Basic Environmental Engineering

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Copyright 2008, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers

Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
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ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2701-1
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Dedicated to the Memories of

My Beloved Brother Rajoo
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Sister Mrs. Lata Sharma.
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PREFACE
Environmental engineering is one of the most popular, complex and fast growing disciplines in
engineering. The scope of environment includes issues from public health, aesthetics, and impact
of all development activities, pollution control legislation, standards, regulations, guidelines and
their enforcement. Traditionally the application of engineering principles for the protection and
enhancement of the quality of environment and protection of public health was called as sanitary
engineering or public health engineering. Around 1968 this was changed to environmental
engineering.
For conceiving environmental engineering, one has to consider the definition of engineering
itself. Engineering may be defined as the application, under limits of scientific principles for the
planning, design, execution, operation and maintenance of structures, equipment and systems for
the development and benefit of the society. Here the word benefit is more important than the
development. The so-called development in some cases may not be in real benefit of the society.
The environmental engineer plans, designs, executes, operates and maintains the water,
wastewater and solid waste management plants. Clean, bacteriologically safe, potable drinking
water protects and enhances public health. Liquid and solid waste management is a necessary step
for healthy living. They also deal with air pollution control. The resulting pure cleaner air is conducive
to peoples good health and prevents the building and other materials from the harmful effects of air
pollution. The environmental engineer cares for the energy requirements of the society and the ways
and means to protect the environment against the various pollutions created through the production
and consumption of various goods and comfort conditions. It is the duty of environment engineer to
assess the environmental impacts of the various development and other activities. In general one has
to work to have sustainable and holistic development. Of course there are always constraints of
resources, knowledge, human nature, social and racial considerations that limit the achievement of
these goals.
Therefore the environmental engineering is defined as the application of scientific and engineering
principles, under limits, for the protection and enhancement of the environment that includes the
biotic and abiotic both components.
The environment exists in dynamic equilibrium of its biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
elements. The solar energy induced photosynthesis synthesizes the carbon as the plant tissue and
we get matter in various forms from the trees. The carnivores, humans and animals consume the
edible matter. They convert it into the energy required to sustain their lives. Their excreta comes near
to the nature and the natural scavengers, bacteria and others convert it into inorganic matter like
nutrients due to the biological decomposition. The roots of the plants, to form the edible matter again,
extract these nutrients. Like this the nutrient cycle, material cycle, energy cycle and other cycles like
hydrological cycle keep on existing until there is a great shock given by the human beings.
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Nature has enough for satisfying everybodys need but not for anybodys greed. Human
beings have lost their natural wisdom in want of power to overcome the nature. Since mid century the
word has lost nearly one fifth of the topsoil from its cropland, a fifth of its tropical rainforests and
animal species. Rapid industrialization and urbanization has increased carbon dioxide levels to the
point where global climate is being affected. The protective ozone shield is being depleted because of
the chlorofluorocarbons. The forest, which is a complete ecosystem, is being converted into dead
forests. The biodiversity is reducing everywhere in the world.
Biodiversity gives strength to the ecosystem against crisis. Only a well-diversified community
can sustain against the extreme conditions. In quest of comfort conditions and well-secured life we
have adopted a system, which is completely away from nature. We have made computers for paper
less office work but the energy in making and running the computers is more than the savings made.
Of course there are other advantages of computers in computation, up keeping of data etc. But the
materials used in making the computer and the disposal of the obsolete ones are drastically against
the environment.
The quest of more and more comfort has fetched us far away from natural environment. The
input of energy in building sector is increasing day by day. The requirements of both heating and
cooling are becoming more and more energy exhaustive. At present the energy requirement in whole
world is mainly met by fossil fuels. Nature has created the coal and petroleum in millions of years
and we have exhausted them in hundreds of years. In the last 300 years we have consumed most of
the coal and almost all of the petroleum products.
Out of the 1,30,000 MW installed capacity of electricity production in India about 66% is by fossil
fuels (coal+ petroleum products), 24% by hydropower, 4% by nuclear means and only 6% by renewable
energy resources like solar, wind, biomass including small hydropower plants. Still there is a very
large potential of renewable energy resources unutilized but the present availability of fossil fuels
and the present high cost of electricity production through R.E.S. has restrained their share to only
6%. With the advancement of technology and scarcity of fossil fuels the cost of RES will come down
and there share shall increase, but is it the sustainable development? In modern context the idea of
sustainable development immerged in the Earth Summit at Rio-De-Janeiro in June 1992 that let us
plan a development in which the generations to come, may not become deprived of the resources
which we are using today. To achieve this aim we have to control our present rate of consumption of
the available resources like the fossil fuels, ground water and conserve the bio diversity and the
natural cycles like the hydrological cycle.
While considering the production, consumption or utilization we have also to consider the other
part that is pollution. Mixing of unwanted hazardous elements in anything is known as pollution,
like mixing of sewage in fresh body of water, mixing of gases, like oxides of nitrogen, oxides of
sulphur etc. in the air, increase of noise level etc. Actually the present trend of living is a serious cause
of creating pollution in all spheres of life. Today the prosperity, wealth or living standard of a
country is measured in terms of the per capita electricity consumption per year. That way India with
its per capita consumption of 350 Kwh per year is considered far behind the U.S. which has around
20 times more than this. The advancement of a society is measured in terms of the measures of
comfort like air conditioners, or conveyance like bigger and bigger expensive luxury cars. Taller
buildings, more and more precious artificial fabric and so on. Production and maintenance of all
these has created so much land, water and noise pollution that has overcome the advantages of all
these so called advancements. Thus the challenging aspect of environmental engineering is to make
balance between the rapid changes in the field of science, technology, health etc. and the very existence
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of life. Though environmentalism or the environmental consciousness is ancient the environmentalism
became an organized force only in 1960s. It started with the publication of the book Silent Spring by
Rachel Carson on the pesticide DDT in 1962. Actually the exponential growth of population and the
worldwide consumerism imposed a great load on earths natural resources and waste management
systems.
This text aims at the fundamental, primary knowledge for every one who has a concern about
environment. The chapters have been designed to quench the thrust of knowledge of a person, let it be
a scientist, an engineer or any one who is concerned about protection of environment and thus a well
wisher of society.
This book has been written after gaining 10 years experience of working in the public health
engineering department of Rajasthan and 20 years experience of teaching civil engineering students,
subjects like environmental engineering, ecology and environmental dynamics, solid waste
management etc. Recently environmental engineering has been introduced as a primary course
common to first year students of all branches who opt for it. This text is on basic environmental
engineering that covers the syllabus of first year semester scheme of the Rajasthan Technical
University and other universities. Some portion of the martial presented in this book has bean derived
from the work of others, their contribution is greatly ackoweldged. The recommendation of manual of
water supply and treatment, manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment and manual on Solid
Waste Management prepared by the Central public Health and Environmental Engineering
organization, Government of India, Ministry of urban development have been closely followed.
I acknowledge my debts to my parents for their blessings, my wife Bharati for her constant
support, my daughter Ruchira for her help on computer, my son Saurabh and daughter-in law
Surabhi for encouragement.
I express my deep sense of gratitude to my teacher Prof. Damodar Sharma, Vice chancellor
Rajasthan Technical University, Kota for being a constant source of inspiration for me.
I thank Prof. M. P. Poonia Principal Engineering College Bikaner for his valuable suggestions. I
thank Dr. A. K. Mathur and other colleagues of my department for their help. I thank Mr. S. Gupta,
Managing Director, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi for prompt publication.
R. C. GAUR
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CONTENTS
Preface
(vii)
1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
1.1 Basic Concepts
1.2 Biotic and Abiotic Environment
1.3 Adverse Effects of Environmental Pollution
1.4 Control Strategies
1.5 Environmental Act and Regulations
1.5.1 International Concern for Environment
1.5.2 Environmental Protection laws in India
1.6 Regulatory Structure of Pollution Control Authorities and their Functions
1.6.1 Functions of M.O.E.F
1.6.2 Functions of the Central Pollution Control Board
1.6.3 Functions of the State Pollution Control Board
1.7 Conclusion
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2. WATER POLLUTION
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Water Resources
2.2.1 Rainfall
2.2.2 Distribution of Rainfall
2.2.3 Measurement of Rainfall
2.3 Surface Sources of Water Supply
2.4 Subsurface or Underground Sources
2.4.1 Porosity
2.4.2 Permeability
2.5 Ground Water Yield
2.5.1 Drilling of Tube-Wells
2.5.2 Lowering of Pipes and Gravel Packing
2.5.3 Development of Tube-Wells
2.5.4 Yield of a Tube-Well
2.5.4.1 Yield of a Tube-Well in an Unconfined Aquifer
2.5.4.2 Yield of a Tube-Well in a Confined Aquifer
2.6 Basics of the Water Supply Schemes
2.6.1 Quality of Water
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2.6.2 Characteristics of Water
2.7 Treatment of Water
2.7.1 Screening
2.7.2 Plain Sedimentation
2.7.3 Sedimentation Aided with Coagulation
2.7.3 Filtration
2.7.4 Disinfection
2.7.5 Aeration
2.7.6 Water Softening
2.8 Requirement of Pressure of Water to be Supplied
2.9. Waste Water Management
2.9.1 Prevention of Pollution
2.9.2 Statutory Water and Sanitation Boards
2.9.3 Waste Water Management
2.9.3.1 Collection of Domestic Wastewater
2.9.3.2 Conveyance or Transportation of Waste Water
2.9.3.3 Design of the Sewer Line
2.9.3.4 Hydraulics of Sewers
2.9.1 Treatment of Wastewater
2.9.1.1 Unit Operations and Processes
2.9.1.2 Methods of Treatment of Wastewater
2.9.5 Anaerobic Digestion
2.9.6 Disposal of Treated Wastewater (Effluent)
2.9.7 Disposal into Water Bodies
2.9.7.1 Disposal on Land
2.9.8 Onsite Sanitation
2.9.9 Septic Tank
2.9.10 Soak Pits
2.10 In-house Treatment and Saving of Water
2.11 Conclusion
3. AIR POLLUTION
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Formal Definition of Air Pollution
3.3 Classification of Pollutants
3.3.1 Classification of Air Pollutants
3.3.2. Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants
3.4 Classification based on Position
3.5 Harmful Effects of Air Pollution on Materials
3.6 Control of Air Pollution
3.7 Control of Automobile Pollution
3.7.1 Catalytic Converter
3.8 Noise Pollution
3.9 Greenhouse Effect & Global Warming
3.10 Acid Rain
3.11 Ozone Depletion
3.11.1 Causes of the Ozone Layer Depletion
3.11.2 Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion
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3.11.3 Preventive Action to Ozone Depletion
3.12 Conclusion
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4. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classification of Solid Waste
4.2.1. Importance of Classification
4.3 Composition and Characteristics of Solid Waste
4.3.1. Characteristics of Municipal Solid Waste in Indian Cities
4.4 Expected Quantities of Solid Waste
4.5 Physical Characteristics
4.6 Chemical Characteristics
4.7 Waste Management Approach
4.7.1 Inventory Management and Improved Operation
4.7.2 Utilization of Waste
4.8 Solid Waste Management: An Overview
4.8.1 Identification of Waste and its Minimization at the Source
4.8.2 Collection, Segregation and Storage at the Site of Collection
4.8.3 Transportation of Solid Waste
4.8.4 Treatment of Solid Waste
4.8.5 Energy Recovery and Disposal
4.6.5.1 Incineration
4.8.5.2 Landfill
4.8.5.3 Composting
4.9 Energy Recovery from Municipal Solid Waste
4.8.1 Parameters Affecting Energy Recovery
4.10 Sanitary Landfill
4.11 Hazardous Waste Management
4.12 Bio-Medical Waste
4.13 Conclusion
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5. ECOLOGY
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Objectives of Ecological Study
5.1.2 Useful Definitions
5.1.3 Classification of Various Aspects of Ecology
5.1.3.1 Autecology
5.1.3.2 Synecology
5.1.3.3 Classification on the Basis of Habitat
5.1.3.3.1 Modern Sub-Divisions of Ecology
5.1.4 Functional Concepts of Ecology
5.2 Basics of Species
5.3 Ecosystem
5.3.1 Cyclic Operation of Ecosystems
5.3.1.1 Geophysical
5.3.1.2.Hydrological Cycle
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5.4
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5.3.1.3 Chemical Cycle

5.3.2 Ecosystem and Human Beings
5.3.3 Biome and Ecosystem
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem
5.4.1 Solar Energy
Major Ecosystems of the World
5.5.1 Sea as an Ecosystem
5.5.2 Estuaries
5.5.3 Streams and Rivers
5.5.4 Lakes and Ponds
5.5.5 The Terrestrial Formations
5.5.6 Deserts
5.5.7 Tundras
5.5.8 Grasslands
5.5.9 Forest
Biodiversity
5.6.1 Basic Laws of Biodiversity
Population Analysis
5.7.1 Population Characteristics
5.7.2 Regulation of Population
5.7.3 Population Dynamics
Conclusion
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6. RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Renewable Sources of Energy
6.2.1 Solar Energy
6.2.2 Wind Energy
6.2.3 Energy from Water
6.2.4 Energy from Oceans
6.2.5 Energy from Biomass
6.2.6 Geothermal Energy
6.3 Potential of Renewable Energy Resources in India
6.4 Conclusion
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7. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Necessity of Environmental Impact Assessment
7.3 Methodology of Environmental Impact Assessment
7.3.1 Identification of Impact Areas
7.3.1.1 Water Resource Project
7.3.1.2 Hydroelectricity Project
7.3.1.3 Navigation Project
7.3.1.4 Tidal Hydro Electricity Project
7.3.1.5 Wave Energy Generation
7.3.1.6 Wind Energy Project
7.3.1.7 Geothermal Energy
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7.3.1.8 Solar Energy
7.3.1.9 Thermal Power Plants
7.3.1.10 Biomass or Biogas Power Plant
7.3.1.11 Industries
7.3.2 Data Collection
7.3.3 Prediction
7.3.4 Assessment
7.4 Conclusion
8. NOISE POLLUTION
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Levels of Noise
8.3 The Nature of Sound
8.3.1 Amplitude(A)
8.3.2 Pitch
8.3.3 Power and Intensity
8.4 Sensitivity of Sound
8.5 Levels of Noise and its Measurement:
8.6 Acceptable Noise Levels
8.7 Effects of Noise
8.8 Adverse Effects of Noise
8.8.1 Effects on Human Body Function
8.8.2 Sleep Interference
8.8.3 Effect on Working Efficiency
8.8.4 Effect on Wild Life
8.8.5 Effects on Non Living Things
8.9 Control of Noise Pollution
8.9.1 Noise Control at Source
8.9.2 Noise Control along the Path
8.10 Noise Control at Receiving End
8.11 Other Ways of Noise Control
8.12 Measurement of Noise
8.13 Conclusion
Bibliography
Index
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1
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
1.1 BASIC CONCEPTS
The whole universe exists since an unknown time with unknown origin and creator.
As it can be sensed by the trivial physical and mental powers of humans there is always
a reason and a force behind any act, process, creation and destruction. There must be
some logical reason behind the creation of this world. Since the beginning of civilizations
human beings are in quest of this eternal knowledge but could not come to any
conclusion. The ancient Indian thinkers after great deliberations concluded that
Neti.Neti. This is neither this nor that. It is still difficult to analyze the real fact
or the absolute truth. But it has been well established that whosoever has created this
universe, the solar system, the earth and different planets with whatsoever reason, it
is, with us with all its known and unknown colours. We may not still know about many
of its aspects as we have limited knowledge and senses to observe it. It may have more
dimensions than that are known to us. But it is sure that we are making harm to it
and destroying it in real sense.
As per the Indian mythology we have come as human beings after taking birth in
84 lac different species, where as the modern science has established them to be more
than 30 million species of plants and animals. But none of the other known species
has harmed this beautiful planet as much as the human beings, claiming themselves
as the wisest ones.
This is the cause of concern that with claiming ourselves as the highest order of
living beings how can we be so brutal and unwise to destroy our own self like
Bhasmasur? We have to think deeply and act accordingly to stop this fatal destruction.
Having an intelligent approach for the solution of this universal problem one has to
think in a global and holistic manner.
Basic Environmental Engineering
1.2 BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT

In general the surroundings of an organism living in its natural habitat is termed as
environment. These surroundings include all; physical, mental and spiritual conditions.
The human beings are so complex in nature that it is a combined effect of every thing,
which exists, far or near them, affects their life (mental, physical and spiritual). The
gravitational forces of distant planets affect each other and these movement or rotation
is based on the balance between them. Tides come because of the gravitational attraction
of moon and sun, which move the bodies of water on the earth as well as the water,
which is the main constituent of human body (75%). It has been well established that
the non-living things and the living beings are totally interrelated and dependent on each
other. It is only a matter of time that something is nonliving or somebody is living being.
We consume the food, which becomes part of our body cells and gets changed into living
being. After the death of those cells or the whole body it again becomes non-living. So
it is a combination or synthesis of various elements with some unknown factor like soul
that demarcates the living beings and non-living things. But it is sure that nature is in
dynamic equilibrium of both of them. Thus we can classify the environment as
1.2.1 Physical or abiotic environment
It consists of physical factors Land (minerals, toxic elements, nutrients), sky (sink of
various things, noise) and air (useful and other gases). Anciently, we have realized this
combination as Ksiti (Earth), Jal (Water), Pavak (Fire), Gagan (Sky), Sameera (Air):
the five basic elements (Panch Tatva) which influence life.
1.2.2 Living or biotic environment
It consists of plants, animals (including human beings) and micro-organisms. Life in
the form of micro-organisms is very strange and subtle (strong). Fungus is available upto
3 Kms. Below the earth. Thus the earth is not made for human beings alone.
All these constituents of environment are referred to as the environmental factors or
an ecological factor, which is defined as an ecological condition, which directly or indirectly
affects the life of an organism. These biotic and abiotic components are in a dynamic state
i.e. they constantly depend and affect each other and cannot be dealt in isolation with each
other. This is the fundamental of Environmental Science or Engineering
Engineering.
Wherever we have not considered this interdependence and interrelation, knowingly
or unknowingly, we have destroyed the very structure of a factor. This unthoughtful
use of a resource, dealt in isolation, pollutes the other environmental factor, which in
turn affects the polluting one, as all of them are interrelated and interdependent. This
is the fundamental of environmental pollution.
1.3 ADVERSE EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

In the nature the niche (role to play) of its every element is fixed; means the role which
it has to play is pre-decided and prefixed, be it living or non-living. Every operation is
General Considerations
cyclic and each and every link of this cycle is important and indispensable. For example
in the hydrological cycle the water gets evaporated from the sea and over the other parts
of the earth depending upon the climatic factors; mainly the temperature and the relative
humidity. The wind transport it all over the earth and the condensation supplies fresh,
sweet water to all places where it is required for supporting life. It goes down the earth
by infiltration and percolation. Again it comes to the atmosphere through the leaves of
trees and evaporation from the exposed surfaces of water i.e. evapotranspiration. The
underground water emerges as springs or extracted by human beings as wells etc. Here
comes the human intervention. Because of the ever-increasing demands of the agriculture
(population increase) we have exploited the ground water to such a level that most of
the regions have become dark zones. Then to fulfill our ever increasing energy demands
in quest of the so called comfort conditions we have burnt such a large amount of fossil
fuels that has increased the CO2 level (from 300 to 350 p.p.m) in the last century.
Actually, glass has the property to allow the short-wave radiation of sun through
it and prevent the long wave heat radiation to pass through it. In cold climatic countries
houses made up of glass are used to take advantage of this phenomenon i.e. the entry
of solar radiation and entrapping the long wave heat radiation inside it. Like this if the
outside temperature is 25C the inside temperature can be raised to 25C, for example.
Greenery can be easily grown at this suitable temperature and that is why it is known
as the green house effect. CO2 works similar to the glass i.e. it allows the short-wave solar
radiation, but prevents the long wave heat radiation, radiated from the earth to the far
sky. This helps in maintaining the earth warm, but the increasing concentration of CO2
is increasing the earths mean global annual temperature. It was around 14.5C in the
last century but now it is increasing at a rate of 1C per century. This is known as the
global warming and is causing imbalance in the rainfall over the globe. It is also increasing
melting of snow on the glaciers and raising the level of sea, endangering the existence
of cities near the seas like Mumbai or countries like Mauritius. This is one example of
effect of pollution in which increased concentration of CO2 generated due to human
activities (industrialization, Urbanization) resulted in increase of temperature. So the
human activity like burning of fossil fuels is imposing this adverse effect of increasing
temperature, on environment.
Alongwith this, the increased concentration of other gases like oxides of Nitrogen
and Sulphur (NOx and SOx), the increased suspended particulate matter (S.P.M) are
also causing so many diseases and the problems like acid rain etc. which shall be
discussed in the chapter of Air Pollution. The Chlorofluorocarbons used in air conditioning are depleting the useful ozone layer in the stratosphere. The ozone prevents
the ultra violet portion of the solar radiation and this reduction in the concentration
of ozone, popularly known as ozone hole results in skin cancer. Against humans foul
plays, nature has much shock proofing arrangements and rectifying measures. But
they have their limits and if the limits are crossed then the natural disasters like
tsunami and Al-Nino etc. take place.
1.4 CONTROL STRATEGIES

After having the primary knowledge of environment, that it is the surroundings that
influence the development and growth of mankind and it covers all important facts
of our life like physical, chemical, biological, social, economical and spiritual: having
knowledge of pollution and its adverse effects; one has to seriously think about
environmental protection. Time has gone when the earth was feeding us, protecting
us as the Mother Earth. In the last century we have lost 60% of the forest cover. Forests
are the assets of our Mother Earth. A forest is a complete ecosystem i.e., sustainable
in itself. Its main part is trees and other vegetation. Trees provide us the fruits, fodder,
timber, paper, gum, herbs, medicines, firewood and so many other products. They
release oxygen and consume the CO2 (responsible for global warming). As a recent
estimate one hectare of forest consumes 3 tons of CO2 and produces 2 tons of O2 per
year approximately. They pump the subsoil water into the atmosphere through
transpiration and increase the relative humidity in air, which leads to rainfall. They
purify the air by absorbing the gases like SOx and NOx and the particulate matter.
This way they act like Lord Shiva who consumed the poison produced from the sea
when it was explored. This created a sore in his throat and he was called as NeelKantha. Trees play the same role i.e. they absorb the harmful gases and the particulate
matter and their leaves become sick (blisters). That is why we worship the trees. Trees
prevent the soil and water erosion by the confining effect of their roots. They reduce
the velocity of wind thus reduce the movement of sand and the expansion of deserts.
The canopy of trees detains the raindrops and thus delays the run-off causing floods.
They also reduce the velocity of floodwaters and the consequent destruction. Trees
absorb the sound waves and thus reduce the noise pollution. They provide shelter to
the birds and other animals as a natural habitat. They provide shade to the buildings
and earth and thus reduce the ambient and surface temperatures. The greenery provided
by them reduces the atmospheric glare and soothes our eyes and gives us a psychological
effect of protection and prosperity. Trees make the forest a complete ecosystem. The
ecosystem conserves the biodiversity and the biodiversity protects the Mother Earth.
If earth has enough variety and amount of belongings in its bosom, then only it can
distribute them as mother. Time has come when the mother has lost its forest cover,
its underground water, its fertile cover of soil (humus). Everything which nature has
created in millions of years humans have snatched, consumed, exhausted or destroyed
in hundreds of years.
In these conditions are we lesser wiser than our ancestors? They prayed to the
God for the peace and harmony to water, sky, soil trees and herbs, natural powers
intellectuals and the whole universe in the Shanti Mantra. Cant we control the
environmental degradation by striking to the root cause of it? The root cause is the
ever-increasing demands and resulting exploitation of the nature. The demand is
increasing firstly due to the increasing human population and secondly the increasing
level of consumption of resources without thinking about their limited availability and
the destruction produced by the adopted processes of utilization and faulty disposal
methods of waste produced.
So first of all we have to control the increase of human population, wisely. No

prosecution or law can forcibly control the population. It should be controlled through
the education and setting of examples by the thinkers and leaders of the society followed
by the masses. Incentives should be given to the persons contributing to the birth control
programmers. To have a larger group of persons of same interest it was wiser to increase
the human population in the beginning of the civilization. The harsh conditions of
nature, fear of unknown wild powers led to bigger and bigger groups. But the time
has changed now science has given us powerful tools. So a wise, bold and modern
society can uproot this feeling and control its population by itself.
The second control strategy is the reduction in consumption of the limited resources.
Fresh water is only 0.1% of the total water on the earth and if we misuse it and convert
it into waste water to be again mixed in the fresh body of water (river) it is not less
than a sin. Using water of a quality in a work where inferior quality water could have
been used is also an unwise act. The present sanitation system in which one part of
human excreta is carried away by 99 parts of potable (drinking) water is not a wise
option. Sanitation and cleanliness is a must but it should be obtained in an overall wise
manner. Actually the soil has soil bacteria, which can easily decompose the waste
organic matter (biodegradable) without deteriorating the environment and can convert
it to useful manure. Water also has aerobic bacteria for the decomposition of the same
organic matter but these bacteria consumes the oxygen, which is present in the fresh
body of water as dissolved oxygen. The depletion of this D.O. causes all types of
problems like the damage to the aquatic life and the development of foul conditions
to the fresh body of water, which requires more and more treatment of raw water to
make it potable. After spending a lot of money (Resources, energy) we make it fit for
drinking and then use it for all purposes like flushing and gardening. Only 5-10 liters
of water is required per person per day for drinking/cooking; that is oral consumption
but we are using 200 liters pure, bacteria free potable water, which is costing not less
than 15 Rs. per thousand litre. Here the main concern is about the wasteful expenditure
and the consequent pollution caused due to the disposal of sewage/wastewater into
the rivers and other streams. This type of sanitation system needs an immediate change.
Some N.G.O. at MGIRI (Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Rural Industrialization) at Wardha
near Nagpur has invented an Indian type W.C. Pan in which only one litre of water
is sufficient for flushing the human excreta in one operation. That small amount of
water + excreta goes inside the earth and there is no requirement of sewer line,
treatment and disposal of sewage. Another N.G.O in Nagpur has demonstrated the
commercially viable conversion of human excreta into biogas and its utilization within
the same premises. This is a two fold solution that the amount of waste is reduced and
its consumption reduces the subsequent pollution. Sometimes the solution may not be
easy as the subsoil may not be porous and sewerage system may be a must, but in that
case also the nonfoul wastewater from kitchens and bathrooms can be reused in
flushing and gardening without any problem. This can reduce the consumption of
treated potable water by 40% and reduce the quantity of sewage also.
The other main important point of consideration is use of fossil fuels for production
of electricity, and transportation etc. Coal, petroleum and gas all are limited and
exhaustible in nature. We have consumed most of them and in coming century we
will not find any petroleum. Alongwith the scarcity the main problem of concern is
the environmental pollution. They produce harmful gases like oxides of sulphur (SOx
and oxides of Nitrogen (NOx), unburnt hydrocarbon, CO and suspended particulate
matter etc. This is the major manmade cause of air pollution. The flyash (residual
of coal burning) is another hazard. In place of these fossil fuels renewable sources
of energy like sun, wind, biomass and hydropower can be beneficially used. The
presently available technology is not sufficient as the cost of electricity production
by renewable is higher than the thermal means except for the hydropower which is
available at limited places only.
Sun is the ultimate source of energy and its radiations are freely available at all
places. There is a necessity of harnessing the solar energy directly or after converting
it into electricity. The present technologies like photo-voltaic conversion are not fully
environment friendly as the manufacturing of PV cells itself is too much energy intensive.
The solar thermal route is a better option, which can be further improved. The harnessing
of wind power, tidal power are very good options. India is the only country having
separate ministry of non-conventional energy resources, emerging as a prominent
power in the field of electricity generation with wind power (6300 MW). Still there is
a need of optimum utilization of these resources, which are comparatively more eco
friendly as producing lesser pollution.
1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ACTS AND REGULATIONS

Various Acts and regulations: - After knowing something about the various elements
of environment, their dynamic interrelationship and the adverse effects of environmental
pollution, one should work in the direction of adopting the pollution control strategies.
For this, provision of Acts and regulations is a must in the present setup of the society.
In the ancient system the environmental management was a part of life when
consideration of animals like cows, dogs, cats etc., birds like sparrows, flamingo (KURAJA)
peacocks etc. was there in daytoday life and they were treated as part of family. A
small share of meals was contributed by every person/family and a voluntary adjustment
existed in the Indian society structure. Trees and shrubs like Neem, Peeple and Banyan,
Tulsi etc. were worshiped like Gods and rivers were praised like Mother Goddesses.
Sun was considered to be the prime source of energy and happiness and the daily
routine was so adjusted to cater more and more energy through its radiations and using
least amount of other means, like the valuable natural resources, coal, petroleum etc.
Human and animal energy was used for transportation and the buildings were designed
for natural daylighting, natural ventilation and least heating/cooling demands. This
prevented the environment from being polluted but the present trend of living in
nucleus families with self-centeredness, living away from nature, desire of more and
more comforts has led the society to such an extent of consumerism that there is no
scope of environment protection. In this era it can be obtained only by imposing rules,
regulations, acts, penalties and such other measures. There are so many regulations to
be fulfilled by the individuals, entrepreneurs, industrialists, producers, consumers,
society, nations and internationals.
1.5.1 International Concern for Environment
The international concern for environment was first immerged in the United Nations
Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm in June 1972 where a declaration
was made that
(i)
(ii)
Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions
of life in an environment of quality that permits a life of dignity and well being.
Man bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment
for present and future generations.
This declaration was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in December
1972 and June 5 was declared as the World Environment Day.
The conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe on August 1, 1975, announced
that Environmental protection was important both for the well being of the people
and economic progress of the country.
An international conference on environmental education was held at New Delhi
in Dec. 1982 stressing the need of formal and informal environmental education right
from childhood.
1.5.2 Environmental Protection Laws in India
Our countrys concern for environment is evident from the fact that the constitution
of India makes provisions for environmental protection in the chapters on:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Fundamental Rights
Directive Principals of State Policy
Fundamental Duties
Article 47 of the constitution (1950) states that

State shall regard the raising of the level of nutrition and the standard of living
of its people and improvement of public health as among its primary duties.
The Indian constitution was amended in the year 1976 and article 48-A was added
which states that
The state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard
the forest and wildlife of the country. The same amendment was added as a fundamental
duty to be observed by every citizen in article 51-A (g):
To protect and improve the natural environment including forest, lakes, rivers and
wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.
In 1974, the Parliament enacted the water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1974. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted
in 1977 and in order to increase the scope of this legislation the Act of 1974 was
amended in 1978.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted in 1981 and the
Environment Protection Act was enacted by the parliament in 1986. In 1986, the
Government of India established an independent Department of Environment to
encourage research and awareness towards the protection of environment. Along
with these acts and departments the Government of India has made the following
other acts:
(i) The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
The objectives of the Wildlife Protection Act. 1972 are the following
(a) To maintain essential ecological processes and life- supporting systems.
(b)
To preserve the biodiversity
(c)
To ensure a continuous use of species i.e. protection and conservation of

wild life.
(ii) The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. 1974

The aims and objectives of this act are:
(a) Prevention and control of water pollution
(b)
Maintaining or restoring the wholesomeness of water
(c)
Establishment of boards of the prevention and control of water pollution.
(iii) The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. 1981

The objectives of this act are:
(a) Prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
(b)
Maintaining the quality of air
(c)
Establishment of boards for the prevention and control of air pollution.
(iv) The Environment (Protection) Act. 198

1986
The objectives of this act are:
(a) Protection and improvement of environment (water, air, land) and
(b)
Prevention of hazards to all living creatures (humans, plants, animals)

and property
(c)
Maintenance of harmonious relationship between human beings and their

environment.
(v) The Motor Vehicles Act. 1988

The objective of this act is the reduction and control of traffic pollution.
The following table shows the order of Environmental Legislation in India.

Table 1.1 Chronology of Environmental Legislation in India
S. No.
Year
Environmental legislation
1974
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
1975
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules
1977
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act
1978
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules
1981
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
1982/1983
1986
The Environment (Protection) Act
1986
The Environment (Protection) Rules
1989
The Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling ) Rules
10
1992/1993
Environmental (Protection) Rules-Environmental Statement
11
1993
Environmental (Protection) Rules-Environmental Standard
12
1994
Environmental (Protection) Rules-Environmental Clearance
13
1995
The National Environment Tribunal Act
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules
1.6 REGULATORY STRUCTURE OF POLLUTION CONTROL AUTHORITIES

AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
These are the main bodies to control the pollution and enforce the various acts regulations
laws etc:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India (M.O.E.F.)

Central Pollution Control Board
State Pollution Control Board
1.6.1 Functions of M.O.E.F
Environmental Policy Planning and Research

Implementing legislation and monitor/control pollution
Environmental clearance for projects
Promotion of Environmental Education, Training and Awareness
Forest Conservation, Development and Wildlife Protection
Bio-Sphere Reserve Programme
Co-ordination with concerned National and International agencies.
1.6.2 Functions of the Central Pollution Control Board
To promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the state
10
To advice the central government on matters concerning the prevention and

control of water pollution.
To co-ordinate the actions of the state board and resolve disputes among them.
To provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards to carry out
research in prevention and control of water pollution problems.
To organize training of persons engaged in pollution control.
To organize comprehensive programme for pollution control through mass media.
To lay down standards for streams or wells.
To prepare manuals like (Manual on Sewerage and Sewage treatment, Manual
on Water Supply and Treatment, Manual on Solid waste Management), codes
or guides for treatment and disposal of wastes etc.
To establish or recognize laboratories for analysis of water samples from any
stream, well or trade effluents etc.
1.6.3 Functions of the State Pollution Control Board
Planning a comprehensive programme for prevention control and abatement

of pollution of streams and wells.
Advising the state government regarding water pollution control or location
of industries.
Conducting and encouraging investigations and research relating to different
aspects of water pollution.
To collaborate with the Central Board for training personnel for handling
water pollution programmes and organizing related mass education
programmes.
Inspecting trade effluents and wastewater treatment plants.
Prescribing effluent standards for the sewage and trade effluents.
Evolving economical and reliable methods of disposal treatment and reuse of
wastewater.
Laying down the standards of treatment of sewage to be discharged into any
stream.
Making, varying and revoking any order for preservation or control of discharge
of waste into streams and wells or construction of systems for disposal of
effluents.
Establishing or recognizing laboratories for analysis of samples.
Performing such functions as may be entrusted by Central Board or State
Governments.
Imposing penalties for the violation of the provisions of Acts.
11
1.7 CONCLUSION
There are various laws, acts and the regulatory bodies at the central and state levels.
They have different duties, functions and powers to control the air, water, soil, and
noise pollution etc. But this is not sufficient. The main thing is the knowledge and urge
of environmental protection. Why one should protect environment and how it can be
done, this is to be understood clearly. As stated in this chapter that all the living and
non-living things in this world are interlinked and interdependent. They are in a
dynamic equilibrium with each other and cannot sustain in isolation. Every process is
cyclic and the cycle depends upon every element of it. If an element is disturbed,
destroyed or extinct the whole chain gets disturbed. The nature is a very good organizer.
It has many alternatives for the climax conditions. But that depends upon the very
existence of its diversity, the Biodiversity. Knowingly or unknowingly if we harm the
natural cycles and the diversity, the system will collapse after some time. That time has
come. So it is the duty of every citizen, everybody having some mind and brain, to think
about its prevention and solution. Prevention is always better than cure. That is why
we plead for prevention and control of environmental pollution. Let us make it voluntary,
not mandatory as it is very difficult to impose laws, acts and rules regulations by force.
The need is to propagate these novel ideas at the student level so that they can spread
it in the society with their utmost zest and zeal.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What do you mean by environmental engineering? What is the role and duties
of environmental engineer?
What is the need of protection of environment?
What are the adverse effects of environmental pollution?
Explain the biotic and abiotic environment and its interdependence.
Describe the different control strategies for the protection of environment.
Critically examine the need of environmental legislation.
Enlist the various laws made for protection of environment and mention the
main aims and objectives of each of them.
8.
What are the functions and power of the Central Pollution Control Board?
9.
What are the functions and power of the State Pollution Control Board?
10.
Enlist the various regulations and acts in chronological order.
This page
intentionally left
blank
2
WATER POLLUTION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Water is spread on two third of the earth but most of the water is not useful for direct
human consumption. It is available as ice on the poles and the glaciers with a percentage
of 2.14. The largest store is ocean with useless saline, brackish water (total dissolved solids
more than 50000 ppm) having 97.24 per cent of total water. The total available fresh
water (that can be used for irrigation and drinking) is 0.62 per cent. This fresh water
is distributed in surface sources (rivers, lakes etc), ground water (shallow and deep), soil
moisture and vapour in atmosphere. The surface water is only 1.5% of the total fresh
water and most of the fresh water is the ground water. So the surface water is something
around 0.01% of the total water. Because of its easy availability the surface water had
been the main source of water for irrigation and drinking purposes. That is why all the
old civilizations started on the banks of rivers. We gave a high respect to the rivers as
mother Ganges, to show our gratitude for their blessings of water, the basic requirement
of human life. Whenever a new planet is discovered we check if signs of water are there,
and if yes, then we assume that life could be there.
This scarce limited water is becoming useless because of the human activity (pollution)
and that is the main concern of study of water pollution.
2.2 WATER RESOURCES

The various sources of water, which can be harnessed economically, can be divided
into the following two categories:(A) Surface sources such as
(i) Ponds and lakes
14
(ii)
Streams and rivers
(iii)
Storage resources (dams)
(B) Subsurface or underground sources such as

(i) Springs
(ii)
Wells (open and tube-wells)
All of the above water resources are replenished by precipitation in various forms
like rain, snow, hail, dew etc. Rainfall is the main source and forms the major constituent
of the hydrological cycle. Water gets evaporated from the various exposed bodies of
water depending upon the climatic factors like temperature, R.H. and the wind speed.
RH or the relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour present in the
air to the maximum amount of vapour that air can hold at that given temperature.
Actually, air can hold only a fixed amount of water vapour at a given temperature.
As the temperature goes up, the moisture retaining capacity increases and as the
temperature goes down, it reduces. That is the reason, why dew is formed at night
when the temperature of the air falls down, and at that reduced temperature, the extra
moisture (more than its capacity at that temperature comes out and is condensed in
the form of dew). So if, for example, air can hold 3 gms of water vapour per Kg of
air at 20C and the moisture present in any sample of air (at this temperature) is 1.5
gms per Kg of air, then its RH will be- 50%. Lesser the RH of the air, higher the rate
of evaporation as there is more deficits to be met with. Similarly, more is the difference
of temperature (air and water) higher will be the rate of evaporation. Same is true with
wind speed. Like this, depending upon the climatic factors, evaporation shall take place.
The yearly evaporation from an exposed body of water in North India may be 1.7m
per year. The trees extract the subsoil water and during their breathing process, they
exhale water vapours into the atmosphere. This process is known as transpiration and
the combined process of evaporation and transpiration is known as evapotranspiration.
2.2.1 Rainfall
The water vapours get collected in the atmosphere and behave like a gas and obey the
various gas laws (Boyles, Charles etc.) under normal conditions. The concentration
of water vapours keeps on increasing and when it goes beyond the maximum moisture
retaining capacity of air at that temperature, it comes out in the form of precipitation.
Generally, it happens when air is cooled (hence the water retaining capacity is reduced).
The usual mechanism by which air is cooled to cause precipitation is lifting of the air
mass. There are three different methods by which the air mass gets lifted and gets cooled
to cause precipitation, generally in the form of rain and sometimes as snow, hail, sleet
etc. These are cyclonic precipitation, connective precipitation and orographic precipitation.
Cyclonic precipitation is by the lifting of an air mass due to pressure difference and
consequent horizontal flow from the surrounding area.
Water Pollution
15
Connective precipitation is due to the upward movement of the air that is warmer
than its surroundings.
Orographic precipitation is the main cause of precipitation in India. Winds heavily
laiden with moisture (monsoon winds) from the Bay of Bengal strike the southern slope
of Himalayas, causing intense rains.
2.2.2 Distribution of Rainfall
Buildings, trees and other obstructions, catch some of the rainfall, i.e. it is prevented
from reaching the ground. The part of the rain, which comes to the ground, is known
as the ground rainfall. After reaching the ground surface, infiltration of water to soil
starts. depending upon the absorbing capacity of the soil, which reduces with the time
of occurrence of rainfall. After some time, the rate of absorption reduces and the water
starts flowing on the surface of the earth. This is known as surface runoff.
2.2.3 Measurement of Rainfall
In order to estimate the capacity of a water source, the intensity and duration of rainfall
and consequent runoff are to measured. The simple measurement of the rainfall is done
with the help of rain gauges. The rain gauges are open receptacle with vertical sides
(bottle like) with funnels at the top, mounted at an unobstructed platform. They may
2.5 cm
Fun nel
M e tal C asin g
2.5 cm
20 . cm
G lass B o ttle
12 cm
5 cm
2.5 cm
2.5 cm
10 cm
60 cm 6 0 cm 60 cm C oncrete Foun da tion
Simons Rain Gauge
16
be non-recording type like Simons rain gauge or recording type like tipping bucket
type, weighing type and floating type etc. A float type gauge, which is most popular
in India, consists of a rotating drum with a graph paper fixed around it. There is
a pen point in contact with the graph paper, which moves up with the rise of the
float. The float in turn rises up with the rainwater that is collected in the gauge
chamber. The moving pen thus goes on recording the accumulation of rainwater
with the passage of time. When the chamber gets filled up the rainwater collected
in the chamber is drained out with the working of natural siphon.
In a Tipping bucket gauge, the rain water is first caught in a collector and then passed
through a funnel. The funnel discharges the water into a double compartment bucket.
When 0.1 mm of the rainwater gets filled up in one compartment, the bucket tips
emptying into one container, and shifting the other compartment in the place below
the funnel. The tipping of the bucket completes an electric circuit, forcing a pen to mark
on the rotating drum. As this can be electronically transmitted to distances, such gauges
are generally installed at remote/inaccessible places and the data can be recorded at
comfortable control rooms.
The amount of water collected and recorded for one complete year is known
as annual rainfall and the average of this annual rainfall for a number of designed
years (say 30 years) helps us in planning and designing of various projects like water
supply, irrigation, waste water management, storm water management, town
planning etc. For estimating the discharge (volume of the water flowing per unit
time m3/sec or cumec, 1 cumec=35 cusecs) there are many empirical formulae,
which are site specific. The one given by C.P.H.E.E.O manual on sewerage and
sewage treatment is the most authentic, as it caters for the characteristics of the
area etc. In the Rational method
method, the characteristics of the drainage district such
as imperviousness, topography, shape of the drainage basin and the duration of the
precipitation are considered to determine the discharge at a place. The runoff
reaching a particular site is given by the expression
where,
Q
Q
= 10 CiA
= co-efficient of runoff,
i
A
= runoff in m3/hr,
= intensity of rainfall in mm/hr,
= area of the drainage district in hectares, area contributing the
discharge.
The intensity of the rainfall decreases with duration. Analysis of observed data on
intensity duration of rainfall of the past record, over a period of years in the area is
necessary to arrive at a fair estimate of the intensity-duration for given frequencies.
Frequency means number of times of the occurrence of a particular storm takes place,
in a year. Longer records are required for dependable results.
Water Pollution
17
In Indian conditions, intensity of rainfall adopted is usually in the range of 12mm/

hr to 20 mm/hr. The co-efficient of runoff C depends on the imperviousness and the
shape of the tributary apart from the duration of the storm.
The rational and the other formulae give us the runoff and are therefore, helpful
in evaluating the amount of water available in the river or stream or nallah over long
periods. They are therefore useful for estimating the storage capacity of the reservoir
and thus fixing the height of the dam required to be constructed for that storage. These
determinations are useful when a storage reservoir is to be used as a source of water.
However when a river or a stream may be directly used as a source of water (without
any reservoir) one has to determine the day-to-day quantities of flow in that river or
stream. These daily flows are determined by actual observations and measurements
over along period. Various methods of discharge measurements may be adopted such
as the velocity area method or stage discharge relationship method, using a weir of
any existing dam or by using control meters etc.
2.3 SURFACE SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

