Manufacturing Process

Amey D. Patwardhan

Chapter 1

1. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND CLASSIFICATION

Manufacturing processes are the steps through which raw materials are
transformed into a product. The manufacturing processes can be broadly classified into
three categories viz. shaping, joining and finishing processes as shown schematically in
Fig.1.1.

Fig.1.1. Classification of manufacturing processes

2. METAL CASTING
2.1. Introduction
Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known. Casting is
the process in which liquid molten metal is poured into the casting cavity whose shape is
same as that of shape of object to be produced. When solidified, the desired metal object
is taken out from the mould either by breaking the mould or taking the mould apart. The
solidified object is called the casting. There are castings in locomotives, cars trucks,
aircraft, office buildings, factories, schools, and homes.

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Fig.1.2 Casting Process

2.1.1. Advantages
1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can
be made by this process.
2. It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous.
3. As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large saving in weight
can be achieved.
4. The necessary tools required for casting Moulds are very simple and
inexpensive. As a result, for production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.
5. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be
processed this way.
6. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

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2.1.2. Limitations
1. Lesser dimensional accuracy.
2. The metal casting process is a labour intensive process.
History
3200 B.C. A copper frog, the oldest known casting in existence, is cast in Mesopotamia.
233 B.C. Cast iron plowshares are poured in China.
500 A.D. Cast crucible steel is first produced in India, but the process is lost until 1750,
when Benjamin Huntsman reinvents it in England.
1455 Dillenburg Castle in Germany is the first to use cast iron pipe to transport water.
1480 Birth of Vannoccio Biringuccio (1480-1539), the "father of the foundry industry," in
Italy. He is the first man to document the foundry process in writing.
1809 Centrifugal casting is developed by A. G. Eckhardt of Soho, England.
Metal Casting History (India)
3000 BC Earliest castings include the 11 cm high bronze dancing girl found at Mohen-jodaro.
2000 BC Iron pillars, arrows, hooks, nails, bowls and daggers or earlier have been found
in Delhi, Roopar, Nashik and other places.
500 BC Large scale state-owned mints and jewellery units, and processes of metal
extraction and alloying have been mentioned in Kautilya's Arthashastra
500 A.D. Cast crucible steel is first produced in India, but the process is lost until 1750,
when Benjamin Huntsman reinvents it in England.
2.2. GATING SYSTEM/CASTING TERMS
Gating system is the path provided to the liquid molten metal in order to fill the mould
cavity. Elements of gating system are shown in fig.1.5.
Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mould is formed.
Drag lower moulding flask, Cope upper moulding flask, Cheek intermediate
moulding flask used in three piece moulding.

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Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mould cavity is made with the
help of pattern.
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the
mould.
Moulding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases.
It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.
Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface
of the mould cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
Core: A separate part of the mould, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to
create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten
metal is poured. It helps in maintaining the required rate of liquid metal flow. It also helps
in separating dross, slag and foreign element etc. from molten metal before it enters the
sprue.
Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches
the mould cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould.
Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the
gate.
Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity.
Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mould cavity. Chaplets are
made up of same material which molten metal have. During solidification, chaplets
become part of casting.
Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mould to feed the castings as it shrinks
and solidifies. Also known as feed head.

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Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape of air and gases.

Fig.1.3. Terms in Casting Process

Fig.1.4. Gating System (Elements of gating system)

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Fig.1.5. Alternative diagram for gating system

Fig.1.6. Molten metal flow though gating system

2.2.1. Goals of Gating System

1. To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the mould

2. To get enough metal into the mould cavity before the metal starts to solidify
3. To avoid shrinkage
4. Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying casting so
that the shrinkage if occurs must be in the gating system not in the required
cast part.
5. Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions

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2.2.2. Types of gating system

1. Pressurized Gating System

1. The total cross sectional area decreases towards the mould cavity
2. Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the metal flow
3. Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates
4. Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the sprue always runs full
5. Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity leading to more
turbulence and chances of mould erosion
2. Un-Pressurized Gating System

1. The total cross sectional area increases towards the mold cavity
2. Restriction only at the bottom of sprue
3. Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates aspiration in the gating
system as the system never runs full
4. Less turbulence

Fig.1.7. Pressurised(left) and non-pressurised(right) gating systems

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2.2.3. Role of riser in sand casting

1. Metals and their alloys shrink as they cool or solidify and hence may create a partial
vacuum within the casting which leads to casting defect known as shrinkage or
void. The primary function of riser as attached with the mould is to feed molten
metal to accommodate shrinkage occurring during solidification of the casting.
2. Riser permits the escape of evolved air and Mould gases as the Mould cavity is
being filled with the molten metal.
3. It also indicates to the foundry man whether Mould cavity has been filled
completely or not. The suitable design of riser also helps to promote the directional
solidification and hence helps in production of desired sound casting.
2.3. STEPS IN MAKING SAND CASTINGS
There are six basic steps in making sand castings:
1. Patternmaking
2. Core making
3. Moulding
4. Melting and pouring
5. Cleaning
1. Pattern making
Pattern can be said as a model or the replica of the object to be cast except for the
various al1owances a pattern exactly resembles the casting to be made. It may be
defined as a model or form around which sand is packed to give rise to a cavity known
as Mould cavity in which when molten metal is poured, the result is the cast object. When
this mould/cavity is filled with molten metal, molten metal solidifies and produces a
casting (product). So the pattern is the replica of the casting. If the casting is to be hollow,
as in the case of pipe fittings, additional patterns, referred as cores are used to form
these cavities.

