations.

Holidays

In Theravda nations (Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka,

Cambodia, and Laos) the New Year festival occurs in mid-April.
The exact date depends upon the first full moon in April. In
Thailand, the date is fixed on April 13.
In general, Asians view the New Year as the most significant
cultural celebration of the year. In Asian communities, New Year
is equated with family reunions, completing business transactions, ending feuds, making amends, refurbishing wardrobes,
honoring ancestors, and cleaning house.
Songkran

The Thai New Year is called Songkran. Buddhist images in

homes and in the temple are cleansed with jasmine-scented
water on the first official day of the New Year. Throughout the
world, the New Year is commonly associated with some sort of
cleaning ritual.
In addition to cleansing, water is also used for veneration. As a
sign of respect, young people will sprinkle water on older people.
The family will dress in traditional Thai clothing and wear
leis of jasmine. Faces and necks will be painted with a white
paste to ward off evil. To signify the connectedness of all people,
people will tie strings to each others wrists accompanied by
prayers of blessing. The strings are to be worn until they fall off
on their own.
Chinese New Year

New Years is an auspicious day in China as well, where it is

actually a season rather than a day. (This is analogous to the
Christmas season, which surrounds Christmas Day.) The Chinese
family will use the occasion for cleaning, including applying
new paint, often red (the color of life), to the house. Other
decorations are put up signifying best wishes and special food is
placed on the family altar. The eve of the New Year finds family
members gathered for a common meal with special foods being
served. Also on this evening, places of worship will be visited for
special New Year blessings. On New Years Day itself, children

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may receive presents from their parents, neighbors are visited,

and a fresh start is brought to relationships that may be strained
or inactive. The famed Lantern Festival occurs at the end of the
New Year season (on the fifteenth day of the year). People carry
lanterns into the streets to take part in a great parade. One version
of the origin of this festival is Buddhist.
BUDDHA DAY (VESAK)

The most important observance for Buddhists is the commemoration of the birth, Awakening, and death (parinirvn) of the
Buddha. Although it is not believed that all three events actually
happened on the same date, Theravda Buddhists celebrate them
all on the same day. This day, sometimes called Buddha Day
in the West, is known as Vesak or Visakah Puja in Theravda
countries. Traditionally, this day is celebrated on the first full
moon day in May (in a leap year it is held in June). On this day,
laypeople will go to the temples, participate in a worship service,
listen to talks on the dharma, bring food to donate to the temple,
and perhaps reaffirm their allegiance to the Five Precepts. It is a
joyous occasion and there may be booths on the temple grounds
that sell sweets, Buddhist curios, and the like.
In Mahyna countries, three separate holidays commemorate
the Buddhas birth (eighth day of the fourth month), Awakening
(eighth day of the twelfth month), and death (fifteenth day of
the second month). Buddhists who use the Western calendar
(such as Japanese and American Buddhists) do not celebrate
these holidays on the exact same day as Buddhists who follow
the lunar calendar.
DHARMA DAY (ASALHA PUJA DAY)

Dharma Day is primarily a Theravda holiday, although it should

be noted that there is a Tibetan equivalent that occurs about a
month earlier. Dharma Day is observed in Thailand and some
other countries in Southeast Asia.
Dharma Day is also called Asalha Puja Day, because it falls on
the first full-moon day of the eighth lunar month, and the eighth

Holidays

month on the Buddhist calendar is named Asalha. Dharma Day

celebrates the Buddhas first teaching.
The Buddha attained Awakening on the full moon of the sixth
lunar month. Two months later, on the full moon of the eighth
lunar month, he delivered his first sermon to his first five
disciples in Deer Park. This event marked the establishment of
the Buddhist religion.
There are a variety of activities that might take place on
Dharma Day, but one common activity is the chanting of the
discourse known as the Dhamma Cakka Sutta (the Setting in
Motion of the Wheel of Truth). The chanting would ordinarily
take place in the original Pali language and form part of the
evening vigil.
Other activities might include a visit to a monastery, listening to a sermon, joining a procession, or attending an award
ceremony in which scholarships are presented to schoolchildren
from low-income families. The scholarships are funded by
the monastery.
SANGHA DAY (MAGHA PUJA DAY)

You may have noted a Buddha Day and a Dharma Day, and you
might recall that the Three Jewels of Buddhism are the Buddha,
the Dharma, and the Sangha. Logically, you might expect a
Sangha Day, and you would be correct. Occurring on the first
full moon of the third lunar month, Buddhists recall on this day
a significant event in the life of the Buddha.
After the initial Rains Retreat (Vassa), the Buddha traveled to
Rajagraha where he met up with 1,250 arhats who had, without
prior appointment, convened to pay homage to the Buddha.
This day is also called Fourfold Assembly Day because there are
four important elements: The number of arhats who convened,
the fact that all had been ordained by the Buddha himself, the
fact that all came without appointment, and the fact that all this
occurred on a full-moon day.
Having looked at some of the more universally observed
Buddhist holidays, we turn now to some examples of holidays

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that are associated with a given area. We begin with two East
Asian festivals (Obon and the Hungry Ghost Festival). After
discussing the Festival of the Tooth in Sri Lanka, we move
on to two Vajrayna festivals (the Tibetan feast of Tara and
Padmasambhava Day in Bhutan). We will conclude this chapter
with a look at a special Japanese Buddhist ritual known as the
Sennichi Kaihgy.
OBON 85

Ancestor worship is common in East Asia. It is not surprising,

then, that Ulambana or Ancestors Day is more popular in

BUDDHIST ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICE:

THE ORDINATION OF TREES
Many people have noted Buddhisms earth-friendly attitude. There is
even an emerging body of scholarship on what might be called a
Buddhist environmental ethic. Here I would like to discuss an interesting response to deforestation on the part of some Thai Buddhist
monks. The response involves the appropriation of a traditional ritual
(monastic ordination) in a creative response to an emerging need
(saving the trees).
Phrakhru Manas Natheepitak, the abbot of the Wat Bodharma
in northern Thailand, is credited with devising tree ordination 86
in the early 1990s as a response to the continued deforestation
near his temple (wat means temple). He thought that if the
trees became sacred by being ordained (just as a monk or a
nun does), no one would dare to cut them down. He hoped that
his tree ordinations would also help publicize the environmental
devastation the entire country of Thailand was experiencing due
to deforestation.
Phrakhru Manas had tried every avenue he knew to get the logging
company to stop cutting down trees but to no avail. Despite concerns
from Buddhists and his own temple, he persisted and this practice has
now spread across Thailand.
In July 1991, in the Nan Province, Phrakhru Pitak Nanthakhun
conducted a tree ordination.87 Typically, the laity provides donations

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133

East Asian countries than anywhere else. Ulambana is primarily observed in Mahyna traditions, but some in the
Theravda tradition observe this holiday as well. In Japan,
Ulambana is known as Obon, and in China it is the Hungry
Ghost Festival.
Obon is observed in summer, traditionally in July but
recently this festival has been moved to August. School is out
and many people take this time to travel to their ancestral
homes where they can return to their roots. Obon thus becomes
a massive family reunion of the living and, as will shortly
become apparent, of the dead.
to the monks prior to an ordination ceremony. In this case, nurseries
and patrons had donated twelve hundred seedlings to the monks.
During the ceremony, several plays not only provided entertainment
but also highlighted the environmental import of the day.
After sanctifying the robes and seedlings, the officiating monks,
led by Phrakhru Pitak, planted some of the seedlings on the temple
grounds, next to the tree that was to be ordained, and gave the balance
to the attending laity. As the trees had been deemed holy, laypersons
would not intentionally harm them for fear of negative karma.
About two hundred people along with twenty monks then traveled
to the site of the tree ordination. The tree, one of the oldest still
standing in this area, had been prepared and at the appropriate
moment was wrapped with the orange robes that would have been
wrapped around a human who was being ordained. In Thai human
ordinations, the acolytes begging bowl contains sanctified water that
is sprinkled on the participants. However, at this unique gathering,
Phrakhru Pitak had ten headmen from local villages drink the water
as a sign of their oath to protect the forest.
A plaque attached to the ordained tree reads, Tham laay paa
khee tham laay chaat, which can be translated in several ways due
to multiple meanings for the word chaat: To destroy the forest is to
destroy life (or ones rebirth, or the nation).
This new use of an ancient ritual demonstrates Buddhisms ability
to adapt to emerging social needs. Tree ordination appears consistent
with the Buddhist sanction to uproot suffering.

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As Obon approaches, fires burn at entrances to village homes,

and paper lanterns hang in cemeteries. Buddhist family altars
are covered with vegetables and fruits are set out as offerings. It
is said that soon the ancestors, the spirits of the dead, will be
returning to their earthly homes for a visit with their relatives.
Family crests are displayed and mukae-bi (welcoming fires)
are lighted to guide the spirits of the dead back home. There
they will be greeted by the living members of their family,
many of whom will have traveled great distances to return to
the site of their family tomb (ohaka). (Most Japanese people
now live and work in big cities, but the ohaka, reflecting the
demographics of a former era, tend to be in the small towns
and in the countryside.)
For several days, the spirits of the dead will be entertained
by fireworks and folk dances. The living will pray for the
repose of the souls of their ancestors. Buddhist temples will
conduct special ceremonies and graveyards will be full of activity
as families visit family tombs.
At the conclusion of the holiday, the ancestral spirits will
be guided back to the other world by miniature boats carrying
lighted candles. The tiny boats are set afloat on a river or in
the sea.
HUNGRY GHOST FESTIVAL88

In Taiwan and in Chinese communities around the world, the

Hungry Ghost Festival occurs at the midpoint of the seventh
lunar month (generally in August on the Western calendar). In
Taiwan, people refer to the seventh lunar month as Ghost
Month, because during this month those suffering in hell are
given a reprieve. The gates of hell are flung open on the first day
of the month, allowing the suffering and starving ghosts to roam
the earth. They will enjoy a month of feasting and fun before
returning to hell on the last day of the month.
The Hungry Ghost Festival combines Confucian, Buddhist,
and Taoist elements. The Confucian tradition expects children
to show great reverence for their parents, a virtue known as

Holidays

filial piety. This includes veneration of ones ancestors. The

soul that is neglected by its descendants will be hungry and
spiteful, and will likely cause trouble for the living. It becomes
a hungry ghost. However, if nonrelatives feed the hungry
ghosts during Ghost Month, they will be appeased and not
bother the community.
Buddhists celebrate the Hungry Ghost Festival as an expression of compassion, a key Buddhist virtue. They tell the story
of Mu-liens mother, a very selfish woman who was confined to
the depths of hell. Mu-lien brought food to the monks on his
mothers behalf, and his mother was released from her suffering.
Buddhists call the Festival Ulambana, from a Sanskrit word
meaning the emptying out of hell.
The Taoists call the Hungry Ghost Festival Putu, signifying a
general amnesty for the souls in hell. They also call it Zhong
Yuan. On this day, the Ruler of Earth (Zhong) is said to pardon
the sins of human beings.
Who are the ghosts? Not all of them are great sinners. A ghost
is anyone who was not lucky enough to become an ancestor.
Since burial represents the first stage in sending an ancestor to his
or her proper place in the afterlife, anyone who receives an
improper burial, or none at all, cannot become an ancestor. The
spirit is left homeless. This typically occurs in mass executions,
forced migrations, and so forth. Other souls become ghosts
because their anger will not let them go to their rest. Perhaps they
were murdered, or unjustly executed, and are seeking vengeance.
It is ones descendants who carry out the sacrifices that transform a deceased person into an ancestor. Thus a child who dies, or
a woman who is unmarried or barren, becomes a ghost. A person
who becomes a Christian, and no longer venerates the ancestors,
risks demoting his or her parents to the status of a ghost.
The ghosts are guided by salvation lanterns placed at the
front door of peoples homes, or at the entrances and exits of
villages. The lanterns are lit at midnight after burning incense
and paying tribute to the lost souls, and extinguished the next
morning. They are lit every night of Ghost Month.

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At the festival, the ghosts find all kinds of foods prepared for
them. Joss paper money will be burned, so they can take it
back with them to provide for their needs in the underworld.
They are entertained with dances, opera, parades and floats,
singing, puppet shows, acrobatics, poetry and painting, and
theater troupes.
The festivities come to an end when a Taoist monk dressed up
as Zhong Kui begins his dance. Zhong Kui is the Chinese ghost
buster. He performs a Taoist dance designed to chase off ghosts
who are hesitant to go back to the world of darkness. As the
dance ends, the gates of hell are closed for another year.
THE FESTIVAL OF THE TOOTH

The Festival of the tooth is the most important of Sri Lankas

public holidays. It is purely coincidental that it takes place in
Kandy, a city in central Sri Lanka. The tooth in question is
reputedly a relic of the Buddha. According to the traditional
story, a monk plucked one of the Buddhas teeth from the pile of
ashes left after his cremation. The tooth was given to Sri Lanka
for safekeeping around C.E. 300.
This tooth is housed in a great temple on a small hill. The
temple was built specifically to house the tooth, which is kept
hidden inside a nested set of caskets and is never seen. However,
once a year, in July or August, on a full-moon night, there is a
procession held in its honor.
The procession travels through the city of Kandy for ten
consecutive nights, growing in size with each night. It includes
torchbearers, whip-crackers, dancers, drummers, and many
elephants. The casket containing the tooth is carried on the
last elephant. The procession begins and ends at the temple on
the hill, which is one of the most revered Buddhist temples in
the world.
FEAST OF TARA89

Tara is a Tibetan Buddhist bodhisattva and the national

goddess of Tibet. (Bodhisattvas are treated as deities in Tibet.)

Holidays

Her feast day falls in summer, in late July or early August on the
Western calendar.
Tara is called the Mother of All Buddhas because buddhas
are born of the wisdom that she represents. She is believed to be
able to eliminate the eight fears that, according to Vajrayna
Buddhism, cloud our judgment and keep us from seeing the
light of truth. Buddhists believe that the mind is the source of
much suffering. Once purified, however, it reflects reality like a
pond of still, clear water reflects imageswithout distortion.
There are two stories regarding Taras origins. One begins with
another bodhisattva who had been working for a long time to
guide beings toward Awakening. He had helped hundreds of
thousands, but when he realized how many more were still
suffering in the cycle of births and deaths, he began to cry. Tara
sprang forth from his tears of compassion, saying, Dont
worryI will help you.
The other story tells about one of Taras previous births as a
human being. She was praying as two monks passed her on the
road. One monk said to the other that she showed so much
devotion that she would probably be reborn as a man. (The
belief at the time was that only men could attain Awakening.)
Tara overheard the remark and replied that there is no essential
difference between male and female. She then vowed to work
perpetually for the benefit of all beings in the body of a woman,
no matter how many times she was reborn.
Tara was one of the first female deities in Buddhism. Today,
male and female deities are paired in Tibetan Buddhism, just
as they are in Hinduism. However, the symbolism of male and
female is reversed in the two religions. In Hinduism, the
female deity is the active partner (compassion), while the male
is more contemplative (wisdom). In Tibetan Buddhism, it is
the female partner who is quiescient wisdom itself, while male
deities symbolize active compassion. Tara is portrayed with
green skin, clothed in silken garments and jeweled ornaments.
Her right hand gestures supreme generosity, while her left
hand near her heart indicates the bestowing of refuge. She is

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seated in an unusual lotus position: Her left leg is withdrawn

to symbolize renunciation of the world, but her right leg is
extended to show that she is always ready to rise to the aid of
anyone who needs help.
PADMASAMBHAVA HONORED
IN BHUTANS FESTIVALS 90

The Kingdom of Bhutan lies in the heart of the Himalaya

Mountains. Along with Tibet and Mongolia, it comprises the
traditional stronghold of Vajrayna Buddhism, also known as
Tibetan Buddhism. With Mongolia and Tibet currently under
Chinese rule, Bhutan is the only surviving nation in the world
to have Vajrayna Buddhism as its official religion.
Padmasambhava (lotus-born), a wonder-working teacher
who hailed from northern India, introduced Vajrayna Buddhism
to the entire Himalayan region. Many of Bhutans festivals
include dramatized scenes from his life.
Legend says that Padmasambhava made the trip to Bhutan on
the back of a flying tigress. The pilgrimage centers of Bhutan tell
the story of his visit. At Taktsang, he is said to have conquered
the demon spirits that were standing in the way of the spread of
Buddhism. In Bumthang, a temple was built on the spot where
Padmasambhavas fingerprints and footprints appeared etched
into solid rock. Throughout Bhutan, stpas line the roadsides
commemorating places where Padmasambhava stopped to
meditate. The people of Bhutan live where Padmasambhava
walked. To them, he is the second Buddha.
THE SENNICHI KAIHGY 91

Sennichi Kaihgy is not a festival per se but rather a special

ceremony. This fascinating one-thousand-day ritual involves
arduous mountain hikes. So difficult is it that it has seldom
been attempted: less than fifty monks have tried it since 1571.
The ritual is conducted on Mount Hiei, which is a sacred
mountain just outside Kyoto. Mount Hiei is the headquarters of
the Tendai sect. Any monk who is interested in attempting this

Holidays

ritual must be single, ordained, and must have lived in the

Mount Hiei area for twelve years of training. He must also
receive permission from the Tendai leadership.
A monk who embarks on the ritual is clad in white (the
Buddhist color of death). He wears a symbolic dagger and
carries a length of rope. These symbols associated with death
signify that death is preferable to quitting, and they also indicate
that the pilgrim is not in the world during this ritual period.
On his feet, the monk wears straw sandals or just tabi (thin
socks) after the first three hundred days.
The monk walks a route over the face of Mount Hiei for one
hundred days in a row. There are two routes: one that is
twenty-two miles and one that is twenty-five miles. The monk,
who starts walking about midnight, will stop to pray and chant
a mantra at numerous sites. As it takes about six or seven hours
to complete the trek, once accustomed to it, the monk returns
to his temple early in the morning and is then expected to keep
his regular daytime schedule of duties and activities. On one of
the one hundred days, the monk will complete a thirty-mile
walk throughout Kyoto with the purpose of transferring the
merit he has accumulated to others.
In the Sennichi Kaihgy, one such one hundred-day
period is completed every spring for three years in a row. This
is followed by a fourth and a fifth year, in which the ritual
extends to two hundred days. After finishing the accumulated
total of seven hundred days of walking, the monk faces an
especially difficult interlude.
Called the diri (Jp.: to enter the hall), the interlude consists
of a nine-day period during which the monk does not eat, drink,
or sleep. During the diri, the monk is restricted to a temple and
maintains a seated lotus position in front of a statute of Fud
(a Buddha), and he conducts Buddhist services from that position.
Each day at two in the morning, he leaves the temple to walk to
a well 656 feet away where he draws water to offer to Fud. The
monk has several attendants who remain with him at all times to
keep him from falling asleep. These attendants accompany him

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to the well, chanting prayers and verses from a sutra. They are
not allowed to aid or assist him in any way. As the nine days go
by, the relatively short trip to the well takes longer and longer for
the monk to complete. However, the monk also attracts more
onlookers as the days go by who urge him along with their own
prayers and chants.
After the successful completion of the diri, the following
spring finds the monk completing another one-hundred-day
period but now with a thirty-seven mile hike that takes fifteen
hours each day to complete. For the seventh and last year of
the Sennichi Kaihgy, the monk undertakes a fifty-two mile
walk through Kyoto called the mawari. The mawari involves
frequent devotions and again allows him to share his accumulated merit with others. This route requires eighteen hours
to complete, so the monk gets very little sleep for this onehundred-day period. On the last one-hundred-day period, the
monk returns to the short route and the ritual is completed.