These are the sources in which the water flows over the surface of the earth and is
directly available as raw water like lakes, rivers or impounding reservoirs. Ponds and
lakes are suitable for relatively small water supply schemes. Direct withdrawal from
rivers may not be possible throughout the year, so it is best to construct a dam or barrage
(any solid obstruction in the flow of river) and then use the water stored in the created
reservoir. Generally a dam is constructed for generation of hydroelectricity, irrigation
and a measure against floods and draughts. So it is a multipurpose project and water
supply is a small part of the project. Actually, the total yearly demand of potable water
(drinking water) is very less (say 1% of the water required for irrigation purpose). So
the dams (reservoirs), canals and other systems mainly designed for irrigation are
simultaneously used for water supply.
The Indira Gandhi Main Canal flows in Rajasthan starting from Hari-ke-Barrage
to Mohangarh in Jaisalmer about 600 km long. Many lift canals like Rajeev Gandhi
Lift Canal for water supply to Jodhpur take water from the main canal. The flow
in the main canal at the off take point of the Rajeev Gandhi Canal (RD1109 village
Madasar, Jaisalmer) may be 10,000 cusecs out of which the water supply canal
(Rajeev Gandhi Lift Canal) draws only 200 cusecs.
Similarly, Kota Barrage is constructed to divert the Chambal Rivers water to right
and left main canals for irrigation. The right canal flows for about 80 km, irrigating
Rajasthan and M.P. areas. But water is also drawn for the supply of potable water to
whole of the Kota city throughout the year, 24 hours a day at the rate of 250LPCD.
Bisalpur dam has been constructed in Tonk district for irrigation. Water for drinking
is supplied to Ajmer and is planned up to Jaipur also.
These were a few examples only in Rajasthan. Throughout the country, many such
multipurpose projects are there.
18
Sometimes the lakes are also used for water supply, like the Powai Lake for Mumbai.
Actually, it depends upon the amount of water stored in a body of water (reservoir),
may it be a lake or an impounding reservoir, and the demand of (raw) water to be
supplied to a nearby locality that it may suffice or not. Sometimes, because of the paucity
of surface water sources and the non- availability of good quality water (acceptable
as per health norms) water has to be carried from long distances. For example, the
Rajeev Gandhi Lift Canal is 200 km long and water is carried for this much long distance
with 8 pumping stations with approximately 200m lift. The electricity expenditure in
lifting the whole water for such distances makes the raw water very costly. But there
is no other choice.
The ground water is deep at places of scanty rainfall. Generally, the salts available
in the soil gets dissolved in the ground water and they make it unfit for human
consumption. Fluoride is the main culprit. Most of the towns in Rajasthan have ground
water with more fluoride content than the permitted (>1.5 p.p.m.). In other states also,
the ground water has generally more than the permissible amount of dissolved solids.
Making water free of dissolved solids is very costly. So it is wise to construct some
obstruction in uselessly flowing water to make it useful. Otherwise, the water will either
ultimately flow into the seas and oceans, or will evaporate into the atmosphere. This
is known as water management.
Even if the surface water goes deeper into the earth to enhance the ground water,
it is beneficial as it increases the underground safe deposit, which can be used by us,
though it contains more salts and energy is required to take it out. But the water, which
is neither available on earth nor mixed with ground water i.e. the subsoil water, is
generally useless. It can only be extracted by the angels like trees, which act as a pump
to lift this subsoil water to the atmosphere through transpiration. Thus it is wise to take
care of every drop of rainfall falling on the earth, so that it may not go waste. This
requires a holistic approach. The requirement of the whole nation should be considered
and the projects should not be dealt in isolation. Water cannot belong to a particular
village/town or a state. It is a national property and it should be planned in such a
way that it reaches to an Indian wherever he/she is living is the country. Some rivers
have surplus water and some are deprived of it. They may be linked with each other,
with care of possible environmental impacts. We have developed such ways and means
to assess the environmental impacts of any project (discussed in detail in chapter no. 7)
It is not wise to reject such ambitious and important projects for some unquantified
fears. On the other hand as it is against the natures present system, so one has to be
very careful in considering the overall cost and benefits ratio. It is true that the
increasing population is exerting more and more demand on the available resources
and for filling the gap between demand and supply (here water demand for drinking
and water supply through surface or underground sources) we are disturbing nature.
The nature is elastic to some level only and after its endurance limit it may become
violent and we may have to face serious repercussions. So conservation of water is the
Water Pollution
19
best policy with its wise and thoughtful use. In the present context, the construction
of dams is unavoidable. However the role of the environment engineer is to maximize
the benefits and minimize the drawbacks.
For making a permanent surface source for water supply a suitable type of dam
is constructed which may be any one of the following: -
Earth Dam: An earth dam is made of earth (or soil). It resists the forces exerted
upon it mainly due to shear strength of the soil. Though the weight of the
earth dam also resists the forces, but the structural behavior of an earth dam
is different from that of a gravity dam (Stone or concrete dam). When the
valley is wide and foundation is less strong, good soil is available; earth dam
is a good option as it is more environment friendly.
(ii) Gravity Dam: A gravity dam is made of stone and concrete, and resists the
water pressure, uplift pressure, wind pressure etc. due to its weight. They are
more suitable for narrow valleys with steep side slopes and strong foundation
because of more weight. They are strong and costlier than earth dam.
(iii) Rock fill Dam: A rock fill dam is like a combination of the two mentioned above.
The inner segment consists of rock pieces, boulders etc. with an impervious
outside membrane. Sometimes it has an impervious earth core to check the
seepage. They are less strong than the gravity dam and used for limited heights
only, particularly when the rock pieces are abundantly available.
(i)
Some less common dams like arch dams, butress dams, steel dams, timber dams
are also there, and even rubber dams are used these days at small levels.
In all types of dams, selection of site for a dam is most important. The selection of
site includes the consideration of topography of the area, suitable foundation, spillway
(outflow) site, availability of materials, watertightness of reservoir made, submergence
due to the construction of reservoir including the rehabilitation of the displaced over,
accessibility, sediments problem, the direct and indirect benefits of the dam and the
minimum overall cost (including all environmental impacts).
Storage Capacity of Reservoirs

The main function of constructing a dam and a reservoir is to store water at the time
of monsoon and then to use it throughout the year for irrigation drinking and other
processes. So the storage capacity of the reservoir is its main feature. First of all a suitable
dam site is selected considering many aspects like the flood discharge, requirement of
the water, geological conditions, shape of the valley (cup or saucer shape), foundation
requirements, availability of construction material and machinery etc. Then the capacity
of reservoir is determined from the contour maps of the area. The survey of India
department of Government of India has surveyed the whole country and has made
the topographic sheets known as the Great Trigonometric Survey Sheets (G.T. Sheets).
They are available on different scales for different purpose. Then the area enclosed
20
within each contour in the reservoir site is measured with a planimeter (a small
equipment to measure an area on a map). The contour elevations (from GT sheets) and
the areas measured are plotted in the form of a curve known as area elevation curve.
The integral of the area elevation curve gives elevation=storage or elevation capacity
curve. The volume of water that can be stored in a reservoir at a certain water surface
level can be computed after determining the increment of storage between two elevations
(S). The increment of storage (S) between two elevations is usually computed by
multiplying the average of the area at two elevations, by the elevation difference (h).
The summation of these increments below any elevation gives the storage volume below
that level.
W ate r Sp read A rea in 100 0 H e ctares
60
45
30
15
0.0
22 0
A rea E le vation C urve
20 0
E le va tion in m e ters
18 0
16 0
14 0
C apacity E le va tion C urve
12 0
0.0
C apacity Vo lum e in M illion H ecta re M e ters
The Area Elevation Curve
Actually this is an old method. These days the plots are made with the help of
remote sensing and the Geographical Information System (G.I.S.). Then with the
help of computer software the capacity of reservoir below a certain level can be
easily made known.
Depending upon the requirement of water, for all intended purposes and the
availability of budget the height of the dam is decided. Actually the water requirement
for irrigation is much more in comparison to that for drinking (all domestic purposes).
It may be 100 times more for instance. The second consideration is the area of submergence.
It depends upon the shape of the reservoir, so a deep valley is preferable to store more
water for lesser spread of submerged area. The area under submergence is generally
Water Pollution
21
forest and the if the valuable forestland with trees and other vegetations are submerged
it is an actual loss to the environment. The other details about this are given in the
chapter on Environmental Impact Assessments.
2.4 SUBSURFACE OR UNDERGROUND SOURCES

The rainwater that gets infiltered and percolated inside the earth to form a uniform
water surface is known as the ground water. This water is comparatively pure because
of the natural filtration as it passes through the soil. Many impurities are retained by
the soil through the actions like screening, sedimentation, adsorption etc. But it dissolves
many soluble salts as it passes through the soil containing those salts. So the total
dissolved solids of the underground water are much more than the surface water. The
flow of rain water from surface of earth to the underground depends upon the porosity
of the soil, the rate of water loss by evaporation, seepage to surface sources and
withdrawal by us.
2.4.1 Porosity
The porosity of a stratum (soil or rock) is a quantitative measurement of the interstices
of the voids present in a given volume.
Mathematically porosity
= Volume of voids/total volume
So the porosity
Where
Vv = Volume of voids
V
= Vv/V100 (per cent)

= total volume
Porosity depends upon shape and arrangement (packing) of the solid particles.
Uniformly graded (same size and shape) particles are more porous whereas those with
different size and shape are well packed and thus have poor porosity. Sands may have
30 to 40% porosity whereas the slate or granite may have 1 to 4% porosity only.
2.4.2 Permeability
The permeability is defined as the ability of rock or soil stratum to transmit or pass water
through itself. Water enters in the pores (voids) of the rocks, and is stored there until
it is drained off. The porosity of the rock thus defines the maximum amount of water
that can be stored in the rock. The porosity in itself does not ensure the storage of
underground water. Actually the water can enter into a rock (with any porosity) only
if the rock permits the flow of water through it, i.e. it depends upon whether the rock
is permeable or not. So a rock that is porous may not be permeable. For example shale
is a porous rock but not permeable. Its pore spaces are so minute and not well connected
to each other that the shale is impermeable. The permeability is defined in terms of coefficient of permeability k (m/sec.). It has been well defined by the Darcys law.
Darcys Law:- Scientist H. Darcy demonstrated on the basis of experiments that for
the laminar flow conditions ( Reynolds number < 1) the discharge, passing through
22
a soil is proportional to the head loss H and the area of cross section A of the soil
and inversely proportional to the length (L)
So
Q H/L. A (H/L can be designated as hydraulic gradient i)
or
Q i A
or
Q = k i A
The above equation gives the dimensions of k as m/sec. That is the unit of velocity.
One more term is transmissibility. Scientist Theis defined transmissibility as the rate of
flow of water through a vertical strip of water bearing stratum (aquifer) of unit width
and full depth (d) under a unit hydraulic gradient and a temperature of 60o F.
Thesis
T = k d
The following table gives the porosity and permeability of some of the formations
Table 2.1 Porosity and Permeability of Some Soils
S. No.
Type of formation
Porosity
Permeability
Granite, Quartzite
1.5%
Slate, Shale
4%
Limestone
5 to 10%
Sandstone
10 to 15%
Gravel
25%
1.0 or more
Sand and gravel
20 to 30%
1-0.1
Only fine sand
35%
0.05-0.001
Silty sand
0.002-0.0001
9
10
Silt
Clay
45%
0.0005-0.00001
0.000001 or lesser
2.5 GROUND WATER YIELD

The ground water is present in the water bearing stratum. Those soil formations through
which it can be easily and economically extracted is known as aquifers. The top layer
of ground water is known as water table. The ground water may come out by itself either
through springs or sometimes as artisan wells, but generally extracted out through the
wells. Larger diameter wells are known as open wells whereas the smaller diameter wells
(30 cm or so) are known as tube-wells. Tube-wells are drilled by machines and fitted with
blank or perforated pipes (strainers to draw water). Different type of pumps are installed
in the wells to get the water on ground surface. These days generally submersible pumps
are lowered in the tube-wells and open wells capable of drawing water for various heads
and discharges. As soon as the pumping is started the ground water table goes down
and a cone of depression is formed as shown below
Water Pollution
23
G roun d S u rface
O riginal W ate r Table
W ate r Tab le a t P um ping

C on e of D epre ssion or D ra dow n Cu rve
Tub e-W ell
Im perm ea ble Stra tum
After sometime the equilibrium is achieved, depending upon the yield (capacity to
provide water) and the withdrawal capacity of the pump set. If the yield of the aquifer
is more than the capacity of the pump installed we get continuous supply of water,
but if the pump has larger withdrawal capacity than the yield, then the supply of water
shall stop. The supply shall start again after sometime after further accumulation of
water from distant places in the aquifer. So the yield is known as the quantity of ground
water that can be extracted from a saturated (all voids filled up with water) water
bearing stratum. The ratio of this volume of water to the total volume of the stratum
is known as the specific yield. It is expressed in percentage that this much per cent
of water may be extracted from the soil economically. The water that cannot be
extracted is known as the specific retention or field capacity.
This specific retention is the amount of water held between the grains due to molecular
attraction. This film of water is thus held by molecular adhesion on the walls of the
intrices. Therefore the amount of this water will depend upon the total interstitial surface
in the rock. If the total interstitial surface is more, the specific retention will be more and
vice-versa. In soils like clay as the specific area is more, the specific retention would be
more and hence it will result in a small specific yield. Similarly in large particle soil like
coarse gravels, the specific retention would be smaller and it will give large specific yields.
After drilling the tube-wells by drilling machines the hydro-geologists make a log chart
of the stratum and then decide the position of blank and perforated pipes depending
upon the rock formation (aquifer). Tube-wells may be shallow or deep depending upon
the depth of water table, yield of the aquifer and the requirement of water. The drilling
operation of the well depends upon the expected soil structure.
2.5.1 Drilling of Tube-Wells
Tube-wells can be drilled by following methods:
24
(i) Auger Drilling (upto 15 m)

For smaller depths and smaller diameters auger drilling can be used in clay
silt or sand. The auger may be hand operated or power operated. Some of
them are as shown below.
This type of drilling is possible only in soft soils. To support the soft soil casing
pipe are lowered simultaneously.
(ii) Water jet or Wash Boring
In water jet boring method, a drill bit with nozzles is attached to the drill pipe
at its bottom. Water under high pressure is pumped into the drill pipe. The
force of water jet coming out of the nozzle loosens the subsurface soil. The
returning water flow through the annular space between the borehole and
the drill pipe carries the cuttings alongwith it to the ground surface. Here also
the soft soil is supported by the casing pipe to avoid collapsing in. The method
is not suitable for hard soils.
(iii) Core Drilling
This method is used for hard soil. In this method a core cutter with steel teeth
(drill bit) attached to a drill rod rotates and thus cuts the hard soil. As the
soil is cut and the hole is formed water supplied through the drill rod removes
the cuttings. For extremely hard and strong soils diamond bits are used.
(iv) Percussion Drilling
In this method a drill tool string constituting of a drill bit, a drill stem, and
a drill jar is lifted up and dropped down by connecting it to a diesel engine
and a wintch. The cable tool bit acts as a mini crusher that chops the
26
soil by this method. After drilling the hole and taking samples of the cuttings
(removed soil) at regular intervals the pipe assembly is designed for blank and
perforated pipes. Specially designed perforated pipes are known as strainers.
They are designed to allow water to come inside the hole and the soil is
prevented to get inside it by their special shape. That is why they are costlier
than the blank pipes, so they are placed only in water bearing and yielding
stratum (aquifer). There are many type of strainers like Cook Strainer, Ashford
Strainer, Legget Strainer, Phoenix Strainer etc.
2.5.2 Lowering of Pipes and Gravel Packing
The pipe assembly consisting of blind pipes (without hole) and strainers (with well
designed holes) are lowered in the drilled hole to a depth as designed by the hydrogeologist. The design of assembly is based on the depth of static water table, expected
draw-down (lowering of water table in a conical shape), expected yield and the
requirement of water. The diameter of the drilled hole is bigger than this pipe assembly
and thus some space is left between the walls of the hole and the tube-well pipe. This
space is filled up with gravel of suitable size. The casing pipe to retain the hole is taken
out simultaneously. The process of filling gravel (to stop entry of fine particles at
pumping) is known as shrouding. This also increases the effective well diameter and
hence the yield of the well. After shrouding the well is developed for use.
2.5.3 Development of Tube-wells
Development of a tube-well is the process of removing fine material from the aquifer
surrounding the strainer pipe so that it does not cause choking at the time of pumping.
It increases the yield from a tube-well and increases the useful life of the well. Following
methods may be used for developing a tube-well:(i) Pumping Method
In this method the fine particles surrounding the well are agitated by the
working of a variable discharge pump that gives jerks by its irregular motion.
Slowly the speed of the pump is increased until no more fine particles come
out with water.
(ii) Surging Method
In this method a hollow surge block or a bailer moves down the hole, already
filled up with Calgon (Sodium hexa meta phosphate) a dispersing agent,
forces it to the holes of the soil. When the bailer is moved upwards, a suction
pressure is developed and the water calgon solution brings with it fine particles
into the well. The surge block (bailer) is connected to a hollow pipe through
which the water charged with fine particles is pumped out. This operation
is repeated till clear water comes out from the well.
Water Pollution
27
(iii) Compressed Air Method

In this method, the development of the tube-well is done with an air compressor
discharge pipe and an air pipe. The air pipe is placed in the discharge pipe
such that its lower end projects out of it by a small length. This assembly is
lowered into the well till it reaches the bottom of the strainer pipe. After
building a high pressure of air in the compressor (800 kN/m2) the air valve
is opened suddenly to release the air with high pressure. This loosens the fine
particles in the formation surrounding the slots. When the air valve is closed
the pressure decreases and water enters the well alongwith the loosened fine
particles. This water is pumped out of the well. The same operation is repeated
at different levels along the strainer sections of the tube-well so that the whole
well is fully developed.
(iv) Dry Ice Method (Chemical Method)
In this method sodium dioxide (dry ice) and hydrochloric acid are used. First
of all HCl is poured in the well and the well is closed from the top. Compressed
air is supplied which pushes the HCl into the voids of the soil. The top plug
is then removed and dry ice blocks are dropped which sublimate to release
CO2 which builds up a high pressure. This high pressure gas comes out of
the tube-well with pressure followed by the water mixed with mud in the form
of a jet. This way the fine material; are removed and the well starts giving
clean water.
2.5.4 Yield of a Tube-Well
The yield (discharge) of a tube-well depends upon the depth and capacity of
aquifer (water bearing stratum) and the drawdown. As the water comes to the
tube-well from all directions the Dupuit- Theim equations can be used to obtain
the yield from it. There are two cases, first in which the water bearing stratum has
no upper impermeable layer (confining it to some limited depth), and there is only one
impermeable layer at the bottom of the aquifer. This type is known as the unconfined
aquifer. In the second case there are two impermeable layers, one at the top and other
at the bottom of the aquifer, known as confined aquifer.
2.5.4.1 Yield of a tube-well in an unconfined aquifer

Let there be a well of radius rw fully penetrating an unconfined aquifer of thickness
H below the water table (top surface of ground water) that is horizontal in the
beginning. As soon as the water is pumped out of the well the water level near the
tube-well goes down and this horizontal surface is converted into a conical curved
surface as shown below.
Water Pollution
29
case it would have been away from the surface pollution and rather it would have been
automatically purified due to the natural filtration process. So it is wise to conserve
rain water under the ground and use it only in a calculative, judicious manner.
Unfortunately in most of the areas in India the underground water is either going
deep and deep or has become so polluted to be useless for human consumption.
Actually we have to spent much more electricity if the water is to be lifted from a
greater depth. The horse power of the pump that is directly related to the electric
consumption (1H.P. = 0.746 kW) is based upon the discharge and head (depth of
water) as follows:Horse Power = Q H/75 x
Where
Q = discharge in litres per second

H = head in meters
= efficiency of the pump
So deeper is the water higher is the head and there is a larger requirement of the
HP of the pump. As 1 HP = 0.746 kW and when 1 kW motor runs for one hour it consumes
1 kWh. i.e. one unit of electricity, the consumption of electricity increases directly with
depth of water.
Now let us derive a mathematical expression for the estimation of discharge from
a tube-well. For this derivation let us consider a cylindrical soil mass around the well
(the wells are circular for the ease in construction and stability). Let the origin of the
cylindrical co-ordinates (r, and h) be at the center of the bottom of the well. Let P
be a point on the drawdown curve at a radial distance of r and at a height h above
the impermeable stratum. Water flows to the vertical sides of the tube well passing
through the point P. The area of flow A = 2 rh
Darcys law gives the velocity of flow V = ki = kdh/dr
Where k is the co-efficient of permeability
And I is the hydraulic gradient
Discharge
Q = A. V
= 2 rhkdh/dr
or
h dh = Q/2kdr/r
Integrating between limits r = r1 and h = h1 to r = r2 and h = h2
h2
h dh = Q/ 2k
h1
or
So
r2
dr/r
r1
(h2 h1 )/2 = Q/2k loge(r2/r1)

Q =
k( h 2 2 h 1 2 )
log e ( r2 / r1 )
Water Pollution
31
Integrating between limits r = r1 and h = h1 to r = r2 and h = h2

or
dh =
or
Q =
Q
2 kb
r2
r1
dr/r
2 kb ( h 2 h 1 )
log e ( r2/r1 )
2.72 kb( h 2 h 1 )
log 10 ( r2/r1 )
The above equation can also be written in terms of drawdowns s1 and s2
As
h 1 = H s1
And
h 2 = H s2
or
Q =
2.72 kb(s 1 s 2 )
log 10 ( r2 /r1 )
In terms of transmissibility T = bk
(Transmissibility T is equal to the discharge rate at which water is transmitted
through a unit width of an aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient )
The above equation becomes
or
Q =
2.72 T (s1 s 2 )
log 10 (r2/r1 )
Integrating equation between the limits r = rw and h = hw to r = R and h = H, here
R is the radius of influence that is the radius at which the cone of depression touches
the original water table. It ranges mostly between 150 to 500 m. It can be estimated
from Sichards formula as R = 3000 Sw k
Q =
Q =
2bk S w
R
log e
rw
Where
S w = drawdown in the well (m)
And k is the co-efficient of permeability.
Actually it is difficult to estimate the radius R accurately because the cone becomes
asymptotic (meeting at infinity) to the water table. An average value of R = 300 m
is generally assumed.
So
Q =
2. bk( H h w )
log e (R / rw )
or
Q =
2 bk s w
log e (R/rw )
(As above)
32
or
Q =
2 T s w
log e (R/rw )
or
Q =
2.72 T s w
log 10 (R/rw )
Like this knowing the T, co-efficient of transmissibility, sw the drawdown at the tubewell (can be measured) and assuming R = 300 m, measuring the radius rw we can
estimate the discharge Q.
Sometimes the underground water may be tapped through the infiltration galleries
which are a sort of horizontal wells constructed at shallow depths along the banks of
a stream. Sometimes the underground water is also tapped at a local level by a very
wide open well known as Baori. Actually Baori is a stepped well in which one can step
down to the water level and fetch the water manually. These step wells were constructed
in old times at places where the underground water was not very deep.
This way the water below the ground may be used as a source of water supply.
2.6 BASICS OF THE WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES

Actually wherever a water supply scheme is framed (scheme means a system to draw
water from suitable source, treat it and then supply it to the consumers) a comparison
is made between all the possible solutions. Preference is given to the nearest possible
source as the conveyance of water is very costly. The underground water is generally
pure (from suspended impurities point of view because of natural filtration) but contains
more dissolved salts. The lifting of water (pumping out from wells) also requires energy
(electricity) whereas the filtration of surface water is a costly affair. So the environmental
engineers in the public health engineering departments (water works) make schemes
(plans) to supply potable (fit for drinking from all points of view, i.e. clarity, dissolved
salts, and free from bacteria etc.) water to the consumers. The schemes are basically
of two types, rural water supply schemes and urban water supply schemes depending
upon the population of the habitation. The standards for the two types are different.
For example the designed rate of water supply per person per day in rural areas is only
40 litres (except the 11 desert districts of Rajasthan where it is 70 L.P.C.D. including
the cattle water demand). The designed rate of water supply for urban area is minimum
135 L.P.C.D. and above for industrial and commercial demands depending upon the
population of the city. Similarly, the availability of electricity in rural area is assumed
as 8 hours per day whereas it is 20-22 hours per day in urban area. The rate of increase
of population is also different in rural and urban area for forecasting the population
for the designed period.
The next criteria is the source. Generally when there is no water or the quality of
water available at some place is not fit for drinking or its harnessing is not economical
Water Pollution
33
(very deep),water is pumped through pipe lines or conveyed through canals from
distant places. For example water is carried through 204 km long Rajeev Gandhi Lift
Canal originating from R.D 1109 of Indira Gandhi Main Canal in Rajasthan for Jodhpur
city and many enroute villages. The Indira Gandhi Main Canal originates from HariKe Barrage and flows by gravity for about 600 km. The water in Rajeev Gandhi Lift
canal is lifted at 8 places for about 200 meters for conveying it to Jodhpur. This involves
a great expenditure on electricity, construction and maintenance of canal. Some portion
of this canal is made up of mild steel pipes where the construction of canal was not
economical. So all these aspects like surety of availability of water, quality of water,
cost of treatment, cost of supply etc. are to be considered before making a final decision.
Some of the water supply schemes are as follows:
(i) Traditional Source scheme: In this scheme the traditional source of the water
supply already existing in the village like an open well or the pond is electrified and
pumping machinery is installed. The pumped water is distributed to the villagers by
the existing small tanks near the wells. After commissioning the scheme it was handed
over to the villagers to run at their own cost through the Panchayats (local bodies of
the villages). But the schemes were not run by them successfully due to lack of interest
and money. Government of Rajasthan has started a new project namely Swajaldhara
in which the villagers frame their own water supply schemes and pay 10% of the cost
to the government. Government pay 90% and get the scheme executed and hand it
over to the villagers to run it at their own cost under the guidance of the government.
Many N.G.Os (Non-Governmental Organizations made voluntarily for the service of
the society) help them for this purpose. At present this is running well in some districts
of Rajasthan.
(ii) Pump and Tank Schemes: In these schemes the government public health
departments develop a source in the village itself. It may be an open well or a tubewell generally. One ground level reservoir (G.L.R.) is constructed and the pump installed
on the source fills water in this tank. Public stand posts (P.S.Ps) are constructed by the
sides of this GLR and public is allowed to fetch water from here free of cost but no
hose connections are given.
(iii) Regional Water Supply Schemes: When there is no feasible source of water in
a village (water may be very deep or saline), then the water has to be carried from
distant places like some other village well with enough potable water or some canal
or river. So this is a combined scheme of many villages. Pipe lines have to be laid to
carry water from the source to the benefited villages. So it is a costlier option. Water
is generally supplied at one or two points in the villages free of cost. Some times
connections to individual houses are also given depending upon the population and
the paying capacity and willingness of the consumers. There are some regional water
supply schemes which cater the needs of hundreds of villages alongwith the urban
towns in Rajasthan like the Rajeev Gandhi lift canal water supply scheme, Ganddheli
Sahawa scheme, Bisalpur Ajmer, Jaipur scheme and many others. The Rajeev Gandhi
34
Scheme originates from RD1109 of Indira Gandhi Main Canal, constructed and
maintained by the Irrigation Department of Rajasthan. The Public Health Engineering
Department of Rajasthan (PHED or more commonly known as Water Works) has
constructed about 204 Km long Rajeev Gandhi lift canal. In this water is lifted at 8
places before it reaches to Jodhpur so it is known as a lift canal. The discharge in the
first phase was about 200 cusecs which has been raised in the second phase for the
increased population and addition of more and more villages. This is one example of
a big Reg. Water Supply Scheme. Thousands of other Reg.W.S.S are running in Rajasthan
because generally either there is no water or sline, brackish, fluoride water is there in
most of the villages of Rajasthan. This option is very costly because of the capital cost
of long lengths of conveying mains (canal or pipes), maintenance cost and the electricity
cost of pumping in lifting of water. As a primary estimate the cost of raw water in
Rajeev Gandhi lift canal comes as Rs. 40 per thousand litres and the government charges
at the uniform rate of Rs. 4 per thousand litres from the average domestic consumer.
One should realize it and conserve water.
(iv) Piped Water Supply Schemes: These are generally for towns or big villages
(urban areas). In these schemes house connections are given and the consumption is
charged. The source may be in the locality or a distance source ( like Rajeev Gandhi
lift canal for Jodhpur). R.C.C. Overhead tanks known as elevated service reservoirs
(E.S.R) are constructed for the distribution of water through the distribution mains. First
of all the raw water is treated by all means including disinfection (most important).
Then pumped to ESRs and then distributed either for the whole day or at certain fixed
time. The consumption is generally metered and charged on monthly basis. After some
years the existing water supply schemes are reframed and executed. Such schemes are
known as Reorganized Water Supply Schemes.
(v) Urban Water Supply Schemes: These are the schemes implemented for the urban
areas. The main difference of urban and rural area is the population. Generally more
than 10000 population is considered as urban area. The main difference in design of rural
and urban water supply scheme is the rate of water supply. The design rate of water
supply in rural areas as per the governments norms is 40 litres per capita per day except
the 11 desert districts of Rajasthan for which it is 70 LPCD (including the cattle water
demand). For urban area the rate is 135 litres minimum and it increases with the
population. The other main difference is the house connections. In most of the rural water
supply schemes water is supplied at a common point and people have to fetch it from
this common place also known as public stand post. In urban water supply schemes every
house is given a metered or flat rate service connection through which water is generally
supplied intermittently (say twice in a day). The water obtained from a surface or ground
source is treated and lifted in an elevated service reservoir. Then it is distributed through
a properly designed and maintained distribution system. Though some of it is wasted
in leakages but the loss should not be more than 10%. The water is also supplied for
Water Pollution
35
industrial and commercial purposes. Some of the water is always stored for fire fighting.
As there is a depletion of ground water, and uncertainty of rainfall due to global warming
and other reasons, it has become very difficult to maintain the urban water supply
schemes these days.
2.6.1 Quality of Water
Quality of water is the most important aspect. There are international and national
standards for the quality of water to be supplied for human consumption. The state
governments may have a slight relaxation in the standards depending upon the local
conditions but in general they are the same throughout the country.
The main aim of the public health engineering departments or the environmental
engineering departments as they are called these days is to supply safe and palatable
(good in taste) water to the consumers. Water should also be free from any odour.
The temperature of water should be reasonably good. It should neither be corrosive
nor scale forming and should be free from minerals that can produce undesirable
physiological effects. For achieving this ideal condition the minimum standards of
quality are to be established. The evolution of standards for the control of quality
of public water supplies has to consider the limitations imposed by the local factors
in the different regions of the country. As per the Manual on Water Supply and
Treatment published by the Government of India, the main objective is to make
water absolutely free from risks of transmitting disease, means safety is compulsory
where as the other qualities are to be maintained within a specified range. For
example water may have dissolved solids upto 500 mg per litre but cannot have
any bacteria or other micro organism. Actually water is a very good carrier of many
diseases producing organisms (pathogens) as there are all chances of its getting
contaminated (infected by pathogens). If a small drop of urine or fecal matter
(excreta, nightoil) is mixed in a body of water (canal, pond etc.) and the person
contributing it has some disease like cholera, gastroentitis, infectious hepatitis
jaundice, typhoid, etc., it will infect the stream. Anybody using that water without
treatment (disinfection) is liable to catch the same disease. Sometimes the foul waste
water (from latrines, toilets etc.) goes down the earth and gets mixed (at a shallow
depth) with the ground water it pollutes it. If this ground water lifted by a hand
pump or a tube-well is used again without disinfect ion it shall cause disease in
the person using it. Sometimes the dissolved salts may produce some other diseases
like fluorosis (due to excessive fluoride) mathemaglobinemia (blue baby disease) due
to excessive nitrates in, infants) etc. So water must not have the physical, chemical
and bacteriological parameters beyond limits.
36
(a) The following table shows the physical and chemical standards of water as per
the manual.
Table 2.2 Physical and Chemical Standards
S. No.
Characteristics
*Acceptable
**Cause for rejection
Turbidity (units on J.T.U. Scale)
2.5
10
Colour (Units on platinum Cobalt Scale)
5.0
25
Taste and Odour
Unobjectionable
Unobjectionable
pH
7.0 to 8.5
6.5 to 9.2
Total dissolved solids(mg/l)
500
1500
Total hardness (mg/l)(as CaCO3)
200
600
Chlorides as Cl (mg/l)
200
1000
Sulphates (as SO4) (mg/l)
200
400
Fluorides (as F) (mg/l)
1.0
1.5
10
Nitrates (as NO3) (mg/l)
45
45
11
Calcium (as Ca) (mg/l)
75
200
12
Magnesium (as Mg) (mg/l)
30
150
13
Iron (as Fe) (mg/l)
0.1
1.0
14
Manganese as Mn (mg/l)
0.05
0.5
15
Copper (as Cu) (mg/l)
0.05
1.5
16
Zinc as Zn (mg/l)
15
17
Phenolic Componds (as Phenol) mg/l
0.001
0.002
18
Anionic detergents (as MBAS) (mg/l)
0.2
1.0
19
Mineral Oil (mg/l)
0.01
0.3
Table 2.3 Toxic Materials

S. No.
Characteristics
Acceptable
Cause for rejection
Arsenic (as As) (mg/l)
0.05
0.05
Cadmium (as Cd) (mg/l)
0.01
0.01
Chromium (as hexavalent Cr) (mg/l)
0.05
0.05
Cyanides (as CN) (mg/l)
0.05
0.05
Lead (as Pb) (mg/l)
0.1
0.1
Selenium (as Se) (mg/l)
0.01
0.01
Mercury (total as Hg) (mg/l)
0.001
0.001
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
0.2m g/l
0.2m g/l
Contd....
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37
Radio Activity
Gross Alpha activity
3 pico curie/l
3 pico curie/l
Gross Beta activity
30 pico curie/l
30 pico curie/l
Notes
*The figures indicated under the column acceptable are the limits upto which
the water is generally acceptable to the consumer.
**Figures in excess of those mentioned under acceptable render the water
not acceptable, but still may be tolerated in the absence of alternative and
better source but upto the limits indicated under column cause for rejection
above which the supply will have to be rejected.
It is possible that some mine and spring water may exceed these radio activity
limits and in such case it is necessary to analyze the individual radionuclides
in order to assess the acceptability or otherwise for public consumption.
(b) Bacteriological Standards

(i) Water entering the distribution system
system:Coliform (bacteria, as the indicator organism) count in any sample of 100
ml water should be zero. A sample of the water entering the distribution
system that does not conform to this standard calls for an immediate
investigation into both the efficacy of the purification process and the method
of sampling.
(ii) Water in the distribution system shall satisfy all the three criteria indicated
below
below: E. Coli (Escherichia Coli, bacteria found in the colon of human beings as
a natural habitant) count in 100 ml of any sample should be zero.
Coliform organisms (group of B- Coli bacteria coli and E. Coli) , not more
than 10 per 100 ml shall be present in any sample.
Coliform organisms should not be detectable in 100 ml of any two consecutive

sample or more than 5% of the samples collected for the year.
If coliform organisms are found, re-sampling should be done. The repeated

findings of 1 to 10 coliform organisms in 100 ml or the appearance of higher
numbers in any sample should necessitate the investigation and removal of
the source of pollution.
(iii) Individual or small community supplie
supplies
E.coli count should be zero in any sample of 100 ml and coliform organisms
should not be more than 3 per 100 ml. ( If repeated samples show the presence
of coliform organisms, steps should be taken to discover and remove the source
of pollution. If coliform exceeds 3 per 100 ml, the supply should be disinfected).
38
(c)
Virological Aspects
0.5 mg/l of free chlorine residual for one hour is sufficient to inactivate virus,
even in water that was originally polluted. This free chlorine residual is to
be insisted in all disinfected supplies in areas suspected of endemicity of
infectious hepatitis Jaundice to take care of the safety of the supply from virus
point of view which incidentally takes care of the safety from the bacteriological point of view as well. For other areas 0.2 mg/l of free chlorine residual
for half an hour should be insisted.
2.6.2 Characteristics of Water

To ensure the quality of safe drinking water (potable water) the water is to be tested
for its physical, chemical and bacteriological characteristics.
(a) Physical Characteristics:

(i) Temperature: It can be measured by a thermometer. The temperature should
be suitable to the human beings depending upon the climatic and weather
conditions. An average temperature of 15C is generally suitable.
(ii) Turbidity: The muddy or cloudy appearance of clay or such other particles
that presents hindrance to the path of light is known as turbidity. It may not
be harmful but even then from aesthetical point of view it should not exceed
the allowable value. The turbidity is measured by a turbidity rod or a turbidity
meter with physical observations and is expressed as the suspended matter
in mg/l or ppm (part per million). The standard unit of turbidity is that which
is produced by 1 mg of finely divided silica in one litre of distilled water. The
turbidity in excess of 5 mg/l is detectable by the consumer and is hence
objectionable. It is measured in the laboratory by Jackson , Baylis or such
other turbiditymeters.
(iii) Colour: The colour is imparted by dissolved organic matters from decaying
vegetation or some inorganic materials such as coloured soils (red soil) etc.
The algae or other aquatic plants may also impart colour. Again it is more
objectionable from aesthetics point of view than the health. The standard unit
of colour is that which is produced by one milligram of platinum cobalt
dissolved in one liter of distilled water. Colour is measured in the labs by
Nesslers tubes by comparing the sample with the known colour intensities.
More precisely tintometer measures it.
(iv) Taste and odour: The dissolved inorganic salts or organic matter or the
dissolved gases may impart taste and odour to the water. The water must not
contain any undesirable or objectionable taste or odour. The extent of taste
or odour is measured by a term called odour intensity which is related with
threshold odour, which represents the dilution ratio at which the odour is
Water Pollution
39
hardly detectible. The water to be tested is gradually diluted with odour free
water and the mixture at which the detection of taste and odour is just lost
is determined. The number of times the sample is diluted is known as the
threshold number. Thus if 20 ml of water is made 100 ml (until it just looses
its taste or odour) then the threshold number is 5. For domestic water supplies
the water should be free from any taste and odour so the threshold number
should be 1 and should not exceed 3.
(v) Specific conductivity of water: The specific conductivity of water is determined by means of a portable dionic water tester and is expressed as micromhos per cm at 25C. Mho is the unit of conductivity and is equal to 1 amper/
1 volt). The specific conductivity is multiplied by a co-efficient (generally 0.65)
so as to directly obtain the dissolved salt content in ppm..
(b) Chemical Characteristics

Chemical analysis of water is done to determine the chemical characteristics of water.
This involves the determination of total solids, suspended solids, pH value, hardness,
chlorides, nitrogen content, iron, manganese and other contents, dissolved gases etc.
(i) Total solids and suspended solids: The total amount of solids can be determined by evaporating a measured sample of water and weighing the dry
residue left. The suspended solids can be determined by filtering the water
sample and weighing the residue left on the filter paper. The difference
between the total solids and the suspended solids will be the dissolved solids.
(ii) pH of water: pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration
present in water. The higher values of pH mean lower hydrogen ion concentrations and thus represent alkaline water and vice versa. The neutral water
has same number of H+ and OH ions. The concentration of both ions in
neutral water is 107 moles per liter. The neutral water will therefore possess
a pH equal to
log10 (1/H+) = log10 (1/107) = log10 107 = 7
If an acid is added to neutral water the number of hydrogen ion increases
and thus the pH reduces. Similarly, if an alkali is added the number of
hydroxyl ion increases thus reducing the hydrogen ion (as their product is
constant, = 1014 mole/liter) and the pH increases.
Hence, if the pH of water is more than 7 it is alkaline and if it is less than
7 it is acidic. Generally, the alkalinity in water is caused by the presence of
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium, or by the carbonates or hydroxides
of sodium potassium calcium and magnesium. Some of the compounds which
cause alkalinity also cause hardness. Acidity is caused by the presence of
mineral acids, free carbon dioxide, sulphates of iron and aluminium etc.
40
The pH value can be measured by a digital pH meter. It can also be measured

with the help of colour indicators. The indicators are added to sample of water
and the colour produced is compared with the standard colours of known
pH values.
For municipal water supplies the pH should be as close to 7 as possible. The
lower pH water (acidic) may harm the pipe lines etc. by reacting with them
(tuberculation and corrosion). The alkaline water may produce sedimentation,
(scaling) in pipes, difficulties in chlorination ( for disinfection) and adverse
effect on human physiological system.
(iii) Hardness of water: Hardness in water prevents the formation of sufficient
foam when used with soap. It is caused by certain dissolved salts of calcium
and magnesium which form scum with soap and reduce the formation of
foam which helps in removing the dirt from clothes. These salts keep on
depositing on the surface of boilers and thus form a layer known as scale
which reduces the efficiency of the boilers. The hardness is known as temporary hardness if it is due to the bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium
as this can be easily removed by boiling water or adding lime to it. By boiling
the carbon dioxide gas escapes and the insoluble carbonates are deposited
(which cause scaling). If sulphates, chlorides and nitrates are present they
cannot be easily removed by boiling and so such water requires water softening methods and this type of hardness is known as permanent hardness.
Hardness is measured by titration method (E.D.T.A. method) and is expressed
in ppm or mg/l. Generally the underground water is more hard as it dissolves
the salts in its journey from surface to the ground water table. For boiler feed
waters and for efficient washing of clothes the water must be soft i.e. hardness
should be less than 75 ppm(mg/l).
(iv) Chlorides: Chlorides are generally present in water in the form of sodium
chloride and their concentration above 250 mg/l produces a salty taste in
drinking water. The chlorides can be measured in water by titrating the water
with standard silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate as indicator.
(v) Nitrogen content: The nitrogen in water may occur in one or more forms of
the following:
(a)
Free ammonia
(b)
Albuminoid nitrogen
(c)
Nitrites
(d)
Nitrates
The free ammonia indicates very fast stage of decomposition of organic matter
(thus indicating fresh pollution); albuminoid nitrogen represents the quantity
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41
of nitrogen present in water before the decomposition of organic matter has

started, the nitrites indicate the partly decomposed organic matter (the continuation of decomposition) and the nitrates indicate the presence of fully
oxidized organic matter (means the prior pollution condition). In potable
water the free ammonia (undecomposed organic matter should not be more
than 0.15 ppm, and the albuminoidal nitrogen should not be more than 0.3
ppm. The nitrogen may remain in the form of nitrates but that too should
not be more than 45 ppm as a higher concentration causes blue baby disease
in the infants. Actually the nitrates act with the haemoglobin in the blood
(which imparts red colour) and reduce it thus converting the colour of skin
to blue (impure blood) and thus making them ill and in extreme cases they
can die. Nitrate is measured either by reduction to ammonia or by matching
the colours produced with phenoldisulphonic acid.
(vi) Metals and other chemical substances: Various metals and minerals may be
present in water like iron, manganese, copper, lead, cadmium, arsenic, barium,
selenium, etc. The allowable limits for them are as shown in the above tables.
If the concentration of these metals and minerals exceeds the permissible limits
they have certain harmful effects on the human health.
Higher concentrations of iron and manganese may cause discoloration of
clothes washed in such waters. They may cause incrustation in water supply
pipe lines due to deposition of ferric hydroxide and manganese oxide. Lead
and barium salts are toxic and thus very low concentration of these salts is
permissible. Arsenic is a well known poison and as such extremely low
concentration (0.05 ppm) is permitted. Most of the ground water in Punjab
is having arsenic more than the permissible limits because of the industrial
waste water pollution. High quantities of copper may badly affect human
lungs and other respiratory organs.
(vii) Dissolved gases: Various gases like CO2, O2, N2, H2S and CH4 etc. may be
present in dissolved form in water. H2S even in small concentration gives bad
taste and odour. CO2 indicates biological activity. Oxygen is generally absorbed by water from the atmosphere. Its saturation concentration depends
upon temperature. The organic matter may be present in water due to the
disposal of waste water in it. Organic matter is instable and has a tendency
to become stable i.e. to be inorganic matter. This conversion is known as
decomposition of organic matter and the process is bio-chemical. As it takes
place by bacteria (bio means living) and the conversion is extra cellular
enzymatic reaction so it is known as a bio-chemical reaction. The demand of
oxygen imposed by the aerobic (working in presence of oxygen) bacteria is
known as the Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). This BOD reduces the
dissolved oxygen content of the water. So if the DO of water is found to be
42
less than the concentration DO it indicates the water pollution. The BOD of
treated water should be nil.
After knowing the standards of potable water one should know the ways and
means to make the water fit for drinking, i.e. the treatment of water.
2.7 TREATMENT OF WATER

The available raw water has to be treated to make it fit, i.e. potable, means safe for
human consumption. It should satisfy the physical, chemical and bacteriological standards
as specified above. The various methods of purification of water are
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
Screening
Plain sedimentation
Sedimentation aided with coagulation
Filtration
Disinfection
Aeration
Softening
Miscellaneous treatments like defluoridation, recarbonation desalination etc.
2.7.1 Screening
Screens are provided before the intake works so as to prevent the entry of big objects
like debris, branches of trees, part of animals etc. Screens may be of two types, coarse
screen and fine screens. Coarse screens are parallel iron rods placed vertically or at a
small slope at about 2.5 cm to 10 cm apart. The fine screens are made up of fine wire
or perforated metal with small openings less than 1 cm size. Finer is the screen more
are the chances of clogging so generally only coarse screens are used. The screens may
be manually cleaned or mechanically cleaned depending upon the requirement i.e. the
size of the treatment plant.
2.7.2 Plain Sedimentation
Sedimentation is done to remove the impurities which have specific gravity more than
that of water and are settleable. When water is moving these impurities remain in
suspension due to the turbulence and as the velocity is reduced they settle down. It
is not necessary to stop the motion of water completely as it will require more volume
of the sedimentation tanks. As per the theory of sedimentation the settlement of a
particle depend upon the velocity of flow, the viscosity of water, the size shape and
specific gravity of particle. The settling velocity of a spherical particle is expressed by
Stokes law which gives the final equation as follows,
Vs = g/18 (Ss-1) d2/
Where
Vs = Velocity of settlement of particle in m/sec
Water Pollution
43
d = diameter of the particle in cm

Ss = specific gravity of the particle
= kinematic viscosity of water in m2/sec
Knowing the settling velocity of particle, that is intended to be settled, the design
of the settling tank is done.
2.7.3 Sedimentation Aided with Coagulation
The fine suspended particles like mud particles and the colloidal matter present in
water cannot settle down by plain sedimentation with ordinary (lesser) detention
periods. Some of the colloidal impurities will not settle even if the water is detained
for long periods in the sedimentation tanks as the same charge on the clay particles
repel each other and do not allow them to settle down. So the sedimentation is aided
with coagulation. Coagulation is a process in which some chemical like alum or
ferrous sulphate is mixed in water resulting in particle destabilization. Operationally
this is achieved by the addition of appropriate chemical like alum and intense mixing
for achieving uniform dispersion of the chemical. These chemicals are more effective
when the water is slightly alkaline. Sometimes sodium carbonate or lime is to be added
to achieve the suitable pH of water. Flocculation is the second stage of the formation
of settleable particles (or flocs) from destabilized (neutral) colloidal particles and is
achieved by gentle (slow) mixing. So in flocculation the alum is first mixed rapidly
for dispersion and then slow mixing produces flocks. Both these stages of flocculation
are greatly influenced by physical and chemical forces such as electrical charge on
particles, exchange capacity, particle size and concentration, pH, water temperature
and electrolyte concentration.
2.7.4 Filtration
Filtration is a physical and chemical process for separating suspended and colloidal
impurities from water by passage through a porous bed made up of gravel and sand
etc. Actually the sedimentation even aided with coagulation and flocculation cannot
remove all the suspended and colloidal impurities and to make water (specially
surface water) fit for drinking filtration is a must. The theory of filtration includes
the following actions:
Mechanical straining, the suspended particles present in water that are of

bigger size than the voids in the sand layers are retained their itself and the
water becomes free of them. The sand layer may get choked after some time
and then it is to be cleaned for further action by washing it back.
Sedimentation, the small voids in the sand act as tiny sedimentation tanks and
the colloidal matter arrested in these voids is a gelatinous mass and thus attracts
other finer particles. These finer particles are thus removed by the sedimentation.
44
Biological metabolism, certain micro-organisms are present in the sand voids.