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2. Core making
Core is used to produce hollowness in castings in form of internal cavities. Cores are
forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mould cavity to form the interior
surfaces of castings.
3. Moulding
Moulding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mould for receiving molten
metal. Moulding usually involves placing a moulding aggregate/sand around a pattern
held with a supporting frame, withdrawing the pattern to leave the mould cavity, setting
the cores in the mould cavity and finishing and closing the mould.
4. Melting and Pouring
The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting. Melting is
usually done in a specifically designated area of the foundry, and the molten metal is
transferred to the pouring area where (mould cavity) the moulds are filled.
5. Cleaning
Cleaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal of sand, scale, and excess
metal from the casting. Burned-on sand and scale are removed to improve the surface
appearance of the casting. Excess metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and
gates, is removed. Inspection of the casting for defects and general quality is performed.
2.4. PATTERN
It is the replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some
modifications. The main modifications are the addition of pattern allowances, and the
provision of core prints. The quality of the casting produced depends upon the material
of the pattern, its design, and construction. The costs of the pattern and the related
equipment are reflected in the cost of the casting.

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2.4.1. Functions of the Pattern

1. A pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of making a casting.
2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a core
and need to be made hollow.
3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mould cavity may
form a part of the pattern.
4. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting
defects.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.
2.4.2. Pattern Material
Patterns may be constructed from the following materials. Each material has its own
advantages, limitations, and field of application. Some materials used for making
patterns are: wood, metals and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax,
and resins. To be suitable for use, the pattern material should be:
1. Easily worked, shaped and joined
2. Light in weight
3. Strong, hard and durable
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity
7. Available at low cost
1. Wood
Wood is the most popular and commonly used material for pattern making. It is very
light and can produce highly smooth surface. Wooden patterns are preferred only when
the numbers of castings to be produced are less. The main varieties of woods used in
pattern-making are Shisham, Kail, Deodar, Teak and Mahogany.

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Advantages of wooden patterns

Disadvantages
1. It is susceptible to moisture.
2. It tends to warp.
3. It wears out quickly due to sand
abrasion.
4. It is weaker than metallic patterns.

1. Wood can be easily worked.

2. It is light in weight.
3. It is easily available.
4. It is very cheap.
5. It is easy to join.
6. It is easy to obtain good surface finish.
7. Wooden laminated patterns are strong.
8. It can be easily repaired.
2. Metal

Metallic patterns are preferred when the number of castings required is large enough
to justify their use. These patterns are not much affected by moisture as wooden pattern.
The wear and tear of this pattern is very less and hence posses longer life. Moreover,
metal is easier to shape the pattern with good precision, surface finish and intricacy in
shapes. It can withstand against corrosion and handling for longer period. It possesses
excellent strength to weight ratio.
The main disadvantages of metallic patterns are higher cost, higher weight and
tendency of rusting. It is preferred for production of castings in large quantities with same
pattern. The metals commonly used for pattern making are cast iron, brass and bronzes
and aluminium alloys.
i) Cast Iron
Advantages

Disadvantages
1. It is heavy
2. It is brittle and hence it can be easily
broken
3. It may rust

1. It is cheap
2. It is easy to file and fit
3. It is strong
4. It has good resistance against sand abrasion

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ii) Brasses and Bronzes

Advantages
1. Better surface finish than cast iron.

Disadvantages
1. It is costly
2. It is heavier than cast iron.

2. Very thin sections can be easily casted.

iii) Aluminium Alloys
Disadvantages
1. They can be damaged by sharp edges.
2. They are softer than brass and cast iron.
3. Their storing and transportation needs proper
care.

Advantages
1. Aluminium alloys pattern does not rust.
2. They are easy to cast.
3. They are light in weight.
4. They can be easily machined.

iv) White Metal (Alloy of Antimony, Copper and Lead)

Advantages

Disadvantages
1. It is too soft.
2. Its storing and transportation needs proper
care
3. It wears away by sand or sharp edges.

1. It is best material for lining and stripping

plates.
2. It has low melting point around 260C
3. It can be cast into narrow cavities.
3. Plastic

Plastics are getting more popularity now a days because the patterns made of
these materials are lighter, stronger, moisture and wear resistant, non sticky to Moulding
sand, durable and they are not affected by the moisture of the Moulding sand. Moreover
they impart very smooth surface finish on the pattern surface. These materials are
somewhat fragile, less resistant to sudden loading and their section may need metal
reinforcement. The plastics used for this purpose are thermosetting resins. Phenolic resin
plastics are commonly used.
4. Plaster
This material belongs to gypsum family which can be easily cast and worked with
wooden tools and preferable for producing highly intricate casting. The main advantages
of plaster are that it has high compressive strength and is of high expansion setting type

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which compensate for the shrinkage allowance of the casting metal. It is also preferred
for production of small size intricate castings and making core boxes.
5. Wax
Patterns made from wax are excellent for investment casting process. The
materials used are blends of several types of waxes, and other additives which act as
polymerizing agents, stabilizers, etc. The commonly used waxes are paraffin wax, shellac
wax, bees-wax, cerasin wax, and micro-crystalline wax. The properties desired in a good
wax pattern include low ash content up to 0.05 per cent, resistant to the primary coat
material used for investment, high tensile strength and hardness, and substantial weld
strength. Maximum size of casting produced by wax pattern is 5kg only. Wax pattern
should not be used for green sand mould. No machining required after casting since it
wax pattern produces good surface finish.
2.4.3. Factors effecting selection of pattern material
The following factors must be taken into consideration while selecting pattern
materials.
1. Number of castings to be produced. Metal pattern are preferred when castings are
required large in number.
2. Type of mould material used.
3. Kind of Moulding process.
4. Method of Moulding (hand or machine).
5. Degree of dimensional accuracy and surface finish required.
6. Minimum thickness required.
7. Shape, complexity and size of casting.
8. Cost of pattern and chances of repeat orders of the pattern
2.4.4. Pattern Allowances
Pattern is always larger in size as compared to final casting, because it carries certain
allowances due to metallurgical and mechanical reasons.

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1. Shrinkage Allowance
In practice it is found that all common cast metals shrink a significant amount when they
are cooled from the molten state. The total contraction in volume is divided into the
following parts:
Liquid shrinkage:
1. The contraction during the period in which the temperature of the liquid metal
or alloy falls from the pouring temperature to the liquidus temperature.
2. Contraction on cooling from the liquidus to the solidus temperature, i.e.
solidifying contraction.
Solid shrinkage
The first two of the above are taken care of by proper gating and risers. Only the
last one, i.e. the solid contraction is taken care by the pattern makers by giving a positive
shrinkage allowance.