9
Memories

This is the way: try, try, try!

Then, over time, there is hope.
Tenzin Gyatso, His Holiness,
the Fourteenth Dalai Lama,
in The World of Tibetan Buddhism

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uddhists have never cherished the memory of historical

events as much as they have cherished the spiritual insights
of certain teachers. Following this Buddhist orientation, this
chapter will profile a few of the more significant personages in
Buddhist history. The integral role of the Buddha is self-evident,
but we have already discussed his life and teachings. There are
others, however, who bear closer study. From the potentially very
long list of important Buddhist teachers, I have selected five to
serve as illustrations of some of the amazing personalities within
Buddhism. We will read of Buddhist practitioners from Japan,
Tibet, India, China, and the United States.
Dgen 92 (12001253)

Dgen was mentioned when discussing Zen Buddhism in Japan

and the development of the Sto sect was attributed to his
work. Dgen was born in Kyoto in 1200 to an aristocratic
family. His father was a high-ranking minister in the Japanese
government.
Dgen was considered a precocious child with a quick intellect
that allowed him, so the story goes, to read Chinese poetry at
four years of age and a Chinese Buddhist treatise at nine.93
However, his father died when Dgen was two years old, and his
mothers death when he was seven rendered him an orphan. It
may be that these events awakened in him a sense of his own
finitude that precipitated the events of his adult life.
At thirteen, Dgen became a monk in the Tendai sect on
Mount Hiei right outside Kyoto. After about a year of study,
Dgen started having problems with his practice. In his own
words, his overriding question was, If all beings possess buddha
nature, then why is it that one must strive after realizing such in
Awakening? 94 A theist might frame Dgens question in this way:
If God is all-loving, all-forgiving, and will act for my salvation,
why is it necessary for me to work out my own salvation? 95
Dgen asked his teacher for an answer to his question, but he
was not satisfied with the answer he received. He decided to
leave Mount Hiei and look for another teacher. (It is interesting

Memories

to note that when Siddhartha Gautama had questions that could

not be answered to his satisfaction by those around him, he too
went searching for someone who could provide a better answer.)
Dgen was referred to Eisai, the Buddhist master responsible
for establishing the Rinzai Zen sect in Japan, and he traveled to
Kennin-ji. Eisai met Dgen and responded to his question by
saying, All the Buddhas in the three stages of time are unaware
that they are endowed with the Buddha nature, but cats and
oxen are well aware of it indeed. 96 This answer satisfied Dgen
and he decided to stay and practice with Eisai. However, Eisai
died the following year.
One of Eisais students, Myzen (11841225), succeeded Eisai
at Kennin-ji and Dgen studied with him for the next nine years.
At twenty-three, Dgen decided to travel to China in order to
study Zen and Myzen accompanied him.
Once in China, Dgen went to study at Tien-tung monastery
with the Abbot Wu-chi. His practice advanced but, still not
satisfied, he decided to travel around China looking for the right
teacher. Meanwhile, Wu-chi died and his successor, Ju-ching
(11631228), had a reputation as an excellent teacher. Dgen
returned to Tien-tung for a last attempt to find the right
teacher before returning to Japan.
This was a fortunate decision as Ju-ching turned out to be the
perfect teacher for him. Ju-ching worked tirelessly at his zazen,
inspiring Dgen to intensify his practice. Finally, Dgen experienced Awakening:
Early one morning, as he was making his usual round of
inspection at the beginning of the formal zazen period,
Ju-ching discovered one of the monks dozing. Scolding the
monk, he said, The practice of zazen is dropping away of
body and mind. What do you expect to accomplish by
dozing? Upon hearing these words, Dgen suddenly realized
enlightenment, his Minds eye opening fully.97

His Awakening was accepted by Ju-ching and after continuing

his training at the monastery for two more years, Dgen

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returned to Japan in 1227. Ju-ching supported his students

decision, hoping that Dgen would be able to teach the dharma
in meaningful ways to the Japanese.
Dgen initially returned to Kennin-ji and remained there
for three years. However, he was never one to stay in one place
for very long. He soon moved to another temple, Any-in.
He had also begun to write by this point. He then moved to
Ksh-ji and began in earnest to train others in his understanding of Zen. It was during this period of time that he
wrote what came to be considered his magnum opus, the
Shbgenz Zuimonki. As his fame as a teacher increased,
so too did the demands on his time and the jealousies of
other Buddhist groups.
He eventually moved to the temple with which he is most
closely associated, Eiheijinow one of the head temples of the
St sect of Zen Buddhism.
Dgen had some interest in influencing political events and he
met with various leaders. However, his priority was always on
persuading others to pursue the practice of Zen through his
teaching and writings.
In 1252, Dgen became ill and returned to Kyoto to seek
medical treatment. He died on August 28, 1253, at Seido-in in
Takatsuji, Kyoto.
Tenzin Gyatso: The Fourteenth Dalai Lama (1935 )

Undoubtedly the most famous Buddhist monk alive is the Dalai

Lama. Dalai Lama is not a name but a title. It comes from
the Mongolian language, in which Dalai means ocean and
Lama means teacher. The ocean is a symbol of large and deep
wisdom. The title was attached to the position in the sixteenth
century, when the Mongols ruled the country we now call Tibet.
Traditionally, the Dalai Lama has been the political and
spiritual leader of Tibet. The current Dalai Lamas name is
Tenzin Gyatso. How does one become a Dalai Lama? To
answer this question we need to understand the Tibetan
Buddhist belief in tulkus.

Memories

Tibetan Buddhists believe that esteemed, Awakened lamas

have the ability to come back into this life to help bring others
to the Buddhist path. So, tulkus are what other Buddhists call
bodhisattvasthey are living bodhisattvas. Some people believe
that the Dalai Lama is the only one in the Tibetan tradition who
is said to reincarnate in this way, but that is not correctthere
are significant others.
Tenzin Gyatso is the fourteenth Dalai Lama, and he is believed
to be the reincarnation of the previous Dalai Lamas. He is also
regarded as the living representation of Avalokites vara, the
bodhisattva of compassion.
Tibetan Buddhists believe that the current Dalai Lama will
provide information as to where his (or her) next rebirth will
occur. (Although there have only been male Dalai Lamas of
Tibetan origin to date, there is nothing that would preclude the
next Dalai Lama from being female and/or of a different nationality.) Lamas98 may have prophetic dreams that provide additional
instructions, and after the mourning period following the death of
a Dalai Lama, the search begins for his new embodied form.
Using the clues they have received, the search party will eventually identify a child candidate who will be tested. The test might
include asking the candidate to identify objects or persons from his
previous life. Once identified, the new Dalai Lama has traditionally
been installed in his new home, Potala Palace in Lhasa, the capital
of Tibet, and his monastic education begins. When the Dalai
Lama came of age, he also became the secular head of Tibet.
The current Dalai Lama, as you may know, does not live in his
traditional home in Potala Palace. This is due to the 1959 Chinese
occupation of Tibet, which forced the current Dalai Lama to flee
into exile. The Chinese government claimed and continues to claim
that they are the rightful owners of Tibet because, they say, it
historically belonged to China. They further claimed that Tibets
theocratic (religiously ruled) government was oppressing its people
and making them backward; hence, Tibet needed liberation.
Tibet received no substantial help from the world community
because other nations were fearful of upsetting China. China

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took control of Tibet and moved many of its own citizens there,
and there are now more ethnic Chinese living in Tibet than ethnic
Tibetans. What was once the most overtly Buddhist country in
the world became one where religious practice was curtailed,
monks and nuns were defrocked, and temples were destroyed or
abandoned. While the degree of religious oppression has been
slightly reduced, the country of Tibet is but a shell of its former
Buddhist self.
Fortunately, the Dalai Lama escaped into neighboring India,
where Dharamsala serves as his residence and as a center for
Tibetan Buddhism. The Dalai Lama and the other Tibetan exiles
continue to hope that they will be able to return to Tibet someday. In the meantime, one cannot help but admire the way
in which they have managed their exile. They have garnered
political support for their cause, built Buddhist educational
institutions, and taken a very proactive stance toward preserving Tibetan culture in exile.
While not condoning the Chinese aggression, it is safe to say
that Tibetan Buddhism would not have the global presence it
now enjoys had not the tradition been forced to adapt to this new
situation. The personal popularity of the Dalai Lama has enhanced
the status of Tibetan Buddhism in the West. Today, American
and European bookstores carry best-selling books by the Dalai
Lama and other Tibetan Buddhist teachers. In U.S. cities, one
finds Tibetan religious centers that have made not only Tibetan
Buddhism but also Tibetan Buddhist art, food, and culture accessible to a non-Tibetan audience. The Dalai Lama has won a Nobel
Peace Prize; his public talks in cities like New York and Los Angeles
sell out; in short, he has become a cult figure for many Westerners,
both Buddhist and non-Buddhist, who appreciate the personal
embodiment of his teachings on love and kindness.
Dipa Ma 99 (19111989)

Nani Bala Barua was born near Chittagong, in present-day

Pakistan, in 1911. From early in her life, she was interested in
Buddhist rituals:

Memories
Contrary to the custom of keeping small children away
from monks, her parents allowed Nani to offer food, wash
the monks feet, and sit with them while they ate. Instead of
pretend-cooking like most little girls her age, Nani seemed
solely interested in creating miniature altars and offering
flowers to the Buddha.100

At twelve, Nani was married. (Arranged marriages are customary in the Indian subcontinent; people may be officially married
quite young, but they do not live together and begin raising a
family until they are older.) Years after her marriage ceremony,
she was sent to live with her husband in Rangoon, Myanmar.
Rajani was a kindly and supportive man, and the couple fell
deeply in love. Nani struggled with being unable to have children
but her husband consoled her saying that she should instead treat
every person she met as if he or she were her only child. She kept
this advice close to her heart for the rest of her life.
When Nanis mother died suddenly, she and Rajani raised
Nanis youngest brother, Bijoy, as their own child. At thirtyfive, that is, at approximately the age at which the Buddha
experienced Awakening, Nani did become pregnant, yet her
infant daughter soon died. At thirty-nine, she again became
pregnant. When the baby girl was born, Nani called her Dipa,
meaning light. It was at this time that Nani came to be called
Dipa Ma, which means the mother of Dipa.
Hypertension accompanied these births and Dipa Ma came
close to death. She had to lie in bed for several years while her
husband struggled to maintain his job as an engineer and care
for both his wife and the baby alone. At the age of fifty-nine, he
died of a heart attack. This desperate situation occasioned Dipa
Mas entry into a meditation center. She believed it was the only
way to save her life. Encouraged by a dream in which she
encountered the Buddha, she began her practice.
She then went through a phase of entering and leaving meditation centers, balancing her own practice with caring for her
daughter. Her health improved and she had an Awakening

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experience that she came later to describe in this way: My outlook has changed greatly. Before I was too attached to everything.
I was possessive. I wanted things. But now it feels like Im
floating, detached; I am here, but I dont want things. I dont
want to possess anything. Im livingthats all. Thats enough. 101
She also became quite adept at supernormal powers (siddhis).
Over time, her fame in Myanmar spread. Even after she moved
to Calcutta, India, she continued to attract students, particularly middle-aged women like herself. She believed that women
practitioners actually had an advantage over men. She told her
female students: You can go more quickly and deeper in the
practice than men because your minds are softer . . . Womens
tendency to be more emotional is not a hindrance to practice. 102
Her discipline was strict. She expected her followers to
emulate her own lifestyle of little sleep, following the five
precepts, and meditating several hours a day. They had to report
their progress to her twice a week.103 Despite this forcefulness
in her practice and her expectations, her strength came from
her loving-kindness (metta):
She taught a metta (loving-kindness) meditation, emphasizing over and over again the first thing is to love yourself. She
advised, You cannot progress by self-doubt and self-hatred,
only by self-love. This is the fuel. Our mind is our friend. It
is our own source of help. It is our refuge. Unless you have
respect for yourself, you cannot proceed. 104

Dipa Ma ultimately drew the attention of foreigners and was a

strong influence on such well-known American practitioners
as Joseph Goldstein, Sharon Salzberg, and Jack Kornfield. This
connection resulted in a trip to the United States in 1980 where
she helped lead a retreat. Dipa Ma continued teaching in her
apartment in Calcutta until her death in September 1989.
Sheng-yen (1930

) 105

Sheng-yen was born in Shanghai, China, the youngest of six

children. At thirteen, he was able to enter a nearby temple

Memories

called Langshan. His recollection of this Chan temple was crisp

and tarthe thought there really wasnt any genuine practice
going on there. His mentor, Langhui, recommended that young
Sheng-yen perform prostrations to Kuan-yin (bodhisattva of
mercy) to help alleviate his karmic debt. He did so, and he
reported that one morning while bowing he was overcome . . .
with a very refreshing and comfortable feeling. It seemed as
if the whole world had changed. My mind became very clear
and very bright. 106
At sixteen, Sheng-yen was sent to a sub-temple in Shanghai.
For the next two years, he performed Buddhist rituals for the
dead; this work helped raise funds for the temple. Sheng-yen did
not enjoy his assigned task, and he left this sub-temple and
enrolled instead in the Jing-an Monastery in Shanghai where
he could pursue more formal studies. At Jing-an he was exposed
to Buddhist ideas of many different sects, which allowed him
to continue his meditation practice. He did not receive any
guidance on meditation, however, and he came to feel at a loss as
to how to proceed.
In 1949, China came under the Communist rule of Mao
Tse-tung (Mao Zedong). Sheng-yen joined the opposing forces,
the Kuomintang,107 and served with distinction for ten years. His
time in the army did not dull his ardor for Buddhism, and he
reported that he took time every day for meditation.
In 1958, Sheng-yen met two Chan masters, both of whom
were to exert a tremendous influence on his life. Their names
were Lingyuan (19021988) and Donghou (19071977). Ultimately, Sheng-yen received transmission from Lingyuan but it
was through Donghou that he attained full monkhood. Under
Donghous gaze, Sheng-yen advanced spiritually but it was not
easyDonghou was a demanding teacher who worked constantly
to keep Sheng-yen off balance:
When I lived with him [Doughou] he forbade me to keep a
blanket because monks were supposed to meditate at night.
When tired, we could nap, but we were not to rely on the

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comfort of a bed or blanket. All of these arbitrary things were
his way of training me. Although it is hard to think of this
treatment as compassionate, it really was. If I hadnt been
trained with this kind of discipline, I would not have
accomplished much. I also realized from him that learning
the Buddha Dharma was a very rigorous activity and that one
should be self-reliant in practice.108

In 1964, Sheng-yen entered a three-year, solitary retreat. He

carried out two such retreats. In the second of these he began
to write. After his six years of retreat, Donghou suggested that
Sheng-yen pursue graduate studies in Buddhism in Japan, and
in 1969 he did so. He acquired his masters and doctorate
degrees while continuing his Buddhist practice in Japan. He
expressed his indebtedness to Bantetsugy Rshi and the
difficult practice he experienced at his temple in Thoku, which
is in northern Honsh.
In 1976, Sheng-yen began teaching in the United States, where
he still works to this day. He now divides his time between the
United States and Taiwan, and in 1990 established the Dharma
Drum Mountain center outside Taipei City in Taiwan, which
serves as a graduate school, conference center, and a facility
dedicated to Chan practice. He is the author of many books on
Buddhism and tours the world providing dharma teachings.
Taitetsu Unno (1929

In the early 1950s, Japan was still deeply entrenched in the

trauma of World War II and the subsequent occupation by
U.S. troops. Taitetsu Unno found himself studying at Tokyo
University graduate school while waiting to matriculate into
the Buddhist studies program.
Twenty-four years of age and a Japanese-American, Taitetsu was
among those Americans who had been detained in detention
camps in the United States during the war. In Japan, he felt like
a stranger in a strange land. He had befriended a philosophy
student, thougha young man named Teruo. Together they had

Memories

worked on figuring out the world in which they found themselves.

