Reading Between The Lines: What The ACT Reveals About College Readiness in Reading

COLLEGE
READINESS
Reading
Between
the Lines
What the ACT Reveals
About College Readiness
in Reading
Founded in 1959, ACT is an independent, not-for-profit organization

that provides more than a hundred assessment, research, information,
and program management services in the broad areas of education
planning, career planning, and workforce development. Each year,
we serve millions of people in high schools, colleges, professional
associations, businesses, and government agenciesnationally and
internationally. Though designed to meet a wide array of needs, all
ACT programs and services have one guiding purposehelping
people achieve education and workplace success.
2006 by ACT, Inc. All rights reserved.
7538
Reading Between the Lines

What the ACT Reveals About
College Readiness in Reading
Contents
A Message from ACTs CEO and Chairman ......................... i
1 Our Students Are Not Ready for College

and Workplace Reading ....................................................... 1
2 Ready or Not: What Matters in Reading? ....................... 11
3 Taking Action: How to Help All Students

Become Ready for College-Level Reading .................... 23
Appendix .................................................................................... 29
References ................................................................................... 51
A Message from ACTs CEO and Chairman

This report, which is anchored in ACT data, focuses on steps for
improving the reading skills of students attending our nations high
schools. The conclusions reported are based both on what ACT test
scores tell us about the reading skills of ACT-tested high school students
who graduated in 2005 and trends derived from students who have
taken the tests during the past ten years.
What appears, according to our data, to make the biggest difference
in students being ready to read at the college level is something that,
for the most part, is neither addressed in state standards nor reflected
in the high school curriculum. Our report offers insights into how state
standards in reading can be strengthened and how reading instruction
at the high school level can be changed to positively impact students
reading achievement.
It is our hope that the insights gained from our data will stimulate discussion
and action by educators and policymakers who share our interest in
ensuring that all students leave high school with the reading skills needed
for successful study in college or a workforce training program.
We share a common interest with teachers, school administrators, parents,
school boards, and those making policies affecting school curricula
we all want the very best for our children. We also recognize the challenges
inherent in achieving improvements in the reading skills of students from
diverse, and sometimes nonsupportive, backgrounds. Daunting and
enduring as those challenges are, we believe that, working together,
we can overcome them and prevail in our goal of ensuring that all of
our nations children leave high school armed with the reading skills
needed both in college and in the workplace.
Sincerely,
Richard L. Ferguson
ACT Chief Executive Officer and Chairman of the Board
1
Our Students Are Not Ready for
College and Workplace Reading
Only 51 percent of 2005 ACT-tested high school
graduates are ready for college-level readingand,
whats worse, more students are on track to being
ready for college-level reading in eighth and tenth
grade than are actually ready by the time they
reach twelfth grade.
Just over half of our students are able to meet the
demands of college-level reading, based on ACTs
national readiness indicator. Only 51 percent of ACTtested high school graduates met ACTs College
Readiness Benchmark for Reading, demonstrating
their readiness to handle the reading requirements for
typical credit-bearing first-year college coursework,
based on the 20042005 results of the ACT.
ACTs College Readiness

Benchmark for Reading
ACTs College Readiness Benchmark
for Reading represents the level of
achievement required for students to have
a high probability of success (a 75 percent
chance of earning a course grade of C or
better, a 50 percent chance of earning a
B or better) in such credit-bearing college
courses as Psychology and U.S. History
first-year courses generally considered to
be typically reading dependent. The
benchmark corresponds to a score of
21 on the ACT Reading Test.
100
90
80
70
70
Percent
60
59
50
54
53
54
49
51
40
30
33
36
33
20
21
10
Female
Male
African
Asian
Hispanic
Native
American American American American
White
Income
Income
Income
All
$30,000 $30,000 $100,000 students
to
$100,000
Figure 1: 2005 ACT-tested High School Graduates Meeting

ACT College Readiness Benchmark for Reading 1
1
Based on approximately 1.2 million high school students who took the ACT and indicated that they
would graduate from high school in 2005. Approximately 27 percent of these students were from the
East, 40 percent from the Midwest, 14 percent from the Southwest, and 19 percent from the West.
Unfortunately, the percentage of students who are ready for collegelevel reading is substantially smaller in some groups. As shown in
Figure 1 (on page 1), female students, Asian American students,
white students, and students from families whose yearly income
exceeds $30,000 are more likely than the ACT-tested population
as a whole to be ready for college-level reading. However, male
students, African American students, Hispanic American students,
Native American students, and students from families whose yearly
income is below $30,000 are less likely than the ACT-tested
population as a whole to be ready for college-level readingin some
instances, as much as one and a half to two and a half times less.
Student readiness for college-level reading is at its lowest point in
more than a decade. Figure 2 shows the percentages of ACT-tested
students who have met the Reading Benchmark each year since
1994. During the first five years, readiness for college-level reading
steadily increased, peaking at 55 percent in 1999. Since then,
readiness has declinedthe current figure of 51 percent is the
lowest of the past twelve years.
With a few variations, the same general pattern over time of increase
followed by decline holds for both genders and nearly all racial/ethnic
groups. Only the readiness of Asian American students, Native
American students, and white students has experienced some net
increase since 1994, while the readiness of female students returned
to its 1994 level after peaking in 1999.
60
58
56
54
52
53
53
54
54
55
54
53
53
52
52
2003
2004
51
52
50
48
46
44
42
40
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2005
Figure 2: ACT-tested High School Graduates Meeting Reading Benchmark, 19942005 2
Based on more than 12.5 million students who took the ACT from 19931994 to 20042005 and
indicated that they would graduate from high school during the relevant year.
The High Costs of Not Being Ready

for College-Level Reading
Troubling though these data are, they are not surprising given
the general condition of college and workplace readiness in the
United States today.
As discussed in Crisis at the Core: Preparing All Students for
College and Work (ACT, Inc., 2004), college readinessthe level
of preparation students need in order to be ready to enroll and
succeed without remediation in credit-bearing entry-level coursework
at a two- or four-year institution, trade school, or technical
schoolis currently inadequate and should be an
expectation for all high school students.
It is also recognized today that the knowledge and skills
needed for college are equivalent to those needed in
the workplace (American Diploma Project, 2004; Barth,
2003). Improving college and workforce readiness is
critical to developing a diverse and talented labor
force that will help ensure our nations economic
competitiveness in a growing global economy (Callan
& Finney, 2003; Cohen, 2002; Somerville & Yi, 2002).
Reading is an essential component of college and
workplace readiness. Low literacy levels often prevent high school
students from mastering other subjects (Alliance for Excellent
Education, 2002). Poor readers struggle to learn in text-heavy
courses and are frequently blocked from taking academically
more challenging courses (Au, 2000).
Much has been written about the literacy problem in U.S. high
schools. Recent trend results of the National Assessment of
Educational Progress for the period 19712004 show that, while
average reading scores for 9-year-old students in 2004 were the
highest they have ever been in the assessments history, scores
for 13-year-old students have risen only 3 points since 1975 and
scores for 17-year-old students have dropped 5 points since 1992
(Perie, Moran, & Lutkus, 2005).
According to the Alliance for Excellent Education (2002, 2003),
approximately six million of the nations secondary school students
are reading well below grade level. More than 3,000 students drop
out of high school every day (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2003),
and one of the most commonly cited reasons for the dropout rate is
that students do not have the literacy skills to keep up with the
curriculum (Kamil, 2003; Snow & Biancarosa, 2003).
International comparisons, such as the Programme for International

Student Assessment (PISA), which in 2003 tested more than 275,000
15-year-old students from 41 countries in reading as well as
mathematics, science, and problem solving, indicate that only about
one-third of U.S. 15-year-olds are performing at satisfactory reading
levels, with nine countries ranking statistically significantly higher
than the U.S. in average performance (Organisation for Economic
Co-Operation and Development, 2004).
Students at the college level are not faring much better. Eleven percent
of entering postsecondary school students are enrolled in remedial
reading coursework (National Center for Education Statistics, 2003).
Seventy percent of students who took one or more remedial reading
courses do not attain a college degree or certificate within eight years
of enrollment (Adelman, 2004).
NAEP Trends in Average Reading Scale Scores for Students

Ages 9, 13, and 17: 19712004
Scale
Score
500
320
310
300
290
285
286
285
289+
290+ 290+ 290+ 288 288
288
285
Age 17
280
270
260
255+
256+
208+
210+
258
257
257 257 260 258 258
259
259
Age 13
250
240
230
220
210
215+
211+
212+ 209+ 211+ 211+ 212+ 212+
219
200
0
1971
1975
1980
1984
1988 199019921994 1996
1999
2004
+ Significantly different from 2004.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education
Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), selected years, 19712004 Long-Term
Trend Reading Assessments.
Note. The data in this chart are from NAEP 2004 Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Student
Performance in Reading and Mathematics, by M. Perie, R. Moran, & A. D. Lutkus, 2005, Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
Age 9
Unfortunately, poor reading skills continue to limit opportunities