They decompose the organic matter like the algae etc. and thus remove some
of the impurity.
Electrolytic change, according to the theory of ionization a filter helps in
purifying the water by changing the chemical characteristics of water. The
sand grains of the filter media and the impurities in water carry electrical
charge of opposite nature which neutralizes each other and forces the paticles
to settle now by gravity.
2.7.5 Disinfection
The filtration of water removes the suspended impurities and removes a large percentage
of bacteria but still some of the bacteria remain there in the filtered water. This bacteria
may be harmful bacteria (disease producing bacteria) known as pathogenic bacteria.
The process of killing these bacteria is known as disinfection. There are many diseases
like cholera, gastro entities, infectious hepatitis (jaundice), typhoid etc., the bacteria or
virus of which transmits through water. It is necessary to make water free from any
micro-organism before human consumption. Contamination (mixing of pathogenic
micro-organism) may take place in the water supply at any time (because of leakage
etc.) so proper measures must be taken to stop it at all levels. Generally the disinfection
is done by adding chlorine to water. There should be a residual amount of chlorine
after the disinfection to fight with any probable contamination in the route of water
to the consumer. Following are some of the methods of disinfection
Boiling of water
Treatment with excess lime
Use of ozone
Treatment with ultraviolet rays
Use of potassium permanganate
Treatment with silver
Use of bromine, iodine and chlorine
Out of the above, treatment with chlorine is the most popular and economically
effective. Actually the criteria for a good disinfectant as per the Manual are,
It should be capable of destroying the pathogenic organisms present, within

the contact time available and not unduly influenced by the range of physical
and chemical properties of water encountered particularly temperature, pH
and mineral constituents.
It should not leave products of reaction which render the water toxic or impart
colour or otherwise make it unpotable.
It should have ready and dependable availability at reasonable cost permitting
convenient, safe and accurate application to water.
Water Pollution
45
It should possess the property of leaving residual concentrations to deal with

small possible recontamination.
It should be amenable to detection by practical, rapid and simple analytical
techniques in the small concentration ranges to permit the control of efficiency
of the disinfection process.
The factors affecting the efficiency of disinfection are
Type, condition and concentration of organisms to be destroyed

Type and concentration of disinfectant
Contact time and concentration of disinfectants in water and
Chemical and physical characteristics of water to be treated particularly the
temperature, pH and mineral constituents.
Potable water should always have some amount of residual chlorine, as there are
all chances of contamination at all levels. This may be 0.2 ppm. to 0.3 ppm. depending
upon the requirement (rainy season or enhanced chances, more Cl2 required). To make
sure the presence of chlorine some tests are done out of which Orthotolodine test is
the most common one.
Orthotolidine Test: In this test 10 ml of chlorinated sample of water is taken after the
required contact period (say half an hour) in a glass tube. 0.1 ml of orthotolidine solution
is added to it. The colour formed is noted after 5 minutes and compared with the standard
coloured glasses. Darker is the yellow colour formed more is the residual chlorine. The test
is very simple and even a semi- skilled employee can perform it satisfactorily and it can
be done at the site itself and accordingly corrective measures can be taken. For example
if there is a complaint from a hostel mess. Test is performed for the tank water and if no
residual chlorine is found, bleaching powder (a good source of chlorine) is mixed with some
water and added to the tank water in paste form and stirred. The test is again performed
after half an hour till it shows the required residual chlorine.
2.7.6 Aeration
Taste and odour, both are undesirable in water. Aeration is done to remove taste and
odour. Aeration is done to promote the exchange of gases between the water and the
atmosphere. In the water treatment, aeration is performed for the following purposes,
To add oxygen to water for imparting freshness, for example water from
underground sources may have lesser oxygen.
For expulsion of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and other volatile sustances
causing taste and odour.
To precipitate impurities like iron and manganese specially from undeground
water.
In aeration gases are dissolved in or liberated from water until the concentration
of the gas in the water has reached its saturation value. The concentration of gases
46
in a liquid generally obeys Henerys law which states that the concentration of each
gas in water is directly proportional to the partial pressure (product of the volume
percentage of the gas and the total pressure of the atmosphere.) or concentration of
gas in the atmosphere in contact with water. The saturation concentration of a gas
decreases with temperature and dissolved salts in water. Aeration accelerates the
exchange of gas. To ensure proper aeration it is necessary to,
Increase the area of water in contact with the air. The smaller are the droplets
produced the larger will be the area available.
Keep the surface of the liquid constantly agitated so as to reduce the thickness
of the liquid film which would govern the resistance offered to the rate of
exchange of the gas.
Increase the time of contact of water droplets with air or increase the time
of flow which can be achieved by increasing the height of jet in spray aerators
and increasing the height of tower in case of packed media.
Where oxygen is to be dissolved in water, the concentration or partial pressure of

the oxygen may be increased by increasing the total pressure of the gas in contact with
water. For this purpose air injected into a main under pressure is a reasonably efficient
method of increasing the amount of dissolved oxygen.
2.7.7 Water Softening
The reduction or removal of hardness from water is called as water softening. For
domestic water supplies the softening is done to reduce the soap consumption, to ensure
longer life to washed fabric, to lower the cost of maintaining plumbing fixtures and
to improve the taste of food preparations and improve palatability (good taste). For
industrial supplies softening is done for reducing scaling problems in boilers and the
interference in the working of dyeing systems. Usually a total hardness of 75 to 100
mg/l (as CaCO3) would meet these requirements. The magnesium hardness should not
exceed 40 mg/l to minimize the possibility of magnesium hydroxide scale in domestic
water heaters. Calcium and magnesium associated with bicarbonates are responsible
for carbonate hardness and that with the sulphates, chlorides and nitrates contribute
to non carbonate hardness. Normally the alkalinity measures the carbonate hardness
unless it contains sodium alkalinity. The non carbonate hardness is measured by the
difference between the total hardness and the carbonate hardness. Carbonates and
bicarbonates of sodium are described as negative non carbonate hardness.
The temporary hardness or bicarbonate hardness can be removed by boiling or by
adding lime. The following reactions take place by boiling:
Ca(HCO3)2 + Heat = CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
Mg(HCO3)2 + Heat = MgCO3 + H2O + CO2
As it is difficult to boil the water at large scale the addition of lime is done. The
following reaction takes place when lime is added to water,
Water Pollution
47
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCO3 + 2H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O
The carbonates of calcium and magnesium are removed by sedimentation being
insoluble in water.
The permanent hardness is removed by:
(i) Lime-soda process
(ii) Zeolite process
(iii) Demineralization or deionization process.
Lime-soda process
In the lime soda process lime and soda ash (Na2CO3) are added which removes both
the temporary and permanent hardness.
The additional reactions with soda are as follows
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 = CaSO4
+ Mg(OH)2
Ca SO4 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + Na2SO4

Ca Cl2 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + 2NaCl
Mg Cl2 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCl2
+ Mg(OH)2
Using the above reactions the hardness is removed in the lime soda plants
Zeolite process
The lime soda method is a precipitation method in which some chemicals or reagents
are added to the water. In the zeolite process no such chemical is added and the hard
water is passed through a bed of special material called as the zeolite. The zeolite has
the property of removing calcium and magnesium from the water and substituting
sodium in their place by ion exchange phenomenon. Zeolites are complex compounds
of aluminum, silica and soda, some times synthetic and otherwise natural. Natural
zeolites are mainly processed from green sand (glauconite). It has an exchange value
of about 8000 gm of hardness per m3 of zeolite. The common artificial zeolite is
permutit. It has larger grains with white colour. Permutit (SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O) has a high
exchange value of 35000 to 40000 gm of hardness per m3 of zeolite.
When hard water passes through a bed of permutit the following reactions take place
2SiO2Al2O3 Na2O + Ca(HCO3)2 = 2SiO2 Al2O3CaO + 2NaHCO3
2SiO2Al2O3 Na2O + CaSO4 = 2SiO2 Al2O3CaO + Na2SO4
2SiO2Al2O3 Na2O + CaCl2 = 2SiO2 Al2O3CaO + 2NaCl
Similar reactions take place with compounds of magnesium hardness can be reduces
to almost zero by this method. Due to continuous use of the zeolite the sodium gets
exhausted and then the zeolite has to be regenerated by passing a solution of salt
through it. The sodium in the brine (salt water) replaces the calcium and magnesium
48
in the exhausted zeolite which is thus restored and the calcium and magnesium are
discharged to waste with the wash water.
Demineralization or deionisation process

The conventional zeolites exchange the sodium cations (positive in electric charge) for
the cations of calcium magnesium and iron in water and the softening is essentially a
cation exchange process. In the demineralization or deionisation process, some other
zeolite is used which exchanges all the cations (including sodium) for hydrogen. Some
of the zeolites are patented as zeo-karbs, catex organolites etc. are carbonaceous zeolites
since they are made from materials like coal and lignite. They are also known as hydrogen
exchanger. The water treated with hydrogen zeolite has the sulphates, chlorides and
bicarbonates transformed into sulphuric, hydrochloric and carbonic acids.
Actually the demineralization is done mainly to make the brackish water (as sea water)
useful for drinking. It is a costly process.
2.8 REQUIREMENT OF PRESSURE OF WATER TO BE SUPPLIED

After the treatment the water is supplied to the consumers through the distribution
system. This includes the collection of treated water in the clear water reservoir,
pumping it to the overhead reservoirs (over head tanks) and then distribution through
the pipeline network. The network is designed in such a way that the water reaches
to all the consumers with a minimum pressure of 7 meters for single storied and 12
meters for double storied buildings. The distribution system is designed by Hardy Cross
method of balancing flows or other methods like equivalent pipe method etc. The
minimum pipe sizes of 100 mm for towns having population upto 50000 and 150 mm
pipes for those above 50,000 are recommended.
The supply from the street main to the individual buildings is made through a house
service connection. The water is used in the house premises for many purposes like
drinking, cooking, bathing, cleaning of utensils, floors and clothes etc., gardening and
flushing. The water is also used for commercial and industrial purposes. The total per
capita water demand of a city depends on many factors like the size of the city, climatic
conditions, living standards, mode of supply, mode of assessment etc. In general the
following rates per capita per day are considered minimum for domestic and non
domestic needs as per the manual on water supply & Treatment.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
for communities with population upto 10000
70 to 100 litres
for communities with population upto 10000 to 50000

for communities with population above 50000
100 to 125 litres

125 to 200 litres.
Approximately 80% of this water comes out as the domestic wastewater also known
as sewage. Waste is actually a misplaced resource. The term wastewater means a type
of water that cannot be further used for the same purpose again. The wastewater of
a process can be used as influent for the other process. For example the domestic
Water Pollution
49
wastewater may be used for irrigation or the wastewater from kitchens and bathrooms
(non foul) may be used for flushing and gardening in the same premises. The collection
conveyance, treatment and disposal of the wastewater is known as the wastewater
management.
2.9 WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT

As per the Manual on Sewerage and Sewage treatment the Government of India publication,
in India, wastewater disposal systems are usually managed by local bodies. This service
facility falls under the water supply and sanitation sector. The development of the sector
is assisted at Government of India level, State Government level and local body level. There
are five basic important aspects of the wastewater management namely,
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
General Administration
Personnel Administration
Inventory Control
Financial Control
Public Relation
For proper maintenance of data, review, follow up and decision making, software
programmes developed by the Central Public Health Environmental Engineering
Organization (CPHEEO) under Management Information System can be profitably used.
The wastewater management system in general should aim at the following
achievement.
(a)
Proper collection of wastewater discharged by the community.
(b)
(c)
(d)
Adequate treatment of wastewater to achieve the desired effluent standards.

Safe and efficient operations and as far as possible self supporting.
Sound financial management.
2.9.1 Prevention of Pollution

As per the manual, the early law regulating pollution was enforced almost entirely
through the process of individual suits for what was termed a private nuisance. The
concept of public nuisance has also been used to some degree to control pollution. A
public nuisance is an act which causes inconvenience or damage to the public as
distinguished from one or a few individuals and includes any interference with the
public health, safety, or inconvenience. A public nuisance is subject to abatement at
the behest of state officials. It may also constitute a crime.
In our country until recently the pollution was regulated through state factory acts
and rules also by some sections (section 28) of the Indian Easement Act. As the scope
of these acts is limited in its extent and does not provide much guidance in respect of
water pollution prevention, the union government enacted the water (Prevention and
50
Control of Pollution) Act, in 1974, which is applicable to all union territories and has
been adopted by all the states, by resolution passed in that behalf under clause (i) of
article 252 of the constitution. Under the provision of this Act, no discharge of wastewater
can be made in the environment without obtaining consent from the State Pollution
Control Board (from the Central Pollution Control Board in case of Union Territories).
A consent prescribes the volume and quality of wastewater in terms of concentration
of various pollutants which can be permitted for discharge in the environment.
In 1986 the union government enacted the Environment (Protection) Act 1986, for
protection and improvement and the prevention of hazard to human beings, other
living creatures, plants and property. The Act empowers the Union Government to
make rules providing standards in excess of which environment pollutants shall not
be discharged or emitted in the environment and to take direct action against defaulters.
2.9.2 Statutory Water and Sanitation Boards
As per the manual most of the local bodies at present face serious handicaps in the
promotional stages of a project, in its pre financing stage and in the fund raising stage
as well. With the responsibilities beyond their capacity and the limitations of finance
and procedures, any attempt by them individually to raise loans in the open market to
finance a local wastewater disposal project may not attract encouraging response. This
problem may be solved by creating autonomous water and sanitation boards. These
boards are devices by which the State Government will be able to establish corporate
public entities to construct manage and operate water and sanitary services on a fully
commercial basis in large metropolitan areas as well as in small urban communities. These
boards should be empowered and equipped to raise such capital from local resources
and the open market borrowings to supplement the resources provided by the Government
at the State and Central level. Such boards may have the advantages of,
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
An increased efficiency resulting from financial autonomy.

Improved ability to raise capital with confidence.
Affording better opportunities for small municipalities grouped together to
finance and operate their schemes as a business preposition.
The economies implicit in a common authority which may be made to serve
several undertakings.
The economies possible by pooling technical and administrative staff to serve
a number of municipalities. And
The opportunities for equalizing the rates in every region.
A statutory Water and Sanitation Board may be set up at the state level with regional
boards if and to the extent necessary within the state, to provide water and sanitation
services and to collect revenues to meet such services, to raise the capital needed to
provide the facilities and to exercise all other corporate powers necessary to act on
behalf of the local bodies within their jurisdiction. Normally such boards would encompass
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51
all activities including production treatment conveyance and distribution of water

within their statutory areas and also for the collection, treatment and disposal of sewage
from that area as well as other sanitation services. It is however possible that some local
bodies may prefer to purchase water in bulk from the statutory boards and arrange
for the internal distribution by themselves and may also prefer to have the statutory
board take over sewage in bulk from the local area and arrange for its treatment and
disposal. This should be avoided as far as possible as the supply and distribution of
water as also collection and disposal of sewage are two interdependent functions and
the division of such functions amongst two independent agencies might lead to inefficiency
and avoidable difficulties for both parties. Any local body managing its system satisfactorily
need not necessarily come under such a board.
2.9.3 Waste Water Management
What so ever may be the agency, the aim of wastewater management is the protection
of environment from the ill effects of the wastewater. As stated earlier the wastewater
management has the main components as collection, conveyance, treatment and disposal
of wastewater. Let us discuss them one by one.
2.9.3.1 Collection of Domestic Wastewater

The wastewater is generated from many activities in the house premises. The water
that comes out from the kitchen after cleaning the utensils etc. contains the residuals
of washing powder and oil, food particles etc. The water which comes out from
bathrooms also contains soap detergents dust, dirt etc. As both of them does not include
urine and fecal matter (human excreta, nightsoil) so termed as non foul wastewater.
The water that carries excreta alongwith it, i.e. from the water closets is known as foul
wastewater. Actually these days the bathrooms and WCs are constructed in a single
unit known as the toilet, so wastewater from a toilet is foul wastewater. The term foul
here means the readily biodegradable matter. The nightsoil and other such organic
matter starts quickly degrading and as such produce bad smell and pollutes the
environment so they are known as foul matters. Earlier these two types of wastewaters
were dealt separately but these days there is no distinction in their handling.
However, the type of traps, used in their collection are different. Trap is a bent piece
of pipe specially designed to keep (trap) some water always in it that prevents the entry
of bad smell (foul gases) into the premises from the pipes and the other components
of the collection system. Depending upon their particular shapes and the uses the traps
are known as P, Q, S, and Gulley trap, Nahani trap or the intercepting traps. The traps
are attached to the WC pans or the bottom of the kitchen sinks or the washbasins. The
WC pans are mainly of two types, Indian (used in squatting position) or European (used
in sitting position). Wastewater comes out of the trap by some force of the flushing
action or the head of the washbasin and travels through the house drain pipeline to
the inspection chamber. Earlier the drainpipes were made up of stoneware china clay
52
but these days they are plastic pipes. The minimum diameter should be 100 mm. The
inspection chambers are rectangular small chambers made at every change in alignment,
diameter of pipe or mainly at the junction of two pipes. They help in removing the
chocking of pipes by providing an end to insert some bamboo stick or wire.
2.9.3.2 Conveyance or Transportation of Waste Water

The domestic waste water is carried from the last inspection chamber to the main
sewer line laid in the street by the government departments like the Public Health
Engineering Department of the State, or the local bodies like the municipality or the
development authorities. A manhole is provided on the connection of these pipelines.
Manhole is a chamber of masonry covered with a manhole cover of cast iron or
concrete provided for the inspection and cleaning of the sewer line. Sufficient space
should be there for a person to enter inside it and work for cleaning of the chamber
and the sewer line. Manholes are provided at every junction of two lines, change in
diameter, change in alignment and slope and also on the straight reaches at some
distance that depends upon the diameter of the sewer line. As per the manual, on
sewers which are to be cleaned manually, which cannot be entered for cleaning or
inspections, the maximum distance between the manholes should be 30 m. The
spacing of manholes on large sewers above 900 mm diameter is governed by the
following for the sewers to be cleaned manually,
(a) The distance upto which silt or other obstruction may have to be conveyed
along the sewer to the nearest manhole for removal.
(b) The distance upto which materials for repairs may be conveyed through the
sewer and
(c) Ventilation requirements for men working in the sewer.
For sewers which are to be cleaned with mechanical devices, the spacing of manholes
will depend upon the type of equipment to be used for sewer cleaning. The spacing
of manholes above 90 to 150 m. may be allowed on straight runs for sewers of diameter
900 to1500 mm. Spacing of manhole at 150 to 200 m may be allowed on straight runs
for sewers of 1.5 to 2 m diameter, which may further be increased upto 300 m for sewers
of over 2 m diameter.
Sometimes when a main sewer line receives a small (lateral) sewer line at different
levels a drop manhole is provided. If the difference is more than 600 mm the smaller
sewer line is bent to come down at the level of the main line so that the sewage does
not fall on a worker, cleaning the sewer line.
The sewage is carried away further by the sewer line designed for the same.
2.9.3.3 Design of the Sewer Line

The sewerage system may be designed to carry the sewage alone or the rain water and
the sewage both in the same sewer line. For the estimation of storm (rain water) runoff
the Rational Method is commonly used. The entire precipitation over the drainage area
Water Pollution
53
does not reach the sewer. The characteristics of the drainage district, such as,
imperviousness, topography including depressions and water pockets, shape of the
drainage basin and duration of the precipitation determine the fraction of the total
precipitation which will reach the sewer. This fraction is known as the co-efficient of
runoff need to be determined for each drainage district. The runoff reaching the sewer
is given by the expression, as per the manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment
Q = 10 C i A
Where Q is the runoff in m3 per hour
C is the co-efficient of runoff
i, is the intensity of rainfall in mm/hr and
A is the area of drainage district in hectares (one hectare = 100 m 100 m)
For the determination of the intensity of rainfall first of all the storm frequency is fixed
depending upon the importance of the area. For example the frequency of flooding of the
periphery of a residential area may be twice a year whereas for the commercial and high
priced area it is once in two years. Then for this design period the design rainfall intensity
is calculated with the help of the rainfall data available. In Indian conditions intensity of
rainfall adopted in design is usually in the range of 12 mm/hr to 20 mm/hr.
The co-efficient of runoff depends upon the imperviousness of the drainage area,
tributary area, duration of storm etc. Its value may be from 0.125 to 0.9. Knowing the
storm water flow the sewer laid separately for the storm water is designed.
The domestic sewage is estimated as 80% of the water supplied to the consumers.
The rest 20% water goes as evaporation from different places like the body of human
being or the clothes or the floors or in the gardening. The flow in the sewers varies
considerably from hour to hour and also seasonally, but for the purposes of hydraulic
design it is the estimated peak flow that is adopted. The peak factor or the ratio of
maximum to average flows depend upon contributory population and the following
values are recommended by the manual
Table 2.4 Peak Factor
Contributory population
Peak factor
Upto 20000
3.0
20000 to 50000
2.5
50000 to 7,50000
2.25
Above 7,50000
2.0
The peak factors also depend upon the density of population, topography of site,
hours of water supply and therefore it is desirable to estimate the same in individual
case, if required. The minimum flow may vary from 1/3 to of average flow. After
54
calculating the quantity of the domestic sewage the separate sewer line may be designed
and it is added to the storm water runoff if there is a combined system.
2.9.3.4 Hydraulics of Sewers

The flow in sewers is assumed to be steady and uniform (not changing with time) for
simplicity. Actually at the night time or other lean periods the flow in sewers reduces to
a minimum value and as the velocity reduces the deposition of solid material takes place.
The sewer should be so designed that at the peak flow this deposited material is washed
away and there should not been any final deposition ultimately. Such a velocity is known
as the self cleansing velocity. As the sewers always run partially full velocity is little
influenced by pipe diameter. Sewers are designed to run part full to maintain a gravity
flow and for the addition of some infiltration of rain water or the ground water in some
cases. Gases of decomposition also find their space in the empty portion. For the present
peak flows upto 30 liters per second the slopes as given below as per the manual may be
adopted which would ensure a minimum velocity of 0.6 mps in the early years.
Table 2.5 Recommended Slopes for Minimum Velocity
Present peak flow in lps
Slope per 1000
6.0
4.0
3.1
10
2.0
15
1.3
20
1.2
30
1.0
The maximum allowable velocity in a sewer to avoid the erosion of the material
is 3.0 mps. Knowing the discharge and the self cleansing velocity the sewer may be
designed by Mannings Formula as below
V = (1/n) R2/3 S1/2
For circular pipes
V = (1/n)
And
(3.968 10-3) D2/3 S1/2
Q = ( 1/n) ( 3.118 10-6 ) D2/3 S1/2
Where
Q = discharge in l.p.s
S = slope or hydraulic gradient
D = internal dia of pipe in mm
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55
R = Hydraulic radius in m
V = Velocity in mps
N = Mannings co-efficient of roughness
The value of mannings co-efficient depends upon the pipe material. For salt glazed
stoneware pipes it is 0.012, for cement concrete pipes it is 0.013, for steel pipes it is
0.013 etc.
Knowing the discharge and the mannings co-efficient and the slope the required
diameter of the sewer is calculated. If the slope is not given means not pre-decided then
assuming the self cleansing velocity, both slope and the diameter are calculated. After
this the sewer material like brick, concrete, stoneware or vitrified clay (for house
drainage), iron or steel, ductile iron, asbestos cement and plastic pipes, high density
polyethylene pipes or glass fibre reinforced plastic pipes are selected depending upon
the pressure resistance and the availability of budget. Sewer lines are laid by jointing
the pipes so designed and selected by different joints like cast iron detachable joints,
socket and spigot joints, coupler joints, sealing chemicals or by welding. The sewerage
network so laid conveys the sewage to the treatment plant.
2.9.4 Treatment of Wastewater
The objective of sewage treatment is to make the sewage harmless before it is disposed.
The disposal means final laying of sewage on the land or leaving it on land to flow
and mix in some body of water like the river or a pond. The sewage has many
characteristics like temperature, hydrogen ion concentration (pH), colour and odour,
solids, nitrogen, phosphorous, chlorides, bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical
oxygen demand (COD), and toxic metals etc. Though all of them are important for
determination of disposal criteria, BOD is the most important one.
The Bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD) of sewage or polluted water is the amount
of oxygen required for the biological decomposition of biodegradable organic matter
under aerobic conditions. Actually the food items, human excreta, urine etc. all these
are the organic matters. The organic matter has a tendency of decomposition and it
always tends to be converted into the inorganic form that is stable. Higher is this
tendency more fast is the decomposition. Readily decomposable organic matter is
known as the putrescible matter. The decomposition of organic matter is done by the
bacteria, which is available in plenty in the sewage. There are mainly two types of
bacteria, one which works in presence of oxygen and the other which can work in
absence of oxygen. The former is known as the aerobic bacteria and the later is known
as the anaerobic bacteria. The facultative bacteria can work in both conditions. The
decomposition of organic matter is done by the extra enzymatic reaction of bacteria.
As the agency is living, i.e. bio and the reaction is chemical it is known as the biochemical reaction. The bacteria can decompose some of the organic matter, known as
56
the bio-degradable organic matter. The bacteria require oxygen for its metabolism and
that demand of oxygen of the bacteria busy in decomposing the organic matter is known
as the bio-chemical oxygen demand.
The carbonaceous portion of the organic matter is first oxidized and then the
nitrogenous portion gets stabilized. About 68% of the organic matter (carbonaceous)
gets stabilized in the initial 5 days and then the rate of decomposition becomes slower
(because of the nitrogenous portion). Although the complete BOD is satisfied in
infinite time but a large portion of it is satisfied in 5 days so 5 day BOD determination
is popularly done. The general temperature of sewage is 20 degree celsius so it is
termed as BOD5 at 20 degree C as the standard BOD. The BOD satisfaction equation
is as follows,
Y t = L (1-10Kd t)
Where
Y t = BOD at any time t

L = initial BOD at time t = 0
Kd = deoxygenation co-efficient (function of temperature)
K dT = Kd20 1.047
T20
T = temperature of the reaction

K d20 = 0.1 per day (for normal sewage).
So the BOD5 determines the strength of the sewage. Higher is the BOD5 stronger
is the sewage. The average value of domestic sewage is 300 parts per million (ppm)
or mg/liter. The industrial or commercial sewage has generally more value than this.
The chemical oxygen demand COD is known as the total oxygen demand of the
bio degradable and non bio degradable organic matter. Obviously it is more than BOD.
The COD can be readily (3-4 hours) measured in the laboratory where as the BOD5
determination takes 5 days in the laboratory. The COD and BOD ratio for a particular
type of wastewater can be predetermined and then for a given sample of wasterwater
by measuring the COD the BOD can be calculated indirectly. The COD /BOD ratio
varies generally from 2.0 to 2.5. Actually, the BOD of the waste decides its foulness
or the offensiveness. When wastewater is disposed in the river water it consumes the
dissolved oxygen of the river water for the satisfaction of its BOD. This reduces the
Dissolved Oxygen (D.O) of the river water. If the D.O goes below 4 p.p.m. almost all
the fish and the other aquatic life shall be destroyed. The died fish will become organic
matter that will further decompose and put more BOD and ultimately the whole of
the DO of the fresh body of water shall be exhausted and it will convert into a polluted
stale stinking useless body of water.
If this body of water is a river moving fast with turbulence, it shall absorb more
and more oxygen from the atmosphere and shall purify itself after some time and
distance. This is known as the self purification of water. But if more and more sewage
is mixed in it (in between the self purification reach) it shall never purify itself and
Water Pollution
57
become a polluted body of foul water only. This is the present status of most of our
rivers. In spite of many action plans of river protection and purification all the rivers
in our country are in a bad position. There are rules and legislations that every
industry or municipality should treat (reduce BOD to an allowable limit say 30 p.p.m.)
before discharging it into water. But unfortunately this is not followed strictly. This
is the duty of environment engineer and every citizen to check that no wastewater
should be allowed to be mixed in the rivers or ponds without treatment.
2.9.4.1 Unit Operations and Processes

The treatment of wastewater is a general term that applies to any operation/process
that can reduce the objectionable properties of wastewater and makes it less objectionable.
Wastewater treatment is a combination of physical, chemical and biological processes.
Unit operations are the methods of treatment in which the application of physical forces
predominate while unit processes are those in which the chemical and biological
activities are involved. The aim of wastewater treatment works is to produce an
acceptable effluent through the available unit operations. Generally the wastewater
treatment processes bring about changes in concentration of a specific substance by
moving it either into or out of the wastewater itself. This is known as the phase transfer.
The main phase transfers are as follows,
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Gas transfer : aeration

Ion transfer
(a) Chemical coagulation
(b) Chemical precipitation
(c)
(d) Adsorption
Ion exchange
Solute stabilization
(a) Chlorination
(b) Liming
(c)
(d) Break point and super chlorination
Recarbonation
Solid transfer
(a) Straining
(b) Sedimentation
(c)
(d) Filtration
Floatation
Nutrient transfer
Solid concentration and stabilization
(a) Thickening
(b) Centrifuging
(c)
Chemical conditioning
(d) Biological floatation
(e)
Vacuum filtration
(f) Sludge digestion
(g)
Incineration
(h) Wet combustion
The following table shows the application of physical unit operations in

wastewater treatment.
58

Table 2.6 Application of Physical Unit Operations in Wastewater Treatment
S. No.
Operation
Application
Screening
Removal of floating matter
Comminution
Grinding and shredding of big objects
Equalization
Equalization of flow and BOD loading
Mixing
Mixing of chemical and gases in wastewater and keeping solids in

suspension
Flocculation
Enlarging small particles
Sedimentation
Removal of settleable solids
Floatation
Thickening of biological sludge
Filtration
Removal of fine material after biological or chemical treatment
Micro screening
Removal of algae from stabilization ponds, oxidation ponds effluent
The following table shows the application of chemical unit processes in wastewater
treatment.
Table 2.7 Application of Chemical Unit Processes in Wastewater Treatment
S. No.
Process
Application
Chemical precipitation
Removal of phosphorus and enhancement of suspended

solids removal in sedimentation
Gas transfer
Addition and removal of gases
Adsorption
Removal of organics
Disinfection
Killing of disease causing organisms
Dechlorination
Removal of chlorine residuals
Miscellaneous
Specific wastewater treatments
Biological unit processes are those processes in which the removal of objectionable
matter is done by biological activity. In this process the objectives are to coagulate and
remove the dissolved or nonsettleable colloidal solids.
Biological processes are differentiated by the oxygen dependence of the microorganisms responsible for the wastewater treatment as follows,
(a)
Aerobic processes: The processes occur in presence of oxygen by the aerobic

bacteria. The aerobic processes include the following,
(i)
Trickling filter (attached growth process)
(ii)
Activated sludge process with its modifications (suspended growth process)
(iii)
Aerobic stabilization ponds (oxidation ponds)
(iv)
Aerated lagoons
Water Pollution
(b)
(c)
59
Anaerobic processes: The anaerobic processes occur in absence of oxygen by

the anaerobic bacteria. The anaerobic processes include the following,
(i) Anaerobic sludge digestion
(ii)
Anaerobic contact process
(iii)
Anaerobic filters
(iv)
Anaerobic lagoons or ponds
(v)
Septic tanks and Imhoff tanks
Facultative Process: The facultative bacteria can act in presence as well as in

absence of oxygen.
2.9.4.2 Methods of Treatment of Wastewater

The treatment of wastewater is a general term that includes any unit operation or
process that can reduce the objectionable properties sewage to make it less offensive
(bad, foul). The treatment includes,
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Removal of floating and suspended solid matter

Treatment of biodegradable organic matter
Disinfection (elimination of pathogenic organisms)
The following table shows the functions and efficiencies of the various treatment units:
Table 2.8 Functions and Efficiencies of the Various Treatment Units
S. No.
Desired
purification
action
Process or
unit used
BOD
removal
(% of
initial BOD)
Removal
of suspended
& dissolved
solids (% of
original)
Bacteria
removal)
(% of
original)
Disposal
of residuals
Removal of
floating materials like
rags, plastics, papers
etc.
Coarse &
fine screens
5-10
2-10
10-20
Screenings
disposed
off by
burial or
burning
Removal of
heavy settleable inorganic solids
Grit chamber
10-20
20-40
10-20
Grit used in
filling of
low lying
area, roads
Removal of
fats and
greases
Floatation
units and
skimming
tanks
20-30
20-40
10-20
Anaerobically
digested
skimmings
are disposed
Contd....
60

4
Removal of
large suspended organic
matter
(i) Plain
sedimentation
or
(ii) septic
tanks
30-35
60-65
25-75
Removal of
fine suspended and
dissolved
organic matter
Digested
sludge is
used as
manure
Combined
sludge
digestion
& sedimentation.
Sludge used
as manure
& effluent is
disposed
20-30
40-60
25-75
High & low

rate trickling
filters preceded by
plain sedimentation or
Activated
sludge
treatment or
60-95
65-92
80-85
Same as
above
75-95
85-90
90-98
Same as
above
Oxidation
ponds
85-90
85-90
90-98
Sewage
irrigation
The various operations and processes indicated above for the treatment of sewage
give effluent (treated wastewater) and the sludge (solids separated in semi solid form).
The effluent may be directly disposed either in the receiving waters (rivers, ponds) or
on land. The sludge is generally first of all treated and then disposed. The aim of
processing sludge is to extract water (reduce high volumes) and dispose the dewatered
residue through a combination of physical chemical and biological operations. The after
dewatering chemical conditioning and thickening the sludge is treated biologically,
generally by anaerobic treatment.
2.9.5 Anaerobic Digestion
In the anaerobic digestion the sludge is enclosed in a closed tank (in absence of oxygen
and sunlight) and left there for the required digestion time at a suitable temperature. Some
bacteria in the form of digested sludge are first of all mixed into it, borrowed from some
other previously running unit for seeding as we do for making curd out of the milk. The
anaerobic bacteria so mixed starts growing at an exponential rate under suitable conditions
of temperature, pH and nutrient (organic matter). This happens in two distinct stages,
acid fermentation and methane fermentation. In the first stage, acid fermentation stage,
hydrolysis and liquefaction of high molecular weight organic compound and conversion
to organic acids takes place by the acid forming bacteria. Acitic acid, proprionic acid and
butyric acids are the common end products. This reduces the pH of the reaction.
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The second stage known as methane fermentation is gasification of the organic acids
to methane and carbon dioxide by acid splitting methane forming bacteria which
requires high pH. So for proper functioning of the process it is necessary to maintain
a balance between the two, i.e. maintain the desirable pH and temperature. The
anaerobic bacteria are heat loving bacteria, known as mesophillic from 10 to 40 degrees
and thermophilic from 45 to 60 degrees. Higher is the temperature lesser is the time
required for the completion of the process. It takes 75 days at 10 degrees and 14 days
at 55 degrees for the anaerobic digestion so generally the digesters are built under the
ground to take advantage of the earth cover. Due to the digestion the organic matter
gets splited into dirty water known as supernatant liquor, gas known as bio gas and
solids as the digested sludge also known as the humus. The digested sludge is a
stabilized inorganic matter that can be profitably used as manure. It contains the
nutrients like N, P, and K, as well as the other micronutrient that are very much
desirable for us. The micronutrient like iron, copper etc. gives us strength to fight against
the diseases and also increase the taste of food. The biogas so evolved is a combination
of methane (60 to 70%) and carbon dioxide (25 to 35%). Methane is a combustible gas
with high calorific value so it is used as a cooking gas. Like this the anaerobic digestion
of sludge yields in useful end products and helps in reducing the volume of the sludge
and thus facilitates the safe disposal of it that was our main aim.
2.9.6 Disposal of Treated Wastewater (Effluent)
The effluent coming out of the sewage treatment plants may be discharged either in
receiving bodies of water like streams, ponds, rivers or on land. The type and degree of
treatment given to the sewage is dependent upon the requirements imposed by the
regulatory authorities like the pollution control boards. The water content of the sewage
and the fertility value of the nutrients make it useful for irrigation and pisciculture
(fish farming). The effluent can also be used in low-grade industrial uses or for artificial
recharging of aquifers (water bearing stratum). The cost of land, public health impact,
energy requirement, aesthetics and biological effects decide the mode of disposal whether
on land or in water. Here lies the importance of decision making by the environmental
engineers and the local bodies. If the wastewater is disposed without treatment into a
river it pollutes it badly mainly by decreasing its dissolved oxygen content. Though the
river has a capacity of self purification but that depends upon the discharge and the total
organic load of the wastewater i.e. its volume and the BOD. The deficiency of the dissolved
oxygen in the fresh water caused by the BOD of the wastewater is recuperated by the
diffusion of atmospheric oxygen the rate of which depends upon the turbulence etc. The
raw (untreated) sewage, full of organic matter increases the growth of unwanted aquatic
plants in such a way that the whole body of stagnant water is covered by it. For example
the water hyacinth cover the whole lake in a couple of days if the domestic sewage is
disposed in it. This is known as Eutrophication of lakes. This hampers the penetration
of sunrays and thus hinders the production of oxygen by the aquatic plants like algae.
It also obstructs the navigation in the water body.
62
Actually to keep the water oligotropic (clean) there should be equilibrium between
photosynthesis (cell formation) and respiration (cell decay). If the cell decay is more than
the cell formation the excessive nutrients supplied by the sewage get accumulated which
in turn stimulates bacterial activity. When there is excess supply of sewage in lake water
it results in accumulation of organic matter and the lake becomes Eutrophic
Eutrophic. This
accumulation of organic substances increases the oxygen demand (BOD) of the water
enormously which leads to anaerobic decay and the lake gets filled up by the decayed
matter. If the cell formation is more than the respiration or decay excessive inorganic
nutrients accumulate due to mineralisation. The acute response of algae to the nutrients
results in growth of both prokaryiotic and eukaryotic species leading to removal of CO2
at such a rate that the lake becomes alkaline. This increases the growth of blue-green algae
that not only fix nitrogen but limit the potential resources of the herbivores and eliminate
better species of fishes. In eutrophic state the water becomes foul smelling, hard with very
low oxygen. This inhibits the fish and other aquatic life and the lake becomes useless.
2.9.7 Disposal into Water Bodies
The disposal of treated wastewater is allowed in water or on land. The quality, quantity
and use of the water body decide the degree of treatment required for the sewage. Since
the treated wastewater may still have a high coliform bacterial density it should be
disinfected also before disposal so that it may not cause microbial pollution. Disposal
of wastewater in a river causes organic, chemical and microbiological pollution. Organic
pollution not only depletes the oxygen content resulting in the killing of aquatic plants
and animals but also leads to heavy algal growth downstream. The waste assimilating
capacity of the river depends on its self- purification properties. The estimation of the
self purification properties is very important to protect and promote various beneficial
uses to which the river water is put to. Actually the wastewater discharge into the river
should be regulated in such a way that it does not exceed its waste assimilating capacity.
To achieve this aim, wastewater treatment, wastewater reduction, alternative waste
disposal points and methods and increase in the quantity of dilution water are sought.
The capacity of the oceans to absorb wastewater is less in comparison to the rivers
because of its low oxygen content and high dissolved solid content even though there
is much more water for dilution. As the specific gravity of seawater is greater and
temperature is lower than that of wastewater, the warmer and lighter wastewater will
rise to the surface when discharged into the sea resulting in the spreading of the
wastewater as a thin film. Looking to the special characteristics of the marine echo
system the outfall (last portion of the sewer line) should be carefully designed and
located taking into consideration the sea currents, wind direction, wind velocity, tidal
cycle etc. Theoretically speaking the wastewater should be disposed only during low
tides to prevent backing up and spreading of wastewater. Practically it is difficult to
store the wastewater for such a long time. So the wastewater should be taken to a
distance of 1 to 1.5 km into the sea from the shoreline and discharged into deep sea
at a point 3 to 5 m below the water level.
Water Pollution
63
For the above requirements of planning and design the basic information to be
collected are as follows:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Study of the quantity and quality of the treated effluent including its toxicity.
Hydrographic surveys and examination of available hydraulic and hydrographic records like the run-off records at and below the point of disposal.
Observations on currents and effects of wind and temperature stratification
upon the dispersion of sewage.
The effect of winds, salinity and temperature stratification upon the movment
of sewage for tidal estuaries.
Studies of possible location for and forms of sewer outfall in its relation to
hydrographic conditions for lakes and oceans outfalls.
Studies of the various uses of the receiving water like for bathing and other
recreational facilities, protection of aquatic life, prevention of sludge bank
formation, avoidance of ugly conditions (for tourism) etc.
For well arranged points of effluent discharge there is no serious threat of ground
water quality. Generally in unsewered suburban residential areas domestic wastewater
(sewage) is disposed through cesspools, septic tanks and subsurface dispersion systems.
Adequate precautions are to be taken to ensure that the water sources are not
contaminated in such cases.
2.9.7.1 Disposal on Land