Teruo suffered with frail health as the result of having had tuberculosis as a child. He struggled with pain and fatigue.
One night Teruo asked Taitetsu, What is karma in Buddhism?
Taitetsus response was abstract and academic rather than
personal, and the topic quickly changed. The next day, Taitetsu
learned that his friend has committed suicide. This plunged
Taitetsu into a profound period of questioning:
That evening, I stayed up all night going over the tragic
happening again and again. Three questions loomed large in
my mind. First, I wondered if Teruo was now happywas he
now at peace? I thought about this for a long time, but instead
of an answer coming to me there was only silence. Secondly, I
wondered what I would say to Teruos mother. What is the
one word of compassion that I could offer her for her painful
loss? I wasnt looking for hackneyed phrases of condolence
but truly uplifting words. But again, I didnt knowthere was
only a void. And thirdly, I kept thinking of Teruos question to
mewhat is karma, really? As I thought deeply about it, I
realized that such an objective question, having little to do
with my own existence, would invite only empty, abstract
answers, answers of the sort that I had given to Teruo the
previous night. For a truly meaningful answer, the question of
karma had to become more concrete: Who am I? What am I?
Where did my life come from and where was it going? There
was only a blank.109

Faced with these existential questions, Taitetsu turned to

the writings of Albert Camus and Friedrich Nietzsche. He also
explored the scriptures of the worlds religions. He reported
that Some of this was useful on one level, but none cleared the
confusion that prevailed. 110
He turned at last to the tradition in which he had been raised,
Shin Buddhism. The maternal and paternal side of his family
had generated Shin Buddhist priests. His once solely academic
interest in Buddhism now emerged as his personal interest:

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MASTER YUNMEN
Master Yunmen (864949) was an esteemed Chan Master. Urs Apps
book (Master Yunmen) includes his biography and a section describing
his teachings. Here are some of Yunmens words:
Every person originally has the radiant lightyet when it is looked
at, it is not seen: dark and obscure. (Section 143)
As long as the light has not yet broken through, there are two
kinds of disease: 1. The first is seeing oneself facing objects and
being left in the dark about everything. 2. The second consists in
having been able to pierce through to the emptiness of all separate
entities (dharmas)yet there still is something that in a hidden
way is like an object.
[Views about] the body of the teaching also exhibit two kinds
of disease: 1. Having been able to reach the body of the Buddhist
teaching, one still has subjective views and is at the margin of that
teaching because one has not gotten rid of ones attachments to it.
2. Even though one has managed to penetrate through to the body
of the Buddhist teaching, one is still unable to let go of it.
But, if one examines this [teaching] thoroughly, its stone-dead.
Thats also a disease! (Section 193)
Someone asked, What is the fundamental teaching?
Master Yunmen said, No question, no answer. (Section 30)
Whether you are an innocent beginner or seasoned adept, you
must show some spirit! Dont vainly memorize [other peoples]
sayings: a little bit of reality is better than a lot of illusions.
[Otherwise,] youll just go on deceiving yourself.
What is the matter with you? Come forward [and tell me]!
(Section 61)
On May 10, 949, Master Yunmen died. In the seventeenth year
after his death, a local magistrate had a dream that Yunmens tomb
(he was not cremated) was to be opened. This was done, and his body
was found not to have deteriorated but rather, the eyes were half open
and glistened like pearls, the teeth sparkled like snow, and a mystical
glow filled the whole room. (30) Subsequently, his mummified body
was honored at the capital for a month and installed back in the
Yunmen monastery only to disappear in the mid-1970s during the
Cultural Revolution in China.

Memories

All world religions grapple with these questions, but in my

case, due to fortunate karmic circumstances, Shin Buddhism
provides the answers that are illuminating, challenging, and
constantly evolving. 111
In the Epilogue of his book, River of Fire, River of Water,
Taitetsu Unno provides the answers to his three questions:
First, who am I? Whence do I come? Whither do I go? The
answer is simple. I am a limited karmic being, full of
ignorance and forever wandering, who has been endowed
with a gift, the single thread of nembutsu . . . Second, what
is the one true word of compassion? I realize now its not
so much the word but the source that is crucial. . . .
From its [great compassion] depth, then, emerges the
genuine word (desana) that uplifts all of life as is. It
may appear as a single word, or an eloquent silence, or
namu-amida-butsu itself. Finally, is my friend who took his
own life happy now? Who is to say? As far as I am concerned,
I have no choice but to entrust myself to the working of
great compassion that vowed to work ceaselessly until all
beings, even a single blade of grass, are liberated into the
universe of boundless light.112

POSTSCRIPT

These glimpses are only a few of the many such accounts in

print. More importantly, the stories of faith that are written
in the hearts of Buddhist believers are as numerous as the
stars themselves. Taitetsu Unnos story illustrates what Zen
Buddhism teaches, namely, that one needs to write ones own
story without a dependence on words and letters.

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10
Buddhism in
the World Today

The past should not be followed after,

the future not desired.
What is past is done with
and the future not yet come.
From Majjhima-Nikaya, iii 87.

Buddhism in the World Today

oday Buddhism has a presence in every country in the world.

The growth in interest and devotion, particularly on the part
of young people, virtually ensures that it will continue to expand
in number of adherents and influence. The two areas of the
globe in which it is likely to continue to be most influential are
Asia and the West. It should prove useful, then, to outline the
current concerns of Buddhism in Asia and in the West. In a
postscript, I will hazard some guesses on how Buddhism might
evolve in the future.
BUDDHISM IN ASIA TODAY
India

Around the twelfth century, Buddhism declined dramatically

in India. It has long been surmised that this decline was due to
factors including a revitalized Hinduism and a perception that
Buddhism emphasized monastic life at the expense of laypersons.
Buddhism persists in India, albeit not in the large numbers
it historically counted. The name that is most closely associated
with Buddhism in contemporary India is Bhimrao Ramji
Ambedkar (18901956).
Ambedkar was born into the so-called untouchable caste
(these people are now referred to as Dalits). With this birth, it is
not surprising that he suffered much discrimination as a child.
Despite this, he was able to go to college, and ultimately he was
awarded doctoral degrees from Columbia University and the
London School of Economics.
Despite these credentials and his professional position as a
lawyer, Dr. Ambedkar still suffered discrimination and even
physical violence against his person. He concluded that the
Hindu caste system was the source of the problem. Consequently, he abandoned Hinduism and, after considering his
options, chose to convert to Buddhism. He publicly embraced
Buddhism at a large public function on October 14, 1956. He
died in December of that same year. However, his conversion
and his writings struck a chord with many other Dalits who
also converted to Buddhism. What Ambedkar saw in Buddhism

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was a worldview very similar to that of Hinduism but without

a caste system.
Trailokya Bauddha Mahasangha (TBM) is said to be an outgrowth of Ambedkars work. It is closely associated with the
Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, a global Buddhist
organization. Besides working assiduously to convert people to
Buddhism, this organization also works to bring assistance to
disadvantaged people through educational, health-care, and
literacy efforts.
Thailand

Thailand is a stronghold of Theravda Buddhism, and the

home of two of the more prominent Theravda voices of the
twentieth century. One of these belonged to Buddhadsa
Bhikku (19061993). Buddhadsa Bhikku was ordained a
monk at twenty years of age. He studied in Bangkok, then
established the Suan Mokkhabalarama (The Grove of the Power
of Liberation) in an abandoned temple near his hometown of
Purn Riang. His approach to Buddhism was that one couldnt
divorce personal change from social change. The forces that
impinge upon us and create dukkha are the same for both, and
it is only through seeing the interdependence of all things
through study and practice that each individual and his or her
society will reach emancipation.
Sulak Sivaraksa (b. 1933) was a student of Buddhadsa Bhikku.
He is a Thai Buddhist who actively seeks to apply Buddhist
ethics to the socio-economic challenges in his home country
and around the world. He is the cofounder of the International
Network of Engaged Buddhists. He has written numerous
books in Thai and English, including Seeds of Peace and A
Buddhist Vision for Renewing Society.
Vietnam

From Vietnam has come one of the most famous Buddhists of

today, Thich Nhat Hanh. Hanh entered a Vietnamese Thien
Buddhist temple at the age of seventeen. Through his traditional

Buddhism in the World Today

Buddhist study and subsequent formal education in Vietnam

and in the West, he came to see the need for a Buddhist response
to the Vietnam War. He founded the Order of Interbeing
in 1965. Due to his determination to speak out against both
sides of the Vietnam conflict, he has remained an exile from
his homeland to this day.
Hanh lives in a monastic community in southwestern France
where he writes, teaches, gardens, and works to help refugees
around the world.113 Thay (teacher), as Hanh is known to his
students, was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1967 by
a former recipient of the same prize, Martin Luther King, Jr.
Hanhs thought, as traced through his many books, speaking
engagements, and workshops, has focused on central Buddhist
notions such as the nonduality of all aspects of reality, compassion for all sentient beings, and so forth, but perhaps he is best
known for his emphasis on cultivating mindfulness. Ultimately,
mindfulness will lead to Awakening, but even long prior to that
momentous event, he believes, all persons can benefit from
practicing mindfulness in everyday life. Hanh is an important
source of inspiration for todays engaged Buddhist movement.
Tibetan Buddhism

We have already spoken about the towering figure of the Dalai

Lama, whose spiritual message and influence rise above the
worlds troubles like the Himalaya Mountains themselves. It is
ironic that the tragic fate of Tibet at the hand of the Peoples
Republic of China was the operative factor in bringing the
Dalai Lama and his message to the world. Ironic and tragic, yet
strangely beautiful, the crushing blow that sought to destroy this
ancient tradition actually accomplished nothing more than to
break open its parochial shell and release the life within to go forth
into the world. It unleashed not only the voice of this one
simple monk (as the Dalai Lama refers to himself) but the voices
of many other Tibetan Buddhist writers, musicians, and artists.
It also unleashed a powerful and still-expanding application of
Buddhist teaching to global politics and global economics.

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BUDDHISM BEYOND ASIA AND THE WEST

We began this chapter by stating that Buddhism has a presence in every country in the world today. There is Buddhism
in Africa, South America, and other locations that we may not
think of as Buddhist. Many of these Buddhist outposts are the
result of the efforts of worldwide proselytizing movements,
such as Ska Gakkai, which have sought to spread the dharma
to the seven continents. The extensive publications of Buddhist
authors and translations of Buddhist works have also
contributed to the dissemination of Buddhism. Finally, the
Internet, which can be found in the farthest reaches of the
world, and which has thousands of Buddhist-related Web
sites, has generated a virtual sangha with incalculable
numbers of members. Even many who dont see themselves as
Buddhists are sympathetic to its message.
WESTERN BUDDHISM

In the West, as well, the Internet has superseded cassette tapes

and pamphlets as a conveyor of the Buddhist message. The rapid
expansion of publishers of books on Buddhism has placed
books by the Dalai Lama, Sylvia Boorstein, Jack Kornfield,
and Thich Nhat Hanh, to name only a very few, on numerous
American bookshelves. Although self-identified Buddhists
still constitute only a small percentage of the American public,
this has all happened remarkably fast when we consider how
Buddhism arrived in the West.
History of Buddhist-Western Contacts

Some people think that Buddhism came to the West in the

middle of the twentieth century with the emergence of interest
in Zen Buddhism, but that is only the most recent in a series of
contacts between Buddhism and the West. It is possible that the
Western religions and Buddhism met just prior to or at the
beginning of the Common Era. Some have argued that there is
evidence of contact with Buddhism in the Bible itself. Perhaps
the most substantial of these arguments concerns the story of

Buddhism in the World Today

Jesus walking on the water. While there are many stories of

Buddhist adepts performing this feat, there is no similar story
in the Hebrew Bible. It is certainly possible that contact
between the Western religions and Buddhism occurred that
long ago, because both traditions would have traveled on the
same trade routes in Central Asia, at least by the time of
Alexander the Great. But whether or not contact had occurred
by the beginning of the Common Era, it almost certainly
happened when Christian missionaries reached China in the
seventh century. These early Christian missions in China died
out, however, and Christianity would not return to this part of
the world until the long Christian expansion that began with
the Roman Catholics in the sixteenth century and is still continuing today with most current Christian missionaries being
American Pentecostals or Evangelicals. Wherever Christians
traveled in Asia, they were likely to meet Buddhists.
Western contact with Buddhism probably also occurred
during the thirteenth century as a result of European travel to
Asia initiated by the Crusades. Whatever exchanges there were
probably involved European and Asian traders. Exchange of
goods was often accompanied by an exchange of ideas; indeed,
that is how most religious and philosophical ideas spread prior
to the modern period.
During the Christian expansion that began in the sixteenth
century, missionaries often traveled with commercial fleets.
Through the tales of these early travelers, both sacred and
secular, the intellectuals of Europe became interested in Asia and
its religions, including Buddhism. We know that such notable
European thinkers as Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich
Nietzsche found Buddhist philosophies fascinating even though
their understanding of Buddhism was limited. This continued
fascination gave rise to groups of people who were interested in
leaning more about Buddhism and soon study societies were
formed, such as the Pali Text Society in 1881 and the Buddhist
Society in 1907. Very soon, translations of Buddhist sutras began
to be published in English.

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Buddhism in Nineteenth-Century America

The American encounter with Buddhism was based on the

European experience. With Buddhist texts now available in
European languages, nineteenth-century American intellectuals
like Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Walt
Whitman used Buddhist ideas in their writing. As was the case
among European intellectuals, their grasp of Buddhism was
not completely sound.
In the middle part of the nineteenth century, an interesting
movement was born that encouraged interreligious dialogue
and study. It was called Theosophy, meaning knowledge of
God or divine knowledge. The founders of this movement
were Helena P. Blavatsky (18311891) and Colonel H.S. Olcott
(18321907). The Theosophical Society was founded in New
York in the 1870s. It sponsored publications, trips, and the establishment of centers in Asia, thereby contributing much to the
growth of Buddhism in the West.
Perhaps the most often cited date for the introduction of
Buddhism in the United States is 1893. In that year, the World
Parliament of Religions was held in Chicago. Three Buddhist
nations were represented at the Parliament: Japan, Ceylon
(Sri Lanka), and Thailand. As a result of this meeting, both
Theravda and Mahyna groups began sending missionaries to
the United States. Perhaps the most influential of these was Shaku
Sen, a Zen Buddhist. Although influential in his own right, the
culmination of Sens mission came with his students, most
notably D.T. Suzuki.
Buddhism in the Twentieth Century

D.T. Suzuki provided the foundation for the emergence in the

mid-twentieth century of such notable British authors as Alan
Watts, Christmas Humphries, and Edward Conze. In the United
States, Suzukis work influenced a wide range of people,
including scholars, psychologists, college students, and the
educated public. At around the same time, the popular Beat
movement and its vanguard writers and poets, including Jack

Buddhism in the World Today

Kerouac, Gary Snyder, and Allen Ginsberg, brought their own

interpretation of Zen Buddhist thought to many readers.
Zen was not the only form of Buddhism represented on
college campuses in the 1950s and 60s. Theravda, Nichiren,
and even Tibetan Buddhism were present. This surge of interest
in Buddhism was accompanied by the study of Buddhism as a
world religion in many colleges and universities; an outpouring
of texts, tapes, and public talks by and about Buddhists; and the
establishment of Buddhist centers throughout the United States
and Europe that fostered the emigration of Asian teachers to
lead these centers. The Buddhist centers we see today are not
these early centers but the next generation. The present teachers,
many of whom were born in the United States or Europe, are
designated dharma heirs of the first generation Asian teachers.
(A dharma-heir is someone who receives the sanction to teach
and lead from his or her own teacher.) These present teachers
are, therefore, the second generation of Buddhist teachers in
the West. We are also in the midst of a second generation of
Buddhist scholarship. The first establishment of a formal
graduate program in Buddhist Studies was at the University of
Wisconsin in 1965. Now many of the major universities in
the West, including Harvard, the University of Chicago, and
Columbia offer such degrees, and the quality and quantity of
Buddhist scholarship parallels the growth of popular treatments
of Buddhism, some of which are best-sellers.
It is small wonder then that the number of people identifying
themselves as Buddhists has increased in the West. However,
Westerners accepted the legitimacy of the study of Buddhism
before they accepted the legitimacy of practicing Buddhism. The
exceptions to this general rule were the early pioneers and the
young persons consigned to the counter-culture of the 1960s.
The generation after this embraced the emerging authority of
Buddhism; its foreignness had worn off a bit by then and it
no longer seemed as odd or as uncomfortable for middle-class
Americans and Europeans to consider Buddhism as a belief
system. It began to move from being considered trendy or

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attractively exotic to being just another viable spiritual option.