Exercise 1
The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern. Assuming only
shrinkage allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern. All Dimensions are in Inches

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Solution 1
The shrinkage allowance for cast iron for size up to 2 feet is o.125 inch per feet (as
per Table 1)
For dimension 18 inch, allowance = 18 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.1875 inch 0.2 inch
For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 14 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.146 inch 0.15 inch
For dimension 8 inch, allowance = 8 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0833 inch 0. 09 inch
For dimension 6 inch, allowance = 6 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0625 inch 0. 07 inch
The pattern drawing with required dimension is shown below:

2. Draft or Taper Allowance

Making vertical surfaces of the pattern into inclined surfaces is called draft
allowance and it is mainly given for easy removal of the pattern from the mould. Without
provision of draft until the last point of the pattern comes out from the mould, pattern will
have contact with mould, any vibration taking place to the human hand during removal of
pattern it will cause damages taking place to the mould. With provision of draft allowance,
as soon as small amount of pattern is lifted to the mould, clearance is formed between
pattern and mould even hand is vibrating.
If pattern is made by wax, Hg or Polystyrine as a pattern material, there is no draft
allowance is provided on the pattern. (Wax and Hg removed in the form of liquid and

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Polystyrine removed in the form of vapors hence draft allowance is not required) For
manufacturing of large size castings i.e. machine tool beds, Polystyrine is used as a
pattern material. For manufacturing of complex shape of casting, wax and Hg is used.

Fig 1.8. Taper allowance

3. Distortion or Camber Allowance

Fig. 1.9. Distortions in Castings

Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to their typical shape. For
example, if the casting has the form of the letter U, V, T, or L etc. it will tend to contract at
the closed end causing the vertical legs to look slightly inclined. This can be prevented
by making the legs of the U, V, T, or L shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so that
the casting after distortion will have its sides vertical. The distortion in casting may occur
due to internal stresses. These internal stresses are caused on account of unequal
cooling of different section of the casting and hindered contraction. Measure taken to
prevent the distortion in casting includes:

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i.

Modification of casting design

ii.

Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion affect

iii.

Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or distortion

allowance (inverse reflection)

4. Machining or Finish Allowance

It is a positive allowance given to compensate for the amount of material that is lost in
machining or finishing the casting. If this allowance is not given, the casting will become
undersize after machining. The amount of this allowance depends on the size of casting,
methods of machining and the degree of finish. In general, however, the value varies from
3 to 18 mm.

5. Shake allowance
Because of adhesiveness property of moulding sand, during removal of pattern, the
adhered moulding sand to the pattern is trying to come out allowing to the pattern and
damages the moulding wall. To avoid this before removal of pattern from mould, the
pattern should be shake so that the adhered moulding sand is separating and avoids
damages to the moulding wall. But due to shaking of pattern the size of cavity becomes
greater than size of pattern which increases casting size. To maintain casting size as
required the original pattern dimensions as to be reduced by as amount equal to shake
allowance. Shake allowance depends on mould making person. Earlier allowances are

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increasing dimensions of pattern but shake allowance reduces dimension of pattern.

Hence it is called negative allowance. (Fig- In class notes)
2.4.5. Types of pattern
The types of the pattern and the description of each are given as under.
1. Single piece or solid pattern
2. Two piece or split pattern
3. Cope and drag patter
4. Loose piece pattern
5. Gated pattern
6. Sweep pattern
7. Skeleton pattern
8. Match plate pattern
9. Follow board pattern
10. Segmental or part pattern
1. Single Piece Pattern
A single piece pattern is the simplest of all forms. As the name indicates they are made
of a single piece as shown in fig. 1.10. This

type of pattern is used only in cases where

the product is very simple and can be easily withdrawn from the mould. This pattern is
contained entirely in the drag. One of the surfaces is usually flat which is used as the
parting plane.

Fig. 1.10. Typical Single piece pattern

2. Split or Two Piece Pattern

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This is the most common type of pattern for intricate castings. When the contour of
the casting makes its withdrawal from the mould difficult or when the depth of the casting
is too high, then pattern is split into two parts. One part is contained in the drag and the
other in the cope. The split surface of the pattern is same as the parting plane of the
mould. The two halves of the pattern should be aligned properly by making use of dowel
pins which are fitted to the top half.

Fig. 1.11. Typical Two piece/split pattern

3. Cope and drag pattern
When very large castings are to be made the complete pattern becomes too heavy to
be handled by a single operator. Such a pattern is made in two parts which are separately
moulded in different moulding boxes. After completion of the moulds, the two boxes are
assembled to form the complete cavity. One part is contained by the drag and the other
by the cope. Thus it is different from split pattern in which both pieces are moulded
separately instead of being moulded in the assembled position.

Fig. 1.12. Cope and drag pattern

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4. Loose-piece Pattern
Certain single piece patterns are made to have loose pieces in order to enable their
easy withdrawal from the mould. These pieces from an integral part of the pattern during
moulding. After the mould is complete the pattern is withdrawn leaving the pieces in the
sand. These pieces are later withdrawn separately through the cavity formed by the
pattern as shown in fig. 1.13. Moulding with loose piece is a highly skilled job and is
generally expensive.

Fig. 1.13. Loose piece pattern

5. Gated pattern
It is used when more no of small castings to be produced. Such moulds are formed
by joining a number of patterns and gates and providing a common runner for the molten
metal, as shown in Fig.1.14. These patterns are made of metals, and metallic pieces to
form gates and runners are attached to the pattern. Moulding time and efforts becomes
lesser and it reduces cost of process.

Fig. 1.14. Gated pattern

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6. Sweep pattern
Actually a sweep is a template of wood or metal and is attached to the spindle. As
sweep rotates around pole it goes down in mould and at the same time it removes sand
from moulding box. After it completely went inside the mould, sweep is removed from the
mould and required shape of cavity will be created. It is used for large castings of circular
sections and symmetrical shapes. This is a two dimensional pattern. It saves time to
making pattern and in making complex, symmetrical and circular castings, it is very useful.