throughout our lifetimes. When students finish high school or college
to enter the workplace, these deficiencies in reading achievement
follow them. A survey by the National Association of Manufacturers,
Andersen, and the Center for Workforce Success (2001) found that
80 percent of businesses had a moderate to serious shortage of
qualified job candidates, citing poor reading as a key reason.
Another survey, published in 2000, found that 38 percent of job
applicants taking employer-administered tests lacked the reading
skills needed in the jobs for which they applied; this percentage had
doubled in four years, not just because applicants lacked basic skills
but also because the reading requirements for these jobs had
increased so rapidly (Center for Workforce Preparation, 2002).
According to one estimate, the shortage of
More Than Two-Thirds of New Jobs Require
basic literacy skills costs U.S. businesses,
Some Postsecondary Education
universities, and underprepared high
school graduates as much as $16 billion
Share of Jobs, 20002010
per year in decreased productivity and
No high school
remedial costs (Greene, 2000). The
diploma
10%
BusinessHigher Education Forum (2002)
Bachelors
High school
states the problem as follows: Without
degree
31%
diploma
22%
immediate action to correct [deficiencies] in
Some
elementary and secondary education
postsecondary
36%
resources nationwide, . . . tomorrows
workforce will be neither ready to meet the
challenges of a knowledge-intensive
Note. The data in this chart are from Standards for What?: The Economic
workplace, nor be able to take advantage
Roots of K16 Reform, by A.P. Carnevale and D.M. Desrochers, 2003,
Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Copyright 2003 by
of the vast opportunities that our economy
Educational Testing Service.
will offer (p. 27). The Business Roundtable
(2001) puts it even more strongly: Unless
school systems adopt higher standards, rigorously assess programs,
and hold schools responsible for results, too many students will
be unable to get and keep the kinds of jobs they want. And too
few companies will be able to sustain the growth they need to
compete (p. 5).
All of this, then, provides the background against which ACTs
findings about low levels of college readiness in reading among
U.S. high school graduates come as no surprise. What is surprising
about ACTs data is that, in terms of readiness for college-level
reading, students are actually losing momentum during high school.
Students Are Losing Momentum

in High School
More eighth- and tenth-graders are on track to being ready for
college-level reading than are actually ready when they graduate
from high school. ACT has developed College Readiness
Benchmarks for the eighth- and tenth-grade components of its early
college readiness preparation system, EPASTM (which includes
EXPLORE, PLAN, and the ACT). These Benchmarks are based on
the College Readiness Benchmarks for the ACT, adjusted to reflect
expected growth between eighth and tenth grades and between
tenth and twelfth grades. Figure 3 shows that, in a combined testing
population of four recent cohorts of students who participated in all
three EPAS programs (EXPLORE in grade 8, PLAN in grade 10, and
the ACT in grade 12), 62 percent of eighth-grade students are on
track to being ready for college-level reading by the time they
graduate from high school. The percentage of these same students
who are on track to being ready increases slightly when they reach
the tenth grade. However, by the time they take the ACT, a smaller
percentage of these same students are actually college ready in
reading. Similar patterns were seen in the four individual cohorts
(Figure 3) and by gender, race/ethnicity, and annual family income
level (Figure 4). Consistently, fewer students are ready for collegelevel reading by the time they graduate from high school than is
expected based on their performance in eighth and tenth grade.
100
EXPLORE
90
PLAN
80
ACT
70
Percent
60
62 63
63
57
50
65
61
63
56
56
62
61 61
54
63
56
40
30
20
10
1998/2000/2002
1999/2001/2003
2000/2002/2004
2001/2003/2005
Combined
Cohort
Figure 3: EXPLORE-, PLAN-, and ACT-tested Students Meeting Reading

Benchmarks, 19982002 to 20012005 3
3
The data in this figure are based on approximately 352,000 students.
State Reading Standards: Were Getting

What Weve Asked For
State standards in high school reading
are insufficientor nonexistent. Why are
students losing momentum in high school? One
reason may be that they are not being asked to
meet specific, rigorous reading standards during
their high school yearsa time when it is crucial
for them to continue refining their reading skills.
After the publication of A Nation at Risk (National
Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983),
states began to focus on setting explicit
educational standards and expectations for their
students. State educational progress began to be tracked publicly
as the states refined their standards, experimented with different
ways of communicating these standards to school administrators and
teachers so that they could be translated into classroom instruction,
and created tests designed to measure student progress. In just six
years, 47 states had either initiated statewide assessment programs
or substantially expanded programs already in existence.
100
EXPLORE
90
PLAN
80
ACT
75 75
70
71
69
65 66
Percent
60
64
57
66 67
62
60
58 59
58
53 54
54
50
64 65
48
40
50
48
46
42
50
40
35
30
32
25
20
10
Female
Male
African
Asian
Hispanic
Native
American American American American
White
Income
Income
Income
$30,000 $30,000 $100,000
to
$100,000
Figure 4: EXPLORE-, PLAN-, and ACT-tested Students Meeting Reading

Benchmarks by Gender, Race/Ethnicity, and Selected Family Income Level,
19982002 to 20012005 (combined)4
4
The data in this figure are based on approximately 352,000 students (gender), 331,000 students
(race/ethnicity), and 283,000 students (income).
With the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001, all
elementary school students are now expected to meet educational
standards, and schools are now held accountable for their
effectiveness at helping students meet this goal. Forty-nine states
have educational standards in place. One effect of this legislation has
been an unprecedented demand for rigorous standards that spell out
clearly what students need to know and be able
to do in order to move on to the next stage of
Deficits in Acquiring Reading
their education.
Comprehension Strategies
However, a careful analysis of state standards
Some children encounter obstacles in learning to
in reading at the high school level leads to a
read because they do not derive meaning from the
very different conclusion about the importance
material that they read. In the later grades, higher
of reading to student success in college and
order comprehension skills become paramount for
learning. Reading comprehension places significant
work. Research shows that students must
demands on language comprehension and general
continue to develop their reading ability long
verbal abilities. Constraints in these areas will
after they are typically considered literate
typically limit comprehension. In a more specific vein,
(Lyon, 2002; Moore, Bean, Birdyshaw, & Rycik,
deficits in reading comprehension are related to:
1999). But according to our analysis of state
(1) inadequate understanding of the words used
standards, 28 of the 49 states with standards
in the text;
more than halffully define grade-level
standards in reading only through the eighth
(2) inadequate background knowledge about the
grade.
domains represented in the text;
(3) a lack of familiarity with the semantic and
syntactic structures that can help to predict
the relationships between words;
(4) a lack of knowledge about different writing
conventions that are used to achieve different
purposes via text (humor, explanation,
dialogue, etc.);
(5) verbal reasoning ability which enables the
reader to read between the lines; and
(6) the ability to remember verbal information.
If children are not provided early and consistent
experiences that are explicitly designed to foster
vocabulary development, background knowledge,
the ability to detect and comprehend relationships
among verbal concepts, and the ability to actively
employ strategies to ensure understanding and
retention of material, reading failure will occur no
matter how robust word recognition skills are.
Lyon, 2002
At the high school level, 20 of these 28

states specify only a single group of
reading standards intended to cover
grades 9 through 12standards that do
not recognize expectations for increasing
proficiency in reading during those years.
Six additional states specify standards for
only one, two, or three high school grades,
ignoring the other grades altogether.
Two additional states specify just one set
of standards for a subset of grades.
Overall (including Iowa, which has not

identified state standards), nearly 60 percent
29 statesdo not have grade-specific
standards that define the expectations for
reading achievement in high school. If such
standards dont exist, teachers cant teach
to them and students cant learn them. You
cant get what you dont ask for.
High School Reading Instruction

Is Not Sufficient
Not enough high school teachers are
teaching reading skills or strategies and
many students are victims of teachers low
expectations. Another likely reason that high
school students are losing momentum in
readiness for college-level reading is that
reading is simply not taught much, if at all,
during the high school years, not even in
English courses. As one educator explains:
[A]s a group, the teachers reporting on a class of

primarily college-bound students teach and place
greater importance on a broader range of reading
process skills than do the teachers reporting on a
class of primarily noncollege-bound students. . . .
The difference in process skills taught is not merely
quantitative, but qualitative as well. . . . [T]he process
skills most heavily favoring college-bound classes
in terms of percent taught . . . were elements of
sophisticated, high-level critical reading.
High school English teachers . . . are

traditionally viewedand view themselves
Patterson, Happel, & Lyons, 2004
as outside the teaching of reading, because
the assumption has been that students come
to them knowing how to read. . . . High school
English teachers rarely have the backgrounds to
assist the least able readers in their classes, and additionally are often uncertain
about what reading instruction actually involves. (Ericson, 2001, pp. 1, 2)
If this is true of English teachers, how much truer must it be of teachers in

other courses? Meltzer (2002) reports:
Overwhelmed by higher content standards, many . . . high school teachers
feel under pressure to cover more content than ever before and are resistant
to adding literacy responsibilities to their crowded course calendars. . . .
Since literacy is not visible as a content area, it is not owned by any specific
department. The English department, it is wrongly assumed, takes care of that.
(pp. 9, 10)
But even where reading is an element of the high school curriculum

usually as part of English or social studies coursesACT research
suggests that low teacher expectations can prevent some students from
being taught the reading skills they need for college and work. According
to data gathered as part of the 20022003 ACT National Curriculum
Survey (ACT, Inc., 2003), if teachers perceived students to be primarily
college bound, they were more likely to focus their instruction on higherlevel critical reading skills. If they perceived students not to be college
bound, they were less likely to teach these critical reading skills (Patterson,
Happel, & Lyons, 2004; Patterson & Duer, in press). These practices are
simply not acceptable.
Maximum Average Score Increase
Beyond-Core Coursework in
Social Studies Only Slightly Improves
ACT Reading Test Score
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
ACT research has well documented the strong positive impact