It is clear that it has not wholly arrived at this juncture yet, but
in the last twenty years it has made dramatic progress toward
just such a status.
The growth of Buddhism in the West has not been without
challenges and controversy. In the next section, we will assess
some of Buddhisms current challenges as a prelude to our
consideration of its future.
BUDDHISM IN THE FUTURE

Buddhism in Asia and in the United States stands at a pivotal point.

We will begin with its position in the United States. The Buddhist
mission here is facing several challenges. Donald Mitchell categorizes these challenges as Ethnicity, Identity, and Practice and
Authority and Gender issues. He also notes and describes the
promise of Buddhist Ecumenism, Interfaith Dialogue, and Social
Engagement. 114 Mitchells categories can help us to begin to
understand the dynamics of Buddhism in the Unites States today.
Ethnicity, Identity, and Practice Issues

There are two types of Buddhists in the United States. The ethnic
Buddhists are those of Asian ethnic descent who have emigrated
(or their parents emigrated) to the United States bringing
their Buddhist beliefs with them. Buddhist converts are
mainly Caucasian, upper-middle-class members of the so-called
Baby Boomer generation. Which of these two represents
American Buddhism?
The conversion sangha has developed highly progressive
forms of Buddhism that are frequently divorced from the histories, families, and traditions that are at the center of the ethnic
community. The ethnic Buddhist community is typically much
more traditional. For example, in the Vietnamese Buddhist
community the temple is the nexus for raising a family and the
center of all social interactions.
Should American Buddhists do everything they can to keep
their children in the Buddhist fold? No! say the baby

Buddhism in the World Today

163

THE ART OF HAPPINESS

If you wish to gain a better understanding of how Buddhism is being
taught in the modern world, you might try reading the best-seller
The Art of Happiness: A Handbook for Living, coauthored by the Dalai
Lama and Howard Cutler. The book shows how Buddhist teachings
are being presented to contemporary Westerners, the vast majority of
whom are not Buddhist.
The book sleeve claims that the books contents are based on
2,500 years of Buddhist meditations mixed with a healthy dose of
common sense. The Art of Happiness is a book that crosses the boundaries of traditions to help readers with difficulties common to all
human beings.
As the title indicates, this work purports to be a handbook for
living. Lets examine a section of the chapter entitled, A New Model
for Intimacy. In this chapter, Howard Cutler asks the Dalai Lama
whether he ever gets lonely. The Dalai Lama, to Cutlers surprise,
answers No.
The Dalai Lama goes on to explain that he doesnt get lonely
because he looks at all human beings in a positive way, at their
positive aspects. In short, he regards all beings with compassion,
which generates a connectedness between him and the other person.
He states, So, if you wish to overcome that feeling of isolation and
loneliness, I think that your underlying attitude makes a tremendous
difference. And approaching others with the thought of compassion in
your mind is the best way to do this. (70)
Later in this same chapter, the Dalai Lama speaks about our interconnectedness. As an example, he invites us to consider the material
objects we possess for the enjoyment of life; these are provided
through the efforts of many people. For example, the book you are
reading was made possible by the people who provided the paper,
the ink, the publishing, the shipping, and, of course, the writing. He
concludes, So, despite the fact that the process of relating to others
might involve hardships, quarrels, and cursing, we have to try to
maintain an attitude of friendship and warmth in order to lead a way
of life in which there is enough interaction with other people to enjoy
a happy life. (74)

164

BUDDHISM

boomers who, as converts to Buddhism, obviously chose a

different belief system than their parents. They will certainly
teach their children about Buddhism, but they will likely expose
them to other religions as well and allow them to make up their
own minds as they come of age. At the same time, as Mitchell
notes, the emigrant community is losing its sons and daughters
to either the dominant Christian tradition or to no tradition at
all. This situation does raise questions for both the unity and
future of the collective sangha in the West.
Authority and Gender Issues

As you have no doubt noted, we have spoken almost exclusively

of men in this book. Clearly, Buddhism has a long tradition of
men being in positions of power. We saw that demonstrated in
the status of nuns: the tradition considered them to be inferior
to male monastics. This traditional gender structure was
imported to the West, but it has come under criticism there by
feminists. In addition, there were scandals in certain prominent
Buddhist centers in the 1980s, and these shook the conversion
sangha in particular. As a result, many prominent Buddhist
centers have reexamined their leadership assumptions. They
have made changes that, they believe, will allow all parishioners,
male or female, straight or gay to experience the dharma equally.
Male and female coleadership and rotating leadership are
examples of such accommodations. This deviation from the
traditional structure certainly seems supportable on the basis of
Buddhist teachings, but the master-student relationship is to be
built around the masters spiritual experience and not on his or
her management skills or accord with diplomatic principles.
Buddhist Ecumenism

Part of the solution to these emergent challenges is the advent of

Buddhist ecumenism. In Asia, where Buddhism was atomized
into schools and countries, pan-Buddhist unifying efforts were
rare. However, in the West, where many types of Buddhism are
found together in a single country, there is an opportunity to

Buddhism in the World Today

think collectively and learn from one another. This might well
hold the key to the concern about the split between the ethnic
and converted Buddhist communities. There have been several
significant meetings over the last ten years where participants
worked toward reaching agreements on the common concerns
of all Western Buddhists, and this bodes well for the future
evolution of Buddhism.
Interreligious Dialogue

For more than forty years, Christians and Buddhists have formally
come together to engage in spirited discussions about their
respective beliefs and possible common ground. Through such
interlocutors as Thomas Merton, D.T. Suzuki, Keiji Nishitani,
John Cobb, and Masao Abe, this ongoing dialogue (which
includes Jews and Muslims as well) provides a positive, new
source for Buddhist globalization.
Socially Engaged Buddhism

One of the results of the encounter between Buddhism and the

West has been a growing sense of social engagement on the part
of Buddhism. Traditional Buddhist interests came closer to what
we would call psychology than they did to what we would call
social responsibility. Engagement with Christians, Jews, and the
Western world in general has fostered a new sense of social
engagement among Buddhists. This new direction has been
inspired and informed by inter-religious dialogue.
There is, of course, a potential negative side to the Westernization of Buddhist countries. In a genuine dialogue, there
needs to be a sense of equality and mutual respect. If one side
assumes an air of cultural superiority, so that the other feels
not invited but coerced to adopt certain ideas, then the basis of
genuine dialogue has been lost and replaced by intellectual and
cultural colonization.
While colonization is bad, the confrontation of ideas can be
good. When confronted by the human rights values of the West,
Asian countries have made changes. Sometimes, as in the case of

165

166

BUDDHISM

the Peoples Republic of China, economic assistance has been

directly tied to human rights expectations. With some success,
Western countries have pushed the link between economic
progress and achievements in human rights. Quite often, it has
been the Buddhists within these countries who have risen to the
social and economic challenges presented by the West.
The Buddhist Peace Fellowship, the work of the Greyston
Mandala, and a vibrant hospice and prison ministry, are examples
of how this new concern has born fruit among American
Buddhists. Scholars like Christopher Queen, Kenneth Kraft,
and David Chappell are documenting these efforts, as well as
examining the kinds of doctrinal support that might be
available for Buddhism to develop in this direction.
Buddhism in the Twenty-First Century
In the West

Buddhism is more than twenty-five hundred years old, but

its influence in the West is relatively new. It does seem that
Buddhism is here to stay, and it seems likely that it will continue
to expand and prosper. Its challenges, though considerable, are
not dissimilar to those it faced as it migrated from India across
Southeast Asia. On this long-ago journey, Buddhism encountered new cultures with already established religious traditions.
Its success on this journey demonstrates that Buddhism is a
flexible tradition, and this bodes well for its success in the West.
We may witness the development of new branches of Buddhism
that cannot be categorized as either Theravda or Mahyna in
form. We will certainly see reinterpretations of the dharma as
Buddhism settles into its new home, and these changes may well
come with increasing velocity.
In Asia

Changes in the structure of Buddhism are occurring in Asia as

well but at a slower pace. In the West, Buddhism is undergoing
large-scale changes with very little traditional underpinning. In
Asia, a thicket of traditional underpinning provides greater

Buddhism in the World Today

stability than Buddhism enjoys in the Western context, but it

also puts the brakes on change. Perhaps this will allow Asian
Buddhism to evolve less painfully and with fewer regrets.
Certainly the large amount of Western experimentation provides
Asians with a lot of raw data that they can use to formulate their
own decisions about the future direction of Buddhism. It will be
fascinating to watch what happens.

167

CHRONOLOGY & TIMELINE

ca. 563 B.C.E. Birth of Gautama Buddha in Lumbin (present-day

Nepal).
531 Gautama Buddha renounces the householder life

(The Great Renunciation).

524 Gautama Buddha gains Awakening at Gaya (Bodh

Gaya); preaches the first discourse in Sarnath on the

Four Noble Truths.
480 Gautama Buddha passes into parinirvn at Kusinara;

the first council convenes at Rajagraha, India, and

brings forth the Tripitika.

563 B.C.E.
Gautama Buddha is born in
Lumbin (present-day Nepal)
480
Gautama Buddha passes into
parinirvn; first Buddhist council
convenes at Rajagraha, India

BCE (BC) CE (AD)

500
C.E. 67
Buddhism
introduced
to China

100
Theravda Buddhism
first appears in Burma
(Myanmar) and Thailand

168

641
Songtsen Gampo
introduces Buddhism
to Tibet

500

1000
552
Buddhism introduced
to Japan

ca. 359
Buddhism introduced
to Korea

CHRONOLOGY & TIMELINE

380 Second Council convenes in Vesali over issues

related to the practice as understood in the Vinaya

Pitika.
271 King Asokas accession to the throne.
250 Third Council convened by King Asoka at Pataliputra,

India, with further dissension over doctrine.

ca. 247 Introduction of Buddhism to Ceylon (Sri Lanka),

by son of King Asoka, Mahinda, and King Tissa

is converted; compilation of Buddhist scriptures
by Asoka.

1391
First Dalai Lama, Gendn Drubpa,
born (title given posthumously)
1578
Institution of Dalai Lama
formally established when
Snam Gyatso receives title
from Mongol ruler Altan Khan

1300

1900
1893
World Parliament
of Religions meets
in Chicago, Illinois

1935
Fourteenth Dalai Lama,
Tenzin Gyatso, born

2000
19661976
Cultural Revolution in China;
temples, monasteries, and
libraries destroyed in Tibet
and China
1950
World Fellowship of
Buddhists is founded
in Colombo, Sri Lanka

169

CHRONOLOGY
240 The great monastery Mahavitara is established in

Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka; Mahinda completes

Tripikita commentaries in Sinhala language and
bhikkuni order is established in Sri Lanka by
Sanghamitta, King Asokas daughter.
C.E.

67 Buddhism introduced to China.

100 Theravda Buddhism first appears in Burma

(Myanmar) and Thailand.

200 Buddhist monastic university at Nalanda, India,

flourishes.
ca. 359 Buddhism introduced to Korea.

552 Buddhism introduced to Japan.

607 Horyji Temple built in Nara, Japan.
641 Songtsen Gampo introduces Buddhism to Tibet.
752 Vairocana Buddha statue of Todaiji Temple (Nara)

completed.
779 Samye, first Buddhist monastic university (Tibet) is

established.
805 Saicho (767822) establishes Tendai sect in Japan.
806 Kukai (774835) establishes Shingon sect in Japan.
1175 Honen (11331212) establishes Jodo sect in Japan.
1191 Eisai (11411215) establishes Rinzai Zen sect

in Japan.
1224 Shinran (11731262) establishes Jodo-Shin sect

in Japan.
1227 Dgen (12001253) establishes Soto Zen sect

in Japan.
1253 Nichiren (12221282) founds Nichiren sect in Japan.

170

CHRONOLOGY
1391 First Dalai Lama, Gendn Drubpa, born (title given

posthumously).
1578 Snam Gyatso receives title of Dalai Lama from

Mongol ruler Altan Khan.

1591 Sen no Rikyu (b. 1520), founder of tea ceremony,

dies.
1881 Pali Text Society is founded by T.W. Rhys Davids.
1891 Maha Bodhi Society founded in India by Anagarika

Dharmapala.
1896 Light of Asia, published by Sir Edwin Arnold,

generates interest in the United States and England

in Buddhism.
1935 Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, born.
1959 Dalai Lama flees to India.
19661976 Cultural Revolution in China. During this period,

temples, monasteries, and libraries destroyed in

Tibet and China.
1970s One of the outcomes of the Vietnam War is an

emigration of numerous Southeast Asians to the

United States and Europe, which results in expanding the presence of Theravda Buddhist centers in
metropolitan areas; Insight Meditation Society
founded.
19802004 The continued growth of Buddhist centers in the

West; the expansion of the cyber-sangha with

many Buddhist-related sites appearing on the
Internet, including translations of sutras; the birth
and growth of popular Buddhist periodicals (Tricycle,
Shambala Sun) in the United States.

171

NOTES
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
1 Theravda Buddhism is the more
conservative form of Buddhism. It
attempts to maintain the Buddhas
teachings without historical change.
Mahyna Buddhism, too, believes that
it maintains the Buddhas teachings
unchanged, but it claims that not all of
the Buddhas teachings could be given
to the world at once. What Theravda
considers additions, Mahyna
considers the completion of the
Buddhas teachings, given when the
world was ready to receive it.
2 Rebirth is sometimes called transmigration, or more popularly in the West,
reincarnation.
3 Websters New World College
Dictionary, Fourth Edition, (USA:
Macmillan), 976.

CHAPTER 2: Foundations
4 Richard Robinson, Willard Johnson,
The Buddhist Religion: A Historical
Religion, third edition, (Belmont, Calif.:
Wadsworth, 1982), 7.
5 John Strong, The Buddha: A Short
Biography, (Oxford: Oneworld Publication, 2001), 38.
6 Theodore de Bary (editor), The
Buddhist Tradition in India, China,
and Japan, (New York: Random House,
1972), 62.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid., 63.
9 Ibid., 6364.
10 Ibid., 65.
11 The deathless state, beyond the round
of births and deaths, is called moksha
by Hindus or nirvana by Buddhists.

14 Ibid., cf. 7475.

15 Ibid., 140.
16 One can distinguish between a human
being and a human personal being. A
human being may not develop into a
human personal being. A human
personal being is a human being who has
consciousness of self (self-consciousness).
17 Masao Abe, Zen and Western Thought,
(Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
1985), 6.
18 As quoted in Masao Abes Zen and
Western Thought, 4. Abe offers an
excellent exposition of these lines in
this book as well.
19 Ibid., 8.
20 Ibid., 9.
21 Ibid., 18.
22 Quoted in Thich Nhat Hanh, The Heart
of the Buddhas Teaching, (New York:
Broadway Books, 1998), 49.
23 Ibid., 50.

CHAPTER 3: Scriptures
24 The term sutras can be used in several
different ways. The Buddhist scriptures
are often referred to as sutras even
though the Buddhist scriptures include
much more material than what is
contained in the Sutra Pitaka.
25 Donald Mitchell, Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience, (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2002), 97.
26 Wisdom and compassion are the two
primary Buddhist virtues. According
to the Mahynists, the arhat demonstrates neither.
27 de Bary, The Buddhist Tradition in
India, China, and Japan, 82.
28 See the discussion in Chapter Two on
Right Livelihood, the sixth step of the
Noble Eightfold Path.

12 Ascetics practice extreme forms of

self-denial, including: sleep deprivation,
taking only small amounts of food and
water, denial of normal movement
(sitting or standing in one position for
a long time), refraining from talking,
abstaining from sex, lack of material
possessions, and homelessness.

30 Quoted in Mitchell, Buddhism:

Introducing the Buddhist Experience,
199.

13 Strong, The Buddha: A Short Biography,

70.

31 de Bary, The Buddhist Tradition in

India, China, and Japan, 198199.

172

29 de Bary, The Buddhist Tradition in

India, China, and Japan, 155.