Fig. 1.15. Sweep pattern

7. Skeleton pattern
When only a small number of large and heavy castings are to be made, it is not
economical to make a solid pattern. In such cases, however, a skeleton pattern may be
used. It is hollow pattern used for huge castings. This is a ribbed construction of wood
which forms an outline of the pattern to be made. This frame work is filled with loam sand
and rammed. The surplus sand is removed by strickle board. For round shapes, the
pattern is made in two halves which are joined with glue or by means of screws etc. It is
used for turbine, impellers etc. It saves the pattern material.

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Fig. 1.16. Skeleton pattern

8. Match plate pattern
This pattern is made in two halves and is on mounted on the opposite sides of a
wooden or metallic plate, known as match plate. The gates and runners are also attached
to the plate. This pattern is used in machine Moulding.

Fig. 1.17. Match plate pattern

9. Follow board pattern
When the use of solid or split patterns becomes difficult, a contour corresponding to
the exact shape of one half of the pattern is made in a wooden board, which is called a
follow board and it acts as a moulding board for the first moulding operation as shown.

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Fig. 1.18. Follow board pattern

10. Segmental pattern
These pattern are used for preparing moulds of large circular castings, avoid the
use of a solid pattern of exact size. In principle they are similar to sweep patterns. But the
difference is that while a sweep pattern is given a continuous revolving motion to generate
the desired shape, a segmental pattern is a portion of the solid pattern itself and the mould
is prepared in parts by it. It is mounted on a central pivot and after preparing the part
mould in one position, the segment is moved to the next position. The operation is
repeated till the complete mould is ready.

Fig. 1.19. Segmental pattern

2.4.6. Pattern color code:
Standard colours have been recommended for the finishing of wood patterns. The
colour scheme adopted by the American Foundry mens Society is outlined below:
1. Cast surface to be left unmachined-Black

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2. Cast surface to be machined- Red

3. Loose pieces and seatings-Red strips on yellow base.
4. Core prints seats-Yellow
5. Stop offs or supports- black strips on a yellow background
6. Parting surfaces-clear or no color
7. Core prints for machined openings-yellow strips on black background
* Stop-offs are portions of a pattern that form a Mould cavity which is filled with
sand before pouring. Stop-offs may, for example, be reinforcing members to
prevent breakage of a frail pattern.
2.5. CORE AND CORE PRINTS
Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of various sizes and
shapes. These impressions can be obtained by using cores. Cores are mainly used to
create hollowness in casting. So where coring is required, provision should be made to
support the core inside the mould cavity. Core prints are used to serve this purpose. The
core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it can support the weight of the
core during the casting operation. Depending upon the requirement a core can be placed
horizontal, vertical and can be hanged inside the Mould cavity. A typical job, its pattern
and the mould cavity with core and core print is shown in fig.1.20.

Fig. 1.20. Typical Job, its Pattern, Mould cavity and Core.

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Fig. 1.21. Half section of mould shows function of Core, Core print and Chaplet
There are various functions of cores which are given below
1. Core is used to produce hollowness in castings in form of internal cavities.
2. It may form a part of green sand Mould
3. It may be deployed to improve Mould surface.
4. It may provide external undercut features in casting.
5. It may be used to strengthen the Mould.
6. It may be used to form gating system of large size Mould
7. It may be inserted to achieve deep recesses in the casting
2.5.1. Types of Cores
There are various types of cores such as horizontal core (Fig. 1.22), vertical core (Fig.
1.23), balanced core (Fig. 1.24), drop core (Fig. 1.25) and hanging core (Fig. 1.26).

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Fig. 1.22. Horizontal Core

Fig. 1.24. Balanced Core

Fig. 1.23. Vertical Core

Fig. 1.25. Drop Core

Fig. 1.26. Hanging

Core

2.5.2. Core making

Following steps are involved in core making:
1. Core sand preparation:
Core sand consist of Granular refractories, core binders, water and special additives.

2. Making the core

Core is made by two ways i.e.
A) Hand making-for simple cores.
B) Using machines- i) Jolt machine ii) Core roll over machine iii) Sand slinger iv) Core
extrusion machine v) Core blower f) Shell core machine

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Hand making of cores

For hand making of cores, core boxes are used. Cores are made by means of core
boxes comprising of either single or in two parts. Core boxes are generally made of wood
or metal and are of several types. Core boxes are having cavity of required shape of cores
in which sand is filled and sand core is obtained.

Types of Core Box

The main types of core box are half core box, dump core box, split core box, strickle
core box, right and left hand core box and loose piece core box.

1. Half core box

This is the most common type of core box. The two identical halves of a symmetrical
core prepared in the half core box are shown in Fig. 1.27. Two halves of cores are pasted
or cemented together after baking to form a complete core.

Fig.1.27. Half core box

2. Dump core box
It is similar in construction to half core box. These cores do not require pasting, rather
they are complete by themselves. A dump core-box is used to prepare complete core in
it. Generally cylindrical and rectangular cores are prepared in these boxes.

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Fig.1.28. Dump core box

3. Split core box
Split core boxes are made in two parts as shown in Fig. 1.29. They form the complete
core by only one ramming. The two parts of core boxes are held in position by means of
clamps and their alignment is maintained by means of dowel pins and thus core is
produced.

Fig.1.29. Split core box

4. Right and left hand core box
Some time the cores are not symmetrical about the centre line. In such cases, right
and left hand core boxes are used. The two halves of a core made in the same core box
are not identical and they cannot be pasted together.