of taking rigorous courses in high school, particularly in English,
mathematics, and science (ACT, Inc., 2004). According to 2005
data (shown in Figure 5), students who take additional, beyond-core
science courses (i.e., Physics) earn ACT Science Test scores that
are up to 3 points higher, on average, than the scores of students
who take only the core science curriculum. In mathematics, students
who take additional courses (i.e., advanced math beyond Algebra II)
have ACT Mathematics Test scores that are up to 6.8 points higher,
on average, than the scores of students who take only the core
mathematics curriculum. These increases are
on a score scale ranging from 1 to 36 and
ACTs Recommended Core Curriculum
represent statistically significant gains.
English: at least four years (typically English 9,
However, Figure 5 also shows that additional
English 10, English 11, and English 12)
coursework in social studiesthe high school
Mathematics: at least three years (typically
subject area that overlaps most closely with
Algebra I, Algebra II, and Geometry)
the kinds of college social sciences courses
Social studies: at least three years (may include
used to establish the ACT College Readiness
U.S. History, World History, U.S. Government,
Benchmark for Readingresults in an average
Economics, Geography, Psychology, European
ACT Reading Test score no more than 1 point
History, state history)
higher than that associated with the
Natural sciences: at least three years (typically
recommended three years of social studies.
General/Physical/Earth Science, Biology, and
And this includes even those students who
Chemistry)
took the equivalent of five years of social
studies in high school. This suggests that
taking additional years of social studies
coursework alone does not have a large
6.8
differential impact on the readiness of ACTtested students to handle the level of reading
required in college social sciences courses.
However, as will be discussed in the next
3
chapter, what appears to matter in readiness
for college-level reading is not the number of
1
courses students take, but what is being asked
ACT Reading Test
ACT Science Test ACT Mathematics Test
of students in these courses. We examined
student performance on the ACT Reading Test
Figure 5: Maximum Average Test Score
from a number of perspectives in an attempt to
Increases Associated with Beyond-core
answer the question of what really matters in
Subject-specific Coursework for 2005
reading.
ACT-tested High School Graduates
10
2
Ready or Not: What Matters
in Reading?
Those ACT-tested students who can read complex texts
are more likely to be ready for college. Those who cannot read
complex texts are less likely to be ready for college.
100
90
80
70
Percent Enrolled
Students who meet the ACT Benchmark

for Reading are more likely to enroll and
do better in college than students who do
not meet the Benchmark. ACT research
demonstrates the clear benefits experienced
by students who attain the College
Readiness Benchmark for Reading:
increased college enrollment in the fall
immediately following high school graduation,
higher grades in selected first-year college
social-sciences courses, higher first-year
college grade-point average (GPA), and
increased retention (defined as those who
return for a second year of college at the
same institution). These benefits are
illustrated in Figures 6 through 9.
The figures show that students who meet the

Reading Benchmark are more likely than students
who do not meet the Benchmark to:
74
60
59
50
40
30
20
10
Met Reading Benchmark
Figure 6: Fall 2003 College Enrollment for 2003

ACT-tested High School Graduates Meeting and
Not Meeting ACTs College Readiness Benchmark
for Reading 5
enroll in college (74 percent vs. 59 percent);

earn a grade of B or higher (63 percent vs. 36 percent) or C or higher
(85 percent vs. 64 percent) in first-year college U.S. History courses;
earn a grade of B or higher (64 percent vs. 39 percent) or C or higher
(85 percent vs. 68 percent) in first-year college Psychology courses;
earn a first-year college GPA of 3.0 or higher (54 percent vs.
33 percent) or 2.0 or higher (87 percent vs. 76 percent); and
return for a second year of college at the same institution
(78 percent vs. 67 percent).
Based on approximately 1.2 million students.
11
Did Not Meet Reading Benchmark
100
Met Benchmark
90
Did Not Meet Benchmark
85
Percent Acheiving Grade
80
85
70
68
60
64
63
64
50
40
39
36
30
20
10
U.S. History
(B or Higher)
Psychology
(B or Higher)
U.S. History
(C or Higher)
Psychology
(C or Higher)
Figure 7: ACT-tested High School Graduates Meeting and Not Meeting ACTs College
Readiness Benchmark for Reading Who Achieved Specific Grades in Selected First-year
College Social-Sciences Courses 6
100
100
Met Benchmark
90
90
Did Not Meet Benchmark
87
80
78
76
60
50
54
40
30
70
Percent Re-enrolled
70
Percent Acheiving GPA
80
67
60
50
40
30
33
20
20
10
10
3.0 or Higher
2.0 or Higher
College GPA
Figure 8: ACT-tested High School Graduates Meeting

and Not Meeting ACTs College Readiness Benchmark
for Reading Who Achieved Specific First-year College
Grade-point Averages (GPA) 7
Figure 9: Fall 2004 Second-year College Retention

Rate at Same Institution for 2003 ACT-tested
High School Graduates Meeting and Not Meeting
ACTs College Readiness Benchmark for Reading 8
Based on data across multiple years from institutions participating in ACTs Course Placement Service. Approximately 6,000 students were
included in the analysis for U.S. History, and approximately 7,000 were included in the analysis for Psychology.
Based on data across multiple years from institutions participating in ACTs High School Feedback Service. Approximately 302,000 students
were included in the analysis.
Based on approximately 779,000 first-year college students.
12
But what differentiates students who meet the Reading Benchmark

from students who do not? We looked at student performance on
three aspects of ACT Reading Test content: comprehension level,
textual elements, and text complexity.
Comprehension Level
Questions on the Reading Test assess two levels of comprehension:
literal and inferential. Literal comprehension requires test-takers to
identify information stated explicitly in the text, often within a defined
section. Inferential comprehension requires test-takers to process
and interpret information not stated explicitly in the texti.e., to make
inferences, often by drawing on material from different sections.
Figure 10 presents the results of the analysis by comprehension level.
100
Average Percentage of
Questions Correct
90
Literal
Inferential
80
70
60
50
40
30
ACT Reading Benchmark
20
10
0
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Figure 10: Performance on the ACT Reading Test by Comprehension Level

(Averaged across Seven Forms)9
Figure 10 shows essentially no difference in student performance on

the two comprehension levels across the score range, either above or
below the ACT College Readiness Benchmark for Reading. At each
score point, the percentages of literal and inferential comprehension
questions answered correctly are virtually identical. Whats more, both
above and below the Benchmark, improvement in performance on
each of the two levels is uniform and gradualthat is, as performance
on one level increases, so does performance on the other, and to
almost exactly the same degree. Given this steadily increasing linear
relationship between ACT Reading Test score and reading proficiency,
there is no clear differentiator here between those students who are
ready for college-level reading and those who are not.
Analyses presented in this and the succeeding two figures were based on approximately 563,000
students who took any of seven test forms administered between Fall 2003 and Spring 2005. It was
not possible to analyze performance below a score of 11 due to the small number of students
scoring in this range.
13
Textual Elements
Questions on the Reading Test focus on five kinds of textual
elements: 1) main idea or authors approach, 2) supporting details,
3) relationships (sequential, comparative, or cause and effect),
4) meaning of words, and 5) generalizations and conclusions.
Figure 11 presents the results of the analysis by textual element.
As was the case in Figure 10, Figure 11 also shows almost no
differences in student performance among the five textual elements
across the score range, either above or below the Reading
Benchmark. Again the percentages of questions answered correctly
on the five kinds of textual elements are nearly identical, and again
improvement on each of the five kinds is uniform and gradual. Thus,
with similar relationships seen among these textual elements, there is
no clear point of differentiation that can be used to distinguish those
who are ready for college-level reading from those who are not.
Text Complexity
Texts used in the ACT Reading Test reflect three degrees of
complexity: uncomplicated, more challenging, and complex.
Table 1 summarizes the chief distinctions among the three
degrees of text complexity.
Table 1
Characteristics of Uncomplicated, More Challenging,
and Complex Texts on the ACT Reading Test
Degree of Text Complexity
Aspect of Text
Group
Relationships
Uncomplicated
More Challenging
Complex
2000
Basic, straightforward
Sometimes implicit
Subtle, involved,
deeply embedded
Richness
Minimal/limited
Moderate/more
detailed
Sizable/highly
sophisticated
Structure
Simple, conventional
More involved
Elaborate, sometimes
unconventional
Plain, accessible
Richer, less plain
Often intricate
Familiar
Some difficult, contextdependent words
Demanding, highly
context dependent
Clear
Conveyed with
some subtlety
Implicit, sometimes
ambiguous
Style
Vocabulary
Purpose
14
As shown in Table 1, the three types of texts represent a continuum of

increasing complexity with respect to the following six aspects (which
can be abbreviated to RSVP):
Relationships (interactions among ideas or characters)
Richness (amount and sophistication of information conveyed
through data or literary devices)
Structure (how the text is organized and how it progresses)
Style (authors tone and use of language)
Vocabulary (authors word choice)
Purpose (authors intent in writing the text)
62
100
60
Main Idea/Authors Approach

Supporting Details
Relationships
Meaning of Words
Generalizations and Conclusions
Questions Correct
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Figure 11: Performance on the ACT Reading Test by Textual Element

(Averaged across Seven Forms)
100
Questions Correct
90
80
70
Uncomplicated
More Challenging
Complex
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Figure 12: Performance on the ACT Reading Test by Degree of Text Complexity
(Averaged across Seven Forms)
15
What appears to differentiate those who are more likely to be ready

from those who are less likely is their proficiency in understanding
complex texts. The results of the analysis by degree of text complexity
are presented in Figure 12.
In this figure, performance on questions associated with uncomplicated
and more challenging texts both above and below the ACT College
Readiness Benchmark for Reading follows a pattern similar to those
in Figures 10 and 11, in that improvement on each of the two kinds
of questions is gradual and fairly uniform. There
is, however, a difference in the percentages of
Degree of Text Complexity and
questions answered correctly for the two kinds of
texts: for the most part, students correctly answer
Performance on ACT Reading Test questions
a higher percentage of questions associated with
by degree of text complexity is associated with
uncomplicated texts than of questions associated
substantial score differences on the test.
with more challenging texts.
Correctly answering questions based on texts
classified as more challenging is associated
with Reading Test scores that are 3 points
higher on average than scores associated
with correctly answering questions based on
uncomplicated texts. Correctly answering
questions based on complex passages is
associated with Reading Test scores that are
between 6 and 7 points higher on average
than scores associated with correctly
answering questions based on more
challenging texts, and between 9 and 10
points higher on average than scores
associated with correctly answering questions
based on uncomplicated texts.
But when we look at performance on questions

associated with complex texts, we see a
substantially different pattern. Below the
Reading Benchmark, the percentage of questions
answered correctly remains virtually constant
and not much higher than the level suggested
by chance (25 percent, given that each question
contains four answer choices).
Most importantly, above the Reading Benchmark

performance improves more steeply than it does
with either of the other two levels of text complexity,
indicating that students who can master the skills
In other words, students who correctly answer
necessary to read and understand complex texts
questions based on complex texts can score
are more likely to be college ready than those who
potentially as many as 10 points higher on the
cannot. It is not until the uppermost end of the
Reading Test than students who can correctly
answer only questions based on
score scale that student performance on questions
uncomplicated texts.
associated with all three degrees of text complexity
is roughly the same. Furthermore, the three
performance patterns shown in Figure 12 hold for both genders,
all racial/ethnic groups, and all annual family income levels.
What does this mean? For one thing, it shows that degree of text
complexity differentiates student performance better than either the
comprehension level or the kind of textual element tested. (See the
sidebar for information about how degrees of text complexity are
associated with specific average score increases on the ACT
Reading Test.) But another, more important, conclusion is that,
because of its distinct pattern of performance increases relative to
the ACT College Readiness Benchmark, performance on complex
texts is the clearest differentiator in reading between students who
16
are likely to be ready for college and those who are not. And this
is true for both genders, all racial/ethnic groups, and all family
income levels.
Complex Texts: A Closer Look