NOTES
32 Jean Smith, editor, Radiant Mind:
Essential Buddhist Teachings and Texts,
(New York: Riverhead, 1999), 5152.
33 Richard DeMartino, On Zen Communication, Communication 8, no. 1
(1983), as quoted in Urs App, Master
Yunmen, (New York: Kodansha, 1994),
53.
34 App, Master Yunmen, 54.
35 Adapted from Mumonkan case 6.
36 The Three Treasures are the Buddha,
the dharma (Buddhist teaching), and
the sangha (Buddhist community).
37 Tantric Buddhism is based on esoteric
texts called tantras. It makes use of
diagrams called mandalas and magical
formulas known as mantras. Whereas
other forms of Buddhism view the
passions as a hindrance to liberation,
Tantric Buddhism attempts to harness
and use the energy of the passions for
the purpose of attaining nirvana.
38 de Bary, The Buddhist Tradition in
India, China, and Japan, 331.
39 The shogun was technically the hereditary commander-in-chief of the Japanese
army, but he actually functioned as the
ruler of the nation.
40 As quoted in de Bary, The Buddhist
Tradition in India, China, and Japan,
371.
41 John Powers, Introduction to Tibetan
Buddhism, (Ithaca, N.Y.: Snow Lion,
1995), 219.

(Berkeley, Calif.: University of California

Press, 1982), 9.
51 Leslie Alldritt, Masao Abe and Paul
Tillich: A Dialogue Toward Love, in
Donald Mitchell (ed.), Masao Abe: A
Zen Life of Dialogue, (Boston: Tuttle,
1998), 238.
52 Sogyal Rinpoche is the author of a
popular text on The Tibetan Book of the
Dead called The Tibetan Book of Living
and Dying.
53 Robert Thurman, translator, The
Tibetan Book of the Dead, (New York:
Bantam, 1994), 42.
54 Ibid., 45.

CHAPTER 5: Worship
55 http://www.cloudsinwater.org/
home.htm.
56 http://www.cloudsinwater.org/meditation.htm.
57 Ibid.

CHAPTER 6:
Growing Up Buddhist
58 U Kin Maung, A Buddhist Family in
Burma, http://web.ukonline.co.uk/
buddhism/kmaung.htm.
59 Ibid., 1.
60 Ibid., 2.

42 Ibid., 223.

61 Louis Frdric, Buddhism Flammarion

Iconographic Guides, 186.

43 Ibid., 233.

62 Ibid., 186187.

44 Ibid., 251.

63 Ibid., 188.

45 Ibid., 452.

64 Cf. William LaFleur, Liquid Life:

Abortion and Buddhism in Japan,
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
Press, 1992).

46 Louis Frdric, Buddhism (Flammarion

Iconographic Guides), (Paris: Flammarion,
1995), 64.

CHAPTER 4: Worldview
47 Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha
Taught, (New York: Grove, 1959), 20ff.
48 Ibid., 2526.
49 Ibid., 26.
50 Keiji Nishitani, Religion and Nothingness, trans./intro. by Jan Van Bragt,

65 Ian Reader, Religion in Contemporary

Japan, (Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press, 1991), 89.
66 Ibid., 84. The Japanese employed earth
burial prior to this time. Buddhism
carried the practice of cremation of
the dead from its Indian beginnings as
it was and is an accepted practice of
Hinduism.
67 Ibid., 84.

173

NOTES
68 This account is largely taken from Billy
Hammond, Japanese Buddhist
Funeral Customs, http://tanutech.
com/japan/jfunerals.html, 1. This use
of paper money seems an influence of
Chinese spirituality where paper
money (and other paper objects) are
ritually burned to help those in the
afterlife. The imagery of crossing a lake
to enter hell obviously evokes the
Greek myth where Charon ferries the
dead across the river Styx that encircles
Hades.
69 Ibid., 1.

CHAPTER 7:
Cultural Expressions
70 A.L. Sadler, Cha-no-yu: The Japanese
Tea Ceremony, (Rutland, Vt.: Charles
Tuttle, 1962), 1.
71 D.T. Suzuki, Zen and Japanese Culture.
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
Press, 1959), 273ff.
72 Ibid., 248.
73 Robert Fisher, Buddhist Art and
Architecture, (London: Thames and
Hudson, 1993), 98.
74 Vimalakirti is a lay Buddhist, a householder who demonstrates greater
wisdom than Manjusri. Manjusri
plays various roles in Buddhism,
but here he serves as a symbol of
Theravda wisdom. The artists
wish to convey the Mahyna belief
that laypersons are as capable of
attaining nirvana in this lifetime
as monks.
75 Fisher, Buddhist Art and Architecture,
98.
76 Cf. www.uoregon.edu/~kohl/basho/
life.html.
77 Ibid.
78 Shinichi Hisamatsu, Zen and the
Fine Arts, trans. by Geshin Tokiwa,
(New York: Kodansha, 1971).

82 Ibid., 3334.
83 As quoted in Masao Abe, Zen and
Western Thought, 2324.
84 Hisamatsu, 35.

CHAPTER 8: Holidays
85 Much of the material in this section is
reprinted from Japans Obon Festival
Reunites Families (The Brookings
Register, July 11, 2002, A7) by Ann
Marie Bahr, with the authors and
publishers permission.
86 Pipob Udomittipong, Thailands
Ecology Monks, in Stephanie Kaza,
Kenneth Kraft (eds.), Dharma Rain:
Sources of Buddhist Environmentalism,
(Boston: Shambala, 2000), 193.
87 Susan Darlington, Tree Ordination in
Thailand, Ibid., 198205.
88 This section is a slightly abridged version
of Chinese Ghost Festival Empties
Underworld for a Month by Ann Marie
Bahr (The Brookings Register, August 7,
2003, A6). It is reprinted here with the
permission of the author and publisher.
89 The information in this section is derived
from Tibetans Honor Fearless Female
Bodhisattva by Ann Marie Bahr (The
Brookings Register, July 31, 2003), A6.
90 The information on Padmasambhava
Day is derived from Bhutan Honors
the Second Buddha by Ann Marie
Bahr (The Brookings Register, June 21,
2001, A7).
91 The following account of Sennichi
Kaihgy is derived from the description
of this ritual in Religion in Contemporary
Japan by Ian Reader (Honolulu,
Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press,
1991), 124ff.

CHAPTER 9: Memories

79 Ibid., 31.

92 This section is indebted to Yh

Yokois brief biography of Dgen
in his book, Zen Master Dgen,
(New York: Weatherhill, 1976).

80 Ibid., 31.

93 Ibid., 27.

81 Ibid., 34.

94 Ibid., 27.

174

NOTES
95 The phrase work out your own salvation comes from Philippians 2:12 in
the New Testament.

autobiographical account found on the

Dharma Drum Mountain Web site
(www.chancenter.org).

96 Ibid., 28.

106 Sheng-yen, Hoofprint of the Ox, 3.

97 Ibid., 32.

107 The Kuomintang is the political party

of the Republic of China, located on
the island of Taiwan. It was formed by
Sun Yat-sen, the father of the Republic
of China, and led for many years by
Chiang Kai-shek.

98 Lamas are high-ranking monks.

99 Interested readers may read more about
Dipa Ma in Amy Schmidts book, Knee
Deep in Grace: The Extraordinary Life
and Teaching of Dipa Ma, (Lake Junaluska,
N.C.: Present Perfect Books, 2002).
100 Amy Schmidt, Transformation of a
Housewife: Dipa Ma and Her Teachings
to Theravda Women, in Ellison Banks
Findly (ed.), Womens Buddhism,
Buddhisms Women: Tradition, Revision,
Renewal, (Boston: Wisdom, 2000), 201.
101 Ibid., 207.
102 Ibid., 210.
103 Ibid., 209.
104 Ibid., 212.
105 This section of the chapter is adapted
from Dan Stevensons biographical
account of Sheng-yens life in the
book, Hoofprint of the Ox, (New York:
Oxford, 2001) and Sheng-yens short

108 Ibid., 8.
109 Taitetsu Unno, River of Fire, River of
Water, (New York: Doubleday, 1998),
xxi, xxii.
110 Ibid., xxv.
111 Ibid., xxvii.
112 Ibid., 208209.

CHAPTER 10:
Buddhism in the World Today
113 http://www.spiritwalk.org/thichnhathanh.htm.
114 Mitchell, Buddhism: Introducing the
Buddhist Experience, 338ff.

175

GLOSSARY
* Sanskrit (Skt.), Chinese (Ch.), Japanese ( Jp.), Korean (K.),
Pali (Indo-Aryan language used by Theravda Buddhists)
laya-vijna (Skt.)Storehouse consciousness.
Amitbha (Skt.) ( Jp.: Amida)Celestial Buddha of the Pure Land.
anitya (Skt.)Impermanence, one of the Three Marks of Existence
along with anatman and dukkha.
arhat (Skt.)worthy one; the one who has realized nirvana in the
Theravda tradition.
Avalokites
vara (Skt.) (Ch.: Kuan-yin; Jp.: Kannon)Bodhisattva
of compassion.
avidya (Skt.)Ignorance.
bhiksu (Skt.)Buddhist monk.
bhiksun (Skt.)Buddhist nun.
bodhi (Skt.)Awakening, nirvana.
bodhisattva (Skt.)A Mahyna Buddhist term for the Awakened
person who foregoes final nirvana (parinirvn) and compassionately
helps unawakened persons to know the dharma.
Buddha (Skt.)Awakened One.
Chan (Ch.) ( Jp.: Zen) (K.: Son)Meditation; School of Chinese
Buddhism that stresses meditation.
citta (Skt., Pali)Mind.
Dalai Lama (Tibetan)The head of the Geluk school of Tibetan
Buddhism; spiritual and secular leader of Tibetan people; current
Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso.
dna (Skt., Pali)donations or giving to sangha (Buddhist community).
dharma (Skt.)Truth, teachings of Buddhism, law.
dhyna (Skt.)Meditation.
dukkha (Skt.)unsatisfactoriness, suffering; first of the Four Noble
Truths.

176

GLOSSARY
haiku ( Jp.)Type of Japanese poetry using set patterns of lines and
syllables.
Hinayna (Skt., Pali)Lesser vehicle; a term that was used to denigrate
and differentiate early non-Mahyna Buddhism from Mahyna.
Jtaka (Skt., Pali)the stories that recount the previous lives and
activities of Gautama Buddha.
jiriki ( Jp.)Self-power (as opposed to tariki): the ability to realize
Awakening through ones own effort.
Jdo ( Jp.)Pure Land; the Pure Land School of Buddhism.
Jdo Shinshu ( Jp.)the True School of Pure Land Buddhism.
karma (Skt.)Action; the natural system of cause and effect that
influences conditions of rebirth or Awakening.
karun (Skt., Pali)Compassion.
kensh ( Jp.)Glimpse or insight into Awakening.
kles (Skt.)defilements.
Mdhyamika (Skt.)Philosophical school of Mahyna Buddhism.
Mahyna (Skt.)Major branch of Buddhism that stresses bodhisattva
ideal, expanded canon, and enhanced inclusion of laity into sangha.
Maitrya (Skt.)Bodhisattva of the future.
mandala (Skt.)pictorial representation of the Buddhist cosmos
used for meditational and ritual purposes.
Majusri (Skt.)Bodhisattva of Wisdom.
mantra (Skt.)word or spoken formula used in Tibetan Buddhism
for ritual or meditation purposes.
mapp ( Jp.)In Nichiren Buddhism, the idea of the last days for the
dharma.
Mra (Skt., Pali)the tempter in the Awakening story of Gautama
Buddha; symbolizes the challenges of the physical realm for all
practitioners.

177

GLOSSARY
my (Skt., Pali)Illusion.
mudra (Skt.)seal; ritual hand movement or position.
nembutsu ( Jp.)Pure Land Buddhist term used for the phrase (Namu
Amida Butsu, Praise Amida Buddha) that believers recite (Ch. nien-fo).
Nichiren ( Jp.)Japanese school of Buddhism founded by Nichiren
and based on his teachings and interpretation of the Lotus Sutra.
nirvana (Skt.)to extinguish; Awakening, the Buddhist resolution
to the problem of human personal existence, the Third Noble Truth
of Buddhism.
parinirvn
(Skt.)the completion of nirvana at the point of physical
death.
praj (Skt.)wisdom; the wisdom that comes with the Awakening
(also Mahprajna is used to distinguish from wisdom that is gained
penultimately).
prtimoksa (Skt.)Buddhist monastic precepts.
prattya-samutpda (Skt.)system of codependent origination that
explains the casual links between ignorance and rebirth.
Rinzai ( Jp.); Lin-chi (Ch.)Japanese Zen Buddhist school promoted by Eisai.
samsara (Skt.)cycle of birth and death that perpetuates for all
sentient beings until Awakened.
sangha (Skt.)Buddhist community.
satori ( Jp.)Awakening.
Shingon ( Jp.)True Word, Japanese esoteric Buddhist school
founded by Kukai.
skandha (Skt.)aggregate; the five constituent of the self (material
form, sensation, perception, mental formation, and consciousness).
smrti (Skt.)mindfulness; part of the Eightfold Path.

178

GLOSSARY
St ( Jp.)school of Zen Buddhism championed by Dgen.
Sthaviravda (Skt.)early school of Buddhism; foundation for
development of Theravda Buddhism.
stpa (Skt.)originally, reliquary or structure that contained sacred
articles, bones attributed to Gautama Buddha; now extended for other
Buddhist sacred articles.
sun (K.)meditation, Chan Buddhist school in Korea.
sutra (Skt.)Buddhist sacred texts.
tanh (Pali)desire, craving of the ego; the Second Noble Truth of
Buddhism.
tantra (Skt.)esoteric tradition in Buddhism.
tariki ( Jp.)other power, depending upon a separate power for
Awakening (cf. jiriki).
tathgata (Skt., Pali)Thus gone, term for an Awakened person
used in Mahyna Buddhism.
Theravd (Pali)major branch of Buddhism that stresses the
Tripitika, monasticism, and is the predominant form of Buddhism
in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
Trikya (Skt.)Three Bodies doctrine of Mahyna Buddhism.
Tripitika (Skt.)Three Baskets, the three parts of the Pali Canon
(Vinaya, Sutra, and Abhidharma).
upya (Skt.)Skillful means.
vinaya (Skt., Pali)rules for the sangha; one of the three baskets of
the Tripitika.
Yogcra (Skt.)Mahyna school of Buddhist philosophy.
zazen ( Jp.)seated meditation in Zen Buddhism.
Zen ( Jp.)meditation; Japanese school of Buddhism that emphasizes
meditation.

179

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abe, Masao. Zen and Western Thought. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of
Hawaii Press, 1985.
____. A Study of Dgen. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1992.
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App, Urs. Master Yunmen. New York: Kodansha International, 1994.
Armstrong, Karen. Buddha. New York: Viking Press, 2001.
Badiner, Allen Hunt (ed.). Dharma Gaia: A Harvest of Essays in Buddhism
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Beck, Charlotte Joko. Nothing Special: Living Zen. San Francisco, Calif.:
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Buswell, Robert. The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist Practice in
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Carrithers, Michael. The Buddha. New York: Oxford University Press,
1983.
Carter, John Ross. Mahinda Palihawadana (trans.). The Dhammapada.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
Chen, Kenneth. Buddhism in China. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
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Chdrn, Pema. When Things Fall Apart: Heart Advice for Difficult Times.
Boston, Mass.: Shambala, 1997.
Coleman, James William. The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Dalai Lama, and Howard Cutler. The Art of Happiness. New York:
Riverhead Books, 1998.

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de Bary, William Theodore (ed.). The Buddhist Tradition in India, China,
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Dreyfus, Georges B.J. The Sound of Two Hands Clapping: The Education
of a Tibetan Buddhist Monk. Berkeley: Calif.: University of California
Press, 2003.
Findly, Ellison Banks. (ed.). Womens Buddhism, Buddhisms Women.
Somerville, Mass.: Wisdom, 2000.
Fisher, Robert E. Buddhist Art and Architecture. London: Thames and
Hudson, 1993.
Frdric, Louis. Buddhism (Flammarion Iconographic Guides Series).
Paris: Flammarion, 1995.
Fromm, Erich, D.T. Suzuki, and Richard DeMartino. Zen Buddhism and
Psycho-Analysis. New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1970.
Gethin, Rupert. The Foundations of Buddhism. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1998.
Gombrich, Robert. Theravda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient
Benares to Modern Columbo. London: Routledge, 1988.
Govinda, Lama Anagarika. Psycho-Cosmic Symbolism of the Buddhist
Stupa. Berkeley, Calif.: Dharma Publications, 1976.
Gross, Rita. Buddhism after Patriarchy: A Feminist History, Analysis, and
Reconstruction of Buddhism. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1993.
Hanh, Thich Nhat. The Heart of the Buddhas Teachings. New York:
Broadway Books, 1998.
. Miracle of Mindfulness: A Manual in Meditation. Boston: Beacon
Press, 1987.
Harvey, Peter. The Selfless Mind: Personality, Consciousness, and Nirvana
in Early Buddhism. Richmond, U.K.: Curzon Press, 1995.
Hesse, Hermann. Siddhartha. New York: New Directions, 1951.
Hisamatsu, Shinichi. Zen and the Fine Arts. New York: Kodansha
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jones, Ken. The New Social Face of Buddhism: A Call to Action. Boston,
Mass.: Wisdom Press, 2003.
Kaza, Stephanie, and Kenneth Kraft (eds.). Dharma Rain: Sources of
Buddhist Environmentalism. Boston, Mass.: Shambala, 2000.
Keown, Damien. A Dictionary of Buddhism. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2003.
. Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2000.
Klein, Anne. Meeting the Great Bliss Queen: Buddhists, Feminists, and the
Art of the Self. Boston, Mass.: Beacon, 1995.
Kraft, Kenneth (ed.). The Wheel of Engaged Buddhism: A New Way of the
Path. New York: Weatherhill, 1999.
LaFleur, William. The Karma of Words: Buddhism and the Literary Arts
in Medieval Japan. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1983.
Lopez, Donald (ed.). Buddhism in Practice. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
University Press, 1995.
. The Story of Buddhism: A Concise Guide to Its History and
Teachings. San Francisco, Calif.: Harper, 2002.
Loy, David. The Great Awakening: A Buddhist Social Theory. Boston,
Mass.: Wisdom, 2003.
Mitchell, Donald. Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Nishitani, Keiji. Religion and Nothingness. Berkeley, Calif.: University of
California Press, 1982.
Noss, David S. A History of the Worlds Religions, 11th ed. Upper Saddle
River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2003.
Parading the Tooth Relic: Kandy Esala at
http://www.pilotguides.com/destination_guide/asia/sri_lanka_and_
the_maldives/ kandy_esala_festival.php.