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5. Strickle core box

This type of core box is used when a core with an irregular shape is desired. The
required shape is achieved by striking of the core sand from the top of the core box with
a wooden piece, called as strickle board. The strickle board has the same contour as that
of the required core.
6. Loose piece core box
Loose piece core boxes are highly suitable for making cores where provision for
bosses, hubs etc. is required. In such cases, the loose pieces may be located by dowels,
nails and dovetails etc. In certain cases, with the help of loose pieces, a single core box
can be made to generate both halves of the right-left core.
7. Gang core box
It contains a number of core cavities so that more than one cores can be rammed at
a time.
3. Core baking
Cores kept on core driver or core plate in its green state and then they sent to oven
for baking. At 2120F, the moisture from the core is driven off. Cores are baked up to 650 0F.
4. Finishing of cores
Finishing of core involves following operations

A) Cleaning
1. Trimming: Removing fins and other sand projections
2. Brushing: It removes loose sand from the cores.
3. Coating: Fine refractory coating(Graphite & silica) is applied by dipping or spraying
4. Mudding: It is localised coating which is applied to make core completely smooth
B) Sizing
Sizing is making core dimensionally accurate by grinding, filing etc.

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C) Core assembly
Core assembly is the process of joining subparts by pasting or bolting.
D) Setting of cores
Core setting means placing cores in the mould in proper position.
2.6. MOULDING SAND
A large variety of moulding materials is used in foundries for manufacturing moulds
and cores. They include moulding sand, system sand or backing sand, facing sand,
parting sand, and core sand.

2.6.1. Moulding Sand Composition

The main ingredients of any Moulding sand are:
1) Base sand
2) Binder
3) Moisture
4) Additives

1. Base Sand
Silica sand is most commonly used base sand (75-85%). Other base sands that are
also used for making Mould are zircon sand, Chromite sand, and olivine sand. Silica sand
is cheapest among all types of base sand and it is easily available. Silica sand particles
provides strength to the moulding sand.

2. Binder
Binders are of many types such as Clay binders, Organic binders and Inorganic
binders. Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the moulding
sands to provide the strength (15-20%). The most popular clay types are: Kaolinite or fire
clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O). Of the two the Bentonite
can absorb more water which increases its bonding power.

3. Moisture

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Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of
moisture (6-8%). When water is added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms a
microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake of the clay. The amount of water used
should be properly controlled. This is because a part of the water, which coats the surface
of the clay flakes, helps in bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity.

4. Additives
Additives are added up to 2% into moulding sand for special purposes
Wood powder or Saw dust: For improving porosity property and collapsibility
Coal powder: For improving refractoriness property of moulding sand
Starch or Dextrin: For improving resistance to deformation and strength.

2.6.1. Types of moulding sand

1) Green sand
Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just prepared
mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture content from 6 to
8%. The clay and water furnish the bond for green sand. It is fine, soft, light, and
porous. Green sand is damp, when squeezed in the hand and it retains the shape
and the impression to give to it under pressure. Moulds prepared by this sand are not
requiring backing and it contains moisture hence are known as green sand moulds.
This sand is easily available and it possesses low cost. It is commonly employed for
production of ferrous and non-ferrous castings.
Green sand = Silica sand +Clay+Water

2) Dry sand
Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making Mould and
cores, is called dry sand.
It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal stability. It is mainly suitable for larger
castings. Mould prepared in this sand are known as dry sand moulds.
Dry sand = Silica sand +Clay+ Sodium silicate

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3) Loam sand
Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand
possesses high clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water. Patterns are not used for
loam Moulding and shape
is given to Mould by sweeps. This is particularly employed for loam Moulding used
for large grey iron castings.
Loam sand= Green/dry sand + 50% Clay

4) Facing sand
Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mould. It is directly next to the
surface of the pattern and it comes into contact molten metal when the mould is
poured. Initial coating around the pattern and hence for mould surface is given by this
sand. This sand is subjected severest conditions and must possess, therefore, high
strength refractoriness. It is made of silica sand and clay, without the use of used
sand. Different forms of carbon are used to prevent the metal burning into the sand.
A facing sand mixture for green sand of cast iron may consist of 25% fresh and
specially prepared and 5% sea coal. They are sometimes mixed with 6-15 times as
much fine moulding sand to make facings.

5) Backing sand
Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill the
whole volume of the moulding flask. Used moulding sand is mainly employed for this
purpose. The backing sand is sometimes called black sand because that old,
repeatedly used moulding sand is black in colour due to addition of coal dust and
burning on coming in contact with the molten metal.

2.6.2. Moulding sand properties

The properties that are generally required in Moulding materials are:

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1) Porosity
It is the ability to escape air or gases through the moulding sand. As molten metal
filed into the cavity, the air already present in the cavity starts to compress and the
pressure of the air becomes greater than the atmospheric pressure. Hence air starts
to flow inside to outside using porosity property of the moulding sand otherwise
blowhole defect will form in casting. It is desirable property of moulding sand.
Methods to improve porosity:
i)

By selecting large grain size of silica sand particles

ii) By reducing percentage of clay

iii) By reducing ramming force
iv) By adding wood powder or saw dust
v) By providing vent holes
2) Strength
Strength is resistance to deformation. Strength is divided into Tensile, Compressive
and Shear strength.
3) Cohesiveness Property
It is the ability of formation of bond between same material particles and it is
desirable property of moulding sand so that sand particles should be stick with one
another.
4) Adhesiveness Property
It is the ability of formation of bond between different material particles and it is nondesirable property of moulding sand so that sand particles should not stick on
surface of the pattern.
5) Refractoriness
It is the ability of the moulding material to resist the temperature of the liquid metal
to be poured so that it does not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the
silica sand is highest.

6) Permeability
During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases
and steam is generated. These gases are those that have been absorbed by the

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metal during melting, air absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam generated
by the moulding and core sand. If these gases are not allowed to escape from the
mould, they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To
overcome this problem the moulding material must be porous. Proper venting of the
mould also helps in escaping the gases that are generated inside the mould cavity.
7) Green Strength
The moulding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand
particles must have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to
the mould. The green sand must have enough strength so that the constructed
mould retains its shape.

8) Dry Strength
When the molten metal is poured in the mould, the sand around the mould cavity is
quickly converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the
heat of the molten metal. At this stage the moulding sand must possess the sufficient
strength to retain the exact shape of the mould cavity and at the same time it must
be able to withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.
9) Hot Strength
As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high temperature
when the metal in the mould is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is
required to hold the shape of the cavity is called hot strength.
10) Collapsibility
The moulding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction of
the solidified casting it does not provide any resistance, which may result in cracks
in the castings. Besides these specific properties the moulding material should be
cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity.