As Table 1 showed, a complex text is typically complex in the
following ways:
Relationships: Interactions among ideas or characters in
the text are subtle, involved, or deeply embedded.
Richness: The text possesses a sizable amount of highly
sophisticated information conveyed through data or literary
devices.
Structure: The text is organized in ways that are elaborate
and sometimes unconventional.
Style: The authors tone and use of language are often intricate.
Vocabulary: The authors choice of words is demanding and
highly context dependent.
Purpose: The authors intent in writing the
text is implicit and sometimes ambiguous.
But it makes sense to examine complex texts

in more depth now that we know the significant
role these texts play in students college
readiness. It is one thing to state, for example,
that complex texts contain demanding, highly
context-dependent vocabulary, but quite
another to see how such vocabulary functions
within a text.
Figures 13 and 14 (pages 1821) present
annotated samples of complex texts, in the
content areas of prose fiction and natural
science, that have been used on the ACT
Reading Test. (See the Appendix for annotated
examples of additional complex texts in the
humanities and social science areas.)
[T]here has been little improvement in areas

indicating the substantive content of the English
curriculum or the level of difficulty in reading
expected by graduation. A few states have
content-rich and content-specific literature
standards at the high school level. But there has
been a decline in the number that seemingly want
their English teachers to know how high their
academic expectations in reading for students
should be by the end of high school.
. . . [W]hile a states formal content may sometimes
seem demanding (e.g., when it expects study
of such literary devices as irony or flashbacks),
without standards outlining its substantive content,
its formal content can be addressed as easily
in simple texts as in complex texts with literary
qualities. One can study onomatopoeia in The
Three Little Pigs as well as in The Raven.
Stotsky, 2005
It seems likely that while much of the reading material that students
encounter in high school may reflect progressively greater content
challenges, it may not actually require a commensurate level of text
complexity. This observation appears to be consistent with a recent
study by ACT and the Education Trust, On Course for Success
(Continued on page 22)
17
Figure 13: Annotated Complex Text from the ACT Reading Test (Prose Fiction)
This text describes two complex, well-developed characters, Sunday and Delta, and their strained yet
loving relationship. One factor that contributes to the complexity of the text is its structure: the thirdperson narrator presents the two sisters both as they see themselves and how each sees the other.
PROSE FICTION: This passage is adapted from the novel
Night Water by Helen Elaine Lee (1996 by Helen Elaine Lee).
There had been no words for naming when she

was born. She was Girl Owens on the stamped paper
that certified her birth, and at home, she had just been
Sister, that was all. When asked to decide, at six,
what she would be called, she had chosen Sunday, the
time of voices, lifted in praise.
VOCABULARY: Beginning with the opening

sentenceThere had been no words for naming
when she was bornthe text uses fairly
sophisticated syntax.
That was one piece of the story, but other parts had
gone unspoken, and some had been buried, but were not
at rest. She was headed back to claim them, as she had
taken her name.
She could smell the burnt, sweet odor of the paper
mill that sprawled across the edge of town, and as the
train got closer, she remembered all that she saw. She
felt herself entering the greens and reds and browns of
her own paintings, pulling aside her brushstrokes as if
they were curtains and stepping through. There were
autumn trees on fire everywhere, and she moved
beyond the surface of color and texture into the hidden
layers of the past, from which she had learned to speak
her life with paint.
The train passed through the part of town where
she grew up. She watched as they left behind the neat,
compact frame houses and hollow storage buildings.
She was going back to piece together their family story
of departure and return. She saw it all from the inside
out, as native and exile, woman and child. From all that
she remembered and all that she was. She was Girl
Owens and Sister. She was Sunday, and she was headed
home.
Waiting for Sundays arrival, Delta Owens stepped
out onto the front porch. She hoped she would be able
to find the right way to approach Sunday, with whom
she had only been in touch by mail for five years. She
had tried to demonstrate a persistent bond with the help
of words put together by experts, choosing for each
birthday and holiday an oversized greeting card,
depending on its ornate script and polished rhyme to
express what she had never been able to say. Each one
she had signed Always, Delta before addressing the
envelope carefully and mailing it off to Chicago. She
had heard back irregularly, receiving wood block prints
or splashes of paint on wefts of heavy paper with
ragged edges or on see-through skins. Each one she had
turned round and round, looking for right-side up with
the help of the signature. Each one she had saved.
Though she hadnt known what, specifically, to make of
any of them, she knew their appearance said something
about the habit of love.
RICHNESS: Imagery abounds in the text, as in

the third paragraph, when Sunday is said to have
felt herself entering the greens and reds and
browns of her own paintings.
STRUCTURE: Here, the text shifts to mainly

relating Deltas perspective after presenting
Sundays perspective.
18
They had kept up contact despite the differences

that had accumulated over the years and finally erupted
in accusations and insults after Nanas death. In the
wide, post-funeral quiet, after the visitors had gone
home, they had both uttered things huge and
unerasable.
STYLE; RELATIONSHIPS: As the narrator relates

the argument, readers get not only the words
used but also the motives and reactions.
She had always known how Sunday felt about

home. Im in a little box, she had often complained
while growing up, trying to express to Delta how different she felt, how she was of it, but would never be
able to stay. And Delta, who had fought anyone who
criticized her sister, had listened and comforted her, but
hadnt really understood. Sunday was the one she was
different from.
This place pulls you down and holds you,
Sunday had said. Delta, dont you see, it pulls you
down and holds you, silent and safe.
What Sunday said that night was condemnation of
a place, but Delta absorbed it all. She was of Wake
County and caught in that understanding of herself.
Intoxicated with saying what had long been felt, they
both spoke freely and all barriers fell. Most of the
things Sunday said had not surprised Delta, but one
indictment had left her open-mouthed: You dont even
see my painting, Sunday had accused, you dont even
see me at all.
VOCABULARY; RELATIONSHIPS: The concepts

the author presents are often complicated, subtle,
and abstract, such as the idea that being safe is a
bad thing, or when the narrator notes that Delta
was of Wake County and caught in that
understanding of herself.
Delta had laughed callously at the accusation, for

she knew, though she couldnt have said it, that for
most of her life she had seen little else. She had
answered by calling her a misfit who thought she was
better than the folks she had left behind. And it was
Deltas recognition of her own rancor, as much as the
substance of what they said, that staggered and disgraced her. She hadnt even realized all the things for
which she couldnt forgive Sunday, hadnt known her
own smallness until she found herself measuring her
sister out loud.
Finally, the rush of words had ended, and they had
silently straightened up and gone upstairs without
repairing their trespasses. Sunday had gathered and
packed her things in a wild, tearful stupor of regret and
relief, while Delta cried herself to sleep with bitter
remorse.
Delta pushed that night from her mind, hoping that
this visit might help them leave behind their troubled
history.
19
RELATIONSHIPS: As the last two paragraphs

reveal, the current state of Sundays and Deltas
relationship is a mixture of hurt, betrayal, hope,
and love.
Figure 14: Annotated Complex Text from the ACT Reading Test (Natural Science)
This text contains a great deal of information related to the idea of biological uniqueness, focusing
on the collaboration between a particular species of medusa and a particular kind of nudibranch.
The vocabulary in the text is often demanding and the concepts are subtly presented.
NATURAL SCIENCE: This passage is adapted from Lewis
Thomass The Medusa and the Snail: More Notes of a Biology
Watcher (1979 by Lewis Thomas).
We tend to think of our selves as the only wholly

unique creations in nature, but it is not so. Uniqueness is
so commonplace a property of living things that there is
really nothing at all unique about it. Even individual,
free-swimming bacteria can be viewed as unique entities, distinguishable from each other even when they are
the progeny of a single clone. Spudich and Koshland
have recently reported that motile microorganisms of
the same species are like solitary eccentrics in their
swimming behavior. When they are searching for food,
some tumble in one direction for precisely so many seconds before quitting, while others tumble differently and
for different, but characteristic, periods of time. If you
watch them closely, tethered by their flagellae to the
surface of an antibody-coated slide, you can tell them
from each other by the way they twirl, as accurately as
though they had different names.
PURPOSE: The text begins with a general

discussion of the phenomenon of biological
uniqueness, arguing, paradoxically, that
uniqueness is so commonplace a property of
living things that there is nothing at all unique
about it.
Fish can tell each other apart as individuals, by the

smell of self. So can mice, and here the olfactory discrimination is governed by the same H2 locus which
contains the genes for immunologic self-marking.
The markers of self, and the sensing mechanisms
responsible for detecting such markers, are conventionally regarded as mechanisms for maintaining individuality for its own sake, enabling one kind of creature to
defend and protect itself against all the rest. Selfness,
seen thus, is for self-preservation.
In real life, though, it doesnt seem to work this
way. The self-marking of invertebrate animals in the
sea, who must have perfected the business long before
evolution got around to us, was set up in order to permit
creatures of one kind to locate others, not for predation
but to set up symbiotic households. The anemones who
live on the shells of crabs are precisely finicky; so are
the crabs. Only a single species of anemone will find its
way to only a single species of crab. They sense each
other exquisitely, and live together as though made for
each other.
RELATIONSHIPS: In the third and fourth