182

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Paul, Diana. Women in Buddhism: Images of the Feminine in the Mahyna
Tradition. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1985.
Powers, John. Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism. Ithaca, N.Y.:
Snow Lion, 1995.
Prebish, Charles, and Kenneth Tanaka (eds.). The Faces of Buddhism in
America. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press, 1998.
Prebish, Charles, and Steven Heine (eds.). Buddhism in the Modern
World: Adaptations of an Ancient Tradition. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2003.
Queen, Christopher, and Sallie King (eds.). Engaged Buddhism:
Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press,
1996.
Queen, Christopher, Charles Prebish, and Damien Keown (eds.). Action
Dharma: New Studies in Engaged Buddhism. London: Routledge,
2003.
Rahula, Walpola. What the Buddha Taught. New York: Grove Press,
1959.
Reader, Ian. Religion in Contemporary Japan. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 1991.
Reynolds, Frank, Jason Carbine, Mark Jurgensmeyer, and Richard Carp
(eds.). The Life of Buddhism. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California
Press, 2000.
Rinpoche, Sogyal. The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying. San Francisco,
Calif.: Harper, 1998.
Robinson, Richard, and Willard Johnson. The Buddhist Religion: A
Historical Introduction, third edition. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth,
1982.
Sadler, A.L. Cha-No-Yu: The Japanese Tea Ceremony. Rutland, Vt.:
Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1962.

183

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sahn, Seung. Dropping Ashes on the Buddha. Compiled and edited by
Stephen Mitchell. New York: Grove Press, 1976.
Santideva. The Bodhicaryavatara, trans. by Kate Crosby and Andrew
Skilton. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Master Sheng-yen. Hoofprint of the Ox. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2001.
Smith, Huston. Buddhism: A Concise Introduction. San Francisco, Calif.:
HarperCollins, 1993.
Smith, Jean (ed.). Radiant Mind: Essential Buddhist Teachings and Texts.
New York: Riverhead Books, 1999.
Sogen, Omori. An Introduction to Zen Training. Boston, Mass.: Tuttle, 2001.
Strong, John. The Experience of Buddhism: Sources and Interpretations.
Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1995.
. The Buddha: A Short Biography. Oxford: OneWorld Publications,
2001.
Suzuki, D.T. An Introduction to Zen Buddhism. New York: Grove Press, 1964.
Suzuki, Shunryu. Zen Mind, Beginners Mind. San Francisco, Calif.:
Weatherhill, reissued 1997.
Tanahashi, Kazuaki. Moon in a Dewdrop: Writings of Zen Master Dgen.
San Francisco, Calif.: North Point Press, 1985.
Thurman, Robert. Essential Tibetan Buddhism. San Francisco, Calif.:
Harper, 1996.
Tucker, Mary Evelyn, and Duncan Rykan Williams (eds.). Buddhism
and Ecology: The Interconnection of Dharma and Deeds. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997.
Unno, Taitetsu. River of Fire, River of Water. New York: Image/Doubleday,
1998.
Wallace, B. Alan. Tibetan Buddhism from the Ground Up: A Practical
Approach for Modern Life. Somerville, Mass.: Wisdom, 1993.

184

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wijayarnatna, Mohan. Buddhist Monastic Life: According to the Texts
of the Theravda Tradition. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University
Press, 1990.
Williams, Paul. Mahyna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.
London: Routledge, 1989.

185

FURTHER READING
GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHISM

Bercholz, Samuel, and Sherab Chdren Kohn (eds.). Entering the Stream:
An Introduction to The Buddha and His Teachings. Boston, Mass.:
Shambala, 1993.
de Bary, William Theodore, (ed.). The Buddhist Tradition in India,
China, and Japan. New York: Random House, 1972.
Gethin, Rupert. The Foundations of Buddhism. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1998.
Keown, Damien. A Dictionary of Buddhism. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2003.
. Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2000.
Lopez, Donald (ed.). Buddhism in Practice. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
University Press, 1995.
. The Story of Buddhism: A Concise Guide to Its History and
Teachings. San Francisco, Calif.: Harper, 2002.
Mitchell, Donald. Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Reynolds, Frank, and Jason Carebine (eds.). The Life of Buddhism.
Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2000.
Robinson, Richard, and Willard Johnson. The Buddhist Religion: A
Historical Introduction, third edition. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1982.
Strong, John. The Experience of Buddhism: Sources and Interpretations.
Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1995.
THE STORY OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA

Armstrong, Karen. Buddha. New York: Viking Press, 2001.

Carrithers, Michael. The Buddha. New York: Oxford University Press,
1983.

186

FURTHER READING
Strong, John. The Buddha: A Short Biography. New York: OneWorld
Publications, 2001.
TEACHINGS OF GAUTAMA BUDDHA

Hanh, Thich Nhat. The Heart of the Buddhas Teachings. New York:
Broadway Books, 1998.
Rahula, Walpola. What the Buddha Taught. New York: Grove Press,
1959.
Smith, Jean (ed.). Radiant Mind: Essential Buddhist Teachings and Texts.
New York: Riverhead Books, 1999.
MAHYNA BUDDHISM

Chen, Kenneth. Buddhism in China. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University

Press, 1972.
Gmez, Luis O. (Intro. & Trans.). The Land of Bliss: The Paradise of the
Buddha of Measureless Light. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii
Press, 1996.
Unno, Taitetsu. River of Fire, River of Water. New York: Doubleday, 1998.
Watson, Burton (trans.). The Lotus Sutra. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1993.
Williams, Paul. Mahyna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. London:
Routledge, 1989.
THERAVDA BUDDHISM

Gombrich, Robert. Theravda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient

Benares to Modern Columbo. London: Routledge, 1988.
Harvey, Peter. The Selfless Mind: Personality, Consciousness, and Nirvana
in Early Buddhism. Richmond, U.K.: Curzon Press, 1995.
Wijayarnatna, Mohan. Buddhist Monastic Life: According to the Texts of the
Theravda Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

187

FURTHER READING
BUDDHIST ART

Fisher, Robert E. Buddhist Art and Architecture. London: Thames and

Hudson, 1993.
Frdric, Louis. Buddhism. (Flammarion Iconographic Guides Series).
Paris: Flammarion, 1995.
Govinda, Lama Anagarika. Psycho-Cosmic Symbolism of the Buddhist
Stupa. Berkeley, Calif.: Dharma Publications, 1976.
Hisamatsu, Shinichi. Zen and the Fine Arts. New York: Kodansha
International, 1971.
LaFleur, William. The Karma of Words: Buddhism and the Literary Arts
in Medieval Japan. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press,
1983.
Sadler, A.L. Cha-No-Yu: The Japanese Tea Ceremony. Rutland, Vt.:
Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1962.
WOMEN AND BUDDHISM

Findly, Ellison Banks (ed.). Womens Buddhism, Buddhisms Women.

Somerville, Mass.: Wisdom, 2000.
Gross, Rita. Buddhism after Patriarchy: A Feminist History, Analysis, and
Reconstruction of Buddhism. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1993.
Klein, Anne. Meeting the Great Bliss Queen: Buddhists, Feminists, and the
Art of the Self. Boston, Mass.: Beacon, 1995.
Paul, Diana. Women in Buddhism: Images of the Feminine in the Mahyna
Tradition. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1985.
BUDDHISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Badiner, Allen Hunt (ed.). Dharma Gaia: A Harvest of Essays in

Buddhism and Ecology. Berkeley, Calif.: Parallax Press, 1990.
Kaza, Stephanie, and Kenneth Kraft (eds.). Dharma Rain: Sources of
Buddhist Environmentalism. Boston, Mass.: Shambala, 2000.

188

FURTHER READING
Tucker, Mary Evelyn, and Duncan Rykan Williams (eds.), Buddhism
and Ecology: The Interconnection of Dharma and Deeds. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997.
CHAN, SON, ZEN BUDDHISM

Abe, Masao. Zen and Western Thought. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of

Hawaii Press, 1985.
. A Study of Dgen. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1992.
App, Urs. Master Yunmen. New York: Kodansha International, 1994.
Beck, Charlotte Joko. Nothing Special: Living Zen. San Francisco, Calif.:
Harper, 1993.
Buswell, Robert. The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist Practice in
Contemporary Korea. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992.
Nishitani, Keiji. Religion and Nothingness. Berkeley, Calif.: University of
California Press, 1982.
Sahn, Seung. Dropping Ashes on the Buddha, compiled and edited by
Stephen Mitchell. New York: Grove, 1976.
Master Sheng-yen. Hoofprint of the Ox. New York: Oxford, 2001.
Sogen, Omori. An Introduction to Zen Training. Boston, Mass.: Tuttle, 2001.
Suzuki, Shunryu. Zen Mind, Beginners Mind. San Francisco, Calif.:
Weatherhill, reissued 1997.
Tanahashi, Kazuaki. Moon in a Dewdrop: Writings of Zen Master Dgen.
San Francisco, Calif.: North Point Press, 1985.
CONTEMPORARY BUDDHISM

Coleman, James William. The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Prebish, Charles, and Kenneth Tanaka (eds.). The Faces of Buddhism in
America. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1998.

189

FURTHER READING
, and Steven Heine (eds.). Buddhism in the Modern World:
Adaptations of an Ancient Tradition. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2003.
Reader, Ian. Religion in Contemporary Japan. Honolulu, Hawaii:
University of Hawaii Press, 1991.
TIBETAN BUDDHISM

Chdrn, Pema. When Things Fall Apart: Heart Advice for Difficult
Times. Boston, Mass.: Shambala, 1997.
Dalai Lama, and Howard Cutler. The Art of Happiness. New York:
Riverhead Books, 1998.
Powers, John. Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism. Ithaca, N.Y.:
Snow Lion, 1995.
Rinpoche, Sogyal. The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying. San Francisco,
Calif.: Harper, 1998.
Thurman, Robert. Essential Tibetan Buddhism. San Francisco, Calif.:
Harper, 1996.
SOCIALLY ENGAGED BUDDHISM

Jones, Ken. The New Social Face of Buddhism: A Call to Action. Boston,
Mass.: Wisdom Press, 2003.
Kraft, Kenneth (ed.). The Wheel of Engaged Buddhism: A New Way of the
Path. New York: Weatherhill, 1999.
Loy, David. The Great Awakening: A Buddhist Social Theory. Boston,
Mass.: Wisdom, 2003.
Queen, Christopher, and Sallie King (eds.). Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist
Liberation Movements in Asia. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1996.
, Charles Prebish, Damien Keown (eds.). Action Dharma: New
Studies in Engaged Buddhism. London: Routledge, 2003.

190

WEBSITES
The Buddhist World
http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld
Buddhist Temples
http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2058.html
Buddhist Corner
http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/jizo1.shtml
Buddhist Texts
http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/index.htm
Zen Buddhist Texts
http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/zen/
Index of Buddhist Teachings
http://www.shingon.org/teachings/ShingonMikkyo

191

INDEX
Abe, Masao, 3435, 165
abhaya mudra, 72
Abhidharma philosophers, 48
Abhidharma Pitaka, 42
abortion, 101
action, and Tantrism, 71
Afghanistan, Buddhism in, 67
Africa, Buddhism in, 158
aging, Buddha viewing, 21, 22, 28.
See also ancestor veneration
Ajanta caves, 115
Alexander the Great, 115, 159
altars, in temples, 8687
Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji,
155156
American Pentecostals, 159
Amida Buddha, 62, 86
Amitbha Buddha, 45, 54, 55, 61
amulets, in temples, 9798
nanda, 26, 40, 42, 108
ancestor veneration, 101102
and holidays, 132136
Anderson, Laurie, 125
Any-in, 144
arhats, 4647
Buddha meeting with in Rajagraha, 131
art, 113115
in India, 5
in Japan, 5859
in temples, 87, 113, 122123
Zen, 120124
Asanga brothers, 49
ascetic(s), 24, 25, 27
Buddha becoming, 23
Asia, Buddhism in
current status of, 158162
and history of Buddhist expansion,
59, 40
in twenty-first century,
166167
Asoka, 56, 65, 114
pillars of, 114
asymmetry, and art, 120, 121
Atisa, 68

192

attachment
art and freedom from, 120,
123124
and nonattachment, 8081
austere sublimity, and art, 120, 122
authentic reality. see suchness
authority issues, in West, 164
Avalokitesvara, 45, 69, 71
and Tenzin Gyatso, 145
Awakened-Unawakened duality, 52
Awakening, 1517, 29, 30, 31, 38, 42,
74, 7879, 157
and art, 122
and birth-death-rebirth cycle, 14,
83
and bodhisattva, 47
and Buddha, 20, 2425, 27, 130,
131
and Chan Buddhism, 56
and Dalai Lama, 69
and Dipa Ma, 147148
and Dgen, 143
explanation of, 3336
and mindfulness, 157
pure land of, 16. See also Pure
Land Buddhism
and Tantrism, 70
and Theravda Buddhism, 66
and Yogcra school, 50
Baby Boomer generation, 162, 165
Bsho, 118119
Beastie Boys, 3, 125
Beat generation, 125, 160161
bell, in temples, 88
benevolence, 10
Bhikku, Buddhadsa, 156
Bhutan, Kingdom of, Buddhism and
holidays in, 132, 138
Bible, 10, 158159
birth-death-rebirth (samsara), 9, 14,
49, 70, 83
and Buddha, 14
Blavatsky, Helena P., 160
bliss (Sambhogakya), 4446

INDEX
bodhisattvas, 45, 46
on altars, 86
and bodhissattva ideal, 43, 4647,
69
difference between Buddha and, 47
and Feast of Tara, 132, 136138
and Kuan-yin, 149
and tulkus, 144145
Boorstein, Sylvia, 158
Borobodur Temple, 113
Brahmins, 25
branches. See Mahyna Buddhism;
Theravda Buddhism; Vajrayna
Buddhism
Buddha, 74
on altars, 86
Amida, 62, 86
Amitbha, 45, 54, 55, 61
as ascetic, 23
Awakening of and becoming
Buddha, 20, 2425, 27, 130, 131
birth of, 1920, 130
and birthname, 19
and Buddha Day, 130
Daibutsu, 89, 90
death and parinirvn of, 26, 40,
43, 130
Dharmakya, 54, 60, 61
and difference between bodhisattva
and, 47
and early life, 1925
and Festival of the Tooth, 132, 136
and first teaching, 27, 89, 130131.
See also Four Noble Truths
and followers, 24, 25, 26, 27, 40,
4647, 108
as founder of Buddhism, 10
and Four Passing Sights, 2022
Fud, 139
Gautama, 10
as human, 10
images of, 113, 114, 114115, 117
and Kashyapa, 56
and later years, 26
and life as Buddha, 2526

and life of excess, 2023

and Maitreya, 117, 124
and meaning of as title, 19
and meeting arhats in Rajagraha, 131
and middle way, 23
and nuns, 108
and Rains Retreat (Vassa), 131
and self, 76, 77
and Sutra Pitaka, 42
Vairocana, 60, 61, 89, 90
Yakushi, 90
Buddha: A Short Biography, The
(John Strong), 19
Buddha Day (Vesak), 130
Buddha nature, 78, 79, 122, 142, 143
Buddhist, definition of, 913
Buddhist ecumenism, 164165
Buddhist Family in Burma, A
(U Kin Maung), 9899
Buddhist path, 79, 80
Buddhist Peace Fellowship, 166
Buddhist Society, 159
Buddhist Vision for Renewing Society,
A (Sulak Sivaraksa), 156
Butcho, 118
Cage, John, 125
calendar, 128
Cambodia,
Buddhism in, 129
history of, 8
and Theravda Buddhism, 65
Camus, Albert, 151
candles, on altars, 86
celebrities, as Buddhists, 3
Central Asia, history of Buddhism,
56
Chan Buddhism, 5557, 63,
117118, 148150
Chandaka, 2022
Chappell, David, 166
Chih-i, 51
children
in Japan, 9697
Jiz Bosatsu as deity for, 99101