11) Flow ability

It is the ability of flowing of moulding sand into each and every corner of mould.
Fluidity and flow ability are indicating flow behaviour of substances. Fluidity indicates
flow behaviour of fluid and flow ability indicates flow behaviour of solid

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2.6.3. Methods of mould making (Refer class notes)

1) Hand moulding
2) Machine moulding
i) Jolting
ii) Squeezing
iii) Jolting and squeezing
iv) Sand slinging
2.7. CLASSIFICATION OF CASTING PROCESSES
Casting processes can be classified into following FOUR categories:
1. Conventional Moulding Processes
i) Green Sand Moulding
ii) Dry Sand Moulding
iii) Flask less Moulding
2. Chemical Sand Moulding Processes
i) Shell Moulding
ii) Sodium Silicate Moulding
ii) No-Bake Moulding
3. Permanent Mould Processes
i) Gravity Die casting
ii) Low and High Pressure Die Casting
4. Special Casting Processes
i) Centrifugal Casting
ii) Investment Casting
iii) Continuous Casting
iv) Ceramics Shell Moulding
v) Evaporative Pattern Casting
vi) Vacuum Sealed Moulding
i)

Green Sand Moulding

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Green sand is the most diversified moulding method used in metal casting
operations. The process utilizes a mould made of compressed or compacted moist
sand. The term "green" denotes the presence of moisture in the moulding sand.
The mould material consists of silica sand mixed with a suitable bonding agent
(usually clay) and moisture.
Advantages
i)

Most metals can be cast by this method.

ii) Pattern costs and material costs are relatively low.

iii) No Limitation with respect to size of casting and type of metal or alloy used
Disadvantages
Surface Finish of the castings obtained by this process is not good and
machining is often required to achieve the finished product.
ii)

Dry Sand Moulding

Dry sand casting is a sophisticated form of green sand process, in which the
sand mould is baked at a given temperature to make it stronger. This process
in mostly used in large foundries to produce big ferrous and non-ferrous castings
like engine blocks, construction parts, etc. Dry sand casting ensures precise
size and perfect dimensions. Two types of drying of Moulds are often required.
i) Skin drying and
ii) Complete mould drying.
In skin drying a firm mould face is produced. Shakeout of the mould is almost
as good as that obtained with green sand moulding. The most common method
of drying the refractory mould coating uses hot air, gas or oil flame. Skin drying
of the mould can be accomplished with the aid of torches, directed at the mould
surface.

Permanent Mould Process

In all the above processes, a mould need to be prepared for each of the casting
produced. For large-scale production, making a mould, for every casting to be produced,

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may be difficult and expensive. Therefore, a permanent mould, called the die may be
made from which a large number of castings can be produced. , the moulds are usually
made of cast iron or steel, although graphite, copper and aluminum have been used as
mould materials. The process in which we use a die to make the castings is called
permanent mould casting or gravity die casting, since the metal enters the mould under
gravity. Some time in die-casting we inject the molten metal with a high pressure. When
we apply pressure in injecting the metal it is called pressure die casting process.
1. Gravity die casting

Fig.1.30. Typical gravity die casting setup

In gravity die casting, molten metal is poured into the mould under gravity only and
no external pressure is applied to force the liquid metal into the mould cavity. However,
the liquid metal solidifies under pressure of metal in the risers, etc. The metallic mould
can be reused many times before it is discarded or rebuilt. These moulds are made of
dense, fine grained, heat resistant cast iron, steel, bronze, anodized aluminium, graphite
or other suitable refractoriness. The mould is made in two halves in order to facilitate the
removal of casting from the mould.

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2. Pressure die casting

When we apply pressure in injecting the metal it is called pressure die casting process.
There are two general types of molten metal ejection mechanisms adopted in die casting
set ups are:
(i) Hot chamber type
(a) Gooseneck or air injection management-Air pressure is used to inject molten
metal
(b) Submerged plunger management-Plunger is used to inject molten metal
(ii) Cold chamber type

i)

Hot chamber die-casting

In the hot-chamber die casting process, the furnace to melt material is part of the die
itself and hence, this process is suitable primarily for low-melting point temperature
materials such as aluminum, magnesium etc. This process may be of gooseneck or airinjection type or submerged plunger type-air blown or goose neck type machine is shown
as in Fig. 1.31. It includes following steps:
(i) Holding two die halves finally together.
(ii) Closing the die.
(iii) Injecting molten metal into die.
(iv) Opening the die.
(v) Ejecting the casting out of the die.

(1)

(2)

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Fig.1.31. Hot chamber pressure die casting (1) Before applying plunger pressure (2)
After applying plunger pressure

(1)

(2)

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Fig.1.32. Hot chamber pressure die casting (1) Before applying plunger pressure and
dies are open (2) After applying plunger pressure and dies are closed
ii)

Cold chamber die casting

Cold chamber die casting process differs from hot chamber die casting in following
respects.
1. Melting unit is generally not an integral part of the cold chamber die casting
machine. Molten metal is brought and poured into die casting machine with help
of ladles.
2. Molten metal poured into the cold chamber casting machine is generally at lower
temperature as compared to that poured in hot chamber die casting machine.
3. For this reasoning, a cold chamber die casting process has to be made use of
pressure much higher (of the order of 200 to 2000 kgf/cm2) than those applied in
hot chamber process.
4. High pressure tends to increase the fluidity of molten metal possessing relatively
lower temperature.
5. Lower temperature of molten metal accompanied with higher injection pressure
with produce castings of dense structure sustained dimensional accuracy and free
from blow-holes.
6. Die components experience less thermal stresses due to lower temperature of
molten metal. However, the dies are often required to be made stronger in order
to bear higher pressures.