As there is increasing scarcity of irrigation water, the disposal on land serves both
the purposes of water requirement of crops and disposal of wastewater. The nutrients
like nitrogen phosphorus and potassium alongwith the micronutrients like iron
copper etc. make the wastewater effluent very much useful for sewage farming.
Raw sewage should not be disposed directly for farming. Sewage after primary
treatment may be used in some cases, but the disinfection is always a must. It
protects the workers against the infection by disease producing micro-organisms
and helminthes. It also saves the users of the farm products. The soil over which
the sewage is applied must have a good permeability and infiltration capacity like
5 cm per day or more. Generally all soils are capable of sewage farming with good
management of course.
The following table shows the effluent discharge standards.
Effluent Discharge Standards
I Inland surface water
II Public sewer
III Irrigation
IV Marine coastal area.
64

Table 2.9 Effluent Discharge Standards
I
II
III
IV
5.5-9.0
5.5-9.0
5.5-9.0
5.5-9.0
Total Suspended Solids
100
600
200
100
Total Dissolved Solids
2100
2100
Chemical Oxygen Demand
250
250
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
30
350
100
100
Oil & Grease
10
20
10
20
60%
Chloride
1000
1000
600
Fluoride
15
15
1000
1000
1000
pH
% Sodium
Sulphate as SO4
2.9.8 Onsite Sanitation

For small communities in rural or semi urban areas or even in most of the towns of
India where sewerage system is still a dream, onsite system of sanitation prevails. The
conventional off-site excreta disposal method, water borne sewerage system followed
by a sewage treatment and disposal plant is generally not affordable in these areas.
Some on-site low cost disposal methods like septic tanks and soak pits have been
developed to have some alternative methods. These are not so effective as the sewerage
system even then they are in use because of the economy considerations. Actually there
is a growing scarcity of water and the present water carriage system where a very small
amount of waste like excreta (say 1%) is carried by a large quantity of water (say 99%),
has to be replaced by some other more economic way. It was good when the population
was not so high and it was scattered on the earth. Now as the population is exponentially
increasing and the rural area is becoming urban and more and more population is
concentrating towards the cities, the waste assimilation capacity of the nature is falling
short and short. In these conditions the on-site sanitation has become a useful solution
though undesirable.
2.9.9 Septic Tank
A septic tank is a combination of sedimentation and digestion tanks where the sewage
is held for 24 hours. During this period the sattleable suspended solids settle down to
the bottom. The direct outflow of the sewage is restricted by the provision of two baffle
walls. The baffle walls divide it in three components and the sewage entering at anytime
gets exit after about 24 hours. As the tank is built underground and there is no oxygen
(and sunlight) so the anaerobic digestion of settled solids (sludge) and sewage takes
place. The bacteria decomposes even the dissolved organic matter and thus reduces the
BOD. This results in the reduction in the volume of sludge and release of gases like
Water Pollution
65
carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen sulphide. The hydrogen sulphide is an obnoxious
gas and smells like rotten eggs so the problem of foul gases is always there and so it
is called as a septic tank. Appropriate arrangement for the ventilation of the septic tank
should be made. The effluent of the septic tank although clarified to a large extent, will
still contain appreciable amount of dissolved and suspended putrescible organic solids
and pathogens. Therefore the effluent of septic tanks should be carefully disposed but
practically it is not treated further and just follows either some natural nallah or remains
on ground which creates further problems. So it is suggested only for small communities
and where we cannot afford the sewerage systems. Based upon the design criteria as
per the manual the following table shows the recommended sizes of septic tanks upto
20 users.
Table 2.10 Recommended Size of Septic Tanks
No. of users
Length (m)
Breadth (m)
Liquid depth (cleaning interval of) (m)

2 years
3 years
1.5
0.75
1.0
1.05
10
2.0
0.9
1.0
1.4
15
2.0
0.9
1.3
2.0
20
2.3
1.1
1.3
1.8
In the above table the capacity has been calculated with the assumption that only
the latrine (W.C) discharge is allowed in the septic tank. A provision of 300 mm should
be made for free board (extra space for safety and accumulation gas etc.)
2.9.10 Soak Pits
When water table is low and the soil is porous (as in desert areas) soak pits are
preferable. It is easy to construct a soak pit and cheap also. It is a circular pit with
a dry masonry lining (without mortar). A size of 3.0 m diameter and 3 m depth is
sufficient for a moderate family of 5 persons for a cleaning period of 7 years in porous
soil. The whole sewage of the house can be accommodated in this and nothing comes
out of it so there is no problem of treatment and disposal. Actually it is planned and
constructed in such a way that the water of sewage is soaked in the soil and penetrates
deep under the ground. The only consideration is of ground water table. It should
be deep so that either the percolating sewage does not mixes with it or it gets purified
in its journey through the soil layers before it mixes with the ground water. After
all if it mixes with the ground water the pathogenic bacteria present in it shall
contaminate the ground water and one has to treat the tube-well water before direct
consumption. Unfortunately in India we assume the water from wells and tube-wells
to be pure and potable and consume it directly without disinfection. Even the water
flowing in the rivers or the stagnant water of ponds is directly consumed without
any hitch. No effort has been made to disinfect the wastewater going into the soak
66
pits or the drinking water coming out of the handpumps or the wells. Otherwise the
soak pit is a very cheap and effortless solution of the sanitation problem. As there
is no sewer line, treatment plant and requirement of space for the disposal it is very
cheap and can be called as sewerless sanitation.
2.10 IN-HOUSE TREATMENT AND SAVING OF WATER

As known to everybody there is an acute shortage of water, particularly the sweet fresh
pure potable water. In majority of Indian cities and villages lesser water is supplied
than the requirement. This is because of the increased population, urbanization,
industrialization and changing pattern of rainfall due to the environmental pollution.
The so-called high living standard has increased the water consumption. The main
culprit is the water carriage system commonly known as the flushing system. In the
present flushing system we use a large amount of water say 10 liters every time when
we use the toilet for defecation or urination. This amounts to about 40% of the total
domestic consumption. As there is no separate system of raw and treated water in an
individual household we use the same highly treated water for this work also where
even the raw water could have solved our purpose. So this high priced treated water
is wasted in this work where even the treated sewage could have been used.
As per the research done by the author and so many others the non-foul (kitchen
and bathrooms) wastewater (excluding human excreta) can be used for flushing and
gardening without any major problem.
2.11 CONCLUSION
Water is the basic need for human beings. After air it is the most essential daily
input required for the very existence of the mankind. Water is the main constituent
of our body and a certain quantity of pure water is required daily for our physical needs.
It is used in many ways other than drinking but we call the whole amount consumed
by a person daily as the drinking water requirement. Actually this is the most unfortunate
part of the problem. For drinking and cooking etc. i.e. the direct consumption only about
5 liters of water is required per person per day. This water should be pure, sweet, and
free from micro-organisms (known as potable water). But as we do not have separate
water supply systems for potable water and water to be used for other purposes
(cleaning) so we treat the whole water (with a very high cost) and then use it even
for flushing. There is a dire need of change in this attitude.
The second problem is the present water carriage system in which 99% of potable
water is used to carry 1% of solids (excreta). Thus, we convert the good quality of water
in bad quality wastewater and then allow it to get mixed with the river water. The
raw water flowing in the river is comparatively pure because of the self purification
power of the streams. But as the quantity of waste water has increased more than the
dry weather flow of the rivers, it converts them into practically a stream of wastewater.
This again increases the cost of treatment of raw water.
Water Pollution
67
The industrial effluent deteriorates the quality of surface as well as ground water.
The ground water has been so much polluted with the heavy metals like arsenic that
it has become carcinogenic and source of many diseases. The overexploitation of ground
water has resulted in the deepening of ground water table and made its pumping non
feasible or uneconomical. Most of the portion of Punjab and Rajasthan has been
declared as dark zones. The governments being welfare governments charge very little
cost for the water supplies and bear the major expenditure by themselves. This has
promoted the wastage of valuable water and production of wastewater that has to be
further treated at a very high cost.
Increasing the education level, increasing the awareness and increasing the peoples
participation in planning, execution and maintenance of water and wastewater
management shall improve the situation. It is the duty of every citizen to conserve
water, use it wisely and produce as less wastewater as possible (by reusing). This shall
be the real contribution for the betterment of the society.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Section A- Water
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17 .
Describe the various water resources.

Sketch and describe simons rain gauge.
Describe the surface sources of water supply with illustrations.
Describe the various constructions required for making a suitable source of
surface water supply.
What do you mean by storage capacity of reservoirs ?
Describe the subsurface or underground sources of water supply.
Define porosity and permeability.
Tabulate the porosity and permeability of some common soils.
Explain the methods of assessment of the ground water yield.
Describe the various methods of drilling of tube-wells.
Describe the various methods of development of tube-wells.
What do you mean by yield of a tube-well?
Develop the expression for finding yield of tube-well in unconfined aquifer.
Develop the expression for finding yield of tube-well in confined aquifer.
Discuss the various water supply schemes with suitable examples.
Describe the term quality of water.
Tabulate the physical and chemical standards of water and their permisible
limits.
68
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
What are the bacteriological & virological standards of potable water ?

Tabulate the various toxicological materials found in water and their limits.
Describe the physical characteristics of water.
Describe the chemical characteristics of water.
What do you mean by treatment of water? Briefly explain the various methods
of treatment.
What is the importance of disinfection? Describe the various methods of
disinfection.
What are the waterborne diseases?
What are the suitability criteria of good disinfectant?
What is residual chlorine? How do you measure it on site?
Describe the various water softening processes.
What is the requirement of pressure of water to be supplied to the residences?
What is aeration of water? Why and how is it done?
What is the purpose of water softening? Explain various methods of water
softening.
Section B- Wastewater
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
What do you understand by wastewater management?

Describe the statutory water and sanitation boards.
Describe the method of design of sewer line alongwith the hydraulics of sewers.
What do you mean by treatment of wastewater?
Define biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demands.
What are the various unit operations and processes in water treatment?
What are the various unit operations and processes in wastewater treatment?
Describe the various methods of treatment of wastewater.
Tabulate the functions and efficiencies of various treatment units.
Explain the anaerobic digestion and the biogas.
Describe the disposal of treated wastewater.
Write a short note on Eutrophication.
Describe the disposal of wastewater in water bodies.
Describe the disposal of wastewater on land.
What are the various methods of onsite sanitation.
Describe the septic tanks and soakpits.
Explain the inhouse treatment of wastewater and saving of water.
Air Pollution
69
3
AIR POLLUTION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Air (containing oxygen) is a vital requirement for sustaining life. Initially on the
atmosphere of earth there was no oxygen and even then the life was there. Slowly
the oxygen requiring organisms developed with the evolution of oxygen and at
present there is about 21% oxygen in the atmosphere and almost every creature
consumes it for its metabolism. Fortunately nature has the process of photosynthesis
in which the green plants produce oxygen (O2 )in presence of sunlight and consume
carbondioxide (CO2). Thus the concentration of O2 is recouped and the CO2 produced
by the human and natural activities is consumed. CO2 as such is not a harmful gas.
It acts like glass in green house effect and thus keeps the earth warm. Actually it
allows the suns shortwave radiation to pass through it and does not allow the
earths longwave heat radiation to escape through it. Thus it keeps the earth warm.
Had there been no CO2 on earth it would have been not habitable. The temperature
of earths surface would have been negative in the absence of it. So that way it is
a useful gas. Then why do we curse CO2 for global warming? Global warming means
increase in the temperature of earth resulting in over melting of ice and raising of
water level in the oceans and increase in vector borne diseases and the discomfort.
Here lies the concept of Pollution. Pollution means mixing of anything which is
undesirable, leading to some harmful effect. As the case of CO2 is there, a certain
percentage of CO2 is desirable to keep the earth warm and cozy, but beyond that
it increases the temperature so high which is undesirable and thus causes air
pollution.
The clean dry air has following average composition:-
70

Table 3.1 Composition of Air
Component
By volume
By weight
Nitrogen
78.084%
75.51%
Oxygen
20.946%
23.15%
Argon
0.934%
1.28%
Carbon dioxide
0.033%
0.046%
Neon
18.180 ppm
12.50 ppm
Helium
5.240 ppm
0.72 ppm
Krypton
1.190 ppm
2.90 ppm
Xenon
0.087 ppm
0.36 ppm
Nitrous oxide
0.500 ppm
1.50 ppm
Methane
2.0 ppm
1.2 ppm
Hydrogen
0.5 ppm
0.03 ppm
Ozone
0.01 ppm
Undesirable changes in the above composition, or mixing of harmful solid particles

(suspended particulate matter) or addition of sound beyond particular level (db) is
known as air pollution.
3.2 FORMAL DEFINITION OF AIR POLLUTION

The air Act of Govt. of India (amendment 1987) defines air pollution as air pollution
means any solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in the atmosphere in such
concentrations that may tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures
or plants or property or enjoyment.
Perkins (1974) defined air pollution as air pollution means the presence in the
outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour,
smoke or vapour in quantities or characteristics and of duration such as to be injurious
to human, plant or animal life or to property or which unreasonably interferes with
the comfortable enjoyment of life and property. This definition includes only outdoor
atmosphere, but the indoor pollution is more severe these days, because of the emissions
from kitchen and faulty planning.
Alongwith solid, liquid and gases sound should also be added to it. Undesirable
levels of sound known as noise is a form of the air pollution as sound travels through
air. Actually the air pollution matters much to the human beings as an average adult
consumes 12 Kg of air per day which is about 12 times more than the food consumption.
That is why the air pollution matters more than the other forms of pollution. Secondly
in extreme cases it proves fatal quickly where as generally the other pollutions like soil
or water pollutions act slowly. In some of the known calamities like London Smog
Air Pollution
71
(1952) more than 4000 persons died because of indiscriminate use of coal. Actually in
calm cold atmospheric conditions because of non-dispersion of smoke it becomes fatal
smog (smoke + fog). The condensed water vapour present in the air (fog) straps the
pollutants like oxides of sulphur and particulate matter (tiny solid particles floating in
the air) leading to fatal action on human beings. Even in Bombay (1986) it (smog)
affected the health condition of thousands of people, though nobody died. In December
1984, methyl isocynate gas leaked from the Union Carbide pesticide plant and about
2500 people died and about 2 lac were seriously affected. There are so many other such
incidents in the worldwide history which are enough for us to have a serious thought
regarding the control of air pollution. The following table shows some of the major air
pollution disasters,
3.2 Major Air Pollution Disasters
Time of o ccurrence
and location
Causes
Effects
Thermal inversion of gases

(SO2, sulphur trioxide
aerosol and fluorides)
from industrial plants
60 persons died, thousands

were effected,
Donora (USA), Oct.1948

(4 days)
Anti cyclonic weather (no air

movement) temperature
inversion and fog SO2 with
oxidation products and
particulate matter were the
main culprits
20 persons died, about 7000 ill.

Complete darkness was observed
due to gases and soot.
London from Dec. 5 to

December 9, 1952,
Extensive use of coal (sulfur

content 1.5%). Concentrated
smoke had thermal inversion.
The smoke mixed with fog
became dangerous smog.
4000 died, thousands ill.
London, January 1956
Similar as above
1000 died
London, Dec. 1962
Shallow inversion, fog gases
700 died
Newyork, Nov. 1966
Smoke, SO2, particulates
168 died
Tokyo, June 18, 1970
Smog poisoning
6000 affected
Bhopal India Dec. 1984
In Union Carbide industry

toxic gas methyle isocynate
leaked accidentally
About 2500 died and over 100000

were severely affected. Some still
have the eyes and other problems.
Meuse Valley (Belgium)

Dec. 1930 (3 days)
3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS

3.3.1 Classification of Air Pollutants
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Natural Contaminants
Aerosols
Gases
72
Natural Contaminants: Pollen is important natural contaminant because of its

peculiar properties of irritation and allergy sometimes leading to bronchitis, asthma and
dermatitis. Pollen grains are the male gametophytes of gymnosperms and angiosperms
and they are discharged into the atmosphere from plants etc. The air transported pollen
grains range mainly between 10 and 50 microns.
Aerosols: Aerosols refer to the dispersion of solid or liquid particles of microscopic
size in the air. It can also be defined as a colloidal system in which the dispersion
medium is gas and the dispersed phase is solid or liquid. The term aerosol is applicable
until it is in suspension and after settlement due to its own weight or by addition with
other particles (agglomeration) it is no longer an air pollutant. The diameter of the
aerosol may range from 0.01 (or less) micron to 100 micron. The various aerosols are
as follows:(i) Dust: Dust is produced by the crushing, grinding and natural sources like
windstorms. Generally the dust particles are over 20 micron in diameter. They do not
flocculate but settle under gravity, but smaller particles like 5 micron form stable
suspensions.
(ii) Smoke: Smoke is made up of finely divided particles produced by incomplete
combustion. Generally it consists of carbon particles of size less than 1.0 micron.
(iii) Mists: Mist is a light dispersion of minute water droplets suspended in the
atmosphere ranging from 40 to 400 micron in size.
(iv) Fog: Fog is made up of dispersion of water or ice near the earths surface
reducing visibility to less than 500 m. In natural fog the size of particles range from
1.0 to 40 micron.
(v) Fumes: Fumes are solid particles generated by condensation from the gaseous
state after volatilization from melted substances. Fumes flocculate and sometimes coalesce.
Gases: Following are the main air pollutant gases

(i) Sulphur dioxide: It is a major air pollutant gas produced by the combustion
of fuels like coal. The main source of electricity production is by burning of
fossil fuels in India and the whole world. The sulphur content of the coal varies
from 1 to 4% and fortunately the Indian coal is low in sulphur content. SO2
is also produced in the metallurgical operations.
(ii) Oxides of nitrogen: Oxides of nitrogen are produced either in the production
of nitric acid or in the automobile exhausts and as the effluent of power plants.
Out of the seven oxides of Nitrogen (N2O, NO, NO2, NO3, N2O3, N2O4, N2O5)
only nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are classified as the main pollutants.
All the oxides of nitrogen are collectively known as NOX.
(iii) Carbon monoxide: It is produced because of the incomplete combustion of
coal and other petroleum products. It is produced in the exhaust of automobiles. In the pollution check of vehicles mainly CO and unburnt hydrocarbons
are measured.
Air Pollution
73
(iv) Hydrogen sulphide: Hydrogen Suphide is an obnoxious (bad smelling) gas.

It is produced mainly by the anaerobic (in absence of air) decomposition of
organic matter. Other air polluting sulfur compounds are methyl mercaptan
(CH3 SH) and dimethyle sulphide (CH3 S CH3) etc.
(v) Hydrogen fluoride: It is an important pollutant even in very low concentrations. It is produced in the manufacturing of phosphate fertilizers.
(vi) Chlorine and hydrogen chloride: It is mixed in the air either from the leakages
from water treatment plants or other industries where it is produced or used.
Hydrogen chloride is also evolved in various industrial chemical processes. The
main effect of chlorine is respiratory irritation which may be fatal.
(vii) Ozone: It is a desirable gas in the upper layers of atmosphere as it absorbs
the UV radiation of sunlight. But near the earth surface it is a poisonous gas.
It makes poisonous chemicals by photochemical reactions.
(viii) Aldehydes: They are produced by the incomplete oxidation of motor fuels and
lubricating oil. They may also be formed because of photochemical reactions.
Formaldehydes are irritating to the eyes.
3.2.2. Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants
Primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly from identifiable sources. Secondary
air pollutants are those that are produced in the air by the interaction of two or more
primary air pollutant.
Examples of primary air pollutants:(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
Fine (less than 100) and coarse (more than 100) suspended particulate matter
Oxides of sulfur
Oxides of nitrogen
Carbon monoxide
Halogens
Organic compounds
Radioactive compounds
Secondary air pollutants:(i)

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Ozone
PAN (peroxi acetyle nitrate)
Photochemical smog
Acid mists
Smog is the most important and dangerous one out of the above. Smog is a
mixture of two words smoke and fog. It can be of two types, photochemical or
produced by coal.
74
Photochemical smog occurs in high motorized areas under adverse meteorological

conditions (no wind), by the interaction of hydrocarbons and oxidants in presence
of sunlight. Its main constituents are nitrogen oxides, peroxy acetyl nitrate, carbon
monoxide and ozone. It causes severe eye irritation, reduces visibility, damages
vegetation and cracks the rubber. The coal- based smog occurs due to the mixing
of smoke in calm cold (below 10 degrees) conditions with the sulfur compounds
and fly ash etc.
Basically, when dispersion of the pollutants is restricted due to non- movement
of air and cold conditions, smog is produced. Its harmful effect depends upon the
exposure time for which a person is affected. It can be fatal for long exposures
(London smog).
3.4 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON POSITION

Another way of classification of air pollutants is the source being stationary or mobile.
This way they can be classified as:(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Point source (large stationary source as power plants)

Area source (small stationary sources like residential heating)
Mobile source (line source like highway vehicles or area source like Aircraft
at airports)
The following table shows the different air pollutants and their major sources.
3.2 Air Pollutants with their Sources
S. No.
Air pollutant
Source
Particulate Dust, SPM, RSPM etc. Abrasion, quarrying (stone mining), soil erosion fuel
combustion in automobiles, building and other civil
construction, Industrial effluents, mining, power station, etc.
Oxides of sulphur (SOX)
Power houses, smelters, coal and other fossil fuels

combustion, sulphuric acid plant, automobiles etc.
Oxides of nitrogen
Combustion, automobiles, acid manufacturing
Hydrogen sulphide
Petroleum industry, wastewater treatment, tanneries,

oil refineries etc.
Carbon monoxide
Metabolic activity, fuel combustion, automobile exhaust
Ozone
Photochemical reactions
Lead
Automobile exhaust
Organic solvents
Solvent use, paints, pesticides, cooking, cosmetics etc.
Mercury
Pesticides, paints, laboratories
10
Fluorides (HF)
Glass and ceramics, cement factories, aluminum

industry, fertilizer industry etc.
Air Pollution
75
The following table shows the allowable limits of major air pollutants in air.
Table 3.4 Allowable Limit of Some Important Air Pollutants in Air
Concentration in ambient air in microgram/m3
Pollutant
Time weighted
average
Industrial area
Residential,
rural and other
areas
Sensitive area
Sulphur
dioxide
Annual Avg.*
24 hours**
80
120
60
80
15
30
Oxides of
nitrogen as
NO2
Annual Avg.
24 hours
80
120
60
80
15
30
Suspended
particulate
matter
Annual Avg.
24 hours
360
500
140
200
70
100
Respirable
particulate
matter (size
less than
10 mm)
Annual Avg.
24 hours
120
150
60
100
50
75
Lead(Pb)
Annual Avg.
24 hours
1.0
1.5
0.75
1.0
0.5
0.75
Carbon
monoxide
8 hours
1 hours
5.0
10.0
2.0
4.0
1.0
2.0
* Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year taken twice a week,
24 hourly at uniform interval.
** 24 hourly/8 hourly values should be met 98% of the time in a year. However 2% of
the time it may exceed but not on two consecutive days.
The air pollutants have harmful effect on human beings, animals, plants and even
on the buildings. The air pollutants may have their origin from vehicular emissions or
by other industrial or other human or natural activity. The following tables show their
harmful effects.
Table 3.5 Harmful Impacts on Human beings by Vehicular Emissions
Pollutant
Health effects
Impacts on environment
Carbon monoxide
Fatal at high doses. Attacks the

nervous system.
Acts like CO2, i.e. traps the earths heat.
Hydrocarbons
Cause eye irritation, coughing

and drowsiness. High molecular
Produces the dangerous photochemical

smog.
Contd....
76

weight compounds can be
cancer producing (carcinogenic)
Oxides of nitrogen
Asthma and loss of immunity
Acid rain
Benzene
Carcinogenic
Ozone near earth

surface
Eye irritation
Impairs the growth of plants
Lead (Pb)
Impairs the mental ability
water pollution, SPM
Table 3.6 Harmful Effects of Air Pollutants on Human Health from Different Air Pollutants.
Pollutant
Harmful effect
Asbestos
Disease of lungs (Fibriosis, asbestosis) tumors, lung cancer
Arsenic
Bronchitis, dermatitis, skin cancer
Aldehydes
Irritation of eyes and respiratory track
Beryllium
Systemic poison causes berilliosis, skin damage
Chlorine
Irritation to eye, nose, throat. Bronchitis, pneumonitis
Cadmium
Highly toxic, causes bronchitis, fibriosis of lungs hypertension, carcinogenic
Lead
Systemic poison, causes anemia ( reduction of haemoglobin) affects kidney

function, damages brain
Mercury
Highly toxic, enzyme poison, nervous system disorder
Nickel
Respiratory disorder
Pesticides
Various insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, nematicides and repellants are toxic

and produce headache, stomach disturbances and irritations.
Radioactive
Somatic (on body cells) effects including lukemia (blood cancer), and other
cancers. Genetic effects are mainly mutations in gem cells
Selenium
Irritation to eyes, nose, respiratory tract and gestrointestinal tract, badly affects
kidney, lungs and liver
Vanadium
Affects gastrointestinal tract and respiratory tract. Cholesterol synthesis inhibition,

carcinogenic
3.5. HARMFUL EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON MATERIALS

The air
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
pollution affects the materials in following ways:Abrasion (loss of material by wind with coarser particles).
Corrosion ( acidic effect of rain water).
Deposition and removal (adhering substances like SPM and removal of material
by rusting.
(iv) Direct chemical attack (effect of gases like SO2).
(v) Indirect chemical attack (action of acid or its fumes on stones like marble,
corrosion of reinforcement due to diffusion of gases in RCC).
Air Pollution
77
The following table shows the harmful effects of air pollution on some materials:
Table 3.6 Harmful Effect of Air Pollution on Material
Material
Pollutant
Effects
Stone like marble, outside

plaster, paints and polishes
SO2, acid fumes, acidic

rainwater
Discoloration, peeling
Metals, reinforcement
SO2, acid fumes, gases
Tarnishing of surface, corrosion, rusting
Rubber (tires)
Gases like ozone, oxidants
Cracking
Paper and fabric
Acid fumes, gases
Embrittlement, discolouration
3.6 CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

Prevention is always better than cure. So one should try to prevent the air pollution
by changing the raw material, the process conditions, procedure and by having the
preventive maintenance one can prevent the air pollution. For this purpose some of
the examples are as follows:(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Controlling the spread of coal dust by sprinkling water on it before handling

in a thermal power plant.
Preventive maintenance by repairing leaky valves in advance so as to prevent
the leakages of the harmful gases in air.
Applying zoning to distribute the impact of air pollution in a community.
Selection of proper material. For example using low sulfur coal reduces the
SO2 problem.
In addition to the preventive measures one has to have control technologies as follows.
Depending upon the situation different control technologies are adopted. For dealing
with the particulate matter the following control technologies are used,
Settling chambers
Cyclone separators
Fabric filters
Electrostatic precipitators
Wet collector (scrubbers)
The first two of the above are used for coarse particulates where as the other three
are used for fine particulates.
For gaseous pollutants the following control technologies are used.
Condensation
Absorption
Adsorption
Combustion
78
For the control of gases such as NO2 and SO2 produced in combustion, wet and
dry scrubbers are used.
3.7 CONTROL OF AUTOMOBILE POLLUTION

The major automobile pollutants are carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons and the
oxides of nitrogen. These are generated by evaporation of fuel from carburetor, leakage
between piston rings and cylinder wall and combustion of fuel (exhaust gases). To
prevent the automobile pollution the law can be enforced at two levels. The industry
can be compelled to manufacture the vehicles in such a way, i.e. enforcing the Euro
standards, that they produce minimum pollutants. Secondly, the user has to maintain
the vehicle by its proper servicing (tuning of engine) in such a way that the exhaust
emissions are under control. Actually, at this level nobody bothers, as the checking
systems and the provision of genuine penalty is very difficult. The general public is not
aware of the bad effects of pollution particularly the air pollution that is many times
more effective. The third control should be on the quality of fuel. If the fuel is having
lead in it, neither the vehicle nor the owner can prevent its emission to the ambient
air. That is why unleaded petrol is being supplied these days. Sometimes Kerosene is
mixed with petrol or diesel (as it is cheaper) than the emissions are more pollutant and
are of different nature. Even after exercising all such checks on quality of vehicles,
maintenance and the adulteration some pollution is inevitable. This can be reduced by
changing the fuel, such as by the use of CNG. In Delhi the use of CNG was made
mandatory in the public vehicles by law and then a substantial reduction in the air
pollution was observed. The other most important way of reducing the air pollution
is changing the life style of the urban population. Minimizing the use of vehicles by
walking for small distances, pooling of the vehicles, switching off the vehicles on red
lights, maintaining the vehicles in proper order, adopting efficient ways of driving, ban
on overloading, better design and maintenance of roads, collectively can reduce
automobile air pollution.
The vehicular pollution can also be controlled by using the catalytic converter.
3.7.1 Catalytic Converter
The exhaust emissions of a vehicle are carbon dioxide and water if the fuel in it is
burnt with full efficiency. Practically the complete burning of every hydrocarbon
molecule does not take place. The inadequate mixing of air with the fuel leads to the
production of carbon monoxide. Also the high temperature and pressure in the engine
leads to the combination of oxygen and nitrogen of the air to make oxides of nitrogen.
So the exhaust emissions have the CO, unburnt hydrocarbons and the oxides of
nitrogen as the air pollutants. To prevent this pollution the exhaust is passed through
a catalytic converter to convert them into harmless chemicals. The inner side of the
converter is composed of an array of tubes, each coated with a porous ceramic. Small
particles of platinum and rhodium are embedded in this coating. As the temperature
of the converter reaches above 300C the pollutants bind temporarily to the catalysts.
Air Pollution
79
With this reaction the CO gets converted to CO2, Hydrocarbons get converted to water
and the oxides of nitrogen gets converted to nitrogen. Actually, a very small amount
of the precious metal (say 5 grams) is sufficient to work in a device fitted with an
ordinary car. The requirement of rhodium is also very less (say one gram) but it should
run on the unleaded petrol to avoid the coating of lead which makes it useless. The
overheating of catalyst metal particles should also be prevented to check the merging
of particles and hence the reduction in their life. As there are no moving parts in a
catalytic converter it can work for many years and for long mileage if the overheating
is prevented and unleaded petrol is used. So this is a very good device to check the
air pollution caused by vehicular emissions.
It can be stated now that all the sources of air pollution collectively increase either
the concentration of solids in the form of particulate matter or the gases like CO2, NOX,
SOX, CO etc. The harmful effects of the gases and the suspended particulate matter
(particularly those which are so small that can be inhaled) have already been discussed.
There are some other harmful effects of the S.P.M. and the gases like CO2. It has been
observed that a significantly increasing volume of solids (particulate matter) entering
the atmosphere, scatters (hinders) the sunlight. About half of the solar energy reaches
the earth because of the absorption and reflection etc. in the atmosphere. This reduces
the amount of sunlight (and its heat) that reaches the earth. On the other side the
temperature of the earth is continuously increasing because of the greenhouse effect.
3.8 NOISE POLLUTION

Noise is an unwanted unpleasant sound that irritates us. The noise is caused by the
vibration of matter and these vibrations are transmitted in a continuous medium as
waves. Human ears receive these waves and the brain interprets them. The unit of
measurement of sound is decibel. Decibel is a relative unit based on logarithm of the
ratio of the sound intensity to a reference level. The reference level is arbitrarily
established as a sound pressure of 0.0002 microbars that is considered to be an intensity
level just audible to human beings. The sound that the human ears can hear lies between
20 to 20000 hertz (cycles/second) and in intensity from 0 to 130 decibels after which
permanent damage may take place. More details are available about noise pollution
in the eighth chapter.
3.9 GREENHOUSE EFFECT & GLOBAL WARMING

The sun shines at a high temperature i.e. about 6000 degree Kelvin. The solar radiation
at this temperature is short-wave radiation which can pass through the glass. If there
is a glass chamber the solar radiation comes through the glass and heats up the
belongings inside. These heated up air or the other belongings radiate heat as the long
wave radiation. Glass is opaque to the long wave radiation and thus it does not allow
the inside heat to go out. Thus the temperature of that house keeps on increasing to
(certain limit) depending on the conditions. For example it can go to 25C inside the
80
house even if the outside temperature is minus 20C. This phenomenon is used for
growing greenery at this comfortable, suitable temperature inside that house. This is
known as the greenhouse effect
effect. CO2 plays the same role in atmosphere. It allows
the short-wave radiation of sun but does not allows the earths long wave radiation
to escape. That way it is a very useful gas as it keeps the earth warm otherwise the
temperature of earth would have been negative and the present life would have not
been there. But the increasing concentration of CO2 (because of human activity like
industrialization urbanization etc.) is increasing the temperature of the earth to a
harmful level. As an estimate the temperature of the earth is increasing by 1C per
century. This is known as global warming. This appears to be small increase but
this much increase in the mean global temperature ( approximately 14.5C) amounts
to be very high and harmful to the peaks. The increasing temperature is substantially
increasing the melting of ice on poles and other glaciers. This higher melting of ice
is shortening the glaciers, flooding the rivers and increasing the levels of seas and
oceans. There is a danger that these increased levels shall submerge the places like
Mumbai and Maurititius within a short time to come. The increased temperature
increases different vector borne diseases like malaria etc. The increased temperature
is very much uncomfortable and requires more electricity for cooling. If the current
trend of increase in the greenhouse gases continues it shall make the earth hell, so
it has to be cheked immediately by all means.
3.10 ACID RAIN

As described already the main gases as air pollutants are SOX and NOX. CO2 is always
present in the atmosphere as a natural constituent. When the rain fall occurs it dissolves
the CO2 present in the air and makes the carbonic acid. This makes the rain slightly
acidic and reduces its pH. The reduction of pH upto 5.6 is considered as normal and
it is not termed as acidic rainfall. Due to industrialization and the automobile exhaust
SOX and NOX are present in the air in large quantities. When they react with the
moisture to form sulfuric and nitric acids they make such rain as acid rain (acidity below
pH 5.6 level). This mixing may take place at any place and the rainfall may take place
at a very far off place. Moreover, during this journey significant chemical and physical
changes may take place to aggravate the situation.
Acid rain is not a recent phenomenon, but has been reported way back in 1852
in Manchester, England. Actually, with rapidly growing use of electricity produced by
coal and other fossil fuels serious problem of acid rain has emerged in US, Canada,
Europe and China. Initially, the acid rain affected area was confined and the intensity
was also lesser (pH above 4.5). But it increased by 1966 and there were several locations
in southern Netherlands and Rhine valley in Germany with a pH lower than 4.0. South
China reported acid rainfall of pH in the range of 4.3 to 5.5. Even in India the problem
of acid rain has started. Annual SO2 emissions in India has almost doubled in the last
decade which has resulted in low pH value of rain water but still it is in control as
fortunately the Indian coal has low sulphur value.
Air Pollution
81
The following table gives details about the formation of acid rain:
Table 3.8 Formation of Acid Rain
Pollutant
Combinations
Products
Sulfur dioxide
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
SO2 with water

Oxidation of sulfurous acid
Oxidation of SO2
SO3 with water
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Sulfurous acid
Sulfuric acid
Sulfurous trioxide
Sulfuric acid
Nitrogen dioxide
(i)
(ii)
NO2 with water

HNO2 with water
(i)
(ii)
Nitrous and nitric acids

Nitric acid
Carbon dioxide
CO2 with water
Carbonic acid
Hydrogen fluoride
HF with water
Hydrofluoric acid
This acid rain strongly harms every where and everybody, may it be a building,
human beings, animals, plants, the fresh bodies of water or the soil. It has rendered
thousands of lakes useless because of the acidity through out the world. High acidity kills
the fish and other aquatic animals and plants. Green algae and many useful bacteria are
killed due to acidity. The killed organism and destroyed plants increase the organic matter
and as the rate of its decomposition reduces the situation becomes worst.
Acid rain adversely affects the soil and the vegetation. As it accelerates the leave surface
erosion the growth of plants is hampered and the trees are badly affected. As we know
that the trees reduce the CO2 and increase the O2 they are our life supporting systems.
They pump the useless subsoil water to the atmosphere by transpiration and thus
increase the humidity which results in rainfall. They absorb the SPM, SOX and NOX
and thus directly reduce the air pollution. They reduce the soil erosion, velocity of air
(spreading desert), velocity of rainwater (floods) and they also absorb sound (reduce
noise pollution). Trees reduce the atmospheric glare and give us a feeling of nourishment
and smoothening. They provide us so many types of useful things like fruits, wood,
medicines, gum, herbs, pulp, and leaves etc. They provide shelter (habitat) to the birds
and animals. Such useful trees and vegetation are destroyed by the acid rainfall.
The acid rain can be reduced by
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Using low sulfur coal

Gasification
Alternative fuel to coal
Alternative methods of power generation like the renewable sources of energy,
like solar, wind, hydro-electrical, biomass etc.
Desulfurization of fuel gas
The other environmental problem of air pollution is ozone depletion.
82
3.11 OZONE DEPLETION

Though ozone is harmful gas near the earth surface (photo toxic) it is very useful
in the upper layers (15 to 40 Km) of the atmosphere (stratosphere). 90% of the ozone
is concentrated in the stratosphere and absorbs 95% of the UV radiation. It is useful
gas there, as it absorbs the ultraviolet portion of the solar radiation which is very much
harmful to human beings. It produces skin cancer and other diseases. Unfortunately
because of the air pollution this ozone layer is depleting and wherever the concentration
becomes very low it is termed as ozone hole. It came to our notice that the supersonic
aircrafts release large quantities of nitric acid that reacts with the ozone and thus
breaks the protective layer. It was also realized that the main culprit for ozone layer
depletion are chlrofluorocarbons (CFCs). The generally used chloroflurocrbons are
CFC11 and CFC12 (Freons). As they are non reactive, odourless, nonflammable non
toxic and non corrosive they are extremely used in air conditioners, refrigerators and
some sprays. CFCs stay for a long period in stratosphere (more than 50 years) and
during this period each chlorine atom is capable of converting up to 105 molecules
of ozone to O2.
The chlorofluorocarbons release free radical of Cl that removes one O from
O3 . The chlorine atom and oxygen atom make chlorine monoxide ClO. Then the
free oxygen O pulls the other O and free radical of Cl is produced. The free
radical attacks another O3 molecule and thus the chain keeps on reducing the O3 .
The following three constituents are mainly responsible for the depletion of
stratospheric ozone:(i)
(ii)
(ii)
Nitric oxide molecules: Nitric oxide reacts with ozone to make nitrogen
dioxide which in turn reacts with atomic oxygen to produce nitric oxide again
NO + O3 = NO2 + O
NO2 + O = NO + O2
Chlorine atom: Chlorine atom reacts with ozone to give chlorine monoxide
which reacts with atomic oxygen to regenerate chlorine atom again
Cl + O3 = ClO + O2
ClO + O = Cl + O2
Hydroxyl ion: The photo dissociation of water molecules produces hydroxyl
ion which reacts with ozone molecule to produce HO2 which reacts with
another ozone molecule to give again the OH molecule
OH + O3 = HO2 + O2
H O2 + O3 = OH +2 O2
3.11.1 Causes of the Ozone Layer Depletion

(i) Use of chloroflurocarbons: As discussed earlier mainly the CFCs are resposible
for maximum damage to the ozone layer.
Air Pollution
83
(ii)
Nitrogenous fertilizers: Microbiological action on nitrogenous fertilizers

produces nitrous oxide which escapes into atmosphere and gets accumulated
as its decomposition is difficult.
(iii) Supersonic transport: Supersonic jetliners, rockets and space shuttles discharge
various oxides of nitrogen, carbon, hydrocarbons etc. Ammonium perchlorate
used in many of the rockets releases plenty of chlorides to attack the O3.
(iv) Nuclear tests: Huge quantity of gases are released in the nuclear explosions
which damage the ozone layer.
3.11.2 Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion
As the concentration of ozone reduces in the protective layer the harmful ultraviolet
radiation (UV-A, UV-B and UV-C) shall reach the earth surface and shall cause many
diseases like the following:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Skin cancer of various types including the dangerous melanoma. About 1 lac
people die from this disease. As an estimate the cases of skin cancer are
doubled with a 25% reduction in ozone layer.
The ultraviolet radiation directly increases the cataract (disease of eyes).
The UV radiation affects the eyes of wild life also and as they cannot protect
themselves this effect is more pronounced.
The depletion of ozone lead to increased photochemical smog and degradation of outdoor paint and plastic.
3.11.3 Preventive Action to Ozone Depletion

In 1987 in Montreal city of Canada a convention was organized in which an international
agreement was signed known as Montreal Protocol. It was made effective from 1st
January 1989. Its goal was to cut emissions of CFCs by 35% from 1989 to 2000. After
the observation of ozone hole above Antarctica in 1989, officials of more countries (93
nos.) met in London in 1990 and in Copenhagen and adopted the Copenhagen protocol
that made the phasing out of ozone depleting chemicals more fast. At present 177
countries have joined their hands to protect the ozone layer and India is one out of them.
The Government of India is having a time bound programme to cut the ozone depleting
substances like CFCs, Helons, tetrachloromethane etc. Many alternatives for CFCs are
available these days, like HCFC22, HFC 134A and hydrocarbons.
3.12 CONCLUSION
Air is the basic requirement of human beings. A person can live without water for some
days, without food for some weeks but cannot live without air for more than some
minutes. Oxygen is mainly required for the purification of blood in our body and that
is available in plenty in the air. There is no scarcity of air or oxygen (as was in the
case of water) but the problem of pollution is still there. Pollution here means mixing
84
of harmful undesirable gases and solid particles. The gases are a part of air but when
there concentration increases they become harmful. For example CO2 is a useful gas
but the increased concentration increases the temperature of earth. The other gases like
oxides of nitrogen, sulphur and SPM are the causes of the human ailments. So the duty
of environment engineer is to prevent this pollution by planning the projects in such
a way that the emissions are within limit. The vehicular pollution is as bad as the
industrial one. Let us design such vehicle that use solar energy or the hydrogen energy
or the wind energy, means any clean form of energy. Increasing the efficiency should
mean in a holistic way, i.e. also for all others. If we think, plan execute and maintain
the engineering processes in such a way that do not deteriorate the environment and
help in sustaining its basic characteristics, it shall be the real service of the society.
The time has come that the whole world has to act in fighting climate changes with
green groups in a combined manner. The efforts are on, and the surveys done by UN
climate panel has recently disclosed that it is almost 90% certain that mankind is to
blame for global warming. They have warned for more hunger, draughts, heat waves
and rising seas. The report says that stabilizing greenhouse emissions will cost between
0.2% and 3% of world gross domestic product by 2030, depending on the stiffness of
the curbs on rising emissions of greenhouse gases. The report gives solutions such as
capturing and burying emissions from coal fired power plants, a shift to renewable
energies such as solar and wind power, more use of nuclear power, more efficient
lighting and insulation of buildings.
REVIEIW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
What do you mean by air pollution?