193

INDEX
China, Buddhism in, 5057
and art, 117, 118, 124
and Chan Buddhism, 5557, 63,
117118, 148150
current status of, 7
and Dizang as deity for children
in, 99100
history of, 7
and holidays, 128, 129130, 133,
134136
and Hua-yen school, 5254
and Pure Land Buddhism, 5455,
61, 117
and Sheng-yen, 148150
and Taoism, 7, 15, 134, 135136
and Tien-tai school, 5152.
See also Peoples Republic of China
Ching-tu, 54.
See also Pure Land Buddhism
Chinul, 5758
Chntae, 52
Chontae school, 57
Christianity, 4, 10, 11, 15, 25, 159, 165
Chg-ji monastery, 59
Clouds in Water Zen Center, 9394
Cobb, John, 165
coin box, on altars, 86, 109
colleges/universities, Buddhism
represented on, 161
colonization, 165166
Columbia University, 161
Common Era, Buddhism in West by
beginning of, 158159
Communism. See Peoples Republic
of China
compassion, 10, 7981
and Avalokitesvara, 45, 69
Great, 35, 47, 79
and Hungry Ghost Festival, 135
and practice sessions in temples,
93, 94
and Tenzin Gyatso, 145
concentration, and Theravda
Buddhism, 65, 66
condolence money (koden), 103

194

Confucianism, 7, 134135
consciousness (vijna), 76, 7778,
83
consciousness (vijna), ordinary,
2832, 34, 35, 36, 77
conversion sangha, 162, 164, 165
conversions, 124125, 155156,
162, 164.
See also missionaries
Conze, Edward, 160
councils, and sangha, 40, 42
counter-culture, 125, 160161
craving. See desire
cremation, 101, 104105
and Buddha, 26
crematorium, 104105
Crusades, 159
cultural expressions, 112126
and art, 113115, 120124
and contributions to Western art
and expression, 124126
and haiku, 118119
and Japanese tea ceremony,
115116
and pagodas, 116118
and Zen art, 120124
Cunda, 26
current status of Buddhism,
155162
in Asia, 155158
beyond Asia and West, 158
in India, 155156
in Japan, 8, 62, 6465
in Korea, 58
in Peoples Republic of China, 7
in Sri Lanka, 5
in Thailand, 156
and Tibetan Buddhism, 157
in Vietnam, 156
in West, 158162.
See also future
Dahui, 56
Daibutsu, 89, 90
Dait, 56

INDEX
Dalai Lama
and Avalokitesvara, 45, 69
establishment of, 9, 6869, 144
Snam Gyatso as, 93
Tenzin Gyatso as fourteenth, 3, 66,
69, 124, 144146, 157, 158
Dalits, 155
death, 12
of Buddha, 26, 40, 43, 130
Buddha viewing, 22, 28
and Buddhism in Japan,
101105
and cremation, 26, 101, 104105
and funerals, 101, 102105
and Great Death, 34
and infants, 100
and Obon, 132136
and Sennichi Kaihgy, 139
and Tibetan Buddhism, 105
transmigration at, 78, 81, 83, 111
death name (kaimyo), 104
Deer Park
Buddhas Sermon at, 27, 89,
130131. See also Four Noble
Truths
Todaiji located in, 89
deity yoga, and Tantrism, 71
DeMartino, Richard, 56
demographics, 35
dependent co-arising (prattyasamutpta), 29, 48
desire (tanha), 27, 2932, 75.
See also Fourth Noble Truth;
suffering; Third Noble Truth
Detsen, Trisong, 67
devotional Buddhism, 1112, 111
and Korean Buddhism, 57
and Pure Land Buddhism, 5455
and Tien-tai school, 52
Dhamma Cakka Suta, 131
dharma, 26, 42
and Buddha, 26, 55
and future, 166
and missionaries, 10
and nuns, 108

Dharma Day (Asalha Puja Day),

130131
Dharma Drum Mountain center, 150
dharma heirs, 161
Dharma, Lang, 68
Dharmakya Buddha, 54, 60, 61
diet, 10, 79
Dipa Ma, 146148
dissatisfaction, 2829, 30, 32
distribution, 35
divination, for Buddha, 20
Dizang, 99100
Dgen, 57, 6364, 142144
diri, 139140
Donghou, 149150
Drubpa, Gendn, 68
dryness, and art, 120, 122
duality. See nondualistic-dual
framework
dukkha, 156
East Asia, Buddhism in
and art, 115, 117
and holidays, 132136
education
and Buddhism represented on
college campuses, 161
and monasticism, 96
and temples, 96
egoism, 106
Eightfold Path (Fourth Noble Truth),
27, 3638, 65
Eiheiji, 144
Eisai, 57, 63, 143
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 125, 160
emptiness (snyat), 4849, 74, 75
and Hua-yen school, 5354
and Tien-tai school, 51
engaged Buddhist movement.
See socially engaged Buddhism
Enmei Jiz Bosatsu, 100101
entrance gate, in temple, 85
essence (Dharmakya), 44, 46
ethical code, 10, 111
ethnic Buddhists, 162, 165

195

INDEX
Evangelicals, 159
existence, 4849, 78
inauthentic, 17
three characteristics of, 7479
faith, and Pure Land Buddhism, 5455
family, 96101
and deity for children, 99101
in Japan, 9698
in Myanmar/Burma, 9899
and prayers, 96
Fa-tsang, 52, 53
Feast of Tara, 132, 136138
female sex organ, and lotus, 88
Festival of the Tooth, 132, 136
filial piety, 134135
fires, welcoming (mukae-bi), 134
First Noble Truth, 2729, 30
Fisher, Robert, 117
Five Precepts, 99, 109, 111, 130, 148
Flower Garland school. See Hua-yen
school
form or body (rpa), 76, 77
Four Noble Truths, 2738, 109, 123
First, 2729, 30
Fourth (Eightfold Path), 27,
3638, 65
Second, 27, 2932
Third, 27, 3236
Four Passing Sights, 2022
Fourfold Assembly Day, 131
Fourth Noble Truth (Eightfold Path),
27, 3638, 65
France, and Thich Nhat Hanh, 157
Friends of the Western Buddhist
Order, 156
fuda, 98
Fud, 139
fulfilled love, 36
funerals, 101, 102105
future, 162, 164167
future of Buddhism
in Asia, 166167
in United States, 162, 164165
in West, 166

196

Gampo, Songtsen, 67
Gautama Buddha, 10.
See also Buddha
Gautama, Siddhartha, 19.
See also Buddha
Geluk school, 6869
gender structure, in West, 164.
See also monks; nuns
Gere, Richard, 3, 125
Geshin, 62
Ghost Month, 134, 135
ghosts, and Hungry Ghost Festival,
132, 134136
Ginsberg, Alan, 125, 161
giving (dna), 47
Goldstein, Joseph, 148
Great Buddha Hall
Great Compassion (Mahkaruna),
35, 47, 79
Great Death, 34
great doubt block, 34
Great Renunciation, The, 22
Great Wisdom (Mahprajn), 35, 79
growing up Buddhist. See death;
family; layperson; monks; nuns
Gyatso, Gendn, 68
Gyatso, Snam, 6869
Gyatso, Tenzin (fourteenth Dalai
Lama), 3, 66, 69, 124, 144146,
157, 158
haikai, 118
haiku, 118119
Hakuin, 56
Han Dynasty, 7
hanging scroll (kakemono), 116
Hanh, Thich Nhat, 37, 156157, 158
harm. See non-harm
harmony (wa), and tea ceremony,
116
Harvard University, 161
hashi (chopsticks), 105
hearse, 104
Heian period, 59
Heidegger, Martin, 125

INDEX
hell, 100
here and now, 38, 75
Hiei, Mount, 52, 63, 64, 142
and Sennichi Kaihgy, 132,
138140.
See also Tendai sect
highest yoga, and Tantrism, 71
hikes, and Sennichi Kaihgy, 132,
138140
Hinduism, 4, 1213, 15, 16, 72,
7475, 79
and atman, 78
and Buddha studying with holy
men, 2223
Buddhism retaining teachings of,
2526
and cremation, 26
and decline of Buddhism, 155156
and hell, 100
male and female deities paired in,
137
Hisamatsu Shinichi, 120124
holidays, 12, 127140
holy man/men, 25
Buddha studying with, 2223
Buddha viewing, 22
home altar, 12, 9899, 105
Hnen, 62
Horyji, 5859
and pagoda, 117
Hoss school, 59
householders, 12.
See also laypeople
Hua-yen school, 5254
human rights, 165166
Humphries, Christmas, 160
Hungry Ghost Festival, 132, 134136
hunting, 10, 38, 79
hwadu, 58
ignorance (avidya), 17, 29, 30
ikebana (flower arrangement), 116
impermanence (anicca), 48, 74, 75,
113, 119
impurity, and death, 102

inauthentic existence, 17
incense
on altars, 86
in funerals, 103, 104
India, Buddhism in
and Ambedkar, 155156
and art, 5, 113, 114, 114115
and Buddha, 2526
current status of, 155156
and Dalai Lama, 146
and Dipa Ma, 148
and Friends of the Western
Buddhist Order, 156
history of, 5
and Madhyamika school, 4849
and Tibet, 9, 146
and Trailokya Bauddha
Mahasangha, 156
and Yogcra school, 48, 4950.
See also Hinduism
individual objects (sabi), 115
Indonesia, history of Buddhism in,
8
Indras Net, 53
infants, and death, 100
initiation, and Tantrism, 70
International Network of Engaged
Buddhists, 156
Internet, 158
interreligious dialogue, 165
Islam, 4, 10, 11, 15, 25
Jainism, 13, 74, 79
Japan, Buddhism in
and art, 117, 118119, 122123,
124
current status of, 8, 62, 6465
and death, 101105
and Dgen, 142144
and family, 9698
history of, 78
and holidays, 132, 133134,
138140
and Jiz Bosatsu as deity for
children, 99101

197

INDEX
and Mahyna Buddhism, 4243
and Nichiren Buddhism, 59,
6465
and Pure Land Buddhism, 54, 59,
6162
and Rinzai Buddhism, 57, 63,
122123, 143
and Shen-yen, 150
and Shingon Buddhism, 59, 6061
and Shinto, 58, 9697, 101102
and Ska Gakkai movement, 59,
65, 158
and St Zen Buddhism, 57, 64,
142, 144
and tea ceremony, 115116
and temples, 4243, 5859, 64, 86,
87, 88, 8890, 9798, 122123,
144
and Tendai sect, 52, 59, 63, 132,
138140, 142
and Zen, 15
and Zen Buddhism, 49, 56, 59,
6264, 142144
Jtakas, 20, 114
Java, Buddhist temples in, 113
Jin-an Monastery, 149
Jiz Bosatsu, 99101
Jjitsu school, 59
Ju-ching, 143144
Judaism, 10, 11, 15
Kadam school, 68
Kagyu school, 68
Kapilavastu, 19
karma, 1315, 16, 25, 74
and death, 81, 83
generation of, 29
and hell, 100
and sannyasin, 22
Kashyapa, 56
Kegon school, 59, 89
Kennin-ji Temple, 63, 143, 144
Kerouac, Jack, 125, 161
Khan, Altan, 69
Kogury kingdom, 57

198

Korea, Buddhism in
and art, 117, 118
and Chntae, 52
history of, 7
and holidays, 128
and Mahyna Buddhism, 4243
and Pure Land Buddhism, 54, 58
and Son, 57, 58
Kornfield, Jack, 148, 158
Ksh-ji, 144
Kya, Mount, 60
Koyasu Jiz, 100
Kraft, Kenneth, 166
Kshatriyas, 25
Ksitigarbha, 100
Kuan-yin, 149
Kudara Kannon, 59
Kudara (Paekche) kingdom, 57, 59
Kkai, 61
as Kbo Daishi, 60
tomb of (Goby), 60
Kundun (movie), 3, 125
kung-an (koan), 56, 57, 63
Kuomintang, 149
Kusha school, 59
Kusinagar, 26
Kya, 62
lamas, 145.
See also Dalai Lama
Langhui, 149
Langshan, 149
Lantern Festival, 130
lanterns
and Lantern Festival, 130
salvation, 135
Laos, Buddhism in, 129
history of, 8
and Theravda Buddhism, 65
laypeople, 12, 108109, 111
and art, 113
and Buddhist path, 80
and karma, 16
monks and nuns supported by, 12,
99, 108109

INDEX
and poetry, 118
and rules of conduct, 42
and Theravda Buddhism, 65
and visit to temple, 8788
lecture hall, in temple, 85
Lin-chi, 57
Lin-chi school, 57, 63
Lingyuan, 149
lions, 5253
Little Buddha (movie), 3, 125
lokas, 1415, 52
Lotus school. See Tien-tai school
Lotus Sutra, 51, 64
lotuses, 88, 114
love (Mahkarun), 10, 36, 7980
loving-kindness (metta), and Dipa
Ma, 148
Lumbin, Buddha born in, 19
Mdhyamika school, 4849
mahsaghika (great community),
42
Mahyna Buddhism, 40, 42, 4265
and bodhissattva ideal, 43, 4647,
66, 69
and emptiness, 75
and female monastics, 108
and Five Precepts, 109, 111
and holidays, 128, 129130,
132136
in India, 5
and mahsaghika, 42
and marriage for monastics, 62,
106
religio-philosophical developments in, 4765
and social structure, 12
and Trikya, 4346, 66
in United States, 160
and Vajrayna Buddhism,
66, 68.
See also China, Buddhism in;
Japan, Buddhism in; Korea,
Buddhism in
main hall, in temples, 85, 117

Maitreya, 117, 124

Maitreyanntha, 49
Malaysia, Buddhism in
history of, 8
and Yogcra school, 48, 4950
male sex organ, and vajra, 88
Mandala, Greyston, 166
mandalas, 61, 7172, 113, 124
Manjusri, 117
mantras, 61, 72
Mao Tse-tung, 149
mapp, 55, 64
Mra (the Great Temptor), 2324
Marpa, 68
master-student relationship, and
Chan Buddhism, 56
Matrix series (movies), 125
Maung, U Kin, 9899
Mauryan period, 114
My, 19, 20
medical help
from monks, 85, 96
and Yakushi (Medicine Buddha),
90
meditation (dhyna), 47, 111
and Chan Buddhism, 5557
and Dipa Ma, 147, 148
and Hua-yen school, 54
and mandalas, 61, 7172, 113, 124
and practice sessions in temples,
9394
and Ryanji, 122123
and Shen-yen, 149
in Shingon Buddhism, 61
and Tantrism, 7071
and Tien-tai school, 51, 52
and Yogcra school, 50
memories. See teachers
mental formations (samskra), 76
Merton, Thomas, 165
middle way, 48
and Buddha, 23
military service, 10, 38, 79
mind, 30, 37, 38
mindfulness, 38, 157

199

INDEX
mind-only, 49
Miroku, 59
missionaries
and Buddhism, 56, 1011, 25
and Christianity, 25, 159
and Islam, 25.
See also conversions
Mitchell, Donald, 43, 53, 162, 164165
mizuko (water baby), 101
monasteries, temples as, 12, 85, 88
monasticism. See monks; nuns
mndo (Zen dialogue), 123
monks, 12, 105108
and art, 113
criteria for, 106107
and districts, 105106
education provided by, 96
laypeople supporting, 12, 99,
108109
life and duties of, 107
and marriage, 62, 106
medical help from, 85, 96
and music, 125
and nirvana, 16
and nonattchment, 8081
and novices, 107
and nuns as subordinate to, 108,
164
and ordination, 107
and poetry, 118
and residing in temple, 12, 85, 88
and rules of conduct, 42, 105,
106
and Sennichi Kaihgy, 132,
138140
and taking care of temple, 85, 87,
88
in temples, 12
and Theravda Buddhism, 65, 66
and Three Refuges, 107
and tonsure, 107.
See also Dalai Lama
morality (sila), 37, 47
and Theravda Buddhism, 6566
and Vajrayna Buddhism, 66

200

Mother of All Buddhas, Tara as, 137

movies, Buddhist themes in, 3, 125
mudras, 61, 72, 113
Mu-lien, 135
music, and monks, 125
Myanmar/Burma, Buddhism in, 8,
98
and Dipa Ma, 9899, 147148
and family, 9899
history of, 8
and holidays, 129
and Theravda Buddhism, 65, 98
Myzen, 63, 143
mystery (yugen), 115
Ngrjuna, 4849
Nani Bala Barua. See Dipa Ma
Nara period, 8, 59
Narrow Road to the Far North
(Bsho), 118
naturalness, and art, 120, 122
nature
and asymmetry, 121
and austere sublimity, 122
nembutsu, 62
New Age movement, 125
New Kadam school, 68
New Year, 128130
Nichiren, 64
Nichiren Buddhism, 59, 61, 6465
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 151, 159
nihilistic argument, 4849
nirvana, 15, 42, 49, 60, 70
Nishitani, Keiji, 77, 165
nonattachment, 8081
and art, 120, 123124
nondualistic-dual framework, 3435,
36, 51, 61, 7778, 80, 123, 157
nonexistence, 49
non-harm (ahimsa), 74, 7980
Northern School, of Chan Buddhism, 57
no-self (anatman), 74, 7579,
101102
novitiate, 107