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Fig.1.33. Cold chamber pressure die casting (1) Before applying plunger pressure (2)
After applying plunger pressure

(1)

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(2)
Fig.1.34. Cold chamber pressure die casting (1) Before applying plunger pressure and
dies are open (2) After applying plunger pressure and dies are closed
2.1. Advantages of die casting over sand casting
1. Die casting requires less floor space in comparison to sand casting.
2. It helps in providing precision dimensional control with a subsequent reduction
in machining cost.
3. It provides greater improved surface finish.
4. Thin section of complex shape can be produced in die casting.
5. More true shape can be produced with close tolerance in die casting.
6. Castings produced by die casting are usually less defective.
7. It produces more sound casting than sand casting.
8. It is very quick process.
9. Its rate of production is high as much as 800 casting/hour. (One set of die can
produce about 10000 castings)
10. Semiskilled worker can do the job.
11. Casting surface is free from sand

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2.2. Limitations of die castings

1. Cost of die is high
2. Not suitable for heavy castings
3. Suitable for only non-ferrous castings
4. Not suitable for small scale production

2.3. Applications of die casting

1. Carburettor bodies
2. Hydraulic brake cylinders
3. Refrigeration castings
4. Washing machine
5. Connecting rods and automotive pistons
6. Oil pump bodies
7. Gears and gear covers
8. Aircraft and missile castings, and
9. Typewriter segments
3. Investment Casting Process
The investment casting process also called lost wax process begins with the
production of wax replicas or patterns of the desired shape of the castings. A pattern is
needed for every casting to be produced. The patterns are prepared by injecting wax or
polystyrene in a metal dies. A number of patterns are attached to a central wax sprue to
form an assembly. The mould is prepared by surrounding the pattern with refractory slurry
that can set at room temperature. The mould is then heated so that pattern melts and
flows out, leaving a clean cavity behind. The mould is further hardened by heating and
the molten metal is poured while it is still hot. When the casting is solidified, the mould is
broken and the casting taken out.
Advantages
1. Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores

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2. Less material required for gate

3. Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of gas and shrinkage
cavities and porosity
Disadvantages
1. More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the forces of rotation
2. Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic inclusions
Inaccurate internal diameter

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Fig.1.35. Steps in investment casting process

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4. Centrifugal Casting
In this process, the mould is rotated rapidly about its central axis as the metal is
poured into it. Because of the centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will be acting on
the metal as it solidifies. The slag, oxides and other inclusions being lighter, get separated
from the metal and segregate towards the centre. This process is normally used for the
making of hollow pipes, tubes, hollow bushes, etc., which are axisymmetric with a
concentric hole. Since the metal is always pushed outward because of the centrifugal
force, no core needs to be used for making the concentric hole. The mould can be rotated
about a vertical, horizontal or an inclined axis or about its horizontal and vertical axes
simultaneously. The length and outside diameter are fixed by the mould cavity dimensions
while the inside diameter is determined by the amount of molten metal poured into the
mould.
(1) True centrifugal casting
(2) Semi-centrifugal casting and
(3) Centrifuged casting

4.1. True Centrifugal Casting

Fig.1.36. True centrifugal casting

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The two processes namely De Lavaud casting process and Moore casting process
are commonly used in true centrifugal casting. True centrifugal casting is carried out as
follows:
1. Applying ceramic slurry to the mould wall then drying it and baking
2. Rotating the mould at a predetermined speed (300-3000 rpm).
3. Pouring molten metal directly into the mould (no gating system is employed).
4. The mould is stopped after the casting has solidified.
5. Extraction of casting from the mould

4.2. Semi-Centrifugal Casting

Fig.1.37. Semi-centrifugal casting

Fig.1.38. Centrifuging casting

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It is similar to true centrifugal casting but only with a difference that a central core
is used to form the inner surface. Semi- centrifugal casting setup is shown in Fig. 1.37.
This casting process is generally used for articles which are more complicated than those
possible in true centrifugal casting, but are axi-symmetric in nature. A particular shape of
the casting is produced by mold and core and not by centrifugal force. The centrifugal
force aids proper feeding and helps in producing the castings free from porosity.
Symmetrical objects namely wheel having arms like flywheel, gears and back wheels are
produced by this process.
4.3. Centrifuging Casting
Centrifuging casting setup is shown in Fig. 1.38. This casting process is generally
used for producing non-symmetrical small castings having intricate details. A number of
such small jobs are joined together by means of a common radial runner with a central
sprue on a table which is possible in a vertical direction of mould rotation.

Advantages of centrifugal casting

1. Formation of hollow cavities in cylinders without cores.
2. Non-metallic and slag inclusions and gas bubbles are forced to the inner surface
of the casting by centrifugal force.
3. No gating system and hence casting yield is high (100% in many cases)
4. Fettling costs are reduced. Cost of production is less.
5. Casting free of gas and shrinkage cavities and porosity
6. Find outside details (castings) can be successfully cast
7. Easy to inspect the castings (defects occur on the surface)

Disadvantages of centrifugal casting

1. More segregation of alloy components during pouring under the forces of
rotation
2. Suitable for only axial symmetrical components
3. Skilled workers are required for operation
4. Inaccurate internal diameter

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5. Continuous casting
Continuous casting process is widely used in the steel industry. In principle,
continuous casting is different from the other casting processes in the fact that there is no
enclosed mould cavity. The continuous casting process is used for casting metal directly into
billets or other similar shapes that can be used for rolling. The process involves continuously
pouring molten metal into an externally chilled copper mould or die walls and hence, can be
easily automated for large size production. Since the molten metal solidifies from the die wall
and in a soft state as it comes out of the die wall such that the same can be directly guided
into the rolling mill or can be sheared into a selected size of billets.

5.1. Types of continuous casting

i) Vertical continuous casting
ii) Horizontal continuous castings
iii) Continuous casting in travelling mould
i)

Vertical continuous casting

.
Vertical continuous casting I (detailed)

Fig.1.39.