paragraphs, the author presents and then
challenges the way the markers of the self, and
the sensing mechanisms responsible for detecting
such markers, are conventionally regarded.
Sometimes there is such a mix-up about selfness

that two creatures, each attracted by the molecular configuration of the other, incorporate the two selves to
make a single organism. The best story Ive ever heard
about this is the tale told of the nudibranch and medusa
living in the Bay of Naples. When first observed, the
nudibranch, a common sea slug, was found to have a
tiny vestigial parasite, in the form of a jellyfish, permanently affixed to the ventral surface near the mouth. In
curiosity to learn how the medusa got there, some
20
marine biologists began searching the local waters for

earlier developmental forms, and discovered something
amazing. The attached parasite, although apparently so
specialized as to have given up living for itself, can still
produce offspring, for they are found in abundance at
certain seasons of the year. They drift through the upper
waters, grow up nicely and astonishingly, and finally
become full-grown, handsome, normal jellyfish.
Meanwhile, the snail produces snail larvae, and these
too begin to grow normally, but not for long. While still
extremely small, they become entrapped in the tentacles
of the medusa and then engulfed within the umbrellashaped body. At first glance, youd believe the medusae
are now the predators, paying back for earlier humiliations, and the snails the prey. But no. Soon the snails,
undigested and insatiable, begin to eat, browsing away
first at the radial canals, then the borders of the rim,
finally the tentacles, until the jellyfish becomes reduced
in substance by being eaten while the snail grows correspondingly in size. At the end, the arrangement is back
to the first scene, with the full-grown nudibranch
basking, and nothing left of the jellyfish except the
round, successfully edited parasite, safely affixed to the
skin near the mouth.
RICHNESS: The heart of the text, the fifth and

sixth paragraphs, is a discussion of the
complicated medusa-nudibranch interaction, which
serves mainly to help make the authors broader
point about the commonness of uniqueness in
biology.
It is a confusing tale to sort out, and even more

confusing to think about. Both creatures are designed
for this encounter, marked as selves so that they can find
each other in the waters of the Bay of Naples. The collaboration, if you want to call it that, is entirely specific;
it is only this species of medusa and only this kind of
nudibranch that can come together and live this way.
And, more surprising, they cannot live in any other way;
they depend for their survival on each other. They are
not really selves, they are specific others.
Ive never heard of such a cycle before. [These
creatures] are bizarre, thats it, unique. And at the same
time, like a vaguely remembered dream, they remind me
of the whole earth at once.
21
STRUCTURE: The text ends, somewhat jarringly

and cryptically, with a personal observation about
how the medusa and the nudibranch remind the
author of the whole earth at once.
(2004), which examined the curricula of ten high schools that have been
especially successful at graduating students who are ready for college
and work. This study reported that many of the courses offered at these
schools were characterized by reading loads greater than those required
by similar courses at other schools. As one teacher who participated in
the study observed, the reading material in the rigorous high school
courses aimed at preparing students for college is certainly more
abundant, and at times a little more challenging (p. 18) than in typical
high school courses.
State Standards Do Not Address

Text Complexity
In the previous chapter we saw that nearly 60 percent of states do not
have grade-specific standards that define the expectations for reading
achievement in high school. Our discussion of text complexity leads
us to make another, more sobering observation about state standards.
Although 10 of the 49 states with standards provide names of works or
authors that could be used as indices of the complexity of recommended
high school reading material, none of the state standards attempts to
define explicitly the degree of complexity a specific grade-level text
should have. Relationships, Richness, Structure, Style, Vocabulary,
Purposenone of these RSVP aspects is described in detail anywhere
in any states reading standards.
So, just as with grade-specific state reading standards, when it comes to
defining and requiring certain specific levels of complexity in students
high school reading materials, were getting what were asking for. And
students college and workplace readiness is the worse for it.
22
3
Taking Action: How to Help
All Students Become Ready
for College-Level Reading
We can no longer afford to ignore reading instruction in high school.
Something must be done to improve the reading proficiency of
all students.
As we have seen, students who cant read and understand complex
texts arent likely to be ready for college or the workforce. And as we
have also seen, students who arent ready for college or work are less
able to participate in, and contribute to, an increasingly global economy.
What can be done to improve the readiness of our high school students
for college-level reading?
1. Strengthen reading instruction in all high school courses by
incorporating complex reading materials into course content.
The type of text to which students are exposed in high school has a
significant impact on their readiness for college-level reading.
Specifically, students need to be able to read complex texts if they
are to be ready for college. All courses in high school, not just English
and social studies but mathematics and science as well, must
challenge students to read and understand complex texts. As we
saw in the previous chapter, a complex text is typically complex with
respect to:
Relationships (interactions among ideas or characters are subtle,
involved, or deeply embedded);
Richness (a sizable amount of highly
sophisticated information conveyed
through data or literary devices);
Structure (elaborate, sometimes
unconventional);
At ages 13 and 17, the percentage saying they read

for fun almost every day was lower in 2004 than in
1984. This trend was accompanied by an increase
over the same 20-year time period in the percentage
indicating that they never or hardly ever read for fun.
Perie, Moran, & Lutkus, 2005
Style (often intricate);

Vocabulary (demanding and highly context dependent); and
Purpose (implicit and sometimes ambiguous).
In most cases, a complex text will contain multiple layers of meaning,

not all of which will be immediately apparent to students upon a
23
single superficial reading. Rather, such texts require students to

work at unlocking meaning by calling upon sophisticated reading
comprehension skills and strategies. (In addition to those
presented in Figures 13 and 14, other distinguishing features of
complex texts are described in Figures 20 and 21 of the
Appendix. Annotated examples of more challenging texts used
on the ACT Reading Test are also included in the Appendix, as
Figures 16 through 19.)
Certainly, students will need to make the effort, both inside and
outside of school, to enhance their comprehension of complex
texts. But in a nation where 13- and 17-year-olds have
increasingly less exposure to or interaction with books outside of
the classroom (Perie, Moran, & Lutkus, 2005), high schools must
still play the primary role in providing students with the kinds of
complex reading materials and experiences they need in order to
be college and work ready and must continue to teach and
reinforce reading strategies that deal with increasingly more
complex reading tasks.
Students must have the opportunity to improve their reading skills
and strategies at a time when they need to build upon the
foundational skills in reading that they developed when they
entered high school. They must be given more opportunities to
read challenging materials across the curriculum so that they are
better positioned to comprehend complex texts in all subjects
once they enter college or the workplace.
2. Revise state standards so that they both explicitly define
reading expectations across the high school curriculum and
incorporate increasingly complex texts into the English,
mathematics, science, and social studies courses in grades 9
through 12. Without specific reading standards across the
curriculum, teachers cannot be expected to know what level of
reading proficiency students should be expected to attain
or what degree of text complexity is appropriate in each subject
and grade. Reading standards that address text complexity
should be embedded in English, mathematics, science, and
social studies standards.
3. Make targeted interventions to help students who have fallen
behind in their reading skills. As we strengthen high school
courses and state standards with respect to text complexity, we
must also address the reading skills of those students who begin
high school with reading deficiencies. Such deficiencies need to
be diagnosed much earlier, in upper elementary and middle
school, so that earlier interventions can be made. If a greater
number of students can be identified and helped before they
24
reach high school, they will be more likely to have developed the
necessary foundational reading skills upon which college-ready
skills can be based.
4. Provide high school teachers with guidance and support to
strengthen reading instruction and to incorporate the kinds of
complex texts that are most likely to increase students
readiness for college-level reading. Teachers need the support
and professional development opportunities necessary to ensure
that they understand the types of reading skills students need to
have by the time they graduate from high school.
5. Strengthen high school assessments so that they align with
improved state standards and high school instruction across
the curriculum. As we strengthen the high school curriculum by
incorporating complex reading materials into all courses as defined
by improved state standards, so must we also reflect this greater
degree of complexity in the high-stakes assessments that high
school students take. These assessments need to reflect a wider
range of reading materials by including complex texts in all subject
areas.
Reading Achievement and Achievement in Other Academic Areas
Because reading is likely a
strong intervening factor in
academic areas across the
high school curriculum,
we examined the English,
mathematics, and science
achievement of students who
met and did not meet the
ACT College Readiness
Benchmark for Reading.
The figure at right shows,
for students who met and
did not meet the Reading
Benchmark, the percentage
of students meeting the
ACT College Readiness
Benchmarks for English,
Mathematics, and Science.
ACT College
Readiness
Benchmark

94
English
41
63
Mathematics
16
47
Science
5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Percent
Of those who met the Reading Benchmark:
Of those who did not meet the Reading Benchmark:
94 percent also met the ACT English Benchmark;
only 41 percent met the ACT English Benchmark;
63 percent also met the ACT Mathematics
only 16 percent met the ACT Mathematics
Benchmark; and
Benchmark; and
47 percent also met the ACT Science Benchmark.
25
only 5 percent met the ACT Science Benchmark.
These are important and far-reaching missions that no one group of

concerned individuals can accomplish alone. Teachers, school
administrators, and policymakers have crucial roles to play. Following
are a number of suggestions for educators and policymakers
representing examples of the kinds of actions necessary to begin
improving student readiness for college-level reading.
What Can Policymakers Do?

Consistent with the National Governors Associations
recommendation that comprehensive literacy plans be developed
in each state (NGA Center for Best Practices, 2005), incorporate
reading expectations into state standards across the curriculum
so that they specify the inclusion, by grade level, of increasingly
complex reading materials in English, mathematics, science,
and social studies.
Build support for a legislative focus on improving reading
achievement in middle school and high school.
Encourage local efforts to improve reading achievement at the
school and district levels.
Disseminate best practices found in middle schools and high
schools that are achieving results and promote similar efforts
on a wider scale.
Increase funding for school or district programs that improve
middle school and high school reading achievement.
Provide resources for professional development opportunities
for teachers so that they are equipped to provide the necessary
reading instruction in their subject areas and grade levels.
Make provisions both for assessing students college readiness
in reading to evaluate their progress and for making timely
interventions when they encounter difficulties.
What Can Educators Do?