Tabulate the composition of air.
Discuss the problem of air pollution.
Enlist the major air pollution disasters.
Describe the classification of air pollutants.
Describe the aerosols as air pollutants.
Describe the various air polluting gases.
What are the primary and secondary air pollutants?
Describe the classification of air pollution based on position of the source.
Enlist the allowable limit of the air pollutants in air.
Tabulate the harmful impacts of air pollution on human beings by vehicular
emissions.
Tabulate the harmful impacts of different air pollutants on human beings.
Tabulate the harmful impacts of different air pollutants on materials.
Discuss the methods of controlling the air pollution.
Air Pollution
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
85
Discuss the methods of controlling the automobile pollution.

Describe the catalytic converter.
What is greenhouse effect?
What is global warming and its effects?
Describe acid rain, its formation, the harmful effect and control strategies.
Describe ozone depletion, its harmful effects and causes of ozone depletion
and its prevention.
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4
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Anything that is not of further use in a process is known as waste for that process.
That can be useful for other process and can be termed as raw material for that process.
So actually waste is a misplaced resource. When this waste is in a comparatively solid
form it is known as the solid waste. Whatever may be the form of waste, it deteriorates
the environment if it is disposed in an offensive manner. The waste water and its
treatment and disposal have already been discussed.
Solid waste is defined as discarded solid fraction produced from domestic, commercial,
trade, industrial, agricultural, institutional, mining activities and public services. The
waste is a term that means useless, unwanted or discarded material.
According to the American Public Works Association the solid waste is classified
in twelve categories as, garbage, rubbish, ashes, Street sweepings, dead animals,
abandoned vehicles, construction/demolition waste, industrial refuse, special waste
such as hospital waste, bulky waste, animal and agricultural waste, and sewage
treatment residue (semi solid fraction known as sludge).
Solid waste includes domestic waste, municipal waste, commercial waste, garbage
(animal and vegetable waste), rubbish (inorganic excluding ashes), ashes and industrial
waste, sludge from wastewater treatment plants etc. Actually, mainly the population
living in the urban area produces much more solid waste than the rural one. As there
is more employment potential in urban area the urban population has increased from
10.84% in 1901 to 25.7% in 1991. The class I cities has increased from 212 to 300 during
1981 to 1991, while class II cities has increased from 270 to 345 in the same period.
88
As the living style in urban area is totally different from rural area (sanitary system,
industrialization etc.), much more solid waste is produced in urban area. Actually more
is the (so called) advancement, higher is the solid waste production. Because of poverty,
life style, the habit of living with nature and lesser population density, lesser waste is
produced in rural areas of our country. So basically solid waste problem is more related
to the cities or towns and as the cities are increasing the problem is being aggravated.
To handle the problem of solid waste in an efficient manner is known as the solid
waste management. This management is a part of public health and sanitation and
as per the Indian constitution it is the responsibility of states. In the states various local
bodies like municipalities (in towns) or the municipal corporations (in cities) or the
development authorities (in big cities) are to deal with solid waste management. Generally,
the water supply and electricity are on the top priority of the state government and
because of various reasons even they are in short supply. Then comes the collection
conveyance treatment and disposal of wastewater. Unfortunately, the solid waste
management comes on the last priority. Only a few efforts have been made to create
community awareness about the bad effects of poor solid waste management or to
reduce the generation of solid waste. Because of the poor education system and lack
of strong will power there is no successful systems of solid waste management in any
city of India (with a very few exceptions). There is practically no penalty for throwing
anything on the roads or the nearby premises. Nobody, minds and cares in living in
such foul conditions. When it end in a calamity like the recent plague in Surat city of
Gujarat, only then we think about the solid waste management, and that too only for
some days. The basic thinking process of the society has rotten. Nobody, minds in
misusing every resource if it is money wise affordable. Actually, waste is a misplaced
resource. If we plan in such a way that there is a thoughtful consumption of every
thing, nothing shall come out as waste. Nature has given us many cycles by which
everything becomes useful and regenerated. The organic matter (nightsoil, excreta,
food, vegetable, paper) can be converted into useful biogas and compost. Everybody
knows about it. But the problem is of separating it from the inorganic waste like ashes,
rubbish, non bio-degradable waste. When the solid waste is a mixture of all these, the
separation or segregation becomes costly. The segregation is a must otherwise the
extraction of energy in the form of gas, heat or fertilizer is not possible or uneconomical.
So, this segregation must be done at the producer end. The producer must either have
some incentive or penalty for this. Unfortunately both are not there in our country and
the required wisdom is also not there.
So we are living on a heap of solid waste in most of the places. It is estimated that
the total solid waste generated by 300 million people in urban India is 38 million tons
per year. Or in other words it is estimated that 1,00,000 ton of municipal solid waste
is generated in India daily. Depending upon the status of the city the per capita
generation of solid waste is from 0.2 to 0.6 kg per day. Higher is the status more amount
of the waste is produced. In so called advanced countries this figure is much more,
Solid Waste Management
89
but there they observe strict rules and regulations. Even the dogs are not allowed to
defecate on the roads where as in India it is a common practice for the human beings
living in slums without a toilet.
The problem other than generation of solid waste is its misplacement. Most of the
solid waste generated inside the premises are thrown on the roads. There is no effective
door to door collection system or a self motivated culture of putting the waste in the
bins or at the designated places for it. Consequently the 60 to 70% of the megre budget
available with the municipalities is spent in street sweepings. 20 to 30% of the budget
is spent in transporting it to the disposal site. Thus, hardly 5% remains for scientific
sanitary disposal of the waste and so it is either burnt in open to produce harmful gases
or left to scatter here and there. If it is dumped as such it pollutes the soil, rain water
or the ground water by leachates (dark concentrated foul wastewater produced by the
decomposition of biodegradable matter in absence of oxygen).
So there is an urgent need of understanding the mechanism of solid waste management.
For this purpose first of all let us discuss the classification of solid waste.
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTE

The solid waste can be classified as per the Manual on Municipal Solid Waste
Management, Government of India publication as follows:
(i) Domestic/Residential waste: This type of waste is originated from single or
multifamily household units. These wastes are generated from the household
activities such as cooking (ashes) cleaning (dust) repairs (residues), hobbies
(unuseables), redecoration, empty containers, used packets, old clothes, books,
papers, broken glass, plastic items, broken and useless furniture.
(ii) Municipal w aste: Municipal waste includes waste resulting from municipal
activities and services such as street sweepings, dead animals, market waste and
abandoned vehicles. Generally, this term Municipal Waste is used in a wider
sense to incorporate domestic wastes, institutional wastes and commercial wastes.
(iii) Commercial waste: This category includes solid wastes that originate in
offices, wholesale and retail markets, restaurants, hotels, warehouses (godowns)
and other commercial establishments.
(iv) Institutional waste: These are those wastes generated from institutions such
as schools, colleges, universities, hospitals and research institutes. Some of
these wastes (like hospitals) may be hazardous (more bad, offensive, strong,
disease producing) waste.
(v) Garbage: Garbage is the term applied to animal and vegetable wastes generated from the handling, storage, sale, preparation, cooking and serving of
food. Such wastes contain putrescible (easily and quickly biodegraded with
bad smell) organic matter. This attracts rats, flies, mosquito and other vermin,
that is why it requires immediate attention.
90
(vi) Rubbish: It is a general term applied to solid wastes originating in households,

commercial establishments and institutions excluding garbage and ashes.
(vii) Ashes: These are the residues from the burning of wood, coal, charcoal, coke
and other combustible matter for cooking and heating in houses institutions
and small industries. When produced in large quantities in thermal power
plants (fly ash) they are known as industrial wastes. Ashes consists of fine
powdery residue, cinders and clinkers often mixed with small pieces of metal
and glass.
(viii) Bulky waste: Bulky wastes are large household wastes that cannot be
accomodated in the normal storage containers of the household and thus they
require special collection. Actually in India there is hardly any waste collected
in this category as it is sold to the kabaries.
(ix) Street sweepings: The waste collected from streets, walkways, parks etc. is
known as street sweepings. In developing countries like our country manual
street sweeping is done and it makes the largest portion of the municipal solid
waste as we are in a habit of throwing everything on the streets. It includes
mainly dust, dirt, plastic bags (thin), dry leaves, useless papers, cardboard,
rags, tyres, vegetable matter etc. In our country most of the usable portion
of the waste like rags, paper, thick plastic bags, plastic utensils, any form of
metal is collected by the rag pickers. The organic matter including the paper
and even plastic sheets is consumed by cows and other stray animals. Only
in big cities or the developed countries they form the part of waste. That is
why the calorific value of Indian solid waste is far less in comparison to the
other countries.
(x) Dead animals: This term includes the dead animals that die naturally or by
accidents on roads. It does not include the animal parts from slaughter houses
which are regarded as industrial waste. There are two types of dead animals,
large and small. The smaller ones like dogs cats rabbits, rats etc., are either
consumed by the other animals or can be easily lifted and disposed. The large
ones like cows, horses, camels etc. require special and immediate attention as
traffic is affected and they emit foul smell.
(xi) Construction and demolition waste: These are the wastes generated by the
residue of the construction, refurnishment, repair and demolition of houses,
commercial buildings and other structures. Generally, the demolition waste
is used by the contractors in filling low lying areas and the plinth filling of
new houses and nothing is left on the sites. Even then some small quantity
of sand, stone or concrete may be left.
(xii) Industrial wastes: The discarded solid material of manufacturing processes
and industrial operations comes in this category. There is a vast range of
91
substances that are unique for each industry so they are considered separately
from municipal wastes.
(xiii) Hazardous waste: Hazardous waste is defined as wastes of industrial,
instutional or consumer origin that, because of their physical, chemical or
biological characteristics are potentially dangerous to human beings and the
environment. In some cases the active agents may be liquid or gaseous, they
are classified as solid waste because they are confined in solid containers.
Typical examples are solvents, paints, and pesticides whose spent (empty)
containers are frequently mixed with municipal wastes and become part of
the urban waste stream. Certain hazardous waste can explode in the incinerators (controlled large kilns) and cause fires at land fill sites. Others such
as pathological (disease producing) wastes from hospitals and radioactive
waste, require special handling at all times. Proper management practice
should ensure that hazardous wastes are collected, stored, transported and
disposed off seprately, preferably after treatment to make them harmless.
(xiv) Sewage waste: The solid by-products of sewage treatment are classified as
sewage wastes. They are mostly organic and produced from the treatment
of organic sludge from both the raw and treated sewage. The inorganic
fraction of raw sewage such as grit is separated at the preliminary stage of
treatment, but because it entrains putrescible organic matter that may contain
disease producing bacteria (pathogens), must be buried or disposed off quickly.
4.2.1. Importance of Classification
Any one method of classification of solid waste is not sufficient because of the
heterogeneous nature of solid wastes. Actually, the real knowledge of solid waste
characteristics is very much essential to conceive the treatment and disposal. Sometimes
the waste is disposed with extraction of energy out of it. For example electricity is
generated or biogas is produced. In both these cases the waste must have a minimum
value of calorific value or the organic matter respectively. It has happened in many
cases like that of plant in Timarpur that did not work due to the different characteristics
of the waste than those for which the plant was designed. Actually, the plant are
generally imported and are based on higher calorific value solid waste whereas the
average Indian solid waste has larger fraction of inorganic waste (dust, dirt, silt etc.),
with lesser organic matter (vegetable, paper and other combustible matter), and hence
has a very low calorific value (Kcal/Kg). So the knowledge of the characteristics and
composition of the solid waste is utmost important. The classification of solid wastes
as per the manual on SWM is given in a tabular form as follows:
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Table 4.1 Classification of Solid Waste in Tabular Form
Type of solid waste
Description
Sources
Food Waste (garbage)
Waste from preparation, cooking

and serving of food market refuse,
waste from handling, storage and
sale of meat and vegetables
Households, institutions and

commercial centers such as hotels,
stores, restaurants, markets etc.
Rubbish
Combustible (primarily organic)

paper, cardboards, cartons, wood
boxes, plastics, rags, clothes,
beddings, lather rubber grass,
leaves yard trimmings. Non combustible (primarily inorganic) metals,
tin cans, metal foils, dirt, stones
bricks, ceramics, crockery, glass
bottles, other mineral refuse
As above
Ashes and residues
Residues from fires used for

cooking and for heating buildings,
cinders, clinkers, thermal power
plants.
As above
Bulky waste
Large auto parts, tyres stoves,

refrigerators, other large appliances,
furniture, large crates, branches of
trees etc.
As above
Street waste
Street sweepings, dirt, leaves, catch

basin dirt animal droppings content
of litter receptacles dead animals
Streets, sidewalks, alleys, vacant

plots
Dead animals
Small animals: cats, dogs, poultry

etc. Large animals: horses, cows etc.
Same as above
Construction and
demolition waste
Plumber, roofing and sheathing scrap, Construction and demolition sites,

rubble broken concrete plaster,
remodeling, repairing sites
conduit pipes, insulating wires etc.
Industrial waste &

sludges
Solid wastes resulting from industry

Factories, power plants, treatment
processes and manufacturing
plants etc.
operations, such as food processing
wastes, boiler house cinders, wood
plastic and metal scraps and shavings
etc., sludge of sewage treatment
plants and septic tanks, coarse
screenings grit etc.
Hazardous waste
Hazardous wastes: pathological

Households, hospitals, institutions,
waste, explosives, radioactive material, stores, industry etc.
toxic waste etc.
Horticulture wastes
Tree trimmings, leaves, waste from

parks and gardens etc.
Parks gardens roadside trees etc.
93
4.3 COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTE

The composition and characteristics of municipal solid waste is not same throughout
the world and even in the same country it changes from place to place and time to
time. As explained earlier it depends upon the living standard, social customs, location
of a place, climate and weather conditions etc. Higher is the standard of living, more
is the waste produced. Alongwith the total quantity of waste produced, the composition
of waste is also different for different income groups. The following table (as per manual
on solid waste management) shows the patterns of composition, characteristics and
quantities of solid waste for different income groups:
Table 4.2 Composition, Characteristics and Quantities of Solid Waste for different income groups
Low income
countries
Middle income
countries
High income
countries
Metal
0.22.5
15
313
Glass, ceramics
0.53.5
110
410
Food and garden waste
4065
2060
2050
Paper
110
1540
1540
Textiles
15
210
210
Plastic/Rubber
15
26
210
Inert
2050
130
120
Density (Kg/Cu.m)
250500
170330
100170
Moisture content
4080
4060
2030
Waste generation Kg/capita/day
0.40.6
0.50.9
0.71.8
Composition % by weight
So it can be concluded that the waste from poor communities contain more dust,
dirt, inert material and the totally useless food remaining (rotten items). It has a lesser
amount of paper waste as it is used in lower income groups again and again and
ultimately for cooking and heating. The density of waste in poor community is more
because of the above reasons. The moisture content of the waste of poor countries is
high which renders it difficult for incineration (controlled burning at high temperatures).
4.3.1. Characteristics of Municipal Solid Waste in Indian Cities
As explained earlier the character of municipal solid waste is variable because of many
reasons. It depends mainly upon the monetary level, but also the size of the city, its
geographical conditions and the lifestyle. Simple conclusions cannot be drawn in each
case and thus the solution to the problem of solid waste management should be site
specific. The following table shows the research data from National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur. It is evident from the table that every
94
result is not but obvious and there are so many things that are to be explored before
reaching to a conclusion.
Table 4.3 Physical Characteristics of Municipal Solid Wastes in Indian Cities
Population
range in
million
No. of
cities
surveyed
Paper%
Rubber,
leather
and synthetics%
Glass%
Metals%
Total
compost
able
matter%
Inert%
0.10.5
12
2.91
0.78
0.56
0.33
44.57
43.59
0.51.0
15
2.95
0.73
0.35
0.32
40.04
48.38
1.02.0
4.71
0.71
0.46
0.49
38.95
44.73
2.05.0
3.18
0.48
0.48
0.59
56.67
49.07
> 5
6.43
0.28
0.94
0.8
30.84
53.90
Table 4.4 Chemicals Characteristics of Municipal Solid Wastes in Indian Cities

Population No. of
Moisture% Organic Nitrogen
Phosphoro
range (in
cities
matter% as total
us as P2O5
million)
surveyed
Nitrogen% %
Potassium
as K2O
%
C/N
Calorific
Ratio Value
(on dry
weight
basis) in
kcal/Kg
0.10.5
12
25.81
37.09
0.71
0.63
0.83
30.94 1009.89
0.51.0
15
19.52
25.14
0.66
0.56
0.69
21.13 900.61
1.02.0
26.98
26.89
0.64
0.82
0.72
23.68 980.05
2.05.0
21.03
25.6
0.56
0.69
0.78
22.45 907.18
> 5.0
38.72
39.07
0.56
0.52
0.52
30.11 800.7
The observations of above tables may lead to useful conclusions by careful study.
In the physical characteristics the content of paper waste normally increases for increasing
population but the rubber etc., reduces as there are more chances of rubber recycling
industries in bigger cities. Similarly, as the rag pickers are more active in big cities they
pick up the light matter with more calorific value and thus the inert material is higher.
Mostly the thin plastic bags form a major portion of the waste because in recycling the
plastic has to be made firstly dirt free, means washing is a must. The thin sheets give
lesser plastic material in comparison to the effort made in washing. So the rag pickers
do not pick the thin plastic bags and that is why governments ban the thin plastic bags.
The proportion of fine earth reduces with increase in population as the condition of
roads improves in bigger cities.
The chemical characteristics indicate that as the inert matter increases with increase
in population its calorific value decreases.
95
So there are many interrelated factors which make it difficult to predict the
composition and characteristics of the solid waste of any city, it is better to take sufficient
sample and analyze them for a long time before conceiving any treatment/disposal or
energy extraction project.
4.4 EXPECTED QUANTITIES OF SOLID WASTE

For the assessment of collection, conveyance, treatment and disposal, the expected
quantities of solid waste generated in a locality must be known. NEERI has done
extensive work and has measured the quantities of waste generated in the Indian cities.
The quantity of waste produced is lesser in Indian cities as compared to the developed
countries, because of the poverty and the way of living. Ours is a more natural way
of living and nature has its cycles to recycle the waste. In India the average solid waste
produced per capita per day vary between 0.2-0.6 kg/capita/day, the higher value is
for metropolitan cities. The total solid waste generated in urban area (towns with
population more than 5000 and having other amenities) is estimated to be around 38
million tones per annum.
The actual forecast of waste quantity is as difficult as is estimation of the waste
composition. The quantity also depends upon the living standard, size of the community,
climate, particular days ( like Diwali and other festivals), etc. Alongwith the quantity
the density of the waste is also variable and it changes with the storage method,
salvaging (sorting) activities, exposure to weather, handling methods and decomposition.
It can be noted as a general rule that the lower is the level of economic development,
the greater is the change in the density of waste from generation and disposal. The
waste in developing countries get compacted upto the disposal point in such a way
that its volume reduces to half.
The following table shows the quantities of solid waste in Indian urban centres
(manual on MSWM).
Table 4.5 Quantities of Solid Waste in Indian Urban Centres
Population range
in million
Number of
urban centres
sampled
Total
population
(in million)
Average per capita

value (Kg/capita/day)
Quantity
(Tonnes
/day)
< 0.1
328
68.3
0.21
14343
0.1 0.5
255
56.9
0.21
11952
0.51.0
31
21.7
0.25
5432
1.02.0
14
17.18
0.27
4640
2.05.0
20.6
0.35
7209
> 5.0
26.3
0.50(@0.6kg/capita/day
in metro cities
13153
96
The above table shows data for the existing cities surveyed. For the estimation of
MSW generated in a proposed city (in future) following estimation can be done:
Expected residential waste:
0.3 to 0.6 kg/capita/day
Expected commercial refuse
Expected street sweepings:
Expected institutional refuse: 0.05 to 0.2 kg/capita/day.
If industrial solid waste is included in municipal waste for collection and disposal
purposes, 0.1 to 1.0 Kg/capita/day may be added at the appropriate step. These
generation rates are dependent upon the particular sites so they are to be supported
by the field data.
Actually the solid waste quantity and quality both are very much variable and are
dependent on many factors. It is very much difficult to anticipate in advance. So the
waste generated should be carefully examined for quantity and quality and then only
any activity should be planned. Without proper and exhaustive survey it may totally
fail as in the case of Teemarpur energy recovery plant.
Before going into further details of collection, conveyance, treatment and disposal
of solid waste one should know the important physical and chemical characteristics
of solid waste.
4.5 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

(i) Density: The knowledge of density is important for the design of all elements
of the solid waste management systems like storage, transport and disposal.
For example for a known volume of the solid waste its density gives us the
idea about the requirement of the truck in tonnage. Every truck or similar
vehicle has a permitted load capacity say 12 ton or so which it can carry
according to law. In developed countries as their waste is light so compaction
reduces the cartage charges substantially. The density varies significantly from
source to the disposal site because of handling, change in moisture content,
densification due to vibration of movement, disturbance by animals and birds
(scavengers) etc. The following table gives some data from MSWM for density
of municipal solid waste in some Indian cities.
Table 4.6 Density of Municipal Solid Waste produced in some Indian Cities.
City
Density in Kg/m3
Bangalore
390
Baroda
457
Delhi
422
Hyderabad
369
Jaipur
537
Jabalpur
395
Raipur
405
S. No.
97
It is evident from the above table that density is more in Jaipur waste as because
of dessert conditions there is more sand and other inorganic heavy matter. These
figures are only indicative and are to be verified before the actual design of a
system. Actually it is very important that the solution to any SWM problem should
be site specific and time specific. The same city may show different composition
after some years.
(ii)
Moisture content: Moisture content of the solid waste is expressed as the

weight of moisture per unit weight of wet material.
Moisture content varies generally from 20 to 45% depending upon the climatic
conditions and level of city (income group) etc. The increase of moisture content
increases the weight and thus the cost of transportation and thus the storage section
should take care of it.
(iii) Calorific value: Calorific value is the amount of heat generated from combustion of a unit weight of a substance, expressed as kilo calorie per kilogram.
The calorific value is determined in the laboratory by Bomb Calorimeter. Table
4.3 shows typical values of the residue and calorific value for the different
components of the municipal solid waste.
If the energy is to be recovered or the waste is to be disposed, by incineration
(controlled burning) the following points should be considered:
Organic matter gives energy only in dry condition.

The moisture content as free water reduces the dry organic matter per kilgram
and hence requires a significant amount of energy for evaporation.
The ash content of the waste reduces the proportion of dry organic material
per kilogram of waste. It also retains some heat.
So for economical recovery of energy the waste should contain minimum amount
of moisture, ash and other inorganic matter.
These are the significance of determination of physical characteristics.
4.6 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The chemical characteristics of solid waste are determined for assessing the treatment
process. Mainly three chemical characteristics are determined, chemical, bio-chemical
and toxicological.
Chemical quantities of solid waste in Indian urban centres are pH, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium (N-P-K), total carbon, carbon/nitrogen ratio,
calorific value.
Bio-chemical characteristics include carbohydrate, proteins, natural fiber, and
biodegradable factor.
Toxic characteristics include heavy metals, pesticides, insecticides etc.
98
Consideration of lipids (fats, oils and grease) should also be done as they are of
a very high calorific value (about 38000 Kcal/kg). These days synthetic organic
materials like plastic have become a significant component of solid waste accounting
for 5-7%. In India the plastic is non-biodegradable and thus poses a great problem.
It chokes the drains and if burnt it produces poisonous gases. The thin plastic sheets
and bags are not recycled as the cost of making it dirt & oil free makes the process
uneconomical.
All the above considerations of characteristics are required to design, conceive and
assess the most appropriate ways of transportation, the requirements of treatment,
extraction of energy and the safe, sanitary way of disposal for the protection of environment.
4.7 WASTE MANAGEMENT APPROACH

The solid waste management has a two fold approach. First is the minimization of waste
at the source and other is the control on environmental pollution during its storage,
conveyance and disposal.
Prevention is always better than cure. If the production of waste can be reduced
at the source level it shall reduce the cost of conveyance treatment, disposal and shall
save the environment. The waste minimization techniques are grouped in four major
categories for hazardous as well as non hazardous waste, as follows:
4.7.1 Inventory Management and Improved Operation
Inventorisation (making stock registers) and tracing of all raw materials.

Purchasing of lesser toxic and more non-toxic production material.
Implementation of employees training and management feedback.
Improving material receiving, storage and handling practices.
Modification of equipment
Installation of equipment that produce minimum waste.

Modification of equipment to enhance recovery or recycling options.
Redesigning of equipment or production lines to produce less waste.
Improving operating efficiency of equipment.
Observing strict preventive maintenance programme.
Modifications in Production Process
Selection of non-hazardous raw material.

Segregation of waste for recovery.
Identification and elimination of leakages.
Optimization of reactions and raw material use.
99
Recycling and reuse
Installation of closed-loop systems

Recycling off site for another use
Exchange of wastes
By adopting the above waste minimization techniques the waste is minimized at

the source so that its handling and transportation charges are reduced and lesser efforts
are to be done in disposal.
4.7.2 Utilization of Waste
After minimizing the waste at source one can think about the utilization of waste of
one operation in the other operations as shown in the table below.
Table 4.7 Utilization of Waste
S. No.
1
Waste
Flyash (fine coal ash generated
by combustion of coal in power
plants etc. One portion is the
bottom ash another is the one
collected in the separators from
the flue gases.)
Areas of application
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
Blast furnace slag
i
ii
iii
iv
v
As raw material in manufacturing of cement

As binding material with cement
As filler in mines
As plasticizer
As an aggregate in cellular concrete bricks
and blocks
For stabilization of soil
Manufacturing slag cement, super sulphated
cement
Making expansive cement, coloured cement
and high early-strength cement
In refractory and ceramic industry
As a structural fill
As aggregate in concrete
Ferro-alloy and other metallurgical slag
i As structural fill
ii In making pozzolana metallurgical cement
Byeproduct gypsum
i
ii
iii
Gypsum plaster
As retarder in cement setting
As mineraliser
Lime sludge (phos-phochalk, paper and

sugar sludges)
i
ii
As a sweetener for lime in cement manufature

Manufacturing of lime pozzolana brick/
binders
For recycling in parent industry
Manufacturing of building lime
iii
iv
6
Chromium sludge
As a raw material component in cement

sludge
Contd....
100
Red Mud
Pulp and Paper
ii
Manufacturing of coloured cement as a

chromium bearing material
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
As a binder
Making construction blocks
As a cellular concrete additive
Coloured composition for concrete
In making floors and other tiles
Red mud polymer door
Lignin
After having all this information let us examine the present status of solid waste
management and what should have been done.
4.8 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT: AN OVERVIEW

The solid waste management has the following components:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Identification of waste and its minimization at the source

Collection, segregation and storage at the site of collection
Transportation
Treatment
Energy recovery
Disposal
4.8.1 Identification of Waste and its Minimization at the Source

By the above described classification methods one can identify the waste easily.
Identification helps in further processes of transportation, treatment and disposal, for
example the hazardous waste is to be tackled in a different manner than the ordinary
MSW. The minimization of the waste production is the best strategy. For this, first of
all the process should be such that there is a least production of waste. For example
if in a footwear making industry if the cut on the rubber sheet is made in such a way
that alternate piece of the pair are placed one by the side of other; there shall be least
production of waste sheet. Then the next step is to reuse the remaining waste sheet
in the same process. But now there is a limit beyond which this cannot be used to
maintain the required quality. This further remaining portion of the sheet comes as real
waste to this process of footwear making. Now if a toy making machine is installed
in the same factory which can use this remaining rubber sheet as the raw material.
Then there shall be no waste production in the first factory and only the second unit
shall produce some waste. Thus, the waste has been minimized at the source. This
reduces the cost of transportation etc. everything.
The second example is the production of flyash as the waste in the thermal power
plants. A huge quantity of flyash is produced where coal is burnt for making electricity.
101
This flyash requires a large valuable land for disposal. As this flyash can be used for
making of flyash bricks, making of cement and can be used with cement as binder etc;
if sold or supplied free of cost from the site itself ; shall reduce the burden of disposal.
The third example is the utilization of waste food products in a hostel or a hotel
for making biogas. By the anaerobic digestion of this organic matter (waste food) the
biogas can be produced easily. This gas can be used there itself for cooking or heating
purposes. This shall reduce the biodegradable waste at the source itself.
The fourth example is the utilization of kitchen waste in a household in making
the compost and utilizing it in the kitchen garden itself. If more advanced techniques
like Vermi-composting are adopted this can be done in a more beneficial way.
The above mentioned methods can be adopted on a large scale also, but for that
the waste is firstly collected, transported and than utilized. This incurs a large cost.
So it is always preferable that if the waste production is minimized or the waste is
reused, recycled at the source itself. Thus, the waste minimization is achieved through
careful planning, changing attitude, sometimes special investments (as the toy factory
in the above example), and most important is a real commitment. The self motivated
willing reduction of waste is generally not possible, so strict enforcement of the law
should be there. The waste reduction and reuse, recycling should be given incentives
from the government in the form of tax reduction and soft loans.
4.8.2 Collection, Segregation and Storage at the Site of Collection
The main problem of solid waste management is the collection of solid waste. The
household waste consists of all types of general waste. At present there is no scientific,
clean, hygienic, efficient practice of waste collection in most of the cities of India
including the metro cities. There is no practically imposed penalty on throwing of
waste on the streets. Even defecating on open plots, sides of roads, railway lines;
spitting on roads is a very common practice and nobody bothers about it. The ugly
unhygienic scenes, and the bad smell (due to anaerobic digestion of organic matter)
worsen the situation. Actually we are in a bad habit of either throwing the waste
in front of the neighbors door, or on a vacant land or directly on the road. Even if
the municipality provides a waste collection bin, nobody bothers to put the waste
carefully in it. So the collection of waste is a big problem. In most of the developing
countries the waste is handled manually. First of all the sweepers sweep the roads,
streets etc. with their age old brooms (with poor designs). Then they will make heaps
of the collected waste. The other person then lifts this collected waste to some ill
maintained wheel barrows and transport it to the collection depots and make a heap
there. Then the rag-pickers shall start their work and pick only most useful items to
them as the thick plastic bags or metal if any. The stray animals like dogs, cows, pigs
shall find their food from this heap and scatter it on the collectyon site. Then it shall
be manually picked up at some irregular interval, transported in open tractor trolleys
and then disposed off on some open land.
102
The industrial waste is also handled in the same way. The collection and storage
of waste is the most neglected operation in any industry. The wastewater having
harmful colours, dyes, metals, heavy metals, organic matter (having high BOD) is
discharged in the open drains to pollute the land and the river water. Similarly, the
solid waste is thrown in open areas wherever the nearest site is available (may it be
unguarded private land or government land).
The best way would have been the segregation of waste at the generation point.
Segregation means collecting it in different bins, or plastic bags. The domestic waste
can be broadly separated as reusable (paper, plastic, metal etc.), and non reusable. The
non reusable may have organic matter like kitchen waste or inorganic matter like dust,
dirt etc. The organic matter is liable to decomposition (putrescible) and thus requires
immediate attention. Fortunately in India the usable matter is rarely discarded as solid
waste except which cannot be sold to kabaries. So even if only two containers or bags
are used for separating organic and inorganic waste the problem is solved. This separated
waste should be regularly collected by the worker directly from the houses at some well
defined time. Then it should be transported in (covered vehicles)to some waste collection
depots for utilization/transportation to different sites. The organic waste can be used
for the production of biogas or for the extraction of energy, incineration (controlled
burning or making organic compost, and vermi-composting. The storage in the
intermediate collection sites should again be covered and out of the reach of the stray
animals. Here it is proposed to make payment to the person collecting waste on the
basis of the weight/volume of the waste collected by him/her and not on the daily
basis. Here lies the actual problem. Because of the structure of the local municipal
corporations and many other pressures this is generally not feasible. This is possible
only if this work is given on contract basis and the work is done in a scientific
professional way with the peoples participation (segregation and proper handing over
of the waste).
4.8.3 Transportation of Solid Waste
As stated earlier the waste is transported from the storage depots to the disposal sites
in tractor trollies or ill designed open trucks. Though it has been instructed by the
Honble court that the transportation must be done in closed containers only. The
industrial waste must be transported separately and must be disposed in a safe way
after suitable treatment. Any type of the hazardous waste should be labeled and coded
so that in case of an accident the emergency services know how to handle a spillage.
Actually the work of transportation of solid waste must be done through the technically
competent and well reputed contractors under the strict supervision of the experienced
and honest municipal authorities and watchful citizens.
4.8.4 Treatment of Solid Waste
The waste has to be treated before disposal for the protection of environment. In the
treatment the biodegradable waste can be processed by composting, vermi-composting,
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anaerobic digestion or any other appropriate biological processing for stabilization of

waste. Actually every organic matter has a tendency to be converted into inorganic
matter as the later is a stabilized form. If this conversion takes place in absence of oxygen
(anaerobic digestion) which is a general case in solid waste processing, foul gases are
evolved. During the anaerobic decomposition dirty, offensive dark coloured fluid is also
generated that is known as the leachate.
Generally the solid waste contains both municipal and industrial waste. Small scale
industries also generate huge quantity of solid waste and they are generally not in a
position to treat their waste individually. It is therefore advisable that in a group of
small scale industries the different wastes are characterized, identified, quantified and
stored for treatment through a combination of recycling, recovery and reuse of resources
such as, raw material, bio gas, steam and manure. The combined effluent treatment
plants are to be operated by the local bodies where the cost of construction operation
and maintenance is to be shared by the industry in proportion to the quality and
quantity of their waste. However the assessment of the quality and quantity of waste
is very difficult and requires appropriate testing facilities.
In any case the solid waste should be reduced in quantity at the source, segregated,
then carefully transported and the economically treated before the final disposal.
4.8.5 Energy Recovery and Disposal
The most common methods of energy recovery and disposal for non hazardous solid
waste are incineration, composting and landfill. The final disposal of waste should be
done in such a way that it remains a waste in actual sense, i.e. nothing can be recovered
out of it and it could not be used any where. So before putting it on land for landfilling if it has a substantial portion of biodegradable fraction then compost (organic
manure) should be made out of it. This shall reduce the final volume of the waste to
be disposed on land and shall give us money in terms of the manure. The organic
manure is environment friendly and also provides us micronutrients that increase the
fertility of the soil. If this work is done more effectively by some special worms this is
known as vermi-composting.
4.8.5.1 Incineration
Incineration means burning of solid waste in controlled conditions. The most usual practice
of disposal of solid waste is burning in open fields. This slow burning at low temperature
produces many hazardous gases. Generally the waste is collected in the streets or roads
and the heap of this waste is left there itself for drying or collection of more waste on it.
Then this waste is either transported to some distant site or burnt there itself. This waste
contains inorganic matter also and because of this burning in heaps there is no control of
supply of oxygen or rather there is no oxygen supply except that present in the voids. This
incomplete combustion at a low temperature produces hazardous gases and these gases
pollute the environment very close to us. Particularly the gases produced by the burning
of plastic, rubber and other such materials produce very much harmful gases.
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Incinerator means any enclosed device using controlled flame combustion.

Incineration uses heat to convert complex toxic organic compounds into mostly carbon
dioxide and water. At temperatures ranging from 400 to 1600C complex organic
molecules break down into basic atoms. The incineration is a good method of disposal
and recovery of energy (in the form of heat produced by burning) only if it works
properly. The combustion temperatures of conventional incinerators are about 760 C
in the furnace and more than 870 C in the secondary combustion chamber. These high
temperature are required to avoid odour from incomplete combustion but are not
sufficient to burn or even melt the glass. Some modern incinerators use supplementary
fuel to produce high temperatures upto 1650 C to convert even metal and glass to
ashes. These incinerators reduce waste volume significantly i.e. upto 97%.
There are so many factors like thermal feed rate, waste feed rate, organic chlorine
feed rate, minimum combustion gas temperature, gas residence time, adjustment of
primary and secondary combustion units, removal of HCl, Suspended Particulate
Matter (SPM) and other air pollutants produced; that are to be controlled. Actually,
the incineration is best way of disposing hazardous waste, like hospital and other
wastes. The incineration is definitely better than open burning but as stated earlier if
it is not properly working, with all controls, then it can prove to be more dangerous,
as it gasifies the pollutants and sends them to the atmosphere.
In general incinerators comprise of a storage pit, fuel tanks, a furnace, a heat
recovery boiler, effluent gas purification unit, an induced draft fan and a stack
(chimney).Though incineration is extensively used as a useful method of waste disposal,
it is associated with some polluting discharges which are of environmental concern.
These can effectively be controlled by installing suitable pollution control measures and
by construction of furnace suitably and by controlling the combustion process. For the
removal of SPM from the effluent gas a scrubbing water treatment unit or even Electro
Static Precipitators are used in good installations.
4.8.5.2 Landfill
The most common and easy way of disposal of solid waste is dumping it on land. The
inorganic waste like construction and demolition waste can be easily used for filling
of low lying areas or plinth filling of buildings or the earthwork of roads. When the
combined waste (inorganic and organic) is disposed on the land then the decomposition
of the organic matter takes place in due course of time. This decomposition produces
gases (like methane) and dark coloured dirty offensive water known as leachate. If the
ground on which the waste is disposed is pervious then this leachate percolates and
mixes with the ground water and badly pollutes it. If the waste is hazardous means
that contains harmful chemicals and heavy metals, or pathogens then the situation
becomes more aggravated. The mixing of these pollutant through leachate makes the
water polluted and contaminated. Secondly in open landfills the rain water increases
the volume of leachate and mixes it with the ground or surface water source more easily.
So the landfill should be so designed that it contains an impermeable barrier to stop
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the mixing of leachate with the water. It should have a diversion for the rain water
and proper arrangement of the collection treatment and disposal of leachate. Such type
of landfill is known as the sanitary landfill and are the most desirable ones. They may
appear costly, but for long lifetime of such works and comparing the end results the
cost/ton of waste disposed might be less than any other method of disposal.
4.8.5.3 Composting
The organic matter (consisting of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur) has
a tendency of being converted into inorganic matter as the later is a stable form. The
food, excreta and other organic waste gets decomposed (changed into inorganic form)
and produce gases like biogas (mainly methane) and solids of decomposition like
sulfates, nitrates, phosphates etc. These solid (nutrient) are extracted by the roots of
plants and trees in dissolved form and they again produce the organic matter in the
form of their products. Those products come in the food chain and again the organic
waste is produced. This way the different natural cycles keep on proceeding. Composting
is an organized method of producing compost manure (decomposed organic matter)
through this natural phenomenon. Compost is more useful as it contains the nutrients
like N, P, K as well as the micronutrients. Micronutrients like iron are very much useful
for good health and immunity. As the organic matter can be decomposed in two ways
i.e. in the presence of oxygen or in the absence of oxygen, composting can be done
aerobically or anaerobically. During aerobic composting aerobic micro-organisms oxidize
the organic compounds to carbon dioxide, nitrite and nitrates. The reaction is exothermic
and the temperature rises. The nitrates, sulfates etc. are used by the plants and carbon
is synthesized in the photosynthesis by the plants. In the anaerobic process the anaerobic
bacteria, while metabolizing the nutrients, break down the organic compounds through
a process of reduction. The gases evolved are mainly CH4 and CO2 (bio-gas). If collected
properly as in a biogas plant the gas can be used for heating or even for driving engines.
The composting can be done to the collected organic waste at some site or at the
individual house hold.
4.8.5.3.1 Vermi-composting
In the case of households or colonies vermi-composting which involves the stabilization of
organic solid waste through special earthworm by conversion of the organic matter to worm
casting is also done. Vermicomposting involves the culture of earthworms(vermiculture)
for the stabilization of different variety of organic solid waste. Earthworms feed on any
organic waste and consume two to five times of their body weight, excrete the mucus coated
undigested matter as wormcasts. Wormcasts consists of organic matter that has undergone
physical and chemical breakdown through the muscular activity that grinds the material
to a particle size of 1 to 3 micron. The nutrient present in the wormcast are easily soluble
in water and are thus readily available for the plant growth. Vermi-composting is a rich
source of macro and micronutrients, vitamins, enzymes, antibiotics and hormones.
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As per the MSWM the vermi-composting involves the stabilization of organic solid
waste through earthworm consumption which converts the material into worm castings.
Vermi-composting is the result of combined activity of micro-organisms and earthworms.
Microbiological decomposition of biodegradable organic matter occurs through extracellular
enzymatic activities (primary decomposition) whereas decomposition in earthworm occurs
in alimentary tract by micro-organisms inhabiting the gut (secondary decomposition).
Microbes such as fungi, actinomycetes, protozoa etc. are reported to inhabit the gut of
earthworms. Ingested feed substrates are subjected to grinding in the anterior part of the
worms gut (gizzard) resulting in particle size reduction. Vermitechnology, a tripartite
system which involves biomass, microbes and earthworm as influenced by the abiotic
factors like temperature, moisture and aeration etc. Microbial ecology changes according
to change of abiotic factors in the biomass but decomposition never ceases. Conditions
unfavorable to aerobic decomposition result in the death of earthworms and subsequently
on vermi-composting occurs. Hence, preprocessing of the waste as well as providing
favourable environmental condition is necessary for vermi-composting. The vermi-compost
(manure) is relatively more stabilized and harmonises with soil system without any ill
effects. Unfavourable conditions such as particle size of biomass and extent of its
decomposition, very high temperature increase, anaerobic condition, toxicity of
decomposition products, etc. matter much for the activity and progress of worms.
This technology has been used for agriculture waste and is used on organic municipal
solid waste also. The worms are special earthworms known as Pheretima sp, Eisenia
sp, and Perionyx excavatus sp. These worms survive in the temperature range of
20-40oC and moisture range of 20-80%. The worms do not survive in pure organic
substrate containing more than 40% fermentable organic substances. So fresh waste
is mixed with partially or fully stabilized waste before it is subjected to vermi-composting.
The worms are also adversely affected by high concentrations of such heavy metals
as cadmium, chromium, lead and zinc. Due to these problems the vermi-composting
is successful more on the household level (vegetables etc, organic waste) than the
municipality level.
4.9 ENERGY RECOVERY FROM MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