INDEX
nuns, 12, 105, 108
and districts, 105106
education provided by, 96
laypeople supporting, 12, 99,
108109
and marriage, 62, 106
and nonattchment, 8081
and poetry, 118
and residing in temple, 12, 85, 88
and rules of conduct, 42, 105, 106
as subordinate to monks, 108, 164
and taking care of temple, 85, 87,
88
in temples, 12
Nyingma school, 68
objects, 2932, 34, 3536
Obon, 132134
observance hall (uposatha), 105106
Olcott, H.S., 160
old age. See aging
omamori, 98
mawari, 140
Order of Interbeing, 157
ordinary consciousness, 2832, 34,
35, 36, 77
other (tarkik), 62
outcastes, 25
Padmasambhava Day, 132, 138
Paekche kingdom, 57, 59
pagodas, 116118
Pakistan, Buddhism in, 67
Pali Canon, 5
Pali language, 131
Pali Text Society, 159
Pp, 26
parinirvn, and Buddha, 26, 40, 43,
130
patience (ksnti), 47
ptimokkha, 106
peace, 11, 37
Peoples Republic of China
Buddhism in, 7
and communism, 67, 145146, 149

and Cultural Revolution, 67

and human rights, 166
and Sheng-yen, 148150
and Tibet, 9, 67, 145146, 157.
See also China, Buddhism in
perceptions (samj), 76
storehouse of, 4950
performance, and Tantrism, 71
poetry, 118119
Potala Palace, 145
Powers, John, 70
practice sessions, in Buddhist centers,
9394
Prajpat, 20
pratyeka-buddha, arhat as, 4647
prayer flag, 124
prayers, and family, 96.
See also devotional Buddhism
priest, and funerals, 103, 104
profundity, and art, 120, 122123
prostration, and Tantrism, 70
pure land, of Awakening, 16
Pure Land Buddhism
in China, 45, 5455, 61, 117
in Japan, 54, 59, 6162
in Korea, 54, 58
Pure Land Scripture, 54
Pure Land (Western Paradise), 54
purity (sei)
and lotus, 88
and tea ceremony, 116
Putu, 135136
Queen, Christopher, 166
Quran, 10
Rhula, 20
Rains Retreat (Vassa), 131
Rjagraha, 131
council in, 40, 42
Reader, Ian, 101
reality, 78
authentic, 50
and here and now, 38, 75
and Tien-tai school, 5152

201

INDEX
rebirth, 1415, 16, 25, 74, 78,
101102, 111
and birth-death-rebirth, 9, 14, 49,
70, 83
and Buddha, 1920
and family, 96
and transmigration at death, 78,
81, 83, 111
Reeves, Keanu, 3
reserve, and art, 120, 122123
restrained expression (wabi), 115
retreats (sesshin), 92
reverence (kei), and tea ceremony,
116
Right Action, 10, 3738, 65
Right Concentration, 37, 38
Right Effort, 37
Right Intention, 36, 37
Right Livelihood, 3738, 65
Right Speech, 37, 65
Right View, 36, 37
Rinpoche, Sogyal, 81
Rinzai Buddhism, 57, 63, 122123, 143
Rissh Ksei-kai, 65
Ritsu school, 59
River of Fire, River of Water (Taitetsu
Unno), 153
River of the Three Hells, 103
rock garden, Zen, 122123
rosary, 87
Rshi, Banatetsugy, 150
Rule of No Rule, 123124
Ruler of Earth (Zhong), 135136
Ryanji, 122123
Rynin, 62
saddhu, 22
Saich, 52
Sai-no-Kawara, 100
Sakya school, 68

Skyamui,
19
salvation lanterns, 135
Salzberg, Sharon, 148
Sambhota, Thonmi, 67
samurai warriors, 8

202

Sanchi, Hill of, 113, 114

sangha, 12, 25, 26, 40
and councils, 40, 42
Sangha Day (Magha Puja Day),
131132
sannyasin, 22
Sanron school, 59
Srnth, 27, 89
Sartre, Jean Paul, 125
satori, 15
Schopenhauer, Arthur, 125, 159
scriptures, 10, 3972
Seagal, Steven, 3
seals, and Tantrism, 71
Second Noble Truth, 27, 2932
Seeds of Peace (Sulak Sivaraksa),
156
self (atman), 29, 31, 62, 78
and no-self (anatman), 74, 7579
and Tien-tai school, 51
True, 34, 35
Sen no Rikyu, 115, 116
Sennichi Kaihgy, 132, 138140
sensations (vedan), 30, 76, 77
Seventeen Article Constitution, 58
sexual activity
monks, 106
and Tantrism, 69, 71
Shriputra, 4647
Sheng-yen, 148150
Shichi-go-san festival, 97
Shin Buddhism, 150151, 153
Shingon Buddhism, 59, 6061
Shinran, 62
Shinto, 58, 9697, 101102
Shbgenz Zuimonki (Dgen),
64, 144
shoes, removal of in temples, 86
Shmu, 90
Shtoku, 8, 58
sickness, Buddha viewing, 2122, 28
Sikhism, 13
Silla kingdom, 57
simplicity, and art, 120, 122
Sivaraksa, Sulak, 156

INDEX
Six Perfections (pramits), 47
Six Realms of Existence, 99100
skandha, 7677
Snyder, Gary, 125, 161
social attitude, 25
social structure, 12.
See also laypeople; monks; nuns
socially engaged Buddhism, 157,
165166
and Thich Nhat Hanh, 156157,
158
Sen, Shaku, 160
Ska Gakkai movement, 59, 65, 158
Son Buddhism, 57, 58
Songkran, 129
St Zen Buddhism, 57, 64, 142,
144
South America, Buddhism in, 158
South Asian worldview, 12
Southeast Asia, Buddhism in
and art, 115
history of, 89
and Theravda Buddhism, 6566
Southern school, of Chan
Buddhism, 57
Szu-no-Kawara no Uba, 100
Sri Lanka, Buddhism in, 9
and art, 115
history of, 5
and holidays, 129, 136
and Theravda Buddhism, 65
Srong-tsan-gam-po, 9
sthaviras (seniors), 42
stillbirth, 101
storehouse of perceptions (layavijana), 4950
striving (virya), 47
Strong, John
stpas, in temples, 8889, 113, 114,
116117
Suan Mokkhabalarama, 156
subject, 29, 31, 32, 3536
subject-I, 29, 31, 32, 34, 78
suchness (tathat), 50, 52
Suddhodana, 2021

suffering (dukkha), 17, 2729, 7475,

7778
and non-harm, 7980
Sui period, 117
Sujt, 23
sutra, 10
and funerals, 104
Sutra Pitaka, 42
Suzuki, D.T., 116, 120, 160, 165
Taiwan, Buddhism in
and holidays, 132, 134136
and Mahyn Buddhism, 4243
and Shen-yen, 150
Takuan Soho, 116
Taliban, 6
Tang period, 117
tanka, 118
tantra, 69
Tantrism, 60, 61, 68, 6971
symbols of, 7172, 114
Taoism, 7, 15, 134, 135136
Tara, Feast of, 132, 136138
Taue Jiz, 100
tea ceremony, Japanese, 115116
tea garden (chaniwa), 115
tea room, 116
teachers, 141153
and death, 83
and dharma heirs, 161
Dipa Ma, 146148
Dgen, 57, 6364, 142144
second generation of in West, 161
Sheng-yen, 148150
Taitetsu Unno, 150151, 153
and Tantrism, 70
Tenzin Gyatso, 3, 66, 69, 124,
144146, 157, 158
teaching. See dharma; teachers
teahouse, 116
temizuya, 8990
temples, 12, 8494, 96
and altars, 8687
and amulets, 9798
and art, 87, 113, 122123

203

INDEX
and bell, 88
and coin box, 86, 109
and death, 12
and education, 96
and entrance, 85
and funerals, 101, 103, 104
and holidays, 12, 129, 130
in Japan, 5859, 64, 86, 87, 88,
8890, 9798, 122123, 144
and laypeople, 108109
learning about, 94
and lecture hall, 85
and lotus, 88
and Mahyna Buddhism, 4243
and main hall, 85, 117
monks and nuns residing in, 12,
85, 88
and pagodas, 117
and practice sessions, 9394
and shoe removal, 86
and structure, 8589
and stpas, 8889, 113, 114,
116117
and temple complex, 8589
in Tibet, 67
in United States, 90, 9293
and vajra, 88
Vajrayna, 87
and visitors, 8788
and wheel, 87, 88
and Zen Buddhism, 87
Ten Precepts, 107
Tendai sect, 52, 59, 63, 142
and Sennichi Kaihgy, 132,
138140
Teruo, 150151
Thailand, Buddhism in
and Buddhadsa Bhikku, 156
current status of, 155156
history of, 8
and holidays, 129, 130131
and Sulak Sivaraksa, 156
and Theravda Buddhism, 65, 156
thangkas, 124
theistic Buddhism, 4546, 4748

204

Theosophical Society, 160

Theosophy, 160
Theravda Buddhism, 40, 42, 6566
and arhat, 46
and Five Precepts, 109, 111, 130
and holidays, 129, 130131,
132136
in India, 5
in Myanmar/Burma, 65, 98
and nuns, 108
and social structure, 12
in Southeast Asia, 9, 6566
in Sri Lanka, 5
and sthaviras, 42
in Thailand, 65, 156
in United States, 160, 161
Therigtha, 108
Third Noble Truth, 27, 3236
Thoreau, Henry David, 124125, 160
Three Jewels, 37, 131
Three Refuges, 70, 99, 107, 109
Three Treasures, 58
threefold truth, 51
Thurman, Robert, 81, 83
Tibet, Buddhism in/Tibetan Buddhism
and art, 115
current status of, 157
and death, 105
and Geluk school, 6869
history of, 9, 6768
and holidays, 128, 130, 132,
136138
and India, 9, 146
male and female deities paired in,
137
and monasteries, 67
and Peoples Republic of China, 9,
67, 145146, 157
and statue of Gautama Buddha, 67
and tulkus, 144145
and United States, 161
and West, 3, 125126, 146, 161.
See also Dalai Lama; Vajrayna
Buddhism

INDEX
Tibetan Book of the Dead, The, 81,
83, 105
Tien-tai school, 5152, 57
Tien-tung monastery, 143
Todaiji, 59, 8990
tomb, family (ohaka), 134
tonsure, 107
Tooth, Festival of the, 132, 136
trade routes, 159
Trailokya Bauddha Mahasangha
(TBM), 156
tranquility (jaku)
and art, 120, 124
and tea ceremony, 116
transformation (Nirmnakya), 44
transmigration at death, 78, 81, 83, 111.
See also rebirth
Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, 94,
120121
Trikya, 4346
Tripitaka (Three Baskets), 42, 65
True Self, 34, 35
truth, 78, 128
absolute, 49
conventional, 49
threefold, 51.
See also dharma
Tsao-tung school, 57.
See also St Zen Buddhism
Tsong Khapa, 68
tulkus, 144145
Turner, Tina, 3, 125
Tu-Shun, 52
Uichon, 57
Ulambana (Ancestors Day),
132136
United States, Buddhism in, 3, 4
and conversions, 162, 164, 165
current status of, 158
and Dipa Ma, 148
and ethnic Buddhists, 162, 165
and future, 162, 164165
and impressions of Buddhism, 3
in nineteenth century, 124125, 160

and other religions, 3, 4

and Sheng-yen, 150
and Taitetsu Unno, 150151, 153
and temples, 90, 9293
in twentieth century, 3, 125,
160162
and Zen Buddhism, 90, 9294,
160161.
See also West, Buddhism in
University of Chicago, 161
University of Wisconsin, 161
Unno, Taitetsu, 150151, 153
Upli, 40
urn, and cremated body, 105
Vairocana Buddha, 60, 61, 89, 90
Vaisli, council in, 42
vajra, 72
in temples, 88
Vajrayna Buddhism, 5, 6672
in Bhutan, 138
and bodhisattva, 66
and eight fears, 137
and Geluk school, 6869
and holidays, 132, 136138
in India, 5
schools of, 6769
and Tantrism, 6971
and temples, 87
and transmigration at death, 83
and Trikya, 66.
See also Tantrism; Tibet,
Buddhism in
Vasubandhu, 49
vegetarian diet, 79
Vietnam, Buddhism in
current status of, 156157
history of, 8
and holidays, 128
and Thich Nhat Hanh, 156157
Vietnam War, 156
Vimalakirti, 117
Vinaya Pitaka, 42, 105, 106
violence, 10, 3738
Visakah Puja, 130

205

INDEX
visualizations, and Yogcra school,
50
Vulture Peak, 56
wake, and death, 104
Walden (Henry David Thoreau), 125
Watts, Alan, 160
way of tea (cha-no-yu), 115116
Wei-hsin, Ching-yan, 34, 35
West, Buddhism in
and Buddhist conributions to art
and expression, 124126
current status of, 158162
history of, 158159
and human rights, 165166
and Tantrism, 69, 71
and Tibetan Buddhism, 3,
125126, 146
in twentieth century, 160162
in twenty-first century, 166
and Vajrayna Buddhism, 66
and Zen Buddhism, 55, 63,
125126, 158
wheels, 113, 114
and Kalachakra, 113
in temples, 87, 88
Whitman, Walt, 160
wisdom (bodhi/praj), 27, 47
Great, 35, 79
and Theravda Buddhism, 65, 66
women, 25
and Dipa Ma, 146148.
See also gender issues; nuns
World Parliament of Religions, 160
world religion, Buddhism as, 35, 65
worldview, 12, 7383
and nonattachment, 8081

206

and non-harm (ahimsa), 7980

and three characteristics of
existence, 7479
and transmigration at death, 78,
81, 83
worship, 8494, 96.
See also temples
Wu, 52
Wu-chi, 143
Yakushi (Medicine Buddha), 90
Yasodhar, 20
yoga, and Tantrism, 71
Yogcra school, 48, 4950
Yoshitada, Todo, 118
Zen, 15
Zen and Japanese Culture (D.T. Suzuki),
116
Zen and the Fine Arts (Shinichi
Hisamatsu), 120124
Zen Buddhism, 34, 49, 55, 56
and art, 120124
and Bsho, 118
and Dgen, 57, 6364, 142144
and Great Death, 34
in Japan, 49, 56, 59, 6264,
142144
Rinzai, 57, 63, 122123, 143
St, 57, 64, 142, 144
and True Self, 34, 35
in United States, 90, 9294,
160161
in West, 55, 63, 125126, 158.
See also Chan Buddhism
Zhong Kui, 136
Zhong Yuan, 135

PICTURE CREDITS
Page:

6: Statistics adapted from

www.adherents.com
B: Leonard de Selva/CORBIS
C: Gilles Mermet/Art Resource,
NY
D: (top) The Newark Museum/
Art Resource, NY
D: (bottom) Runion des Muses
Nationaux/Art Resource, NY

E: David Samuel Robbins/

CORBIS
F: (top) Scala/Art Resource,
NY
F: (bottom) Brian A. Vikander/
CORBIS
G: Brian A. Vikander/CORBIS
H: Wolfgang Kaehler/CORBIS

Cover: Kurt Stier/CORBIS

Frontis: Courtesy of the C.I.A.

207

CONTRIBUTORS
LESLIE D. ALLDRITT is an Associate Professor of Religion and
Philosophy at Northland College in Ashland, Wisconsin. He earned his
Ph.D. in Religious Studies from Temple University in 1991 and was
privileged to study with Dr. Richard DeMartino at Temple University.
His current research interest is Japanese Buddhism and its relationship
to the burakumin, a discriminated group in Japan. Born in Kansas,
he currently resides in northern Wisconsin with his wife, Vicki, and
son, Owen.

ANN MARIE B. BAHR is professor of religious studies at South Dakota

State University. Her areas of teaching, research, and writing include
World Religions, New Testament, Religion in American Culture, and
the Middle East. Her articles have appeared in Annual Editions: World
Religions 03/04 (Guilford, Conn.: McGraw-Hill, 2003), The Journal of
Ecumenical Studies, and Covenant for a New Creation: Ethics, Religion
and Public Policy (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 1991). Since 1999, she has
authored a weekly newspaper column which analyzes the cultural
significance of religious holidays. She has served as president of the
Upper Midwest Region of the American Academy of Religion.

MARTIN E. MARTY, an ordained minister in the Evangelical Lutheran

Church in America, is the Fairfax M. Cone Distinguished Service

Professor Emeritus at the University of Chicago Divinity School, where
he taught for thirty-five years. Marty has served as president of the
American Academy of Religion, the American Society of Church
History, and the American Catholic Historical Association, and was also
a member of two U.S. presidential commissions. He is currently Senior
Regent at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota. Marty has written
more than fifty books, including the three-volume Modern American
Religion (University of Chicago Press). His book Righteous Empire was
a recipient of the National Book Award.

208

REVELATION