Consistent with the National Governors Associations
recommendation that schools and districts develop
comprehensive literacy plans, incorporate reading expectations
into state standards across the curriculum so that they specify
the inclusion, by grade level, of increasingly complex reading
materials in English, mathematics, science, and social studies.
Diagnose reading deficiencies and intervene earlier, before
high school.
26
Incorporate complex reading materials into all high

school courses, not just English and social studies, to
strengthen students reading skills throughout high
school.
Require all teachers in all courses to teach reading
strategies so that students are able to progress from
comprehension of simpler texts to comprehension of
more complex texts.
Push students to read texts that are personally
challenging, and support their efforts by giving them
a variety of critical reading strategies to use.
Systematically assess students college readiness in reading
to evaluate their progress and make timely interventions when
they encounter difficulties.
Conclusion
In Crisis at the Core (ACT, Inc., 2004) we wrote:
Too few of our students are prepared to enter the workforce or postsecondary
education without additional training or remediation when they graduate from
high school. And far too many have to take remedial courses as part of their
postsecondary educations. . . . As a consequence, first-year students are
dropping out of school in alarming numbers: one in four freshmen at four-year
institutions and one in two freshmen at two-year institutions fails to return for
a sophomore year. (p. 22)
One year later, the situation is no less dire.

Reading is an essential part of readiness for college. Todays economy
demands a universally higher level of literacy than at any time in history,
and it is reasonable to expect that the demand for a literate workforce
will only increase in the future (Snow, 2002). Studies have shown that,
regardless of educational attainment, higher levels of literacy translate
into higher earnings (Barton, 2000; Kaestle, Campbell, Finn, Johnston,
& Mickulecky, 2001), and the fastest-growing jobs also require the
highest levels of literacy (Carnevale & Desrochers, 2003; Barton, 2000).
Yet too many young people cannot read well enough to get a job with a
career path, participate in civic responsibilities, or simply enjoy a good
book (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).
ACT data suggest that the readiness of the nations high school students
for college-level reading is far too low. But ACT data also show that, while
it is important for students to be able to comprehend both explicit and
implicit material in texts and understand how various textual elements
(such as main ideas, relationships, or generalizations) function in a text,
27
what matters most in reading achievement is the ability to

comprehend complex texts. We must find ways to help all students to
read at the level of proficiency necessary to ensure that they are
ready to succeed in college without remediation. Students must be
able to read and comprehend texts that are complex with respect to
RSVP: Relationships, Richness, Structure, Style, Vocabulary, and
Purpose.
If we help all students to become better readers, they can become
ready to succeed in college and work. Its a difficult goal, but a
worthy one. And with greater effort on the part of students, teachers,
school administrators, and policymakers, its a goal we can achieve.
28
Appendix
The conclusions in this report are based on large samples of students
in the nations schools who participated in ACTs college readiness
programs: EXPLORE, PLAN, and the ACT. The students taking the
ACT in 20042005 represented about 40 percent of all graduating
seniors across the country. While this may not constitute a nationally
representative sample, we believe that we cannot ignore what the
data are telling us.
This appendix provides detailed information on the data sources
and methodologies used in this report.
ACTs EPAS TM
The data in this report come primarily from administrations of
ACTs Educational Planning and Assessment System (EPASTM),
a system that integrates three aligned programs:
EXPLORE, for students in grades 8 and 9, provides baseline
information on the academic preparation of students that can
be used to plan high school coursework.
PLAN, for students in grade 10, provides a midpoint review
of students progress toward their education and career goals
while there is still time to make necessary interventions.
The ACT, for students in grades 11 and 12, measures students
academic readiness to make successful transitions to college and
work after high school. The ACT is the most widely accepted and
used test by postsecondary institutions across the U.S. for college
admission and course placement.
ACT is uniquely qualified to report on the nations level of college

readiness. We have been measuring the academic achievement
of eleventh-grade and twelfth-grade students since the first
administration of the ACT in 1959, their career aspirations since
1969, and their academic preparation since 1985. We have tracked
each of these three areas for tenth-graders since the debut of PLAN
in 1987, and for eighth-graders since 1993, when EXPLORE was
added as the newest component of EPAS. Most recently, in 2003
and 2005, we established ACTs College Readiness Benchmarks,
which are defined and discussed in detail in this section.
29
For more than forty years the ACT has served as the gold standard
for measuring achievement because, unlike other large-scale
assessments of academic ability, it is first and foremost an
achievement test. It is a measure whose tasks correspond to
recognized high school learning experiences, but which at the same
time does not precisely duplicate the high school curriculum.
The ACT measures not an abstract quality, such as intelligence
or aptitude, but rather what students are able to do with what they
have learned in school.
All three components of EPAS (EXPLORE, PLAN, and the ACT)
measure achievement because each is firmly based in the curriculum
of the grade level for which it is intended. Every 3 to 4 years, we
conduct the ACT National Curriculum Survey, in which we ask more
than 20,000 educators nationwide across grades 714 to identify
the knowledge and skills that are important for students to know to
be ready for college-level work. We examine the objectives for
instruction in grades 7 through 12 for all states that have published
such objectives. We also review textbooks on state-approved lists
for courses at these grade levels. We then analyze the information
to refine the scope and sequence for each section of each EPAS
assessment. In this way, rather than imposing a test construct without
empirical support, EPAS is able to represent a consensus among
educators and curriculum experts about what is important for
students to know and be able to do.
EPAS Tests
Each component of EPAS (EXPLORE, PLAN, and the ACT) consists
of four tests: English, Mathematics, Reading, and Science. Students
who take the ACT are also given the option of taking the ACT Writing
Test. The skills assessed in each of these five tests are summarized
below.
English. The questions in the English tests assess six elements of
effective writing in the two broad categories of usage and mechanics
(punctuation, grammar and usage, sentence structure) and rhetorical
skills (strategy, organization, style). Spelling, vocabulary, and rote
recall of rules of grammar are not tested. The revising and editing
issues posed by the questions offer a certain richness and
complexity. While some questions require students to apply their
knowledge of standard written English to the task of deciding the best
way to write a sentence or sentences, the surrounding context makes
the overriding issue that of clear and effective communication of
meaning.
30
Mathematics. The questions in the Mathematics tests cover

four cognitive levels: Knowledge and Skills, Direct Application,
Understanding Concepts, and Integrating Conceptual
Understanding. Knowledge and Skills questions require the student
to use one or more facts, definitions, formulas, or procedures to solve
problems that are presented in purely mathematical terms. Direct
Application questions require the student to use one or more facts,
definitions, formulas, or procedures to solve straightforward problems
set in real-world situations. Understanding Concepts questions test
the students depth of understanding of major concepts by requiring
reasoning from a concept to reach an inference or a conclusion.
Integrating Conceptual Understanding questions test the students
ability to achieve an integrated understanding of two or more major
concepts to solve non-routine problems.
Reading. The questions in the Reading tests require the student to
derive meaning from texts by referring to what is explicitly stated and
reasoning to determine implicit meanings and to draw conclusions,
comparisons, and generalizations. Questions do not test the rote
recall of facts from outside the text, isolated vocabulary items, or rules
of formal logic. Rather, the tests focus upon the complementary and
mutually supportive skills that readers must bring to bear in studying
written materials across a range of subject areas.
The Reading tests measure reading skills by means of questions
about passages excerpted from works in the humanities, prose
fiction, social sciences, and (in the ACT only) natural sciences.
Test questions are designed to measure reasoning by logical
inference, analysis, and synthesis, and ask students to apply many
different strategies in the act of comprehending, interpreting, and
evaluating texts (ACT, 2003). The three Reading tests are integrated
and aligned with one another and permit a valid and informative
examination of changes in reading achievement from middle school
through high school.
Questions on the Reading tests are classified in the general
categories of Referring and Reasoning. Referring questions ask
about material that is stated explicitly in a passage and are
designed to measure literal comprehension. Reasoning questions
ask about meanings that are implicit in a passage and require
cogent reasoning about a passage. Questions on the Reading tests
are also categorized according to the five kinds of textual elements
they cover: 1) main idea or authors approach, 2) supporting details,
3) relationships (sequential, comparative, or cause and effect),
4) meaning of words, and 5) generalizations and conclusions.
31
Main Ideas and Authors Approach questions focus on identifying

or inferring the key ideas or purposes of paragraphs or entire texts,
as well as determining the perspectives from which texts are written.
Supporting Details questions focus on the location, recall, and
interpretation of facts in a text and the purposes that details or
elements of a passage serve within the text as a whole (for example,
to support or undermine a main point).
Relationships questions focus on identifying or inferring the
interrelationships (sequential, comparative, or cause and effect)
among people, ideas, facts, or perspectives within texts.
Meaning of Words questions focus on determining the meaning of
words, phrases, or statements in context. Questions do not ask for
the rote recall of definitions of vocabulary words; rather, they ask
students to determine how particular words, phrases, and statements
are used within a given piece of writing. Students may have to
distinguish between literal and figurative uses of language, between
words with subtle differences in connotation, or between everyday
and specialized uses of words or phrases.
Generalizations and Conclusions questions focus on using
information in a text to come up with general statements or reasoned
judgments about people, ideas, concepts, facts, or perspectives.
These questions can be based on as little as a single sentence within
a text or as much as the entire text.
Science. The questions in the Science tests measure students
mastery of the interpretation, analysis, evaluation, reasoning, and
problem-solving skills required in the natural sciences. The questions
require students to recognize and understand the basic features of,
and concepts related to, the provided information; to examine
critically the relationships between the information provided and the
conclusions drawn or hypotheses developed; and to generalize from
given information to gain new information, draw conclusions, or make
predictions. The questions emphasize scientific reasoning skills rather
than recall of scientific content, skill in mathematics, or pure reading
ability. The tests pose the kinds of questions that college students of
science must answer in planning, carrying out, and evaluating
scientific investigations and in studying scientific theories.
Writing. The ACT Writing Test is an achievement test designed to
measure students writing proficiency. It was developed to reflect the
type of writing found in rigorous high school writing curricula and
expected of students entering first-year college composition courses.
The Writing Test consists of one writing prompt that briefly states an
issue and describes two points of view on that issue. Students are
32
asked to write in response to a question about their position on the

issue described in the writing prompt. In doing so, students may
adopt one or the other of the perspectives described in the prompt,
or they may present a different point of view on the issue. Students
scores are not affected by the point of view they take on the issue.
Prompts are designed to be appropriate for response in a 30-minute
timed test and to reflect students interests and experiences.
EPAS Score Scales