The municipal solid waste contains organic (vegetables, food etc.) as well as inorganic
matter (dust, dirt etc.). It is desirable that the energy present in its organic portion can
be recovered through suitable processing and treatment technologies. Alongwith the
gain of energy the following benefits are also there:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
The total quantity of waste gets reduced by nearly 60 to 90% depending upon
the characteristics of waste and the adopted process.
As the quantity reduces the demand for land required for landfill as disposal
also reduces.
The cost of transportation also reduces as the quantity reduces.
The overall environmental pollution reduces.
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Therefore, the energy recovery is as useful as the reuse and recycle of waste at the
source. Following are the basic techniques of energy recovery as per the MSWM:
(i) Thermo-chemical conversion: This process entails thermal decomposition of
organic matter to produce either heat energy or fuel oil or gas; and
(ii) Bio chemical conversion: This process is based on enzymatic decomposition
of organic matter by microbiological action to produce methane gas or alcohol.
The thermo-chemical conversion processes are useful for wastes containing high percentage
of organic non-biodegradable matter and low moisture content. The main technological
option in this category include Incineration (already explained) and Pyrolysis/ Gasification.
The biochemical conversion processes, are preferred for wastes having high percentage of
organic bio-degradable (putrescible) matter and high moisture content. The main technological
option under this category is Anaerobic Digestion also known as Biomethanation.
4.9.1 Parameters Affecting Energy Recovery
The main parameters that determine the potential of recovery of energy from waste
are physical and chemical characteristics of waste and the recovery of energy also
depends upon the process employed. The main physical parameters are:
Size of constituent
Density
Moisture content
Smaller size of the constituents aids in faster decomposition of the waste due to more
specific area. Waste of high density shows a high proportion of biodegradable organic
matter whereas the low density indicates the higher presence of paper plastic etc. High
moisture content causes biodegradable waste fraction to decompose more rapidly than
in dry conditions. The high moisture content makes the waste rather unsuitable for
thermo-chemical conversion (like incineration, pyrolysis, gasification) for energy recovery
as a major amount of heat is wasted in evaporating the moisture.
The important chemical parameters for determining the energy recovery potential
and the suitability of waste treatment through bio-chemical or thermo-chemical conversion
are as follows:
Volatile solids
Fixed carbon content
Calorific value
Carbon and nitrogen ratio
Toxicity
Inerts
For different processes of energy recovery the desirable range for different parameters
is shown in the table given below. Generally for achieving satisfactory extraction of
energy sorting, segregation and addition of required parameters is necessary.
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Table 4.8 Desirable Range of important Waste Parameters for Technical Viability of Energy
Recovery ( source manual on MSWM)
Waste treatment
method
Basic principle
Important waste
parameters
Desirable range
(suitably processed waste)
Thermo-chemical
Conversion
Decomposition of
organic matter by
action of heat
Moisture content
Organic/Volatile
matter
< 45%
> 40%
Fixed carbon
Total Inerts
Net-calorific value
< 15%
< 35%
> 1200 kcal/kg
Moisture content
Organic-Volatile
matter
C/N ratio
> 50%
> 40%
Incineration pyrolysis
gasification
Bio-chemical
conversion
Decomposition
of organic matter
by microbial action
Anaerobic digestion/
bio-methanation
2530
Like this energy can be recovered from the solid waste which reduces the volume
also and makes the waste suitable for final disposal. Now the final disposal may be
as landfill, but it has also to be done in such a way to protect the environment from
its bad effects (like leachates etc.). That is known as sanitary landfill.
4.10 SANITARY LANDFILL

The term Landfill means a unit operation for final disposal of municipal solid waste
on land, that is designed and constructed with the objective of minimum impact on
the environment. The term sanitary landfill is used for a landfill with the provision of
liner (protective layer) and leachate collection system to prevent ground water
contamination. Landfilling is done for the mixed waste, that is not hazardous but not
found suitable for waste processing, and recycling. Land fill is not suggested for
biowaste as energy can be recovered out of it and its decomposition in the landfill shall
produce leachates. Actually landfilling should be used as the final disposal method and
should be adopted for the waste from which the recycling is not possible and economic
extraction of energy is also not possible. Sometimes it is useful for hazardous waste
disposal, but then it has to be done very carefully. The following are the essential
components of a MSW landfill as per the manual on MSWM:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
A liner system at the base and sides of the landfill which prevents migration
of leachate or gas to the surroundings soil.
A leachate collection and control facility which collects and extracts within
and from the base of the landfill and then treats the leachate.
A gas collection and control facility which collects and extracts gas from within
and from the top of the landfill and then treats it or uses it for energy recovery.
A final cover system at the top of the landfill which enhances surface drainage,
prevents infiltrating water and supports surface vegetation.
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
4.11
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A surface water drainage system which collects and removes all surface runoff from the landfill site.
An environmental monitoring system which periodically collects and analyses
air, surface water, soil-gas and ground water samples around the landfill site.
A closure and post closure plan which lists the steps that must be taken to
close and secure a landfill site once the filling operation has been completed
and the activities for long term monitoring, operation and maintenance of the
completed landfill.
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT
It is difficult to define the hazardous waste exactly as it is a very general and wide
term. However, it may be defined as any waste in solid, liquid or gaseous form which
because of its quantity and concentration or its physical, chemical, radiological, or
infectious characteristics, may cause ill effect on the human health or the environment
if not properly stored, transported and disposed. The designation of a material to be
hazardous is done through the standard tests for the following criteria:
Radioactivity: If the level of radioactivity exceeds the permissible concentration limits the waste is termed as hazardous.
Bio-concentration: This criteria is used for chemicals such as chlorinated
hydrocarbon pesticides.
Flammability: The ease with which certain substance catches fire and sustains
combustion.
Reactivity: Chemicals like sodium are extremely reactive with water.
Toxicity: The capacity of causing damage to the human health and the
environment, like the poisonous effect is the measure of toxicity.
Genetic and carcinogenic potential: The potential of causing cancer etc.
By the above criteria the hazardous waste can be identified but the actual impact
is based upon the quantity. It can be suggested that the most suitable method of dealing
with hazardous waste is converting it into non-hazardous form, but that is not possible
always, and may not be economical and technically possible also. The most commonly
used method of disposing of hazardous waste is the hazardous waste landfill. The
specially designed landfills are used to provide complete protection for the surface and
subsurface waters from the hazardous waste. As they have to carefully deal with, such
type of landfills are equipped with clay liners, monitoring wells and ground water
barriers. The strategy is strict segregation from the environment and complete care in
storage and transportation.
The Central Government has made the Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling)
Rules, 1989 and has amended them on January 6, 2000. According to them, the occupier
generating hazardous waste is bound to take all necessary steps to ensure that such
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wastes are properly handled and disposed off without any adverse effect. The occupier
shall also be responsible for the collection, conveyance, storage, treatment and disposal
of these wastes in consultation with the pollution control boards. The manual on
MSWM has a list of the categories of Hazardous Waste as specified in the schedule
I to the rules amended on January 2000 by the government. The list includes for example
petrochemical processes, natural gas production, production and use of zinc, lead,
cadmium, arsenic etc., production of pharmaceuticals, preservatives, cosmetics, photochemicals etc.
The waste generated from medical activities can also be hazardous, toxic and even
lethal because of their high potential of disease transmission. The hazardous and toxic
part of waste from hospitals comprising infectious, bio-medical and radioactive materials
as well as sharps (needles, knives etc.) creates a great risk if not handled properly.
Actually a major part of biomedical waste is non-hazardous, but if proper segregation
is not there it makes the whole waste as hazardous. Apart from a part of hazardous
waste the biomedical waste should be studied separately.
4.12 BIO-MEDICAL WASTE

As per the manual on MSWM the bio-medical waste means any solid and/or liquid
waste including its container and any intermediate product, which is generated during
the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings or animals or in research
pertaining there to or in the production or testing thereof.
The physico-chemical and biological nature of these components, their toxicity and
potential hazard are different, necessitating different methods/options for their
treatment/disposal in schedule I of the bio-medical waste (management and handling)
Rules, 1998 the waste originating from different kinds of such establishment, has been
categorized in different categories as below:
Components of bio-medical waste
Human anatomical waste (tissues, organs, body parts etc.)

Animal waste (as above from veterinary hospitals etc.)
Microbiology and biotechnology waste, such as laboratory cultures, microorganisms, human and animal cell cultures, toxins etc.
Waste sharps, such as hypodermic needles, syringes, scalpels, broken glass etc.
Discarded medicines and cyto-toxic drugs.
Soiled waste such as dressings, bandages, plaster casts, material contaminated
with blood etc.
Solid waste (disposable items like tubes, catheters etc. excluding sharps).
Liquid waste generated from any of the infected areas.
Incineration ash.
Chemical waste.
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If the above mentioned bio-medical wastes are not handled properly they shall
create many hazards. As per the manual on MSWM the following are the main
environmental concerns with respect to improper disposal of bio-medical waste
management:
Spread of infection and disease through vectors (fly, mosquito, insects etc.)
which affect the in-house as well as surrounding population.
Spread of infection through unauthorized recycling of disposable items such
as hypodermic needles, tubes, blades, bottles etc.
Reaction due to use of discarded medicines.
Toxic emissions from defective/inefficient incineration.
Indiscriminate disposal of incinerator ash/residues.
For safe handling of the biomedical waste it is recommended that proper labeling and
colour coding is done. It is desirable to use colour coding means use of specific coloured
container with liner/sealed container (for sharps) for particular wastes. The untreated
waste should not be stored for a period of more than 48 hours. For this purpose a simple
notice in English, Hindi and local language describing clearly about the storage of a
particular category of waste in a particularly labeled and coloured container is a must.
The container should be sturdy enough, without any puncture and leakage. The container
should be covered and preferably operated by foot. In case of plastic bags they should
be fitted securely in a container. The sharps must be stored in a puncture proof container
and before putting them in the containers they must be mutilated by a needle cutter. The
containers should be wheeled and placed in a permanent position tightly. They should
be carried for further transportation preferably from the separate corridors and should
not cross the regular path of patients and visitors.
Different methods of treatment and disposal are useful for the different category
of the bio-medical waste. Depending upon the quantity of waste generated small
installations may adopt local (in house) disinfections, mutilation/shredding and
autoclaving and off-site incineration at a common facility followed by a sanitary and
secured landfill.
4.13 CONCLUSION
Waste is a misplaced resource. Solid waste can also be used for the production of
biogas or compost. The paper waste can even be used for the paper mashie (making
articles from paper) or for reusing it in hand made paper, bags etc. Reduction, and
reuse of solid waste increases the efficiency of the process that is the main aim of
the engineer. The other side of the coin is the nuisance caused by the solid waste.
As it creates ugly scenes, mal-odour and unhygienic conditions so its proper disposal
is a must. As there are so many producers (every individual) so it is very difficult
to manage it. When we enforce it by law it becomes a problem for implementation.
The poor standard and illiteracy of our citizens aggravates the problem and practically
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every city of our country is in a bad shape as far as solid waste is concerned. Though
the per capita production of solid waste is lesser in India but as it is not handled
properly (scattered) so a large effort and money has to be spent in its collection. If
every body puts the waste material after segregation (at the source) at its designated
place the further handling and transportation becomes more feasible. This can be
made possible by educating the masses and by providing some incentives. As we sell
the newspapers and other sellable items the same system may be developed for other
things like the kitchen waste. The main problem is its commercial utilization that
makes it sustainable. Here is the role of engineer. If we can install energy recovery
plants may it be a biogas plant, compost making plant, vermi-composting or plant
for electricity production and run it successfully then we are the real engineers that
think for the society. There are many technical problems of raw material, process
applicable to Indian conditions and the inorganic nature of Indian solid waste. We
have to find ways and means to overcome these problems within our social and
economical network. At least this is sure that it can be done if a strong will power
is there as some of the local self bodies, municipal corporations have done it. Increased
awareness, education, training, incentive and peoples participation all combined can
achieve the aims and objectives of the sold waste management.
Review Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Define the term waste. What do you mean by solid waste?

Describe solid waste management.
What is the problem of solid waste? How much solid waste is produced in
our country?
How do you classify the solid waste and what is the importance of classification?
What is hazardous waste and its problem?
Explain the terms garbage and rubbish.
Describe the composition of solid waste.
Tabulate and explain the physical characteristics of solid waste.
Tabulate and explain the chemical characteristics of solid waste.
What are the expected quantities of solid waste?
Tabulate the quantities of solid wastes in Indian urban centres.
Describe the physical characteristics of solid waste like density, moisture
content etc.
Describe the chemical characteristics of solid waste.
Describe the waste management approach with inventory management etc.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
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How can the solid waste be utilized?

Write down the detailed overview on solid waste management.
Explain the different ways and means of collection of solid waste.
Explain the different ways and means of transportation of solid waste.
Explain the different ways and means of treatment of solid waste.
Describe the term energy recovery from solid waste.
What is incineration? Describe the process of incineration.
What is landfill? Describe the problem of leachate.
Describe the term composting, its methods and advantages.
What is vermi-composting? Explain the process and its advantages.
Write in details the method of energy recovery from solid waste. What are
the parameters that affect the energy recovery?
What is the desirable range of waste parameters for technical viability of
energy recovery?
What is sanitary landfilling?
Explain in details the hazardous waste management.
What is biomedical waste and what are the special measures to be taken in
its management?
Write a short note on biomedical waste management.
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5
ECOLOGY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Ecology can be defined as the study of living organisms like plants and animals in
relation to each other and the non-living environment in which they live. On the earth
there are biotic (living) beings and abiotic (non-living) things. Both of them are in
dynamic equilibrium with each other. The study of this interdependence and
interrelationship is known as the ecology. The term ecology was coined by Reiter (1885)
followed by Ernst Haeckel in 1869. Haeckel called the relation of the animal to its
organic as well as inorganic environment Oikologie. Eugene Odum (1963) described
ecology as study of structure and function of nature. Charles Elton (1927) defined
ecology as scientific natural history, The Indian scientists R. Mishra, G. Puri, S. C.
Pandeya, Ramakrishnan and others started work on ecology in 1950.
Actually, the word ecology has been derived from two Greek words oikos
meaning house habitat or place of living, and logos meaning study. Means it is
the study of earths house. The earths house includes everything that exists on
earth. Human beings and animals use nature for their growth and existence. In this
process they use the natural gifts like sun, wind, water and the mineral resources
of earth. Nature is not very comfortable in all conditions at all the places. Animals
mould themselves according to the nature and live in the natural conditions as far
as possible. Human beings try to mould the nature according to their whim and
wisdom. Sometimes, it is within the earths adjusting capacity, but many times it
crosses it. Particularly these days the nature is on revolt. It is showing its displeasure
by global warming, Al- Nino, Tsunami and other ways. That is why we have become
so particular about the ecology. Some 50 years ago the human population of earth
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was very less and the living style was so near to nature that it was used and not
exploited. There is a large difference in use and exploitation. Now it is being
exploited in want of more and more comfort. This over-exploitation of earths
natural resources has degraded, deteriorated or ruined the environment in which
we live today. That has necessitated the study of ecology.
The field of ecology deals with the influence of different environmental factors on
all the aspects of life like morphology, physiology, growth, behaviour and survival of
the organisms. The surroundings of an organism affect the life of an organism. The
white people in Europe and the blacks in Africa, all are human beings. The temperature,
solar radiation, quality of water and the mineral resources influence the development
of a species in a particular way. The interrelationship of ecology and environment has
a very wide scope to consider. It has the structural components, biochemical cycles,
bioamplification, toxic substances, detoxification, food and energy chains, different
natural cycles like hydrological cycle, material cycles like the bio-geochemical cycles
(nitrogen cycles, sulfur cycles) etc.
The environment has been classified as:
(a)
(b)
Living or biotic environment: It consists of plants, animals and micro-organisms.

Physical or abiotic environment: It consists of external physical factors like
temperature, water, minerals, wind, gases and many types of radiations. Even
the sound present in the atmosphere affects us. According to Indian philosophers the words, which we utter or pronounce, are Aksharas, means living
for all times to come. So they are all present in the atmosphere in such a hidden
form of energy that is still to be explored.
These constituents of environment are referred to as the environmental factors or

ecological factors or just as factors. A factor is defined as an ecological condition
which directly or indirectly affects the growth and development and hence the life
of an organism.
This abiotic environment influences the biotic one and the living beings change,
influence or deteriorate the non-living ones. For example we consume the food and after
extraction of energy out of it we defecate the fecal material. That putrescible organic
matter decomposes and gets stabilized into inorganic matter. This organic matter is
taken up by the plants, trees in the form of minerals, nutrients, micro-nutrients and
again they make the food for us. So there is a chain or a cycle in which the living and
non-living beings are tied with each other. That is why we say that there is somebody
(God) in every particle (living or non-living) in the same form, state, quantity, energy
level etc. It is not so easy to understand all this but at least this should be understood
clearly that everything on the earth is interdependent, associated with each other and
we cannot live in isolation. This is the main fundamental of the study of science of earth
i.e. ecology. Besides this philosophical aspect scientifically one has to study ecology for
the following reasons.
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(ii) Community: A set of population living together in an environment is a

community. A population of a single species cannot survive by itself because
there is interdependence of one form of life on others. An aggregation of
populations of different species living together in a specific area, having a
particular set of environmental conditions constitutes a biotic community. The
various plants and animals living in a lake are known as one biotic community
whereas that living in a forest is a different biotic community. It may be further
classified as major and minor community. A major community is a large
community that is self regulating, self sustaining and independent unit comprising of many minor communities. For example a lake, pond, forest, desert
are the major communities. The minor community is a small community that
depends on other communities for existence. For example the forest has many
minor communities like plant community, animal community and the microbial community. The animals depend upon plants for food and the plants
depend upon animals for biological manure and for multiplication.
(iii) Niche: Different species of animals and plants fulfill different functions in the
ecological contest. The role of each species in an ecosystem is fixed and that
is known as its Niche. Role means what it does, what it eats, who eats it where
does it go i.e. the total range of its interaction with other species is the niche.
(iv) Habitat: It is the requirement of residence item, i.e. range of temperature,
moisture etc. It is the abiotic environment within a certain range of tolerance.
Habitat is the surroundings in which a species live. Fish indicates the amount
of dissolved oxygen. Trout (a fish) has a requirement of 13 p.p.m dissolved
oxygen so must be a cold region. This is the habitat requirement of trout fish.
The one which has widest range is the toughest one. Cockroach can live in
a temperature range of 40C to + 50C and without food for 3 months. Their
tolerance against D.D.T (pesticide) is also very high. So they have a largest
number on earth. According to E. P. Odum, habitat is the organisms address
and niche is its profession.
(v) Ecosystem: The community living with biotic and abiotic (non-living )
environment function together as an ecological system or Ecosystem. For
example terrestrial ecosystem, marine ecosystem etc. An ecosystem is defined
as a natural functional ecological unit comprising of living organisms (biotic
community) and their non-living environment that interact to form a stable self
sustaining system. A pond desert, forest grassland etc. are the examples of the
ecosystems. Ecology deals with species, organisms, populations, communities,
ecosystems and biosphere. Population is defined as a group of individuals of
any on kind of organisms. Community includes all the populations of a given
area, called the habitat. Community and the abiotic environment interact and
work together as a system called as the ecological system or the ecosystem.
Ecology
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
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The part of the earth where ecosystems operate is known as biosphere. Some
natural ecological groupings of plants and animals based on regional climate
and soil types interact and generate a characteristic land community or
aquatic community, known as biome. The biosphere includes many distinct
biomes like tropical evergreen forests, tropical and temperate deciduous
forests, taiga (needle leaf evergreen coniferous forests), grasslands (prairies,
plains, steppes, veldt), savanna, deserts, tundras, etc. and aquatic biomes
like marine and large fish bodies. One can understand the biosphere to be
a narrow sphere of earth where the atmosphere (air) hydrosphere (water)
and lithosphere(soil) meet, interact, and make the existence of all types of
life possible.
Population: It is the total assemblage of interbreeding individuals of a given
species found in any ecosystem under study. A species may have many
populations. The properties of population include abundance and population
densities, range genetic variability, adaptations, resource needs and other
demands on the environment and factors that influence population growth,
birth and death rates and age distribution, i.e. population dynamics.
Environment: Environment comprises of the several interrelated and dynamic
factors, some of which become critical in the growth, development and
multiplication of the organisms.
Organisms: The different types of organisms living in a particular environment are not only independent and mutually reactive but also react with the
environment. The organisms have sufficient plasticity to modify themselves
according to changing environment by modifications in somatic (physical)
structures (ecads) or genetic characters (ecotypes).
Succession: The changing environment leads to the exit of pre existing species
when it does not suite them, and invasion of new and more vigorous species,
resulting in plant succession. The process continues till the development of
a new stable and adjustable for equilibrium community. The final stage of
developed community is called a climax community.
Biome: The complex of several communities in any area , some at climax and
others at different stages of succession, under same climatic conditions is
known as a biome.
5.1.3 Classification of Various Aspects of Ecology

Two important aspects of ecology are autecology and synecology.
5.1.3.1 Autecology: It is associated with the ecology of an individual species and its
population. It is the study of a particular species and its behaviour and adaptation to
the environmental condition at every stage of that individuals life cycle. Autecology
is also called species ecology.
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5.1.3.2 Synecology: It is the study of communities, their composition, their behaviour

and relation to the environment. Synecology is also called as the ecology of communities
and further divided in three fields:(a)
(b)
(c)
Population ecology
Community ecology
Ecosystem ecology
5.1.3.3 Classification on the Basis of Habitat

(a)
(c)
Aquatic ecology
(i) Marine ecology
(ii)
Freshwater ecology
(iii)
Stream ecology
Terrestrial ecology
(i) Grassland ecology
(ii)
Forest ecology
(iii)
Desert ecology
5.1.3.3.1 Modern sub-divisions of ecology: As stated earlier the broad classification of

ecology is autecology and synecology. Autecology is the study of individual organisms
or species in relation to environment. Synecology studies the groups of organisms which
are associated together as a unit in relation to the environment. Referring the ecological
studies particular to animals and plants it can be broadly divided into animal and plant
ecology. Following are some branches of ecology:
(i) Habitat ecology: It includes fresh water ecology, desert ecology, forest ecology,
grassland ecology, marine ecology etc. depending upon the nature of residence.
i.e. habitat.
(ii) Population ecology: It is the study of inter-relationships of different groups
of organisms. It also includes the study of number of organisms and their
distribution.
(iii) Conservation ecology: It includes the proper management of natural resources
like water, land, forest, mines, oceans etc. for the benefit of mankind.
(iv) Ecosystem ecology: It is the structural and functional analysis of ecosystems
including the inter-relationship of biotic and abiotic components.
(v) Production ecology: It is a comparatively new branch that deals with the gross
and net production of different ecosystems like fresh water, agriculture etc.
for the proper management to get maximum yield.
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121
(vi) Radiation ecology: It is the study of radioactive substances, radiation and the
environment. The development of nuclear energy and its impact on enviroment
has necessitated this branch of ecology.
(vii) Palaecology: It deals with the organisms of past ecological environment and
traces the gaps in the evolutionary lines and place and time of various groups
of plants and animals.
(viii) Ecological energetics: It is a recent branch dealing with energy conservation
and energy flow in the organisms within the ecosystem.
(ix) Gene ecology: It is the genetic make up of species or populations in relation
to the environment. It gives a valuable and reliable data on the origin and
inheritance of adaptations in plants and animals.
(x) System ecology: It is the research of the community dynamics abstracted to
a mathematical level, where one summarizes the complex formulations and
simulates and model the required dynamic systems under examination.
5.1.4 Functional Concepts of Ecology
Alongwith the various definitions and the classifications it is beneficial to know the
functional concepts of ecology that are as follows:
(i) Ecosystem: The basic structural and functional units of nature are ecosystems.
An ecosystem is a biotic assemblage of plants, animals, and microbes, taken
together with their physico-chemical environment.
(ii) Ecological niche: Every biological community consists of a number of orgaisms
or populations, which occupies a specific volume of the habitat circumscribed
by the interaction of various factors and tropic levels of the organisms. This
is called as the ecological niche.
(iii) Population interactions: The degree of success of a particular population in
a habitat is determined by the parameters of both biotic factors as well as
interaction with other types of populations. This interaction may be negative,
positive or neutral.
(iv) Flow of energy: The flow of energy in the ecosystem is unidirectional or noncyclic. Radiant energy (of solar radiation) is trapped by autotrophic plants or
primary producers that transfer it to the consumers and decomposers. Some
loss of energy takes place in transfer from one tropic level to the other, e.g.
in the respiration by the organisms etc.
(v) Biogeochemical cycling: The chemical components of the ecosystem move in
defined cycles, which are regulated by the biological cycles.
(vi) Limiting factors: Successful growth of the organisms is governed by limiting
factors. For this an organism requires various essential factors from its
environment. The levels of tolerance for all ecological factors of a species vary
seasonally, geographically and according to the age of the population.
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(vii) Climax: The populations undergo succession under natural conditions. Ecosystems undergo an orderly process of change with time, passing from a less
complex to a more complex state. This involves not only the changes in species
composition but also changes in the physical environment of a community.
The stabilized state is known as the climax.
5.2 BASICS OF SPECIES

As defined earlier species is a group of animals or plants subordinate in classification
to genus and having members that can interbreed and that differ only in minor details.
Each species has unique morphological, physiological and behavioral attributes. The
combination of these attributes is known as ecological niche. The ecological niche is
its role in an ecosystem that is what it does, what is done to it and where it is. Some
species are the energy source only to some selective species whereas there may be some
to serve so many other species. Some plant species are more efficient in capturing energy
at some particular altitude or at some depth in the aquatic ecosystem than the others.
So the working of species is time specific and place specific. Two ecosystems may look
alike due to the same species but as the working of the same species is different in
different situations so every species has a specific role (niche) in an ecosystem.
The important things in the complete ecological life history of a species are :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
Phylogenetic (history of evolution of animals or plants) and geological history.

Geographic and habitat distribution with an adjustment to the physical
environment and of biotic inter-relations within the community.
Variations in population through time and in space.
Changes in seasonal activities and physiological states like breeding, development, multiplication and migration.
Food, mate and shelter.
Parasites, diseases. ailments
Reproductive potential, mortality rate.
Requirements of reproduction like home, territory, segment, nesting material etc.
Breeding behaviour, mating etc.
5.3 ECOSYSTEM
The ecosystem comprises of the biotic community and the non-living environment. It
is the basic functional unit as it includes both the organism and its environment, each
influencing the properties of the other and both required for the survival and maintenance
of life. Some examples of natural ecosystems are lakes, ponds, oceans, grasslands,
forests, deserts, etc. No ecosystem can stand without its surroundings. A pond is
surrounded by some other ecosystem say field. Organic matter may be added to the
pond from the field. Human intervention is always there to disturb the identity of an
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123
ecosystem. Sewage is discharged in a pond lake or the river and ultimately the sea.
These complex feeding relationships often results in biological transfer of nutrients and
energy between the ecosystems. So it is not possible to study an ecosystem in isolation
and one has to take care of their continuousness. So if we consider all of them as
interconnected and interrelated, this gigantic network of ecosystems constitutes the
outer layer of the earth known as the ecosphere or biosphere. However, each ecosystem
is an open one and depends upon outside factors such as the radiant energy of sun
(with the exception of some, like the cave ecosystem). So it can be concluded that the
ecosystems are self sustainable, self regulatory from inside but affected and interrelated
with outside environment also. This is like a village that may be self sufficient but
dependent upon the state for communication, safety and other such requirements.
Every ecosystem has the following components:
(i) Abiotic environment: The non-living environment such as the air water soil
and the basic elements and compounds. These non-living substances enter the
body of living organisms, take part in metabolic activities and come out. This
portion of the ecosystem can be further divided in three parts:
(a) The climatic regime and physical factors like temperature humidity etc.
(b)
Inorganic substances such as water, carbon, nitrogen etc.
(c)
Organic substances like fat, proteins, carbohydrates etc. which are the part
of living bodies and are the links between the biotic and abiotic components.
The climate and soil largely determine the diversity of organisms present in
terrestrial ecosystems. Temperature, salinity, dissolved gases, chemical substances, nutrients etc. determine the species diversity in aquatic ecosystem.
Climatic conditions and other factors vary substantially from the arctic region
to the tropics, and thus highly affect the distribution of organisms.
(ii) Producers: The energy transducers which convert solar energy into chemical
energy with the help of water and carbondioxide and organic substances such
as enzymes are called as producers. These producers are autotrophic means selfnourishing. Producers are mainly green plants like trees, grass, crops and small
phytoplanktons. They have a green pigment called chlorophyll that transducts
(converts) solar energy. These autotrophs are called photoautotrophs because
they utilize light energy. The chemoautotrophs use the energy generated in an
oxidation-reduction process but are less important. Micro-organisms like
Baggiatoa and the sulfur bacteria are examples of chemoaitotrophs.
(iii) Consumers: These are the heterotrophic (hetro = others, trophic = nourishing)
organisms mainly the animals including the human beings. Consumers are
called as herbivores if they are plant eaters and carnivores if they are flesh
eaters like lion tigers etc. Herbivores may be insects, zooplankton, or animals
like deer, cattle etc. Carnivores prey on herbivores and other carnivores.
Human beings are both herbivores and carnivores.
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(iv) Decomposers: These are also heteriotrophic organisms but depend upon
dead animals (organic matter) for their food. They are mainly microorganisms like bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. They break down complex
organic matter like cellulose, proteins etc. found in the plant and animal
body into simple substances used by the producers. There are some
invertebrate animals like protozoa, oligochaetes like earthworms etc. that
use the organic matter for their food. They have the requisite enzymes and
hence can be classified as the decomposers. Sometimes they are termed as
the secondary decomposers.
Like this the ecosystem has mainly two biotic components-autotrophic and
heterotrophic. Heteriotrophs can be herbivores, phagotrophs (animal ingesting) or
saprotrophs (sapro = to decompose). This classification is based upon the trophic
function. Some organisms may have trophic characteristics that lie in between those
of phagotrophs and saprotrophs. Any self- sustaining unit of the nature can be recognized
as ecosystem if it has these four components, namely abiotic substances, producers,
consumers and decomposers. The agriculture system is a man made ecosystem and has
to prove itself close to nature in a long run of time. Many environmentalists criticize
it because of the deforestation it has caused.
5.3.1 Cyclic Operation of Ecosystems
Earth is a closed system as far as mass is concerned. Energy is open system, everyday
added up, depending upon the distance from equator. These are the main components
of the cyclic operations in an ecosystem:(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Geophysical
Hydrological
Chemical
Biological
Some of the important cycles are as follows:
5.3.1.1 Geophysical
The earths physical cycles are the geophysical cycles. The core of the earth is a molten
mass and the crust has land sea and ice. Movement, i.e. drifting of crust takes place.
Millions of years ago Himalaya was in Africa. 5 cm/year we are moving far away from
equator. Some say that landslides in Himalayas is due to deforestation but actually it
is a natural process. Volcanoes come out. Aggradations is building up of mountains,
degradation is leveling up. Fluvial geomorphology suggests that the tendency is to come
to a mean level. The various morphological agents are the tectonic movements,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, water, wind and temperature. The combined effect
is cyclic in nature.
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Sun is the main source of energy in the hydrological cycle. The rainfall takes place
in many forms like orographic, cyclonic (coastal areas) and convective (only in hours)
depending upon many climatic factors. The rainfall infiltrates the earth and percolates
to meet the groundwater. A large portion of it flows on the earth known as the surface
run-off and appears as the rivers. Some of the water flows below the ground surface
and depending upon the levels sometimes comes out as the falls etc. The streams and
rivers meet the sea that is a large storage of water though saline. The water evaporates
from every surface wherever it is exposed to sun rays or the heat produced by it. The
subsoil water is pumped through the roots of the trees and then by the transpiration
from its leaves etc. to the atmosphere. The clouds so formed travel due to the difference
in air pressure levels throughout the earth for the whole year. Depending upon the
various climatic factors the precipitation (rainfall) again occurs for the new cycle. Trees
play a very important role so let us have some more emphasis on the trees.
Importance of Trees
Trees are useful in the following ways:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
They consume the carbondioxide in the presence of sunlight and make

oxygen. Oxygen is already abundant in the atmosphere but this reduction
of CO2 is much more important as the CO2 is the main culprit of Global
warming. The global warming is harmful in so many ways like increasing
the sea level by melting of polar ice resulting in the drowning of many
cities. It is leading to uncomfortable temperatures and increase of vector
borne diseases.
They produce many useful products like fruits, wood, timber, fiber, gum,
herbs, and other eatables.
They absorb the subsoil moisture that is of no use and pump it to the atmosphere
by transpiration. This increases the relative humidity (R.H.). Relative humidity
is the ratio of available moisture present at any temperature to the maximum
moisture the air can contain (hold) at that temperature. For example if air
can contain 3 grams of water at 20C at saturation and if there is 1.5 gm of
moisture present in some air sample at 20C it shall be termed as 50% R.H.
Means the desire of moisture is 50% satisfied only. Now when the clouds come
and the air in that area has only 50% R.H. most of the water present in the
clouds may be exhausted to bring the R.H. to 100% so that precipitation may
start. In some cases there may be no rainfall in such case. Had the R.H of
that air been 90% (say improved by the trees) there would have been rainfall.
Like this the trees are helpful in rainfall.
Roots of the trees hold the soil firmly. In desert areas where high velocity wind
blows the trees stop the movement of soil by holding it firmly and by decreasing
the velocity of winds. Thus the trees stop desertification.
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127
(v)
At the time of rainfall the canopy of the trees hold the drops of the rainfall
and reduce their momentum and thus reduce the erosion of soil. They also
delay the rain from reaching to the earth and thus reduce the flood intensity.
At the time of flood they reduce the velocity of storm water and thus the soil
erosion and other destructions.
They absorb the air polluting gases like SOx and NOx and the S.P.M. The
leaves of the trees get damaged by these air pollutants but they clean the air
and thus help us.
They consume the sound waves and thus reduce the noise pollution. Noise pollution
has become a menace these days and trees provide a simple solution to it.
The increased moisture due to transpiration reduces the temperature substantially and thus gives relief to us in hot and dry climatic conditions. The cover
of trees on the west side of a house restricts the direct sunlight to the walls
and thus reduces the heat transfer to the inside of house and thus reduces
the air conditioning load.
The trees provide a smoothening effect to our eyes. It reduces the atmospheric
glare and gives us a feeling of protection and comfort. The green canopy of
the trees assure us about the food, shelter and prosperity.
Trees provide shelter to every type of animal and birds particularly. The birds
and other animals are the parts of different chains and the trees are the natural
habitat for them.
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
Although some scientists sometimes say that Planting trees wont check warming
Times of India news on April 13, 2007. As per the news item it was revealed in a research
paper published in the proceedings of the National Academy of Science that adding new
forest areas in regions like India may not do much to reduce global warming. They say
that ecology is about a fine balance and it could harm to force it in one or the other
direction-to cut too much or grow too much forest. As per the news the research paper
suggests that afforestation may be good idea where man has earlier caused deforestation
but one should not try to put forests where it is not naturally supposed to be, say in
grassland or a high altitude pastureland. Actually, in India 33% land was under forest
at the time of independence that has reduced to about 11% only. So we are ought to
recuperate this loss in any case. Secondly, it is not only the global warming trees has
numerous benefits as listed above. So one must plant, grow and take care of trees.
Before proceeding to the other cycles let us have a look on basic building blocks in tissue
building. To build, hydrogen (H), carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O) are required. To
sustain it the macronutrients like Na, Mg, P, S, Cl, K, and Ca are required. Various micronutrients
are also there as F, Fe, Se, Si, Co, Mo, Cu, Su, Cr, Zn, I and Mn. These micronutrients are
essential but marginal overdose will be toxic. The cyclic exchange of nutrient material between
the living organisms and their non-living environment is known as biogeochemical cycle. The
nutrients circulate through life (bio), through earth (geo) and repeatedly means cyclic.
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131
In an ecosystem most of the material is transferred from the producers (plants)to

the recyclers (bacteria), and only a small fraction is passed through the consumers to
the recyclers. The decomposers return most of the material to the producers for reuse.
In the manmade ecosystems (like agriculture) the flow from the producers to the
recyclers is small since it is not worthy to produce materials (products) and immediately
recycle them without consumption. So in the anthroposystem much of the material is
transferred to the rest of the material environment, to the producer and to the consumer.
Hence, it is mostly an open system with a very less recycling of the mobilized matter.
The second difference is the close physical proximity between the producer and the
consumers. This requires a very small amount of energy for the physical transport of
matter between the plant and its symbiotic bacterial population.
In the anthroposystem, there is a significant displacement between the producer
and the consumer. The flow of oil on the earth is a good example. A significant amount
of energy is required to transfer the matter to the consumer. This physical separation
of the three components of an ecosystem is the major difference between the ecosystem
and the anthroposysem.
5.3.3 Biome and Ecosystem
As stated earlier a biome is a large area with similar flora, (plants) fauna (animals) and
micro-organisms. Following are some of the major biomes of the earth:
Mountains
Tundra
Marine/Island
Desert
Temperate Forest
Tropical Dry Forest
Tropical Rainforest
Cold Climate Forest
Grassland
Savannah
The ecosystems are smaller than the biomes as a biome can be considered as a group
of many similar ecosystems. However the ecosystem may be as large as the Sahara
desert and as small as a puddle (small dirty pool of rain water).
The existence of an ecosystem depends upon the balance between the available food,
water and shelter and the demand of the organisms. Food and territory are often balanced
by natural balancing phenomena such as fire, disease, epidemic, disasters and the number
of predators. In maintaining this balance every organism has its role to play and as such
even if a single species is extinct the whole chain gets disturbed. That is why we have
tiger and other sanctuaries to save the endangered species. But we have disrupted the
natural cycles and food chain in want of the urbanization and industrialization that most
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in our teeth, bones etc; the nitrogen in our amino acids that is a building block of protein;
and the iron in our blood. The autotrophs obtain these inorganic nutrients from the pool
that is usually soil or water surrounding the plants. These inorganic nutrients travel from
one organism to the other as one is consumed (eaten) by the other. Ultimately all organisms
die and become food for the decomposers. At this final stage the energy is extracted, and
lost as heat and the inorganic nutrients are returned to the soil or water to be reused again.
So it means that the inorganic nutrient are recycled but the energy is non-recyclable.
5.4.1 Solar Energy
The sun is actually a thermonuclear reactor in which hydrogen is transmuted to helium
with a simultaneous release of radiant energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
This radiation contains high frequency, short-waves X-rays and gamma rays to lowfrequency, long-wave radio waves.
Solar energy is replenished daily at different rates in space and time. It depends
upon latitude and day of the year. Light is an electromagnetic radiation. Energy is
classified in terms of wavelength, it may be in microns or in meters.
Speed of wave = Speed of light
= 300 thousand Km/sec
(1,86,000 miles/sec)
The following sketch shows the part distribution of solar radiation
V isib le
U ltravio le t
In fra red
Wavelength
The following table shows the wavelengths of different of Radiations

Table 5.1 Wave lengths of different Radiations.
Type of radiation
Radio
Microwave Radar
Infrared
Visible
Ultraviolet
X-rays
Wavelength
1- 10 m
1- 30 cm
0.71- 100 micron
0.41- 0.71 micron
0.1- 0.4 micron
105 102 micron
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The following table shows the absorption of solar radiation by different molecules
at different levels
Table 5.2 Absorption of Solar Radiation
Micron ( )
Absorbed by
At height
O2 and N2
100 Km
0.120.18
O2
50 Km
0.180.30
O3
2550 Km
0.30.34
Partly by O3
2550 Km
0.340.4
Transferred to earth
< 0.12
Energy percentage at outer atmosphere

Visible spectrum
41%
Infrared
50%
Ultraviolet
9%
Visible = Transferred to earth

Infrared = Absorbed by clouds etc.
Approximately 99% of the total energy is in region of wavelengths from 0.136 to 4
microns ranging from ultraviolet to near infrared. It is interesting to note that about half
of this energy is in range of visible spectrum i.e. 0.38 to 0.77 microns. As the earth is
a tiny planet far away from the sun it receives only about one fifty-millionth of the suns
radiant energy at its outer atmosphere. This is known as the extra-terrestrial radiation
and amounts to about 1360 W/m2 instantaneously. Half of this is depleted because of
the absorption and reflection etc. as it passes through the troposphere. As the earth is
inclined to its orbital plane and the revolution of the earth around the sun, the instantaneous
solar radiation (flux) varies seasonally with latitude. As the earth rotates this flux at a
given place changes with time, day and night (diurnally) also. The absorption/reflection
of the solar energy depends upon the density of cloud cover. The pollutants like S.P.M.
and smoke etc. also decrease the flow of light to earth. The radiant energy absorbed in
the troposphere is radiated in all directions in the far infrared portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Its some portion strikes earth and gets reradiated. The direct solar radiation
and the infrared radiation heat the air near the earth and soil and water on it. The visible
portion of this radiation activates the photosynthesis. The measurement of the amount
and rate of energy fixation is based on the photosynthetic equation
6CO2 + 12H 2 O
673 Kilocalories
C6 H12 O6 + 6O 2 + 6H2 O
Chlorophyll
Knowing the amount of one component the amount of the other can be calculated.
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5.5.1 Sea as an Ecosystem

About 70% of the earth is covered by the major oceans namely Atlantic, Pacific, Indian,
Arctic and Antarctic. Waves, tides currents, temperatures and pressures etc. determine
the biological community in each ocean. These factors decide about the bottom sediments
and the gases in solution. The food chain of the sea comprises of small autotrophs to
large creature like whale. The seas are the largest and thickest of ecosystems since every
square meter of sea has so many type of life forms and even the deep sea contains life.
The main important characteristics of marine environment is the salinity. The salt
concentration of a sea is usually 3.5%, mainly the sodium chloride. This concentration
varies with depth and latitudes. It is lesser near the poles and the estuaries. Phytoplanktons
like the diatoms, dino flagellates and algae are the primary producers. Some macroscopic
seaweeds such as brown and red algae also contribute in the production of food.
Herbivores like crustaceans, mollusks fishes and other aquatic animals are the primary
consumers. Various species of fish such as Herring etc. are the carnivores. Fishes like
cod, shark and whale survive on the smaller carnivores. Bacteria and some fungi are
the usual decomposers.
5.5.2 Estuaries
The portion between the seas and continents is known as the estuary. So the estuary
is an area at the mouth of a river where it meets the sea. They have a diverse ecosystem
of their own which is different than the both. Salinity and temperature are the most
important physical features. As it has an advantage of both conditions so it has such
species that are neither there in the sea nor in fresh water. The estuaries are rich in
nutrients and generally have three major type of life forms. First is phytoplankton,
second is benthic microflora like algae and third is the macroflora like the seaweeds,
emergent marsh grasses etc. Generally it is the estuary that has to bear with the
manmade pollution.
5.5.3 Streams and Rivers
They are the flowing fresh water bodies. Though a very small amount of the total water
(0.0001%) flows in the rivers, they are the lifelines for the human civilization. All the
early civilizations started on the banks of rivers. Although the total area of the rivers
is much smaller than the seas, they are the most useful ecosystems for the human beings.
The rivers are used for water supply, waste disposal, fish production, navigation,
electricity production etc. However they have to borrow organic matter from adjacent
terrestrial ecosystems, or sometimes from adjacent lakes. The sewage and solid waste
discharged into the rivers has polluted almost all the rivers of the world.
The river water differs in quality and quantity depending upon its origin and the
area through which it passes. The plankton population is scarce in the river water
originating from the glaciers with rapid currents of cold water. In its middle reaches
the water absorbs more and more heat from sunlight and due to photosynthesis the
biological activities become dominant. The sediment transportation and deposition
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takes place. In the lower reaches in plains the velocity further reduces and both
phytoplankton and zooplankton flourish. Various species of reptiles, mammals and
birds are fed upon the rivers.
5.5.4 Lakes and Ponds
These are the stagnant bodies of fresh water (sweet, surface water). The lakes and ponds
are comparatively younger in age. The abiotic factors of a pond or lake depends upon
location and the surrounding ecosystem. In some rare cases the lakes may have saline
water as the Sambhar lake of Rajasthan that is used for manufacturing of common
salt. Generally, the species diversity is low in fresh water system. Distinct stratification
and zoning are characteristic features of lakes. Typically a littoral zone containing
rooted vegetation, a limnetic zone of open water dominated by plankton, and a deep
water profundal zone containing heterotrophs. Also the lakes become thermally stratified
in winters and summers.
5.5.5 The terrestrial Formations
Big terrestrial community units are known as biomes. In a given biome the life form
is uniform, thus the dominant climax vegetation in the grassland biome is grass.
Depending upon the mean annual temperature range the terrestrial ecosystems has
been classified as
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(iv)
(vi)
Arctic and Alpine Tundra