Fig.1.40. Vertical continuous casting II (Complete)

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Steps involved in vertical continuous casting

1. Molten metal is transferred from the holding furnace into a special ladle called a
tundish from where the same is poured into the top of the bottomless water cooled
copper mould of the desired shape.
2. The process is started by placing dummy bar in the mould upon which the first
liquid metal falls. The liquid metal gets cooled and is pulled by pinch rolls along
with the dummy bar.
3. Heat from the molten metal being poured dissipates fast through the mould walls
and a skin of solid metal forms quickly at the mould-metal interface and shrinks
from the mould walls. The shrinking effect provides a very small gap between the
metal and the mould thereby reducing friction between the two and permitting cast
shape to move continuously through the mould.
4. Pinch and guide rolls regulate the rate of settling of cast shape and keep proper
alignment.
5. As casting passes out of the pinch rolls it is cut to desired length by a saw or
oxyacetylene torch moving briefly along with the casting.
6. The cut length may be straightened, rolled and inspected before shipping as shown
in Fig.1.39,
a) Argon is provided to remove all reacting gases including Oxygen and to
provide inert atmosphere to avoid atmospheric contamination of molten
metal.
b) X-ray unit controls the pouring rate of the molten metal from the ladle and
also monitors the casting defects.
Advantages of continuous casting
1)100 percent casting yield (Casting yield = Weight of final casting100/Weight of
poured metal)
2) Cheaper to produce ingots
3) Better surface finish
4) Grain structure can be regulated
5) Process is automatic hence requires less labour

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Applications of continuous casting

1) Long billets of any cross section can be obtained (Round, square, hexagonal,
toothed gear)
2) Solid and hollow ingots can be made.
3) Bushings and pump gears
4) Production of copper bar (wire)
ii)

Horizontal continuous casting

It uses graphite mould. It is commonly used to cast non-ferrous alloys. Molten

metal passes through the holding furnace into the water cooled mould as shown in
Fig. 1.41. As molten metal passes through the mould, a bar is generated. The bar is
fed continuously outwards by the rollers.

Fig.1.41. Horizontal continuous casting

iii)

Vertical continuous casting

In the case of vertical and vertical continuous casting mould is stationary. But

in continuous casting in traveling mould, region between two belts acts as a mould which
rotates continuously and molten metal trapped between these two rollers. Molten metal
passes through the holding furnace, tundish to the nozzle. Two blocks consists of chilling
blocks. Cast strip comes out as shown in Fig. 1.42. and as it advances casting becomes
cool. Casting rate is 0.5-10 meter/min.

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Fig.1.42 Continuous casting in travelling mould

6.0 Shell moulding

Shell moulding, also known as shell-mould casting, is an expendable mould
casting process that uses a resin covered sand to form the mould. As compared to sand
casting, this process has better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and
lower labour requirements. Shell mould casting is a metal casting process similar to sand
casting, in that molten metal is poured into an expendable mould. However, in shell mould
casting, the mould is a thin-walled shell created from applying a sand-resin mixture
around a pattern. The pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the desired part, is reused to
form multiple shell melds. A reusable pattern allows for higher production rates, while the
disposable moulds enable complex geometries to be cast. Shell mould casting requires
the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand-resin mixture, dump box, and molten metal.Shell
mould casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly
using cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminium alloys, and copper
alloys. Typical parts are small-to-medium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear
housings, cylinder heads, connecting rods, and lever arms.

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6.1 The process of creating a shell mould consists of six steps:

Fine silica sand that is covered in a thin (36%) thermosetting phenolic resin and
liquid catalyst is dumped, blown, or shot onto a hot pattern. The pattern is usually
made from cast iron and is heated to 230 to 315 C (450 to 600 F). The sand is
allowed to sit on the pattern for a few minutes to allow the sand to partially cure.

The pattern and sand are then inverted so the excess sand drops free of the
pattern, leaving just the "shell". Depending on the time and temperature of the
pattern the thickness of the shell is 10 to 20 mm (0.4 to 0.8 in).

The pattern and shell together are placed in an oven to finish curing the sand. The
shell now has a tensile strength of 350 to 450 psi (2.4 to 3.1 MPa).

The hardened shell is then stripped from the pattern.

Two or more shells are then combined, via clamping or gluing using a thermoset
adhesive, to form a mould. This finished mould can then be used immediately or
stored almost indefinitely.

For casting the shell mould is placed inside a flask and surrounded with shot, sand,
or gravel to reinforce the shell. It is used for small to medium parts that require high
precision.

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6.2 Advantages:

Can form complex shapes and fine details

Very good surface finish, High production rate
Low labour cost.
Low tooling cost.
Little scrap generated.
Can produce very large parts.
Can form complex shapes.
Many material options.
Low tooling and equipment cost.
Scrap can be recycled.
Short lead time possible.

6.3 Disadvantages:

High equipment cost.

Poor material strength.

High porosity possible.

Poor surface finish and tolerance.

Secondary machining often required.

Low production rate, High labour cost.

6.4 Applications:

Cylinder heads

Connecting rods

Engine blocks and manifolds

Machine bases, gears, pulleys.

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7.0 CO2 Moulding

Hardening the sand in mould by gassing it with the help of the CO2 gas is the CO2
moulding. The CO2 moulding idea conceived about 1898. However the process is
introduced in 1952 by Petrzela and then by Atterton in 1955. Since then CO2 moulding
has been adopted on a wide scale.

7.1 Principle
The highly flow able mixture of pure dry silica sand and sodium silicate binder is
rammed or blown into the mould. CO2 gas at pressure of about 1.5 kg/cm2 is diffused
through the mixture. To initiate the hardening reaction which takes from a few seconds to
a few minutes depending upon the size of core or mould.
Passage of CO2 through the sand containing sodium silicate produces carbonic acid
in the aqueous solution. This causes the formation of the colloidal silica gel. Which gets
hardened and forms a bond between the sand grains. This reaction is as below,
(Sodium silicate) Na2SiO3 + CO2 Na2CO3 + SiO2 (silica gel)
This reaction proceeds rapidly in the early stages, and the compression strength of
the given sand mixture reaches to maximum level. But if the gassing is continued beyond
critical point then the strength of bond gets impaired. (for different types of arrangement
of gassing see class notes).

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