The English, Mathematics, Reading, and Science tests within EPAS
are each scored on a common score scale ranging from 1 (lowest) to
25 for EXPLORE, 32 for PLAN, and 36 for the ACT. The optional ACT
Writing Test is scored on a scale ranging from 2 (lowest) to 12.
Students receive both total test scores and subtest scores in each of
the EPAS programs. For example, the ACT reports a minimum of 12
scores: 4 test scores (English, Mathematics, Reading, and Science),
one composite score, and 7 subscores (2 in English, 3 in
Mathematics, 2 in Reading). The ACT also reports 3 additional scores
to students who take the optional Writing Test: Writing Test score,
combined English/Writing score, and narrative comments offered to
help students improve their writing.
ACTs Recommended Core Curriculum

The core curriculum recommended by ACT is based on the
curriculum proposed in A Nation at Risk (National Commission on
Excellence in Education, 1983). ACT has long held that the core
curriculum best prepares students for college or other forms of
postsecondary training. The courses that constitute ACTs definition of
the core curriculum, by subject area, are:
English (four years or more)One year credit each for English 9,
English 10, English 11, and English 12;
Mathematics (three years or more)One year credit each for
Algebra I, Algebra II, and Geometry. One half-year credit each for
Trigonometry, Calculus, or other mathematics courses beyond
Algebra II (e.g., Computer Mathematics, Computer Science);
Social studies (three years or more)One year credit each for
U.S. History, World History, and U.S. Government. One half-year
credit each for Economics, Geography, Psychology, and other
History (e.g., European, State); and
Natural sciences (three years or more)One year credit each for
General/Physical/Earth Science, Biology, Chemistry, and Physics.
33
ACTs College Readiness Benchmarks

ACT works with colleges to help them develop guidelines that place
students in courses that are appropriate for their level of achievement
as measured by the ACT. In doing this work, ACT has gathered
course grade and test score data from a large number of first-year
students and across a wide range of postsecondary institutions.
These data provide an overall measure of what it takes to be
successful in a standard first-year college course. Data from 98
institutions and more than 90,000 students were used to establish
ACTs College Readiness Benchmarks, which are median course
placement scores that are directly reflective of student success
in a college course.
Success here is defined as approximately a 75 percent chance

that a student will earn a grade of C or better, and approximately
a 50 percent chance that a student will earn a grade of B or better.
The courses are the ones most commonly taken by first-year college
students in the areas of English, mathematics, social sciences,
and natural sciences, namely English
Composition; Algebra; History,
ACT College Readiness Benchmarks
Psychology, Sociology, Political Science,
College Course
EXPLORE
PLAN
ACT
and Economics; and Biology,
English
13
15
18
respectively. The ACT scores established
Mathematics
17
19
22
as College Readiness Benchmarks are
18 on the English Test, 22 on the
Reading
15
17
21
Mathematics Test, 21 on the Reading
Science
20
21
24
Test, and 24 on the Science Test.
The entry-level courses that were used to establish the College
Readiness Benchmark for Reading (History, Psychology, Sociology,
Political Science, and Economics) are each typically reading
intensive. As such, course success is often based upon a students
ability to comprehend, analyze, and synthesize both the content and
the context of the material presented.
The College Readiness Benchmarks were based upon a sample of
postsecondary institutions from across the U.S. The data from these
institutions were weighted to reflect postsecondary institutions
nationally. The Benchmarks are median course placement values for
these institutions and as such represent a typical set of expectations.
ACT will work with individual postsecondary institutions, or groups of
institutions within a state, to conduct validation studies to establish
local benchmarks that take specific institutional and student
characteristics into account.
34
We have also established scores on EXPLORE and PLAN that

correspond to the College Readiness Benchmarks for the ACT,
these scores indicating, based on their performance on EXPLORE
(grade 8) and PLAN (grade 10), whether students are on track
to being ready for college-level work when they graduate from high
school. In EXPLORE these scores are 13 on the English Test, 17
on the Mathematics Test, 15 on the Reading Test, and 20 on the
Science Test; in PLAN, the scores are 15 on the English Test, 19
on the Mathematics Test, 17 on the Reading Test, and 21 on the
Science Test.
ACTs College Readiness Standards

ACTs College Readiness Standards provide a description of the
knowledge and skills students are likely to possess based on their
scores on EXPLORE, PLAN, and the ACT. The particular College
Readiness Standards associated with the ACT College Readiness
Benchmarks identify the knowledge and skills students must
have in order to succeed in first-year college courses in English,
mathematics, natural sciences, and social sciences. The Standards
are a set of statements that interpret EPAS scores according to
the knowledge and skills students in each score
range have likely mastered. The Standards relate
the scores to the types of skills needed for
success in high school and beyond. On the
following pages, Figure 15 shows the ACT
College Readiness Standards for Reading.
(College Readiness Standards for all the EPAS
tests are available on the Internet at
www.act.org/standard/index.html.)
These standards refer to the knowledge and skills
students demonstrate on EPAS Reading tests in
various score ranges and as such demonstrate
the increasing complexity of skills across
the Reading Test score ranges. Provided with the
Standards are statements that suggest learning
experiences from which students in a particular
ACT score range are likely to benefit. These
statements were developed as suggested
learning strategies to support and facilitate
progress between the Standards in one score
range and those in the next higher score range.
35
Figure 15: ACTs College Readiness Standards for Reading
College Readiness StandardsReading

Main Ideas and Author's Approach
Supporting Details
13-15
Recognize a clear intent of an author or narrator in uncomplicated

literary narratives
Locate basic facts (e.g., names, dates, events) clearly

stated in a passage
16-19
Identify a clear main idea or purpose of straightforward paragraphs

in uncomplicated literary narratives
Locate simple details at the sentence and paragraph level in

uncomplicated passages
Recognize a clear function of a part of an uncomplicated passage
20-23
Infer the main idea or purpose of straightforward paragraphs in

uncomplicated literary narratives
Understand the overall approach taken by an author or narrator (e.g.,
point of view, kinds of evidence used) in uncomplicated passages
24-27
Identify a clear main idea or purpose of any paragraph or paragraphs

in uncomplicated passages
Infer the main idea or purpose of straightforward paragraphs in more
challenging passages
Summarize basic events and ideas in more challenging passages
point of view, kinds of evidence used) in more challenging passages
28-32*
Make simple inferences about how details are used in

passages
Locate important details in more challenging passages

Locate and interpret minor or subtly stated details in
Discern which details, though they may appear in
different sections throughout a passage, support
important points in more challenging passages
Infer the main idea or purpose of more challenging passages or their

paragraphs
Locate and interpret minor or subtly stated details in

more challenging passages
Summarize events and ideas in virtually any passage
Use details from different sections of some complex

informational passages to support a specific point or
argument

point of view, kinds of evidence used) in virtually any passage
33-36**
Locate important details in uncomplicated passages
Identify clear main ideas or purposes of complex passages or their

paragraphs
Locate and interpret details in complex passages

Understand the function of a part of a passage when the
function is subtle or complex
Descriptions of the EPAS (EXPLORE, PLAN, and ACT) Reading Passages

Uncomplicated Literary Narratives refers
to excerpts from essays, short stories, and
novels that tend to use simple language and
structure, have a clear purpose and a
familiar style, present straightforward
interactions between characters, and employ
only a limited number of literary devices such
as metaphor, simile, or hyperbole.
More Challenging Literary Narratives

refers to excerpts from essays, short stories,
and novels that tend to make moderate use
of figurative language, have a more intricate
structure and messages conveyed with
some subtlety, and may feature somewhat
complex interactions between characters.
* PLAN only
** PLAN and ACT only
36
Complex Literary Narratives refers to

excerpts from essays, short stories, and
novels that tend to make generous use of
ambiguous language and literary devices,
feature complex and subtle interactions
between characters, often contain
challenging context-dependent vocabulary,
and typically contain messages and/or
meanings that are not explicit but are
embedded in the passage.
Sequential, Comparative, and

Cause-Effect Relationships
Meanings of Words
Generalizations and Conclusions
Determine when (e.g., first, last, before, after) or

if an event occurred in uncomplicated passages
Understand the implication of a familiar word or

phrase and of simple descriptive language
Draw simple generalizations and conclusions

about the main characters in uncomplicated
literary narratives
Use context to understand basic figurative

language

about people, ideas, and so on in uncomplicated
passages
Use context to determine the appropriate

meaning of some figurative and nonfigurative
words, phrases, and statements in
Draw generalizations and conclusions about

people, ideas, and so on in uncomplicated
passages

meaning of virtually any word, phrase, or
statement in uncomplicated passages
Draw subtle generalizations and conclusions

about characters, ideas, and so on in

meaning of some figurative and nonfigurative
words, phrases, and statements in more
Draw generalizations and conclusions about

people, ideas, and so on in more challenging
passages
Determine the appropriate meaning of words,

phrases, or statements from figurative or
somewhat technical contexts
Use information from one or more sections of a

more challenging passage to draw
generalizations and conclusions about people,
ideas, and so on
Determine, even when the language is richly

figurative and the vocabulary is difficult, the
appropriate meaning of context-dependent
words, phrases, or statements in virtually any
passage
Draw complex or subtle generalizations and

conclusions about people, ideas, and so on, often
by synthesizing information from different portions
of the passage
Recognize clear cause-effect relationships

described within a single sentence in a passage
Identify relationships between main characters
in uncomplicated literary narratives
Recognize clear cause-effect relationships
within a single paragraph in uncomplicated
literary narratives
Order simple sequences of events in
Identify clear relationships between people,
ideas, and so on in uncomplicated passages
Identify clear cause-effect relationships in
Order sequences of events in uncomplicated
passages
Understand relationships between people,
ideas, and so on in uncomplicated passages
Identify clear relationships between characters,
ideas, and so on in more challenging literary
narratives

using details that support the main points of more
Understand implied or subtly stated causeeffect relationships in uncomplicated passages