Coniferous Forest
Deciduous Forest
Tropical Forest
Grassland
Desert
There are some other biomes like chaparral, tropical savanna, thorn shrub and
tropical monsoon forest.
5.5.6 Deserts
These are the biomes with less than 250 mm of annual rainfall. Deserts have about
17% of the total land area on the earth. Lack of rain in the mid latitudes is due
to stable high pressure zone. Generally, the deserts lie in rain shadows i.e. where
high mountains block off moisture from the seas. The rain fall in deserts is low and
the evaporation rate is high. Even the small rainfall is also useless as the water
quickly penetrates the soil and goes deep inside it. Some of the main deserts of the
earth are in south western united states, Mexico, coastal areas of Chile, central
western Australia, Asia (Thar, Gobi etc.) The desert may be a cool one like that in
Washington and a hot one like that in Arizona. Generally, there are four distinctive
life forms in the deserts:
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(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
The annuals like cheat grass that avoids drought by growing only when there
is sufficient moisture.
The desert shrub with numerous branches and small thick leaves. Sometimes
with deep roots to absorb moisture and store it before wilting.
The succulents, such as cacti that store water in their tissues.
Microflora such as mosses, lichens and blue green algae that remain action
less in the soil in want of favourable conditions.
The productivity of a desert is a linear function of rainfall. It may be as less as 600

Kg dry matter per hectare to 2000 kg per hectare depending upon the rainfall. Irrigation
can increase the production manifolds as the soil is generally fertile. But how long it
can sustain it depends upon many factors and the human wisdom. The major irrigation
projects like Indira Gandhi Main Canal (600 Km long ) has converted the Thar desert
of western Rajasthan into a good productive area in its command.
5.5.7 Tundras
Tundras are barren grounds with very less biological productivity because of the cold
conditions. Rainfall is also low but not limiting factor for the less production as the
evaporation is also low because of the low temperature. The number of species are
surprisingly higher as they have evolved remarkable adaptations to survive the cold.
They lie near the Arctic Ocean and the polar icecaps. Wherever there is enough
combined aquatic and terrestrial net production to support thousands of breeding
migratory birds and insects during the summer it also supports the permanent resident
mammals. The mammals are musk ox, reindeer, polar bears, and marine mammals.
Generally, the large land herbivores are migratory as there is not enough production.
5.5.8 Grasslands
This is a type of terrestrial ecosystem. The major grasslands include the Prairies of Canada
and the USA, the Pampas of south America, the Steppes of Europe and Asia and the
Veldts of Africa. For rainfalls in between the desert and forest i.e. 250 mm to 750 mm
the natural grassland occurs. Tropical grassland may have 1500 mm rainfall in a wet
season followed by a long dry spell. In the grassland the dominant plant life are the grasses
that range from tall species (1.5 m to 2.4 m) to short ones like 20 cm only. Large herbivores
are common features of the grassland. The main animal species are wild horses, asses,
and antelope of Eurasia: herds of bison of America: and the antelope of Africa. The other
animal species are larks, the burrowing owl, jackrabbit, badgers, etc.
The abiotic components of this ecosystem are the essential organic nutrients like C,
H, N, O and S present in the soil in different forms. The biotic components are (i)
producers like the different grasses such as Sp. Brachiaria, Sp. cyndon, etc. (ii) consumers
like herbivores and insects termites etc. and the secondary consumers like frogs, snakes,
lizards, etc. and the tertiary consumers like hawks etc. (iii) decomposers like fungi,
bacteria and actinomycetes.
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139
The role of fire is typical in the grasslands. Man misuses the grassland by overgrazing
and over ploughing and thus has converted them into deserts. Here is the concern of
the environment engineer in the study of all these ecosystems that what we are doing
and for what.
5.5.9 Forest
The forests are complete ecosystems as are the seas. A well ordered and often lengthy
ecological succession is the characteristic with herbaceous plants often preceding trees.
So there is a mixture of vegetation including non forest stages in succession as well as
forest variants adapted to special soil and moisture conditions. As moisture is more
critical to the trees than to the grass, forests occupy a fairly wide gradient from dry
to extremely wet situations. There is high species diversity in the tropical rainforest.
There are three major types of forests in a north-south gradient. The northernmost
forests are characterized by evergreen conifers like Spruce and Fir. The deciduous
forests are there in the more southern moist temperate regions. Pines are found in both
the forests. The third type is the tropical forest. It ranges from broad leaved evergreen
rainforests with good rainfall to tropical deciduous forests that lose their leaves during
dry season. The vine (lianas) and the epiphyte (air plants) are special characteristics
of tropical forests. Some of the major type of forests are as follows:
(i) Taiga forests: The taiga or boreal forests include the northern coniferous
forests the cold climates with high altitude at high latitudes. They extend at
an east-west band across north America, Europe and Asia, just the 60 north
latitude. The rainfall is 100 mm to 350 mm and the average temperature varies
from 6o C to 20o C throughout the year. Taiga forests have dense vegetation
and very close trees like pines, spruces, firs, larches, cedars etc. that obstruct
the sunlight. The main animals of this biome are large mammals like deer,
wolves, beer etc. and small rodents like rabbits and some migratory birds and
carnivores land birds like owls and eagles. Though there are many disturbances like fire, storms etc., these forests are rich in lakes, animals, trees etc.
(ii) Temperate forests: They are found in slightly warmer climates. They occur
in the regions of north-central Europe, eastern Asia and eastern United States.
The annual rainfall is between 750 mm to1500 mm. The main vegetation is
tall deciduous trees like maples, hickories, oaks, beeches, chestnuts etc. These
forests are important as the wood produced in them is hardwood suitable as
timber for civil works. The animals found are dears, beers, squirrels, snakes,
rabbits etc. with plenty of birds and insects.
(iii) Tropical rainforest: This ecosystem is located in the equatorial regions where
the average annual temperature is more than 18 C and annual rainfall
exceeds 1400 mm. They occur in south and central America, north eastern
Australia, Congo river basin of Africa, Philippines, Hawaii and some parts
of Malaysia. They cover about 8% of the earths surface and more than 50%
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of earths flora and fauna. Biodiversity is high. As the climate is warm and
humid broad leaved evergreen plants are there. The main animals are monkeys, tropical birds, bats, and so many carnivore animals.
(iv) Temperate shrub forest: These Mediterranean shrub forest are with drier
climates and lower (winter) rainfall followed by drought for rest of the year.
The most important biome of this category is chaparral. It is a miniature
woodland dominated by dense stands of shrubs that seldom exceed a few
meter of height. Chaparrals occur along the Mediterranean coast of California, Chile, South Africa and South Australia. They are known by broadleaved evergreen vegetation. The vegetation is very much fire prone. Reptiles
and small mammals are generally found there.
(v) Tropical s avannah
avannah: These tropical seasonal forests occur where rainfall is high
(1000 mm to 1500 mm) but seasonal. They are warm climate plains with coarse
grass and scattered trees. They are located in South and Central America,
Africa, Australia, south-east Asia and India. There is not much diversity. This
ecosystem has giraffe, elephants, antelopes and kangaroos (Australia).
Man has changed most of the temperate forests and grasslands from their primeval
condition though he could not change the basic nature of these ecosystems. Actually,
we want to combine the grasslands and the forest to make our habitat. We cut the
forest to make the land cultivable to get more and more production and we grow
trees by the sides of our residences, offices etc. as we know the importance of trees
(discussed on page 126. Still it is a matter of research that which option is better. It
is true that only the forest cannot cater our needs without agriculture because of this
much population. It is also true that we cannot live without trees as they are very
much useful to us.
5.6 BIODIVERSITY
It is the species diversity. If one species is removed from an ecosystem other that is dependent
on it will also go off. In an ecosystem nature has provided so many verities of plants, animals
and micro-organisms, that live in harmony and dependence to each other. If some of them
are extinct the whole system gets disturbed. The system tries to adjust itself and succeeds
many times but, may fail also. For example the vulture play an important role of scavengers.
Due to the problem caused by them in aviation they have been harmed, destroyed and
the accumulation of pesticides etc. in their food chain has nearly extinct them. Now the
natural removal of dead animals in a short time is harshly affected. The environmentalists
are worried about this and we are trying our best to save them.
One experiment was done in which a marine tidal habitat was there having 15
species. One out of them was removed and within 2 years it became 8 species ecosystem.
Actually, in nature, prey-predator relationship should be maintained. Nature has
planned everything in a systematic and cyclic manner. As shown earlier there is a chain
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and every animal is food for the other. Once, in U. S. A. wolf hunting became a fashion.
Thousands of wolf were killed in want of their skin, tail etc. This increased the
population of dear and goats. As they moved around, the soil near the rivers was eroded
and filled in the rivers and its flood level increased very much. If we extinct the tiger
the same thing happens. Means a diverse community is required to sustain. If there
are 5 earning members in a joint family and all of them are say doctors. There is one
more family in which one is doctor, one is engineer, one is a lawyer, one is a businessmen
and one is in police department. If the first family needs some medical help it is well
and good. But in case of any other emergency or help it is useless because everybody
is a doctor only. Whereas the second family shall stand even in case of any type of
emergency and even otherwise shall make more progress. So a diversified community
is more strong and sustainable.
5.6.1 Basic Laws of Biodiversity
(i) Greater is the stability of resources greater is the diversity: The ecosystem
having all required components for the production, sustaining and progress
of the species has more potential of supporting so many varieties (diversity).
(ii) Diversity increases as a function of climax: Whenever there is a climax, some
other species come forward to face that climax and remains there even after
the elapse of that problem, thus increases the diversity. For example if there is
fixed temperature, dissolved oxygen and other conditions in a fishery, only one
set of fish shall flourish. If the conditions are changed most of them will die
except a few that can resist the changed conditions. These second type shall
flourish until the conditions are normalized and at the original favourable
conditions again the first type shall flourish (with the remaining of second type).
So the climax increases the diversity.
(iii) The biomass production is proportional to the diversity: The production of
biomass depends upon the availability of resources like food water and
shelter (mate). Sometimes because of changed conditions or some disease the
production may come down at a very low level. In Silent Valley (Kerala)
the normal yield is 10 kg/hectare /year. In controlled conditions it increases
to 1500 kg/hectare/year. So it is very active biomass production. With the
controlled temperature up to 0.5C and with virus and bacteria free water,
with assisted breeding the production of Kings Crump fish is up to 20000
kg/hectare/year. But if there is any problem of microbes, temperature or
salinity the growth reduces to < 1500 kg/hectare/year or even zero. If there
is diversity, means many varieties out of which some is sustainable in those
adverse conditions then that will come forward and grow to compensate
the loss. Once in Indonesia the whole rice crop was lost due to some disease.
A rice quality in Silent Valley (Kerala) was found which could survive in
Indonesia against that microbe.
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(iv) Greater is the diversity greater is the stability: A system having a large
number of species is more stable. Think of a word without scavangers. In
maintaining the ecosystem with respect to temperature, moisture, salt balance
(nutrients) diversity is necessary. As explained above only the diversified
community can survive against the adverse conditions, so they are stable.
(v) Diversified communities exploit less diversified ones: In an ecosystem,
evolution i.e. natural change continues. Mutation, i.e. cross breeding, natural
or forced is also there. The community that is not able to adapt is automatically
ruled out. In evolution survival of the fittest in species takes place. Packing
Order i.e. ruling order is high; it is fought out by a male. His rule runs, he gets
the best of things till a challenger comes and he is dethroned. Lions are individualists whereas elephants live in groups. For both, fights are there for
territorial rights or mate. Less strong does not reproduce. Only who can stand
the challenge can survive. This is the basic theory of evolution. So a community
that is strong because of its diversity rules over the other which is not diversified.
5.7 POPULATION ANALYSIS

The number of persons living in an isolated community is known as population. There
are dynamic situations changing the population. Growth of the species takes place
depending upon the facility. Human beings make the nature to favour them, i.e. to
facilitate them and in this process they exploit the nature at a very high cost. To realize
this let us understand the various factors of population characteristics, population
regulations and population dynamics.
5.7.1 Population Characteristics
To assess the population characteristics the following resource constraints or factors
are considered.
(1)
Input
(a) Individuals coming say by birth
(b)
(2)
Immigration
Output
(a) Death
(b)
Emigration
The factors involved in the evaluation of birth rate are dependent on:
Male female ratio. In Rajasthan say it is 1000 : 830 and in Kerala it is 1000: 1080.
The Indian data was 1000 : 932 in 2002 but has further deteriorated in 2006.
The life expectancy in India is say 62 years for male and 66 years for female,
whereas in Japan the life expectancy for female is more than 84 years.
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143
The 40% of Indian population in 1991 was of 15 years. This has led to the
population explosion.
This is true not only for human beings. For every type of species or community
habitat is the main factor. The other factors are chance of meeting a mate and the living
pattern (group or individual). However, the nature has provided a self regulatory
system in animals. For example the ovulation rate of cows decrease in the drought year.
Means to cope up the deficiency in the production of grass the cows produce lesser
calves. The lions and tigers reproduction rate is reduced if their territory is reduced due
to human intervention in the forests.
5.7.2 Regulation of Population
In an ecosystem chances of getting mate (individual or group living) decide the
population growth. Number of productive females also matter. Prey and predator
relationship is also there. As stated earlier auto-regulation is there. Sometimes the
species spread out to avoid competition. Sometimes in a longer period of time some
characteristics of animals change as that of Giraffe. The following are some of the
ways of population regulation:
(i) Succession: It is the order of development of species or community. In this,
one species become dominant over all others in the community, by elimination.
Coconut is predominant in tropical area. In Rajasthan cactus is predominant
and so on. By elimination one dominant species remain. If it improves the
environment it will flourish. If it worsens it will die out.
(ii) Climax: It is the state of equilibrium reached by a plant community. Climax
community is a mature community. Initially there is a large number of species.
Then some dominant species remain and then by elimination only the climax
community remains. By any calamity like landslide, Bhopal gas episode, etc.
the community can die out. After some time, again some other will come out.
5.7.3 Population Dynamics
As the birth rates, death rates and growth rates can be expressed by precise differential
equations, we can develop mathematical models for assessing the population dynamics.
Actually, for most of the time in human history the population growth rate was about
0.1% per year, so the population was getting doubled in say 700 years. In the last
century it increased to about 2% with a doubling period of about 35 years. This is an
alarming state and as such to predict its effect on the environment we shall see some
of the mathematical models like Malthusian Model.
Malthusian Model
If No is the number of any species at a given time and N is after time t
dN/dt is proportional to N i.e. the rate of change is proportional to the population
at any time.
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dN/dt = r N
= f (N) . N
dN/dt = rm ( K-N)/K x N
(with constraint)
dN/N = rm (K-N)/K dt
Which after integration gives
Nt = K/(1 + Ce rm t )
Nt = Population after time t
Where
Where
C = (K-No)/No
No = Initial population
Like this the population growth is limited by itself. However, the human population
is increasing in such a way, as if there is no limitation of resources. This is on the cost
of environmental pollution and the overexploitation of resources. We know it by ages
that the earth is a planet with a self evolving and self regulating system. Whenever
there is an enormous load on earths life supporting system some self regulating event
(like pralaya) shall come to dismantle everything and a new creation will start. Let us
try to maintain the ecological balance by living in harmony with nature and enjoying
its fruits without exploiting it.
5.8 CONCLUSION
Nature has given us a very good planet for living but we are working against nature.
Initially human beings were in a same position as a creature as the others. Then slowly
by using their brain they mastered upon the others and the nature itself. This process
kept on going on and reached to a level where the human beings consider the whole
planet for their comfortable living only. The quest of this so called comfort level has
increased to such a level that we are deteriorating, obstructing or completely destroying
the natural cycles. The nature works in a cyclic manner and every organism has a role
to play. We are breaking such links knowingly or unknowingly. Sometimes the nature
adjusts itself and by its alternative routes it keeps on working. Now the time has come
that the pollution, overexploitation and the evolution of hazardous things (nuclear
weapons etc.) has reached to such an extent that the nature has revolted. It shows all
its agony by global warming, tsunami, earthquakes etc. and forced us to rethink. Here
lies our concern and study of ecology.
It is in our own benefit to know the different cycles so that we can avoid hindrance
to them. The importance of biodiversity is known to everybody. How can it be
maintained and why one should work for maintaining it? What are the natural
systems of development in earth (ecosystems)? So all this study of ecology is to
conserve and protect our planet earth so that the forthcoming generations are not
deprived of its blessings.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
Describe the term ecology.

What is the ecological classification of environment?
What are the objectives of ecological studies?
Define the terms; species, community, niche, habitat and population.
What is an ecosystem?
What do you mean by organism, succession and biome?
How do you classify the various aspects of ecology?
What is the classification of ecology on the basis of habitat?
What are the modern sub-divisions of ecology?
What are the functional concepts of ecology?
Explain the basics of species.
Describe the term ecosystem in detail with its components.
Describe the cyclic operations of ecosystem.
Describe the geological cycle.
Describe the hydrological cycle.
Describe the importance of trees in detail.
Describe the term nutrients and micronutrients.
Describe the carbon cycle with sketch.
Describe the nitrogen cycle with sketch.
Describe the sulphur cycle with sketch.
Describe the phosphorus cycle with sketch.
What is the inter-relation of ecosystems and human beings?
Describe the various biomes and ecosystems.
Discuss the energy flow in ecosystem.
Describe the role of solar energy in ecology.
Describe the sea as an ecosystem.
Describe the estuary as an ecosystem.
Describe the stream and river as an ecosystem.
Describe the lakes & ponds as an ecosystem.
Describe the terrestrial formation as an ecosystem.
Describe the desert as an ecosystem.
Describe the Tundras as ecosystem.
Describe the grasslands as ecosystem.
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34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
Describe the forest as an ecosystem.

What is biodiversity?
What are the basic laws of biodiversity?
Describe the population characteristics analysis in ecology.
How the population is regulated?
Describe the population dynamics.
What is Malthusian logical modeling?
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6
RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Society in general has become aware about the conservation of resources and protection
of environment. Though the awareness has come after a great loss to the environment
in the form of global warming, acid rain and ozone depletion etc. The environmental
degradation cannot be dealt within isolation. It has close relation with energy obviously
the clean energy, green energy. The energy resources that we are using conventionally
like coal and other fossil fuels, have come to the present state in millions of years. We
have used them for thousands of years and they are going to be depleted in hundreds
of years. So they are non-renewable, we call them renewable if they can be replenished
within the average lifecycle of human being. Renewable energy is the energy that will
never end (Akshaya urja shroat). It can be conveniently used to produce electricity and
heat we need in our homes, schools, offices, factories etc. In India and all over the world,
more and more people are using renewable energy, as it is a very good way of
safeguarding our environment. They are less harmful than other kinds of energy sources
such as coal, oil and gas (fossil fuels). Fossil fuels are limited in nature and they produce
harmful greenhouse gases resulting in global warming. They also produce oxides of
nitrogen and sulfur that cause acid rain and various diseases.
Actually, the environment i.e. the living conditions in which we live, play a very
important role in the efficient working. But in place of comfortable living the time has
come that the very existence of life on our planet is endangered because of the
environmental pollution. Exponentially increasing population, rapid growth of
industrialization and the global trend of urbanization have totally disturbed the Ecobalance. This type of development cannot be sustained for a long time and the policy
150
planners have to seriously think over it. The discussion in this paper is intended to
consider the scope of using renewable energy resources to meet the ever-increasing
demand of electricity.
Energy in the form of electricity is critical for economic growth, social development
and human welfare. In this materialistic world the status of a country is adjudged by
its per capita consumption of electricity. That way our per capita consumption of 350
kWh per annum may be ten times less in comparison to the United States and proves
us to be a poor and undeveloped country. This may not be true as the living habits
of our major countrymen i.e. the rural masses are totally different. They live closure
to nature and by their age-old practices they utilize the energy gifted by nature in a
more natural way. This was true when India lived in villages but now the pattern is
changing. 11% of our population living in cities in the year 1901 has become 26% in
1991. This urbanization has changed our living style and we are also in the race of
consuming more and more energy even at the cost of environmental degradation. India
with its present installed capacity of 1,30,000 MW is facing a 10% deficit per year, which
results in a loss of production of about 2% of the national income. All of us are aware
of the power cuts for most of the times in a year.
But the question is this that where this present system of energy conversion and
utilization will lead us? At present the electricity production in India is roughly 68%
by coal and other fossil fuels, 22% by hydropower, 4% by nuclear and only 6% by
renewable energy sources, though there is a large scope for it. The present installation
cost of electric plant based on fossil fuel is about Rs. 5 crore per MW and that by solar
photovoltaic may be Rs. 200 per watt i.e. 20 crores per MW. But this type of comparison
is unfortunate. All of us know that the fossil fuels are not everlasting. They are depleting
at a very fast rate, and the main thing is the pollution caused by them. The pollution
in terms of suspended particulate matter (S.P.M.) in the air of Kota was found to be
on average 1000 microgram per cubic meter. Water which is the second biggest need
of survival has become so much polluted that the government has to spend 10 times
of the money on its purification than the revenue realization. Still a large portion of
our rural masses is deprived of electricity and safe drinking water and the urban
population is facing the pollution problem.
Is this the sustainable development? Can it be sustained for all times to come? It
is neither sustainable nor holistic development. Sustainable development is a term that
emerged from the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janerio. Sustainable Development
enjoins upon the world community to manage development in such a way that
generations are not deprived of the benefits of the planets resources particularly its
life supporting systems, land, forests, air, water and the oceans. The concept is to meet
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their needs.
Sustainable development can only be achieved if a close link between environment
and over-arching agenda for poverty eradication and development is achieved at the
151
earliest. In this context one may be Eco-centric or techno-centric. A middle path,

obviously, is desired state as development at the cost of environment can only be at
the peril of mankind and such development cannot be sustained .
6.2 RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

The renewable sources of energy dealt here are solar energy, wind energy, energy from
water, energy from the oceans, energy from biomass and the geothermal energy.
6.2.1 Solar Energy
Sun is the prime source of energy. Sun daily spreads an enormous amount of energy;
out of which our mother earth receives a very small fraction. Even that small fraction
is so much that is sufficient to meet all our demands. The energy that is directly received
through the solar radiation can be classified as solar photovoltaic and solar thermal.
The word PV means voltage from light. The photovoltaic cells are used to turn
sunlight directly into electricity. PV cells generate power through the interaction of tiny
particles of light called photons with electrons in the cells. PV cells were originally
developed for use in space program, PV cells have powered nearly every man made
satellite sent into the orbit. These days many equipment are using solar energy in this
way and so many buildings are being equipped with arrays of PV cells for meeting
their electricity demand. In this way of solar energy conversion by photovoltaic means
the semiconductor silicon cells directly convert the suns light into electricity. But the
efficiency is very low and the cost is high because of the problem of very high requirements
of purity of material. The material should be almost cent per cent pure. For small
applications the cost may be as high as Rs. 3 lakh per kW. One solar photovoltaic pump
of 1 H.P. costing Rs. 2.5 lakh is successfully running at Engineering College Kota under
the Renewable Energy Park Project funded by M.N.E.S, installed by R.E.D.A. with
author as the principal investigator. Though costly but the PV method of solar energy
conversion is very much suitable for decentralized small uses like remote village
electrification etc. The PV cells are modular in nature, having long effective life, with
no moving parts and no pollution. But the problem of storage in lead acid batteries
is typical. However, on the basis of domestic R & D India has become the second largest
manufacturer in the world of solar photovoltaic panel based on crystalline silicon solar
cells. Advanced countries are working to install thin PV sheets having very large area
in the geo-synchronous orbit of the earth so that they can continuously generate
electricity and send it to the earth in the form of microwaves.
The other way of harnessing the solar energy is by solar thermal means. In this method
sunrays heat energy is used either for air, water heating or for the production of
electricity. In the later case some parabolic dish concentrates the rays or other deflectors
to some fluid like oil and this stored heat is converted to electricity by turbines. At the
solar energy center at Gualpahari near Gurgaon electricity is being produced by this
method. The Rajasthan State Power Corporation Limited is going to install a 140 MW
integrated combined cycle project having 35 MW solar component, at Mathania in
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Jodhpur district. It will be a solar chimney based power plant where heated fluid will
be air. In this method the sunrays are passed through some glass cover, which has the
property of allowing suns short wave radiation and entrapping the heat of long wave
radiation. Thus the temperature inside a collector can be increased to a very high level
that can be used for heating air or water for conversion into electricity or solar cooking,
solar drying, solar water heating or space heating for comfort in buildings.
A large portion of energy is used in the building industry, in manufacturing the
building materials and in space cooling and heating. Domestic and building sector
accounts for an average of 45% of the developing countries total energy consumption.
Just as in Europe, America and the rest of world where temperature remain below
freezing point in winter, scientific and technological advancements have made things
easier for people of Ladakh. Solar buildings are now being constructed in the region
to fight chill. Ladakh is cold and semi arid, where temperatures vary between 300C
and 60C in winter. Ladakh Environment and Health Organization (LEHO) have
introduced solar buildings in Ladakh. The passive solar heated building admits solar
radiation through glass and stores it in a dense material-thermal mass-,which can then
release the heat slowly. The temperature inside the building remains 15 to 25C depending
upon the glazing, insulation and availability of radiation. This reduces the heating
requirement of the building and thus saves electricity.
The following photographs show the photovoltaic cell modules and solar water heaters
6.2.2
153
Wind Energy
Since long time windmills are used to mill wheat and pump water. Modern windmills
are called wind turbines. They transform the energy in the wind into mechanical
power, which can then be used to produce electricity. Wind turbines can be used
singly or in clusters called wind farms and are usually about 60 m high. Small wind
turbines called wind chargers are used to charge batteries and can be used by
unelectrified homes, boats etc., to power television and other domestic appliances
and so on. For the economical harnessing of wind power a wind velocity of about
7 m/sec. is required which is the major limitation of this system. However, the
conversion of wind energy into electricity has increased to 6315 (1/1/07) MW which
is more than half of the total production by renewables. It is under sincere
considerations even in Rajasthan. 2 MW wind project started in Jaisalmer on 14th
August 1999. Rajasthan State Power Corporation Ltd. Plans to construct a new 1billion rupee 25 MW Wind farm in the district of Jaisalmer. The development is one
of the 28 planned state government wind projects expected to generate a total of
444.25 MW of electricity. As per the officials the state government is also considering
other sites at Devgarh, Harhnath, Jaisalmer, kohdal, Mohangarh and Phalodi for
the potential establishment of wind farms by private developments.
The following photograph shows the wind farm (a collection of aerogenerators for
the production of electricity).
154
6.2.3
155
Energy from Water
Hydropower generation is a conventional renewable energy resource utilization method

that is most environmental friendly but the problem of rehabilitation is typical. The
uncertainty of rainfall and regional problems of water use and distribution are never
ending. The ambitious river inter-linking project is yet to be tested. Mini and micro
power plants can help in solving the problem. Small hydro Power (up to 25 MW),
included in the category of renewables has a large share in the total achievement. The
following photograph shows a dam for a hydroelectricity power plant.
156
6.2.4
Energy from Oceans
Ocean is also a source of renewable energy. It can be harnessed in three ways. First
is the ocean thermal energy conversion method. The temperature difference of about
25 C between the upper layer of water and a layer 1000 m below can be used in a
heat engine to produce electric power. Tides can be used as a source of energy from
the oceans. Large structures like barrages can be built which allow tidal water to pass
through large turbines for producing power. The third way of harnessing energy is the
use of sea waves. In India it is generally felt that only tidal energy can be harnessed
in the foreseeable future.
6.2.5
Energy from Biomass
Trees and other vegetation convert the suns energy directly into the useful biomass.
The biomass can be converted into biogas or bio-liquid ( bio- diesel) and used as a source
of energy. Using the wood and other agriculture waste directly by burning is the most
inefficient way of energy conversion. By converting it into biogas at least 25% more
energy can be obtained alongwith the benefit of useful natural organic manure. Biomass
is derived from the carbonaceous waste of various natural and human activities. Is
obtained from numerous sources including the household waste. Biomass does not add
CO2 to the atmosphere because it absorbs the same amount of carbon in growing as
it releases when consumed as a fuel. Unlike other renewable energy systems that require
costly advanced technology, biomass can generate electricity with the same equipment/
power plant that are burning fossil fuels at present. In the biological conversion method
biomass is converted into biogas by anaerobic decomposition method. The raw material
may be cattle dung or the organic part of the municipal solid waste.
Sometimes the use of other biomass like Water Hyacinth (Jal Kumbhi) helps in the
reduction of flow hazards produced by it in the water bodies. In a study made in the
engineering college Kota in which water hyacinth was taken from the local reservoirs
and used as the biomass for biogas production, it was observed that it could be used
efficiently to produce biogas. So in the communities where cattle dung is scarce and
water hyacinth is available in plenty it serve both purposes of water hyacinth eradication
and biogas production.
Even human excreta can produce biogas. Aryan society for environmental research
and Development, Jaipur has installed a night soil based biogas plant at the police lines
Udaipur and at the bus stand in Nathdwara. In the thermochemical use of biomass the
various crop residue like rice husk can be burnt in boilers or pallets can be made and
electricity may be generated in the power plants. These methods not only help directly
in the electricity production but also help in reducing the waste management problem.
6.2.6
Geothermal Energy
The core of earth is very hot. It is possible to make use of this geothermal energy. In
some countries such as the U.S., hot water is pumped from underground water deposits
and used to heat the residences.
157
6.3 POTENTIAL OF RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES IN INDIA.

Indias so far assessed potential of wind power is 45000 MW, small hydro power 15000
MW, biomass power 21000 MW (including bagasse cogeneration) and energy recovery
from waste is 2700 MW (9) i.e. the total is 83700 MW. Out of this the achievement
upto 31.12.2006 is 9265.31 MW. The complete status is as shown in the table.
Table 6.1 Renewable Energy at a Glance in India
Source Renewable Energy, Akshaya Urja Volume 3 issue1 Jan-Feb 2007 Ministery
of New and Renewable Energy Government of India.
S. No.
Source/system
Estimated
potential
Achievement as on
31st Dec. 2006
Power from renewables
Grid interactive renewable power
MW
MW
Solar photovoltaic power
2.74
Wind power
45000
6270.2
Small hydro power (up to 25 MW)
15000
1860.79
Biomass power
16000
500.0
Bagasse cogeneration
5000
595.83
Biomass gasifier
1.0
Energy recovery from waste(MW)
2700
34.95
Sub total (A)
83700
9265.31
Distributed renewable power
MW
Biomass/cogeneration (non-bagasse)
30.3
Biomass gassifier
82.65
10
Energy recovery from waste
11.03
Sub total B
123.98
Total A + B
9389.29
II
Remote village electrification
2237 villages/594 hamlets
III
Decentralized energy systems
11
Family type biogas plants
120 lakh
12
Solar photovoltaic programme
20 MW/sq.Km
38.90 lakh
i Solar street lighting system
54659 nos.
ii. Home lighting systems
280813 nos.
iii. Solar lantern
403058 nos.
Contd....
158

iv. solar power plants
13
1859.8 kWp
Solar thermal programme

I Solar water heating systems
140 million sq
metre collector area
1.65 million sq metre

collector area
ii. Solar cookers
6 lakh
14
Wind pumps
1137 nos.
15
Aero generator/hybrid systems
494.68 kW
16
Solar photovoltaic pumps
7015 nos.
IV
Other programmes
17
Energy Parks
472 nos.
18
Akshya Urja shops
401 nos
19
District Advisory Committees
550 nos
6.4 CONCLUSION
There is an acute necessity of switching over to the renewable energy resources,
as they are ever lasting, environment friendly and thus sustainable. The present
conventional sources of energy are fastely depleting and are not eco-friendly. While
comparing the costs of electricity production by coal, oil etc. with the solar, wind
etc, the overall environmental cost and their decentralized nature, which stops the
migration of rural masses should be considered. The present higher rate of electricity
production is because of the developing stage of renewable energy sources. The
increasing R & D, and the utilization of RES on mass scale will certainly bring them
at par. Large potential of renewable energy resources is available. Capacity building
of individuals and organizations; proportionate investments in renewable energy
technologies, production facilities, market infrastructure and human resource
development are all required for a rapid growth of the global RE market. The lack
of awareness alongwith the lack of both senior and middle level local technical
manpower is proving to be the biggest barriers at present. Awareness, education
and training unlock human potential and can be powerful force to shape positive
social and economical development around the world. In the renewable energy field
all modes of education are therefore of prime importance, especially about the use
and potential of RE technologies, in all teaching institutes. Additionally industry
non-government and voluntary organizations and society at large need to get
involved in this initiative to make renewable energy education/ capacity building
a people oriented program.
159
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
What do you mean by renewable sources of energy?

What is the necessity of using renewable sources of energy?
What is the present installed capacity of electricity generation in India? What
is the share of all types of electricity generation methods?
Describe the sustainable development.
Discuss the uses of solar energy as a source of electricity and heating.
What are the solar photovoltaic cell? Describe the advantages and
disadvan.tages of their use.
Discuss the uses of wind energy as a source of electricity and heating.
Discuss the use of water for generation of electricity.
Describe the different ways of harnessing energy from ocean.
Describe the extraction of energy from biomass.
Describe the geothermal energy.
Tabulate the status of renewable energy resources in India.
What is the scope and future of renewable energy resources in India?
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7
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Environment is defined as the surroundings in which we live. It has the living
component known as the biotic and the non-living known as the abiotic
environment. In the living part all the plants animals, human beings, microorganisms such as the bacteria, viruses, fungi etc. are there. In the non-living part
the materials, temperature, humidity, air, soil, water, fire, energy, sky, noise, solar
and other radiations are there. All of these are in dynamic equilibrium with each
other. Every action of the nature is cyclic. We have seen so many cycles like the
material and nutrient cycles, hydrological cycle etc. These cycles are interrelated
and the occurrence of one depends upon other also. As there is a dynamic
interrelationship between the components of the environment, so nothing can be
dealt in isolation and one has to think in a holistic manner. Holistic means
considering others also alongwith ones development. The oriental practice was to
worship the nature. Nature was respected. We felt gratitude to the nature for
bestowing its unlimited uniform blessings upon us. The sun shines for each and
every one of us with the same intensity. Every natural blessing is impartial and
sufficient. It is sufficient for everybodys need but not for anybodys greed. Forgetting
this basic fundamental theory, we have started exploiting the nature. Nature has
some power to compensate the loss that is some adjustments it can do. But the
situation has come where it has gone beyond its power of assimilation and it has
started reacting. The global warming, earthquakes, Tsunami, Al-Nino and other
calamities are the recent examples. Some of them may be natural phenomena but
generally it is the human beings who are responsible for them.
Environmental Impact Assessment
163
When we look around and see what is going to happen in other areas (take care of
others) it is the holistic development.
7.2 NECESSITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

In the holistic and equitable development one takes care of others, means what so ever
engineering project we plan or execute we consider its effect on the biotic and abiotic
environment in which it is going to be implemented. This is known as environmental
impact assessment.
Forest as a complete ecosystem is a good example. It provides shelter. It is a habitat
for large number of species. The electricity consumption in India, 350 kWh per capita per
year, is very less in comparison to other developed countries as we are mainly dependent
on firewood which comes from the forests. Nearly 15000 crores of fuel is burnt in India
per year, for cooking which comes from forests. Besides firewood it gives us many other
products like gum, resins, thorn, timber, medicinal herbs etc. as discussed earlier. So forest
is our life line. Whenever, we have a project we have to asses its impact on this lifeline.
What will be the effect of navigation on water course? It shall be the spread of oil,
grease, noise and water currents. One has to consider all these negative impacts.
For a good and exhaustive example let us consider the environmental impact
assessment of some big projects like water resources project. First of all in 1970 s Aswan
Dam constructed on river Nile had a problem of its impact on environment. The
problem may be of seismicity. Earthquakes below 2.5 intensity on Richters scale goes
unnoticed whereas those more than 4 are felt with discomfort. Kariba and Koina are
the places where first of all it was assumed that earthquakes took place due to
construction of dams. But the actual effect is not quantified yet, though a certain
correlation is there.
Changed water balance is, of course, to be studied. When we have irrigation projects
the hydrology of the area changes. In the command area per square meter availability
of water is much higher than required so water logging takes place. The consumptive
use of water is 4 to 5 mm/day for plants. 90% of water taken by a tree is evaporated
and only 5% is used by the body. As lesser water is consumed by plants in a command
area so high water vapours will be formed that will increase the humidity. The rise
in humidity shall have microclimatic changes like change in temperature. Water logging
takes place as a result of supplying more water than required. Flood pattern downstream
are changed. Drought characteristics are changed. The filling done in construction of
canal embankments blocks the natural water ways. In command area type of crop is
changed. Wheat is replaced by cotton, sugarcane etc.
Soil is endemic saline if it contains salt. When no water was there to leach salts,
it remained at bottom. When the level of water comes up the salt comes up and when
it gets evaporated the salt remains there only and the soil becomes saline. So many other
impacts are there and as such, before the actual quantification one has to finalize the
areas on which the impact assessment is to be done.
164
7.3 METHODOLOGY OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

The following steps are taken in the overall assessment
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Identification
Data collection
Prediction
Assessment
Let us discuss them one by one with some specific examples.

7.2.1 Identification of Impact Areas
Depending upon the project under study there are so many areas over which the impact
assessment may be made. Some of them are common and can be usually applied on
all projects.
7.2.1.1 Water Resource Project
Let us consider them for a water resource project. It has a dam, reservoir, canal and
the distribution system etc. The dams have a large impact on the environment as
sometimes they are very large. In Egypt, the Ashwan High Dam is seventeen times
heavier than the great pyramid of Cheops. In Ghana the Volta Dam impounds a
reservoir of the size of the Lebanon. Construction of dam inundates large areas of the
fertile land.It is difficult to assess this loss. It is not only in terms of just the market value
of the crops lost but also the top fertile layer of soil known as the humus. Nature takes
hundreds of years to make one inch of humus. Vast area of land has been submerged
under the water resources projects. For example 84800 hectare were lost in the Volta
Dam. 510000 hectare was lost in the Kariba Dam and 400000 hectare submerged by
the water of Lake Nasser. The Narmada Valley Development Project in India with 30
big and 3000 total dams will drown 350000 hectare land.
Let us study the impact of the water resource project one by one in different areas.
(1) Population: When a dam is constructed to store water a large reservoir is
created on its upstream. This reservoir may be sometimes spread in kilometers.
So the land or forest or habitation submerged under this water is lost for
ever. A tree may cost some thousands of rupees for an engineer but its
environmental value is in lakhs. As explained earlier if the services rendered
by a fully grown tree for its whole life are quantified in terms of money it
is about 5 lakhs. The environmentalists have warned that in Narmada Sagar
command area the cost of submerged forest is Rs. 30000 crores. They have
also estimated that by the construction of Narmada Sagar Dam (second
largest of the Narmada Valley Project) 30000 families ( 2 lakh persons) shall
be displaced. The same has happened for Tehri Dam. The occupants of town
Harsood did not vacate the town until it was really submerged. Actually
this is the biggest problem. Nobody wants to leave his place. The same
165
examples are there for other countries also. By the construction of Three
Gorges dam in China 1.4 million persons were displaced. Ghanas Volta dam
saw the evacuation of some 78000 people. The Pa Mong project in Vietnam
uprooted 4,50,000 people. The Narbada valley development project of India
(having many small and large dams) shall also displace about 1 million
people. As a general estimate for every 100 benefited persons about 6 are
at loss (to be rehabilitated). The displaced persons of Pong dam could not
be rehabilitated for decades. Ultimately they were shifted to Rajasthan
where they faced many problems of harsh climate and different culture. The
problems of resettlement are as follows:(a) As compensation to the acquired land the government pays in terms of the
last registry rate that is always lesser than the market value.
(b)
Generally those who obey the orders first are at loss as they get the initial
compensation and are away from the scene. The more adamant ones sometimes
get more compensation.
(c)
The houses, trees, Dhanies (hamlets), wells etc. are assessed by the government
officers on there set rules of Basic Schedule of Rates that is always less than
the actual. In the B.S.R the depreciated value of house in 100 years becomes
nil whereas in practice people live in houses that are older than 100 years.
So it becomes difficult to decide about the compensation of such old houses.
Same is the case of trees. The tree is assessed on the basis of its girth and
the assessed cost is something about 3 to 5 thousand depending upon the
wood. But the real cost (environmental cost) is very high.
(d)
Land to land conversion is not possible because the government lands of

the same type (fertile) are not available. When money is given in compensation
to land it is generally not utilized in purchasing the land and spent in some
other unuseful expenditure like marriages etc. Many times the sons get it
divided and the hard earned asset of the farmer is snatched from him
leading him to be bankrupt in some cases.
(e)
The shifting charges are meager say 1500 Rs. Per family. The families in the
villages are combined families and when they lose their land and get money,
the joint families split up and as such the shifting charges for such increased
families become totally insufficient.
(f)
The main problem in resettlement is the sentiments of people. Everything

cannot be compensated in terms of money. The feelings attached to the
houses, fields cannot be quantified in terms of money. The feeling of
uprootment and to settle in new conditions is intolerable especially for
elderly persons.
(g)
Sometimes some over wise persons go on such sites and encroach some land
to get fake compensation.
166
(2)
(3)
(4)
Considering all these problems the engineers, planners and managers must
take the people in confidence and realize their problem in totality. The policy
should be framed to rehabilitate (Punarvas ) them not to only resettle
(punarsthapan) them. The difference in the two is the real key to success. In
the rehabilitation the new village is constructed as the old was. Considering
their local demands of panchayat- ghar, open wells, community places, schools,
dispensary, meeting places etc. and the construction should be suiting to their
local requirements. Generally government makes same type, stereo type, row
houses for them that are never accepted to them. Making a village similar or
improved to the old one with peoples participation and their will is the real
rehabilitation. The policies and awards should be site specific and made on
ground realities. Any single policy made indigenously or borrowed from
foreign countries cannot be successful in the vivid conditions of our country.
For example the problem of land acquisition for the construction of Rjeev
Gandhi lift water supply canal for Jodhpur was solved by raising the peoples
sentiments for a noble cause of supplying drinking water to human beings
and cattles of the desert district. The feeling of sacrifice for others generally
works in such matters.
Meteorology: As a large reservoir is formed or a canal passes through a region
local microclimatic changes take place. Presence of water vapour is most
important. The maximum temperature comes down and minimum temperature increases. Number of hot days will reduce. Stretch of high temperature
will also reduce. Nights will be warmer. As the humidity increases there may
be local showers. Permanent presence of clouds will remain. In Aswan dam
(Egypt) 5000 square kilometer are of reservoir is there so permanent clouds
are formed giving daily some showers.
Water resources: As it is a water resource project obviously the water resource
on upstream side shall increase so there is a positive impact on upstream side.
The down stream of the river shall face water shortage. But the overall impact
is positive as a dam prevents the fresh sweet surface water to be ultimately
mixed with the saline water of the sea. So the net balance is positive. The dam
also prevents the flow of useful silt to the sea and thus saves a very large
amount of money in terms of humus and useful silt.
Floods and droughts: The main purpose of constructing a dam is safety
against floods. A dam stores the rainwater at the time of storm causing floods
and relieves it throughout the year as per the demand. Particularly in summers
when there is no rainwater and the river is also dry, irrigation can be done
through the canal system. So the impact is positive on both floods and
droughts and if quantification is done, maximum marks in favour of the
project shall be given on this basis.
167
(5) Water quality: In the reservoir the water stands still so due to sedimentation
the silt and other settleable impurities settle down. Water becomes clear as
the turbidity reduces so it is a positive impact on water quality from aesthetical
point of view or drinking water point of view. From irrigation point it is a
negative point as the silt is always useful for crops. The second quality
parameter is dissolved oxygen. Water takes D.O. from the air and it gets mixed
in it depending upon the deficit and the temperature etc. Water has a specific
capacity to contain the D.O. at a temperature. For example it can have 9.17
mg/litre of dissolved oxygen at 20 C. It reduces as the temperature increases.
Minimum 4 mg/l (ppm) D.O. is required for the existence of aquatic life. When
the sewage or the organic matter in any form gets mixed in the river water
the bacteria consumes this D.O. for its decomposition. As the D.O. reduces
water tries to recuperate it from the atmospheric air. As soon as the upper
layer of water gets saturated the further penetration of oxygen reduces. When
the river is flowing with turbulence the upper layers come down and the lower
layers come up to absorb more and more oxygen and thus the whole water
is having good amount of D.O. But when the water is stored in a reservoir
this phenomenon stops and only the upper layer is exposed so the D.O.
reduces and thus it is a negative impact on the quality of water.
Due to the increased depth in the reservoir the penetration of sunlight reduces
and the formation of oxygen by photosynthesis also reduces. This deteriorates
the quality of water and thus it is also a negative impact.
In the reservoirs generally the sewage of the nearby cities is discharged which
is full of nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus etc.) Due to increased nutrients heavy
growth of plankton takes place. This can be phytoplankton or zooplankton
(wandering). Blue green algae can grow even in the absence of nutrients as it
takes nitrogen from the atmosphere. The velocity of water is zero and nutrients
are there so the aquatic plants like water hyacinth flourish like anything. These
plants cover the whole lake or the reservoir in very less time. This further reduces
the penetration of sunrays and thus causes anaerobic conditions. This is known
as eutrophication and is a negative impact on water quality.
(6) Water logging and salinity: Generally, the reservoirs are not situated on
completely impervious base. The canals also have seepage inspite of all efforts.
This water goes down and if the soil is impervious it comes back on the surface
and stands still there only. This permanent storage of water in the root zone
of plants is known as water logging. This does not allow the growth of any
plant as air is a must in the root zone of the plants. So this is a negative impact.
In the initial reaches of Indira Gandhi Main Canal (near Hanumangarh) and
also near R.D 1120. water logging has taken place. This has reduced the cost
of previously costly land to almost zero. The seepage water dissolves the salts
168
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
of the soil and they come up with the water. The water evaporates leaving
the salts there only which makes the soil saline. The saline soil is unfit for
irrigation and thus this is a negative impact.
Water supply and sanitation: The water resource project certainly increases
the water supply on the upstream side. This water is used mainly for irrigation
and also for drinking water supply. Though the quantity of water used for
drinking water supply is very less in comparison to the irrigation water
sometimes it may be more important for example in desert areas. In any case
the water supply increases and people feel comfortable. At least animal
husbandry (cattle business) can support human life in such desert areas with
less scope of agriculture. The increased water supply increases the sanitation
also. When there is enough water for cleaning, bathing and removing the fecal
matter with water (water carriage system) then good sanitation can be
maintained. So it is a positive impact. However, the water carriage system
(flush system) requires a very large amount of water 99% to carry very small
amount of night soil (fecal matter) (1%) and as such a wastage of good quality
potable water. Any way the diseases due to poor sanitation are reduced.
Drainage: As the water supply to the towns increases the waste water
(sewage) comes on the streets. With less water and less sewage it could be
managed in kitchen gardens and the open drains. As the volume of water
increases many times and the sewage conveyance and treatment becomes
necessary before its disposal. The sewerage system is very costly, even costlier
than the water supply system. In India we still do not have sewerage system
in most of the cities.
Soil: The soil is affected mainly by two ways
Fertility: With the plenty of irrigation water farmers take two to three crops
in a year. Due to over utilization of land the fertility of soil reduces. Though
we add fertilizers, artificial or organic, but micro-nutrients are not there. So
the overall fertility reduces and the biology of soil changes.
Soil erosion: Increased farming operations, like tilling, loosens the soil which
in turn gets easily eroded by flowing water or the wind storms. The top soil
known as humus is washed away in few years where as it has taken thousand
of years in the production. Roads are made and the excess cutting may lead
to slope failure. Increased pore water pressure leads to land slides. The right
bank of river on which Vaiont dam was there in Italy ( a double arch dam)
collapsed and fell in the river in 1962.
Land use: The land use pattern changes drastically. The plenty of irrigation
water increases farming and cultivation. The grasslands and land for grazing
of cattle also comes under cultivation (agriculture). The animals find it difficult
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
169
to live and their encroachment to the fields give rise to fights and legal cases.
Industries related to agriculture and others come up. Roads, godowns,
construction camps, housing projects are developed leading to urbanization.
Agrochemicals: For the increased agriculture more and more agrochemicals
like fertilizers (Urea. D.A.P.), pesticides, insecticides, etc. are used. Generally
they are used even more than the required quantity. D.D.T. is banned in the
advanced countries but still used in our country. These chemicals enter into
our food chain and many times their concentration in mothers milk is much
more than permissible. Recently it was found that the concentration of pesticides
in the cold drinks was much more than permissible. Sometimes the farmers
are so wise that they dont use chemical fertilizers and pesticides on the
product they use for their own consumption. Even such products are available
in market that have been grown on natural organic manure or vermicompost
(made by special earthworms, naturally) and without the use of pesticides,
but at a higher rate.
Ecology: As the water resource increases more and more land comes under
irrigation and the farmers grow only those crops that pay them the best. So
the species diversity gets reduced. Production is more under favourable
conditions so wild and tough goes away. All the ill effects of reduction in
biodiversity are there.
Forest: The area of forest gets reduced due to submergence. About 2% of
the forest area has been reduced due to submergence of water resources
projects. The type of forest changes from close forest (> 40% is covered by
self generating set of plants), to open forest (10-40% covered by plants) or
to scrubland (< 10% ). Tribes live in harmony with forest and wild life but
when they are displaced they cause deforestation.
Wildlife: Forest is the habitat for wildlife. Presence of human beings make
disturbance even if the forest is not cut down. As the canals, roads etc. are
constructed the animals feel segmentation of their habitat. The interference,
quality change (running water becomes stagnant) and segmentation leads to
direct reduction in their reproduction rate. Particularly for the lion group the
reproduction gets substantially reduced in lieu of the reduction in area under
their command. The aquatic life is also affected. Estuarine fish moves for
salinity from land to sea for breeding. If there is some obstruction (dam) their
movement is stopped and thus reduces their breeding. Even if we provide fish
ladders only 15% can use it.
Fisheries: The species diversity of the fisheries is reduced because of the
development of man made controlled fisheries. Fish are very sensitive to
dissolved oxygen, temperature and salinity. They have some breeding habits
170
(16)
16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
and their herding (shelter requirement ) is peculiar. For example the estuarine
fish requires salinity. The assured water increases the habitat and their
production though species may be limited. Tilapia, catla catla and corps are
generally grown. The production may be as high as 20000 kg/hectare/year
under controlled conditions, but may come to about zero if the conditions are
unfavourable as species diversity is not there.
Seismicity: It is said qualitatively that the construction of dams increases the
chances of earthquakes (seismicity), though quantitatively it could not be
assessed. Actually it is the fear due to the accumulation of huge quantity of
water in the reservoir that can induce earthquake. But if we compare it with
the large quantity of total water on the earth, it proves to be futile. Two third
of the earth is covered by water and the fresh water flowing in the rivers is
a very small fraction of the total water. If we restrict (store) a small portion
of this little water, it is negligible in comparison to the sea water. So it can
not disturb the balance, causing the earth quake. However the seepage water
from the reservoir may disturb the tectonic movement of the plates if it reaches
to that level. So the dam should be constructed at a safer place and the design
should include the possible earthquake forces.
Air quality: Fortunately in water resources project followed by the hydroelectricity generation plant there is no emission of gases or the particulate matter.
Only some dust problem may be there at the time of construction particularly
if the dam is an earthen dam. So there is no negative impact.
Noise: Similarly there is no noise problem. Only the turbines for electricity
generation may produce some noise that can be controlled and restricted in
the pump house itself.
Historical monuments: Some historical monuments may be submerged in the
reservoir. Kadana, Galiakot, Nagarjun temple are the examples. Manibeli
temple has submerged in Sardar Sarovar project. Sometimes, if the monument
is very important it has to be removed in pieces and rebuilt, or it has to be
shifted as such with a great expense. Sometimes, a protection wall is
constructed all around it to prevent the submergence under water. So the site
should be selected in such a way that no such historical monument gets
submerged otherwise it shall be a negative impact.
Tourism: Tourism shall be promoted. The plenty of water promotes the
gardens, boating, adventure games, fun making, fountains and many other
recreation facilities. Tourists are attracted to these things and money flows
alongwith the tourists to the town. The famous Vrindavan Gardens in Mysore
are constructed on Krishnarajsagar Dam. So it is a positive impact in one
sense. The other point says that alongwith the tourists foreign culture also
171
invades the local culture. This cultural invasion is a negative impact. AIDS
is most prominent in Jaisalmer out of the whole Rajasthan because of the
foreign tourists attracted to the deserts of that area. So it is a combined effect
and the impact has to be studied carefully considering both the points.
(21) Health: The improved water supply improves the sanitation and the diseases
like diarrhea are reduced as treated water is available in plenty. But as the
fecal matter is mixed with the fresh bodies of water (rivers, ponds) as sewage
so water is a vehicle for the bacteria and viruses of diseases like cholera,
typhoid, hepatitis (Jaundice), gastroentitis etc. These water borne diseases can
be controlled only with the proper treatment of drinking water i.e. the disinfection. Some diseases like Schistomiasis and Guinea Worm disease take
place when the schist enters through the foot of a person entering in the water.
As the water is used in plenty for irrigation and other works many vectors
like mosquito are born in abundance and they spread the vector borne diseases
like malaria, dengue, brain fever etc. This has a great negative impact. In the
command area of the Indira Gandhi Main Canal Project in Western Rajasthan
thousand of people die from these vector born diseases every year. However,
this mortality will reduce as the population becomes trained against this as
in U.P, Punjab, and other states where irrigation is there since a long time.
22) Socioeconomic: This includes all the impact on the social structure of the
(22)
affected community. The main advantage of the water resource project shall
be the availability of drinking water. When there is no such project, people
had to fetch water from distant sources. In western Rajasthan women fetch
water on their head from miles away. The male members waste their whole
day in cartage of water with carts from a distant pond. The amount of water
so carried was so precious and scarce that was used only for drinking, cooking
and the sanitary condition was very poor. As the water resource projects
comes, into existence this whole effort, time, energy and money is saved. This
has its direct benefits as well as many indirect benefits. The women have time
to take care of their health and education and small earnings. They can take
care of their children in a better way. Men can go out and earn better as they
are free from the burden of water carriage.
Besides this the irrigation water changes the whole scenario. Firm, assured
substantial, cash crops make them prosperous. Every essential facility like
road, electricity, telephone, vehicles, medical help, communication etc. is
made available to them. Good comfortable houses are built in villages or the
farms/fields there itself. This reduces the migration of rural population to the
cities and develops a self reliance in them. Agro based and other industries
come up in no time. The growth of self dependant villages is beneficial to the
whole country.
172
The other side of the coin is the increase of crime rate. The prosperity breaks up
the very sense of the combined village community. The pollution and other evils of
urbanization are there.
The overall impact is positive as some bad effects are always associated with any
development. With cautious planning and a good vision they can be overcome.
7.3.1.2 Hydroelectricity Project

The other project may be a hydroelectricity project which is an extension of the water
resource project. The plants are of two types, one is Peak Load Plant and other is
Joined with the Grid. In isolated distant peak load plants whenever the necessity comes
a unit is switched on and it starts suddenly. A huge quantity of water is suddenly
released that may prove fatal for aquatic life as well as for human beings. The solution
to this is in having an equalization tank.
Screens or trash racks placed before turbines prevent larger fish say > 5 cm. but
smaller fish caught by the vortex motion go inside and are killed in the blades of turbine.
But there is no thermal pollution etc. so it is comparatively cleanest technology of
electricity generation.
7.3.1.3 Navigation Project
The water resources project can also be used as a navigation project with a huge canal
for transportation of ships, boats or directly the wood logs etc. The following are the
impacts:
Grease and oil floats on the surface of water that prevents the penetration
of sunlight.
The photosynthesis is badly affected.
Surface water waves run along the bank and thus the banks are eroded.
Stagnation takes place at jetties.
Leaching of chemicals from nearby godowns takes place.
If continued with dams, Lock Gates cause discontinuity in flow pattern.
7.3.1.4 Tidal Hydroelectricity Project

Tidal hydro plants are pilot plants in the gulf of Combay. In India we have only 4 to
5 metre high tides. In this type of power plant we make a bund across the definable
banks of a river where it meets the sea. The water is lifted up and down at the time
of high tide and low tide. This movement is converted into electricity by the turbines.
Low head turbines have been developed that can work on varying heads also. The
impact areas are as follows:
Aquatic organisms which thrive on tidal cycle are adversely affected.

When they pass through turbines they die due to high speed and
restricted movement.
174
7.3.1.7 Geothermal energy

In this type the heat inside the deep earth is used for making steam and running the
turbine. Though very small percentage of the total but at some places like Sanfransisco
about 25% electricity production is by Geo thermal energy. The impacts are as follows:
Thermal pollution is there.
Hydrogen sulphide and other mineral obnoxious gases come out.
7.3.1.8 Solar energy
Solar energy conversion into electricity by photovoltaic means and thermal means both
are very good options.
The impacts are as follows:
The pollution caused in the manufacturing of solar photovoltaic panels is
tremendous.
The solar thermal chimney based plants require a very high chimney that may
be dangerous from strategic point of view.
7.3.1.9 Thermal power plants
These are the most common ones. Fossil fuels like coal or oil is burnt and steam is formed
and the electricity is generated in these plants. The impacts are as follows:
The main adverse impact is the air pollution. Lot of CO and CO2 are generated. CO2 is the main culprit of global warming.
Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur are liberated that cause acid rain and many
diseases in human beings and even loss to the building property etc.
In the mining of coal unsightly conditions develop. The abandoned mines
collect water which produces reduction in ground water and other problems.
Loss of top good soil takes place due to mining.
The coal particles and the suspended particulate matter spread in the air up to
many kilometers and the nearby residents develop many respiratory and other
diseases.
The fly ash and bottom ash generated poses a great problem of disposal.
Mounds of ash are created. However, these days the cement manufacturing
and brick manufacturing industries are using the fly ash in abundance.
The hot water discharged into the reservoir pool causes thermal pollution and
proves fatal to aquatic life.
The releasing of steam produces noise pollution.
7.3.1.10 Nuclear Power Plant
The nuclear energy is obtained from the isotopes of Uranium, and Thorium or Plutonium.
The molecular energy is converted into heat by fission and fusion to make steam that
runs the turbine for electric power generation.
175
1 gram of Uranium (U235) gives 72 million mega joules per second.

The waste product is radioactive and thus buried in deep sea with a few meters
thick wall so that it may not come out before its half life. The waste product may cause
drastic changes to ecology i.e. permanent damage.
7.3.1.11 Biomass or Biogas Power Plant

A very small percentage of electricity production is by making biogas or using the
biomass in other ways (pallet making etc.)
The contribution is less but very valuable for isolated communities.
The biogas or the landfill gas can be produced by the biomass or the biodegradable
organic portion of the solid waste. The impacts are as follows:
Unsightly dumping of solid waste is avoided.

Energy becomes available as a byproduct of solid waste disposal.
However the other gases (as shown in the table below) make air pollution.
A larger township is required and the main aspect is the biodegradability of
the waste.
Table 7.1 Desirable Composition of Landfill gas
Component
% by volume
Methane
63.8
CO2
33.6
O2
0.1
N2
2.4
H2
< 0.05
CO
< 0.001
Saturated Hydrocarbon
< 0.001
Unsaturated Hydrocarbon
0.005
Halogenated Copper
0.009
H2S
0.00002
Organic sulphur compounds
< 0.0001
7.3.1.12 Industries
Various industries also require the assessment of environment impact. They have a
demand of water that is known as the specific water demand. For example it is say
200 tons of water per ton of steel produced. This demand includes cooling, boiler steam
making, processes like washing, dilution, cleaning, chemical, reaction, component or
the sanitary and beautification etc. A large portion of the water used comes out as the
176
waste water. The industrial waste water is generally more dangerous than the domestic
as it contains chemicals, heavy metals, hazardous material with high B.O.D and C.O.D.
Following is the list of industries for which the assessment is made, generally:
Petro-chemicals
Iron and steel
Pulp and paper
Agro industries
Textile (cotton and synthetic)
Fertilizer
Tanning
Cement (dry or wet)
Pharmaceuticals.
There may be so many other industries, power plants, manufacturing units etc. that
have the impact on environment. For each of them some of the identified areas may
be common and some may be different. So it is necessary to know the details of the
unit and then the areas are identified.
7.3.2 Data Collection
After the identification of impact areas the data collection is done.
Following steps are taken in the data collection:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Environmental reconnaissance
Preliminary survey
Detailed survey
(a) Environmental reconnaissance: In the initial or reconnaissance survey the

following indicative list is prepared:
(i) Name of industry
(ii)
Category of industry (small scale, medium or heavy industry)
(iii)
Input and output of the industry
(iv)
Specific water demand
(v)
Waste characteristics like pH, B.O.D5, C.O.D, total dissolved solids, total
suspended solids and others.
(b) Preliminary survey: In this the base line survey (scoping) is done. For this
purpose census data, district gazetteer, maps published by various agencies
(like the G.T. Sheets published by the survey of India Department, Irrigation
atlas etc.) are obtained.
177
(c) Detailed survey: In this the field level measurements of critical time and
location are done. The impact areas are identified and specific to those areas
study is made by collection of samples testing and observations.
7.3.3 Prediction
Prediction means giving advanced information. Prediction may be qualitative as good,
bad, high, low etc. or quantitative. Quantitative modeling is done for depicting the
process and end results. It may be done in following ways
Mathematical modeling
Statistical modeling
Regional
Physics based
The constraints in prediction are uncertainty and inadequacy of data.

The prediction techniques are
Modeling (empirical, statistical, mathematical)

Superimposition
Transposition
The mathematical modeling includes curve fitting techniques.

The curves may be like simple regression curve like
Y = mX + C
Or
Y = a0 + a1 X + a2 X2
Least Square Method
180
So we have to allot some weights to every item under study for a particular case at
a particular time. Here comes the vision of the assessor. For this purpose there should be
a team of well qualified, experienced and honest persons alongwith the participation of
the affected persons. The peoples participation is a must. The policy has to be made for
them, so it should be agreed upon by them and this will happen with their consent only.
In other cases also when some project has been implemented and its environmental impact
has to be studied it should be done in a comprehensive manner with peoples participation.
Allotting weights to all the identified impact areas and then studying the combined
effect to come to some conclusion is not an easy task. There are some complicated matrix
methods to solve such interconnected complex problem. With the help of different
computer progammes with simulation and other techniques it has become simple and
possible these days. But the human wisdom is always a must for the final assessment.
7.4 CONCLUSION
For a development to be sustainable, holistic and equitable it has to coexist with the
environment. In want of getting fast development the society has overlooked the
environmental concern. This has forced the nature to react. The reaction is alarming and
a time has come when we have to think before we implement. The assessment of impacts
of any project on environment is utmost necessary. This has to be done in a scientific
manner keeping the economic and social aspects into consideration. The priorities of a
community or a nation may be different at different times. At the time of independence
we were not technologically advanced and self dependent. The first priority was production
of food grain to support such a large population. Irrigation was a must for this. Big dams
like Bhakra Nangal and others were constructed. Large canals like Indira Gandhi Main
Canal were also made and India became self sufficient in food sector. Many large and
small industries in government and private sector came up and our country is self
dependent, self reliant, self supporting country in almost all sectors. But the exponentially
growing population has led to overexploitation of resources. India with 2% of the earths
habitable area has to support 15% of its population. The overexploitation of the resources
has degraded the environment through out the world. The whole cyclic system of the
nature is at stake. For protection of environment against this degradation and to have
sustainable development we have to assess the impacts on environment before the actual
implementation so that we can choose a better alternative or make some additions and
deletions in the project to safeguard the environment.
For assessing it first of all we have to identify the areas over which the impact is
to be studied. Then we have to collect the data regarding the identified areas. Then
by the scientific analysis of the data the predictions are made. Depending upon all this
exercise finally the assessment is done quantitatively and the positive and negative
components of the result are weighed on the balance of wisdom. If the project passes
on the importance, priority and sustainability criteria over and above the others then
it is finally selected.
181
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Discuss the relation of yield and waste production in a process.

What is sustainable, holistic and sound development?
Describe the necessity of environmental impact assessment.
Describe in brief the methodology of environmental impact assessment.
What do you mean by identification of impact areas for environmental impact
assessment?
Describe in detail the impact areas of a water resource project.
What are the differences of rehabilitation and resettlement?
What are the main problems of deciding compensation to the displaced
population of a project and what are your suggestions for solving them?
Describe the environmental impact assessment of hydroelectricity project.
Describe the environmental impact assessment of navigation project.
Describe the environmental impact assessment of wave energy project.
Describe the environmental impact assessment of wind energy project.
Describe the environmental impact assessment of geothermal energy project.
Describe the environmental impact assessment of solar energy project.
Describe the environmental impact assessment of thermal power project.
Describe the environmental impact assessment of nuclear power project.
Describe the environmental impact assessment of biogas, biomass power project.
What is the desirable composition of land fillgas?
What are the various industries for which environmental impact assessment
should be done?
Describe the process of data collection for environmental impact assessment.
Describe the prediction technologies for environmental impact assessment.
What is the least square method?
Describe the use of root mean square value in the prediction technology.
Describe how the final assessment of impact is done.
Write a note on the environmental impact assessment.
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8
NOISE POLLUTION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The word noise is derived from the Latin term nausea. Noise has been defined as a
sound without agreeable quality or as unwanted or undesirable sound. This is a
subjective definition as some desirable sound for somebody (fast music) may be noise
for some other person. So defining it in a better way we can say that noise is wrong
sound in the wrong place at the wrong time. A given sound is pleasant when soft but
noisy when loud. It may be acceptable for a short time but unacceptable when prolonged.
It may be intriguing when rhythmic but noise when randomly repeated. Noise is defined
in law as, excessive, offensive, persistent or startling sound.
Like air and water pollution noise is also emerging fast as a major pollutant to the
environment. The roar of jet planes, honking of buses, the screeching of rushing vehicles,
wailing of emergency vehicle sirens, whistling of railway engines, back fire from motor
vehicles, the din of factories, the thunder of construction machinery, are contributing
to the high level of noise. The noise is just not confined to the urban area but the
countryside is also being shaken by the rattle of motorized farm implements, pump sets,
tractors, and buzzing of motor vehicles etc. Alongwith these the increasing use of
televisions, sound systems and loudspeakers without any check on their volume is also
contributing to the growing noise levels.
Noise problem can be divided in two categories. First is the community noise
wherein one is concerned with annoyance caused to people in their indoor environment.
It is the intrusion of noise inside the dwellings above the allowable level mainly from
vehicular traffic. The other is the intense sound that exists in some workplaces like
factories and traffic islands where there is a real danger of permanent physical damage.
184
Prolonged exposure to excessive noise produces adverse physiological effects such as

hypertension, annoyance, disturbance in sleep and deafness etc.
The noise has so far not been regarded as a fatal pollutant because so far it was
within limits. Except in industrial areas and big cities noise pollution was not prominent
and hence generally remained ignored from being treated as an environment pollutant.
With the increasing industrialization and commercialization of society and with
consequential increase in noise producing automobiles and machines, noise has become
a slow poison to mankind. It is a matter of thought that whether we should accept
the increased noise as a price for progress, or should shun the new technological
advance all together to lead scheduled life. The other better way is to devise and
implement noise controlling techniques to reduce the adverse impacts of noise.
8.2 LEVELS OF NOISE

The sound pressure of the faintest sound that can be heard by a normal healthy individual
is about 20 micro-Pascal. The loudest sound produced by a Saturn rocket at the lift off
stage is about 200 Pa. This large variation in sound pressure (varying from 20 Pa to
200 Pa) is usually avoided by expressing sound pressure on a scale based on the log of
the ratio of the measured sound pressure and a reference standard pressure. Measurement
on this scale is called levels. The sound level (L) is thus represented as,
L = log10 Q/Q0 (Bels)
Where Q = Measured quantity of sound pressure or sound power or sound intensity.
Q 0 = Reference standard quantity of sound pressure.
L = Sound level in Bels.
A Bel is a large unit so for convenience it is divided into 10 subunits called decibels (dB).
So when sound level is expressed in decibels.
L = 10 log10 Q/Q0 (dB).
According to World Health Organization (WHO) a level of 45 dB is considered a
safe noise level in a city. However, a noise level of 65 dB can be tolerable as per the
international standards. A report from National Physical Laboratory (India) shows that
there is an increase in the background noise level at the rate of 1 dB per year.
8.3 THE NATURE OF SOUND

Sound is the sensation caused by a vibrating medium acting on the ear, but the term
is usually applied to the vibration itself. The source of sound is most often some vibrating
solid body like a string or a sheet which generates vibrations in the air, but it may be
generated by vibrations of a gaseous medium, as such the air in a whistle or flute. The
medium conveying it to the ear can be a gas (air) or a liquid. In which the vibrations
are transmitted as a longitudinal wave motion, i.e successive compressions and rarefactions
of the molecules.
186
8.3.3 Power and Intensity

The output of a source is measured as the rate of energy flow (i.e. power) in units of
Watts (W).
The average output of some sources in Watt are as shown in the table below.
Table 8.1 Sound Output
Source
Watts
Jet Airliner
104
Pneumatic riveter
50 Kw axial fan
101
Large orchestra
102
Conversational speech
105
In a conveying medium e.g. in air the strength of sound is usually measured as

intensity, that is the density of energy flow rate through unit area in W/m2.
When a point source emits sound uniformly in all directions in a free field, it spreads
over the surface of a sphere of increasing radius. The amount of energy is distributed
over a larger and larger area, therefore decreasing the intensity. As per the inverse
square law the intensity at a distance d meters shall be:
I = W/4 d2
Where
I = Intensity in W/m2
W = Power of source in Watts
Sound intensity I is related to root mean square sound pressure by the equation
I = P2
Where
rms
/V
P rms = root mean square pressure in Pascals (Pa)

= density of air or medium in which sound wave is traveling in Kg/m3
V = velocity of sound wave in m/s
8.4 SENSITIVITY OF SOUND

The average person can hear frequencies from about 29 to 16000 Hz depending upon
the age and other subjective factors.
The lowest intensity perceived as a sound is 1012 W/m2 and this is known as the
standard threshold of audibility.
The upper limit is the threshold of pain at 1 W/m2. Vibration above this intensity
would cause pain and can damage the human ear.
The following figure shows the audible range of sounds in terms of intensity and
frequency:-
188

4
Jet take off at 100 m,

thunder, pneumatic
hammer
120
Painful
Deafening
Auto horn 1 m away
110-120
Uncomfortable
Progressive loss of
hearing
Motorcycle 8m away
90
Uncomfortable
As above
Diesel truck 15m away
85
Loud
As above
Noisy factory, large

street noise
80
Loud
As above
Noisy office average

street noise
60-80
Loud
Damage after
long exposure
10
Light traffic noise

30m away
55
Moderately loud
As above
11
Average living room
40
Quit
Damage at old age
8.6 ACCEPTABLE NOISE LEVELS

The following table shows the acceptable outdoor and indoor noise levels in residential areas.
Table 8.4 Acceptable Outdoor Noise Levels in Residential Areas
S. No.
Location
Noise level (dB)
Rural areas
25-35
Suburban area
30-40
Urban residential
Residential and business urban areas
40-50
City area
45-55
Industrial area
50-60
area
35-45
Table 8.5 Acceptable Indoor Noise Level for Various Types of Buildings
S.No.
Location
Noise level (dB)
Radio and TV studios
25-30
Music-rooms
30-35
Hospitals, classrooms, auditorium
35-40
Apartments hotels, homes
35-40
Offices
40-45
Banks, departmental stores
45-50
Restaurants
50-55
Noise Pollution
189
The following table shows the noise produced by the home appliances.
Table 8.6 Noise Produced by Home Appliances
S.No.
Noise source
Sound level for operator dB
Refrigerator
40
Floor fan
40-70
Clothes dryer
55
Washing Machine
45-80
Dish washer
55-85
Hair dryer
60-80
Vacuum cleaner
62 85
Sewing machine
64-74
Grinder
65-95
10
Electric lawn mover
80
11
Stereo
Up to120
8.7 EFFECTS OF NOISE

There is a bad effect of noise on human health depending upon the noise level, exposure
time and the health conditions. The effects of noise can be classified in the following ways:
(i) Psychological and p hysiological effects.:
ffects.:- The noise of different levels has different
psychological and physiological effects. The following table shows some of them.
Table 8.7 Effects of Noise
Noise level
Effects
65 dB
Noise may create annoyance up to this level, but it is only

psychological (nervous effect). Above this level physiological effects
such as mental and physical fatigue may occur.
90 dB
Many years of exposure to such noise level would cause permanent

hearing loss.
100 dB
With short period of exposure to this noise level the aural acuity
may be impaired temporarily and prolonged exposure is likely to
cause irreparable damage to the auditory organ.
120 dB
Short exposure cause pain and other damages to human beings.
150 dB
Causes instantaneous loss of hearing.
190
Actually the acceptance level of noise depends upon the state of mind and the
expectation of a listener. A person can bear the monotonous sound in a sleeper coach
of a train as high as 70 dB and sleep comfortably as he expects it and mentally prepared
for it. The same person may get disturbed even by the ticking of a clock at 20 dB in
his bedroom.
8.8 ADVERSE EFFECTS OF NOISE

8.8.1 Effects on Human Body Function
Exposure to noise is likely to bring about activation of sympathetic nervous system in
a similar way as heat, cold, pain etc. One of the short time reactions is the change in
blood circulation. The other effects on brain and other organs are the increased release
of insulin in pancreas, increase in the secretion of oxitaxin and ADH from the posterior
and it also decreases the detoxifying function of the liver including aromatic substances
with carcinogenic effects. Long time noise can produce stomach ulcer, reduced flow
of gastric juice and change in acidity neurosis, allergies and circulatory disease, abortion
and other congenital defects in children, deafness etc.
8.8.2 Sleep Interference
The main annoying effect of noise is the interruption on sleep. Sleep is a must and even
one nights missed sleep may disturb us. One can become short tempered and weary.
Noise can interfere with sleep even when the sleeping person is not awakened.
8.8.3 Effect on Working Efficiency
It has been proved that the working efficiency reduces with increase in noise. Reduction
in noise from 96 dB to 87 dB has increased the performance by 12%. Reduction of noise
either by sound proofing or putting sound obstructing barriers improves the quality of
work. It also reduces the industrial accidents. The noise affects communication signals,
so reduction of noise increases the efficiency.
8.8.4 Effect on Wild Life
Noise produces physiological effects on human as well as animal health. It has been
surveyed that noise has adversely affected the wildlife of the country. It has been
observed by the zoo authorities that animals particularly deer, lions, rhino etc. are the
worst affected ones by the traffic noise. They become dull, inactive, lesser reproductive
and ill. Even the migratory birds are reduced if there is noise. In the forests because
of the human activity the noise increases and the animals like lion, tiger and elephants
feel segmentation and their reproduction is automatically reduced.
8.8.5 Effects on Non-living Things
Noise affects even the non-living things. High intensity noise may produce cracks into
buildings. The noise and vibrations from machinery result in shattering of foundations,
loosening of plaster and cracks in walls and house hold crockery.
Noise Pollution
191
8.9 CONTROL OF NOISE POLLUTION

Though the noise cannot be totally eliminated but can be reduced by adopting certain
measures. The basic principals of noise control are as follows.
8.9.1 Noise Control at Source
In an industry to control the noise at source the machinery should be equipped by
effective silencers, properly installed on the designed foundation and well maintained.
Use of shock absorbing material, efficient flow technique, reducing fluid jet velocities,
restricting sound producing area, reducing peak accelerations are some of the techniques
of noise control at source. Use of guards, covers, enclosures and muffler systems, sealing
all openings, use of proper cutting speeds and feed rate are other ways of noise
reduction. The proper maintenance of machines by lubrication and timely replacement
of bearings is the main thing required for the control of noise at source.
8.9.2 Noise Control along the Path
The modification of sound path includes:
i.
ii.
iii.
Use of solid high barriers to interrupt the direct transmission. Solid fences and
high earth berms can be provided up to attenuation along the highways.
Increasing distance between the source and the receiver.
By planting trees. Trees are very good absorber of the sound and otherwise
also very much useful as described earlier.
8.10 NOISE CONTROL AT RECEIVING END
To control the noise at receiver level following measures are adopted.

Double glazing windows in the building for improved sound proofing.
Gasketing and sealing door and windows openings.
Providing additional sound insulation for roofs and walls.
Isolate the operator from the noise.
By controlling hours of exposure to noise.
Use of personal protective devices like ear plugs, ear defenders, disposable ear
plugs etc.
8.11 OTHER WAYS OF NOISE CONTROL

Forming legislation for noise levels for various types of equipment, land use pattern,
declaration of silence zone, restricting the use of loudspeakers are some of the ways
of noise reduction. Actually, there are rules and regulations but their implementation
is difficult without the co-operation of masses. Educating people about hazards of
noise pollution and developing awareness at all levels can solve the problem. The
social workers should come up to ban the use of bands, orchestras, D.Js in the
marriages and other functions. The engineers should design the equipment with
192
minimum noise. The industrialists have to install and maintain the equipment &
machinery properly. The vehicle drivers should owe to restrict the use of horns of
their vehicles unnecessarily. The students should owe to stop the use of crackers on
festivals and other moments of joy. The demonstrations should be silent ones. Society
in general can reduce the noise pollution if it really wants so.
8.12 MEASUREMENT OF NOISE

Sound level meters are used to measure any type of sound under different conditions
and for a variety of reasons. For such applications measurement technique is carefully
selected and controlled to obtain valid and consistent results. The measurements are
generally taken at the receivers level i.e. 1.2 m above ground (human ear position). The
response of the meter depends upon the type of expected sound. The primary components
of a sound level meter are microphone, single conditioning electronics and some form
of filtering and an analog or digital indicator. The microphone is most important as
it converts acoustic signal into electrical signal. The microphone may be a carbon
microphone, condenser microphone, piezoelectric microphone or moving coil
electrodynamic microphone etc. A good microphone must produce minimum diffraction.
This is made possible by keeping its dimensions small compared to the weavelength
of sound to be measured. Its output should not be affected by temperature, humidity,
wind, atmospheric pressure and magnetic field. It should have low electrical noise and
should have flat frequency response. The output should have no distortion. It should
have high acoustic impedance and should be strong built.
8.13 CONCLUSION
The noise level is increasing day by day in urban and rural both environments. It is
detrimental in many ways and particularly for human health. It causes annoyance,
irritation, headache, insomnia, fatigue, mental disorders, increased perspiration, nausea,
high blood pressure, high pulse rate and other human ailments. All measures should
be adopted to reduce the noise at source level. If it is not possible to cut down the noise
then efforts should be made to reduce it in between, by say absorption by trees. Even
then if the sound reaching the listener is higher then permitted, personal protection
should be done by using ear plugs or dampeners. The duty hours should be such that
prolonged exposure to noise is restricted. The cities should be planned in such a way
that the heavy traffic is always bye passed and the other traffic should have a timely
entry. The vehicles with distorted silencers should be heavily panelized. Overloaded
trucks produce more noise. Use of horns should be limited and the pressure horns
should be totally banned. Use of loudspeakers should be banned and all processions
on the roads should be banned. Use of fire crackers making loud sound, on festivals
and other events should be restricted by law, rather banning their production. Sound
proofing should be done in factories and industries and offices. By adopting all these
measures the aim of noise control can be achieved.
Noise Pollution
193
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
What do you understand by noise pollution?

What is the meaning of noise level? Describe the term decibel.
Describe the term nature of sound.
What is amplitude and pitch of sound?
Tabulate the sound outputs of various sources.
Describe the sensitivity of sound.
What is the level of sound and its measurement?
Describe the effects of noise.
Discuss the various means of control of noise pollution.
Describe the ways of measurement of noise.
Name the various diseases caused due to noise.
Tabulate the acceptable indoor noise levels.
Tabulate the acceptable outdoor noise levels.
Tabulate the noise level data produced by home appliances.
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INDEX
A
Abiotic 116, 161
Abiotic environment 2, 23
Acceptable noise levels 188, 190
Acid fermentation 60
Acid rain 80
Activated sludge process 58
Acts and regulations 6
Adverse effects of noise 190
Aerated lagoons 58
Aeration 45, 57
Aero generator/hybrid systems 158
Aerosols 71
Agrochemicals 169
Air pollution 70
Air quality 170
Akshya urja shops 158
Algae 62
Animal husbandry 168
Aquatic ecology 120
Area elevation curve 20
Area source 74
Assessment 164
Attenuation 191
Autecology 119
Automobile pollution 78
B
Bacteriological standards 37
Basics of species 122
Bel 184
Bio gas 61
Bio-chemical oxygen demand 55
Bio-medical waste 110

Biodiversity 140
Biomass 156
Biomass or biogas power plant 175
Biome 131, 119
Biotic 116, 161
Biotic environment 2
Blue-green 62
C
Carbon cycle 128
Carbon monoxide 72
Carbonaceous 56
Catalytic converter 78
Central pollution control board 9
Cesspools 63
Characteristics of municipal solid waste 93
Chemical characteristics 39
Chlorides 40
Chlorination 57
Chlorofluorocarbons 3, 82
Climax 141
CNG 78
Co-efficient of runoff 53
Coagulation 43
Coliform bacterial 62
Community 118
Composting 105
Compressed air method 27
Compressions 184
Confined aquifer 27
Connective precipitation 15
Consumers 123
Consumptive use 163
200
Control of pollution act 50
Cultural invasion 171
Cyclic operation of ecosystems 124
Cyclone separators 77
Cyclonic precipitation 14
D
Data collection 164
Decibel 79, 84
Deforestation 169
Demineralization or deionisation process 48
Deserts 137
Detachable joints 55
Discoloration 77
Disinfection 44, 58
Dissolved oxygen 56, 67
District advisory committees 158
Drilling of tube-wells 23
DTH 25
Dynamic equilibrium 161
E
Earth dam 19
Earths house 115
Ecological study 117
Ecology 169
Ecosystem 118
Effluent 61
Effluent discharge standards 64
Eisenia sp 106
Electrostatic precipitators 77
Embrittlement, 77
Energy flow 132
Energy parks 158
Energy recovery 100, 103
Environment (protection) act 1986, 50
Environment 2, 119
Environmental cost 165
Environmental factors 2
Environmental impact assessment 163, 164
Environmental pollution 2
Environmental protection laws in india 7
Equitable development 163
Estuaries 136
Estuarine fish 169
Eutrophic 62
Eutrophication 61, 167
Evapotranspiration 14
Evolution 142
F
Fertility 168
Fibriosis, asbestosis 76
Filtration 43
Floods and droughts 166
Flow of energy 121
Flyash 101
Forests 4, 139, 169
Fossil fuels 6
Foul wastewater 51
G
Garbage 87
Gene ecology 121
Geological cycle 125
Geothermal energy 156, 174
Global phosphorus cycle 130
Global warming 3, 69, 79
Grasslands 138
Gravity dam 19
Greenhouse effect 79
Ground water yield 22
Guinea worm disease 171
H
Habitat 118
Hardness of water 40
Hazardous waste management 109
Hazardous waste 91
Historical monuments 170
Holistic 161
Holistic development 163
Humus 61, 164
Hydrocarbons 75
Hydroelectricity project 172
Hydrological cycle 1, 3, 125
I
Identification 164
Importance of trees 126
Index
201
Joined with the grid 172
Noise produced by home appliances 189

Noise 170
Non foul wastewater 5, 51
Nuclear power plant 174
Nutrient cycles 161
Lakes and ponds 137

Landfill 104
Landfill gas 175, 201
Least square method 177
Lime-soda process 47
London smog 74
Ocean thermal energy conversion 156

Oikologie 115
Oligotropic 62
Order 142
Organic manure 169
Organic pollution 62
Organisms 119
Orographic precipitation 15
Orthotolidine test 45
Outdoor noise levels 188
Outfall 62
Oxidation ponds 58
Oxides of nitrogen 72
Ozone 73
Ozone depletion 82
Ozone hole 3
Incineration 57, 103

Indoor noise level 188
M
M.O.E.F. 9
Malthusian logical modelling 144
Malthusian model 143
Manhole 52
Mannings co-efficient 55
Mannings formula 54
Marine echo system 62
Mathematical modeling 177
Mesophillic 61
Methane fermentation. 60
Methyl isocynate 71
Microclimatic changes 163, 166
Micronutrients 63
Microphone 192
Migration 171
Mineralisation 62
Minimization at the source 100
Ministry of non-conventional energy resources 6
Mobile source 74
Montreal protocol 83
N
Narmada valley development project 164
Natural contaminants 72
Navigation project 172
Niche 2, 118
Nightsoil 88
Nitrogen cycle 129
Nitrogenous 56
Noise 79, 183
P
Packing 142
Palaecology 121
Pan (peroxi acetyle nitrate) 73
Passive solar 152
Peak factor 53
Peak load plant 172
Percussion drilling 24
Permeability 21
PH of water 39
Phase transfer 57
Photochemical smog 73
Photosynthesis 62, 167
Physical and chemical standards 36
Physical characteristics 38
Piped water supply schemes 34
Pitch 185
Plain sedimentation 43
Point source 74
Pollution 130
Population analysis 142
202
Population characteristics 142

Population dynamics 143
Population interactions 121
Population 119, 142, 164
Porosity 21
Potential of wind power 157
Prediction 164, 177
Pressure of water 48
Prevention of pollution 49
Pump and tank schemes 33
Q
Quantities of solid waste
95
R
Rainfall 15
Rarefactions 184
Rational method 16, 52
Reconnaissance 176
Regional water supply schemes 33
Regulation of population 143
Rehabilitation 166
Renewable sources of energy 151
Resettlement 165
Respiration 62
Rock fill dam 19
Rotary drilling 25
Rubbish 87
Runoff 52
S
Saline soil 168
Sanitary landfill 108
Sanitation 5, 171
Saprotrophs 124
Savannah 131
Scavengers 162
Schistomiasis 171
Screening 42
Sea as an ecosystem 136
Sedimentation 57, 169
Seismicity 170
Self cleansing velocity 54

Self purification of water 56
Self reliance 171
Septic tanks 59, 64
Sewerage system 52, 168
Sewerless sanitation 66
Shrouding 26
Simons rain gauge 15
Skin cancer 83
Smog 71
Soak pits 65
Soil erosion 168
Solar chimney 152
Solar cookers 158
Solar energy 133, 174
Solar photovoltaic 151
Solar photovoltaic pumps 158
Solar power plants 158
Solar thermal 151
Solar water heating systems 158
Solid waste 87
Somatic 76
Sound development 162
Sound insulation 191
Sound level meters 192
Sound output 186
Species 117
Specific retention 23
Specific water demand 175
State pollution control board 9
Statistical modeling 177
Storage capacity of reservoirs 19
Storm 52
Storm frequency 53
Streams and rivers 136
Strength of the sewage 56
Succession 119
Sulphur cycle 129
Sulphur dioxide 72
Supersonic transport 83
Surface sources 13
Surging method 26
Index
Sustainable development 150, 162
Synecology 1
T
Taiga forests 139
Temperate forests 139
Temperate shrub forest 140
Terrestrial ecology 120
Thermal power plants 174
Thermophilic 61
Threshold of audibility 186
Threshold of pain 186
Tidal hydroelectricity project 172
Tipping bucket gauge 16
Toxic materials 36
Traditional source scheme 33
Transportation of solid waste 102
Trap 51
Treatment of solid waste 102
Trees 4
Trickling filter 58
Tropical rainforest 139
Tropical savannah 140
Tundras 1
U
Unconfined aquifer 27
Underground sources 14
Union carbide 71
Unit operations 57
Urban water supply schemes 32, 34
203
Utilization of waste
99
V
Vector borne diseases 171
Vehicular emissions 75
Vermi-composting 101
Vermicompost 169
W
Waste management approach 98
Waste water management 49, 51
Wastewater 51
Water (prevention and 49
Water borne diseases 171
Water carriage system 66
Water hyacinth 156, 167
Water logging 163, 167
Water resource project 164
Water softening 46
Wave energy generation 173
Wind energy 153
Wind energy project 173
Wind farms 153
Wind pumps 1
Y
Yield of a tube-well
27
Z
Zeolite process 47

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Copyright 2008, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers

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4. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

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5.3.1.3 Chemical Cycle

6. RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

7. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

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