Identify clear cause-effect relationships in more
Order sequences of events in more challenging
passages
Understand the dynamics between people,
ideas, and so on in more challenging passages
Understand implied or subtly stated causeeffect relationships in more challenging
passages
Order sequences of events in complex
passages
Understand the subtleties in relationships
between people, ideas, and so on in virtually
any passage
Understand implied, subtle, or complex causeeffect relationships in virtually any passage
Uncomplicated Informational Passages refers

to materials that tend to contain a limited amount
of data, address basic concepts using familiar
language and conventional organizational
patterns, have a clear purpose, and are written to
be accessible.
More Challenging Informational Passages

refers to materials that tend to present concepts
that are not always stated explicitly and that are
accompanied or illustrated by moreand more
detailedsupporting data, include some difficult
context-dependent words, and are written in a
somewhat more demanding and less
accessible style.
37
Understand and generalize about portions of a

complex literary narrative
Complex Informational Passages refers to

materials that tend to include a sizable amount of
data, present difficult concepts that are embedded
(not explicit) in the text, use demanding words and
phrases whose meaning must be determined from
context, and are likely to include intricate
explanations of processes or events.
Additional Annotated Examples of More Challenging and

Complex Texts Used on The ACT Reading Test
Figure 16: More Challenging Text (Humanities)
STRUCTURE: While students are likely to be familiar with the question-and-answer

format, which is often found in popular magazines, these questions and responses are
more abstract and focused on a subjectcomputer artwith which many students are
unlikely to be familiar.
HUMANITIES: This passage is adapted from When M.I.T.
Artist Shouts, His Painting Listens, an interview with
Professor John Maeda conducted by Claudia Dreifus that
appeared in the July 27, 1999, edition of The New York Times
(1999 by The New York Times).
Within the art world, Prof. John Maeda, 32, is an

anomalya prize-winning graphic designer and kinetic
artist with a fistful of engineering degrees from the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
VOCABULARY: The text uses some difficult

general and specialized terms whose meaning is
discernible from context: for example, anomaly
and kinetic artist.
From his base in M.I.T.s Media Laboratory,

Professor Maeda uses the computer as a tool and
medium to create art that can be produced only digitally
and that has the specific look of the new technology.
One of his best-known pieces is a drawing called Time
Paint, in which colors fly through space. Another
piece, The Reactive Square, is about squares that
change shape when a viewer shouts at them.
Q. Your last book, Design by Numbers, is an art book
that is also a manual for a new computer language that
you invented to help artists understand the guts of
computer design. Why create a whole new computer
language?
A. One reason was that programming languages are
made for people to write programsbig applications.
For someone just starting out making art on their computers, they dont want this big truck of a system. They
just want a simple bicycle that they understand. So I
designed the visual equivalent of a simple bicycle.
Design by Numbers, D.B.N., was an attempt to demystify the technology behind computer art, to show how
simple it is, and that people can do it.
RICHNESS: Maeda makes a rather sophisticated

metaphorical comparison between a big truck of
a system (most programming languages) and a
simple bicycle (the language Maeda developed)
in order to argue that his language fills a need felt
by novice computer artists for some basic tools.
Q. When you are creating your own computer art

pieces, do you ever use prepackaged drawing programs?
A. Oh, yes, all the time. There are all kinds of fine
touches that prepackaged software makes easy. I could
invent my own finishing system, but this is faster. Of
course, the basic ideas, I create.
The problem is that most people cant just finish
things with this software. They have to use it to start
them, also. For much of recent history, people have created with brush, ink, paperthe materials of art. Now
that they have begun creating with software and computers, the styles that emerge are homogeneous because
the software is universal. Without being able to know
how to program, you cant break out of the technologyjust like if you dont know how to use brush
and ink, youre limited.
38
For most people, this really isnt a problem; they

arent necessarily looking for anything new. But for
people who are seeking the next step, the prepackaged
becomes an impossible barrier to break free from.
I make everything I do. Many people are surprised
that I dont have a programmer making things for me.
And others are surprised that I dont have an artist controlling me, telling me how to program. Because today,
people dont realize that it is possible to think and
create on the computer. Artists are used to thinking that
programming is very hardimpossible.
And technologists are used to thinking that they
can never become artists. Me, I just make things. Its
just a natural flow of action and thought. If people see,
Oh, he does that, then maybe theyll think, I can do
it too.
Q. But lots of nonartists use computers for creating
images . . .
A. They are using it as a tool, but not as a material.
And to use it as a tool, you need to understand the
medium, which means understanding the technology.
Young people are changing this, because they have
grown up with computers.
Q. If a conventional artist produces an object on a
computer, does that automatically make it art?
A. Its art, but its just a painting and no different than
conventional art.
Its not intrinsically different or superior just
because it was created digitally and its not digital art.
Because digital art starts with an understanding and
appreciation of the mediumwhich, unfortunately, is
today programming.
Q.
What did studying in Japan teach you?
A. The most important thing was to not be embarrassed about who I was. I had always been embarrassed
about coming from a manual-labor family. In Japan, I
was studying conventional art, and I used my hands all
the time. That made me feel in touch with my human
side, which I had lost when I came to M.I.T.
Q. Does the new technology mean the end of art as we
know it?
A. Yes, it does. It represents a new dimension to the
way art will be understood or perceived.
Its a departure from appreciating a singular
moment. What that means is . . . the reason why we can
appreciate art is because most art has a single resting
point: canvas.
Its painted. Its dried. It aspires to be perfect. The
medium of the computer is continually shifting. It can
shift at will, in a microsecond. Or an hour. Theres no
limit on how it can be taught to change.
39
RELATIONSHIPS: Maeda discusses the fairly

subtle distinction between art created digitally
and digital art.
Figure 17: More Challenging Text (Natural Science)
STRUCTURE: Most of the text is given over to a summary of recent findings related to
siblicide among hyena cubs, particularly the mothers role. In the process, readers have
to learn a fair amount about hyena society and theories attempting to explain the reasons
for the siblicide.
NATURAL SCIENCE: This passage is adapted from Vicki
Crokes article Hyenas Trade One Bad Reputation for
Another, which appeared in The Chicago Tribune on March 4,
1992 (1992 by Chicago Tribune Company).
After years of close scientific observation in the

wild and in captivity, the spotted hyena, long regarded
as one of natures more loathsome creations, is getting
a fresh image. But if anything, the new portrait is even
more chilling than the old. To their credit, we now
know that spotted hyenas hunt as often as they scavenge, so theyre not the cowards we had believed them
to be. On the other hand, in one of the most startling
findings to date, researchers now know that infant cubs
often try to kill each other, only moments after birth,
and they think the mother may play a biased role in
determining the outcome of the battles. How she does
this remains a mystery.
The spotted hyenas are the only mammals known
to habitually commit what researchers call siblicide,
says zoologist Laurence G. Frank of the University of
California at Berkeley, who discovered the practice
during his study of a captive hyena colony in
California. Scientists speculate that this form of sibling
rivalry may be natures way of ensuring a healthier
adulthood for one cub.
STYLE: The author uses a fairly accessible style

and an engaged tone to help draw readers in.
Such phrases as even more chilling are
designed to spark a readers interest.
Nevertheless, the author uses such devices as a
tool to help convey a rather substantial amount of
information about hyenas and their first minutes
as cubs.
RELATIONSHIPS: The first paragraph summarizes

the rest of the text and, as a result, contains a
relatively complicated set of statements about
hyenas. Important here is a comparison between
the old image of hyenas and the fresh one.
Readers have to keep in mind both the old image
and the new information being presented.
The mother gives birth at the opening of a den

usually an abandoned aardvark burrow with a system of
tunnels too narrow for her to enter. She often has twins,
born about an hour apart. The infants arrive with their
eyes wide open and, unlike any other known mammals,
with their incisor and canine teeth fully in place. Using
its precocious strength, the firstborn will typically sink
its teeth into its siblings back and shake it furiously.
Often that encounter is lethal, and if its not, the aggression continues through the cubs four-week stay in the
den, though with less intensity.
Despite that antisocial beginning, hyenas generally
belong to a larger, complex and rigidly structured
society called a clan. Females and their offspring
occupy the upper rungs of the social ladder. One female
has alpha status, meaning she is dominant over all clan
members. Males occupy the lowest rungs. Hyenas
inherit their mothers social rank, so even a cub can
dominate the lowly adult males. And while females
usually stay with their clan for life, most males disperse
when they reach puberty at 2, though sons of highranking females tend to stay until they are 3 to 5.
VOCABULARY: Most of the language in the text

should be fairly accessible to students. Some
terms, however, such as alpha status, are likely
new to many students, and their meanings will
have to be gathered from context and definitions
provided in the text.
From observing this social system over a period of

years, scientists are beginning to understand the reasons
for female dominance and siblicide, and they are beginning to guess at a role the mother plays in the outcome
of the cubs rivalry.
40
Frank has been observing spotted hyenas in the

wild for 14 years and, since 1984, in a captive colony in
the hills overlooking the Berkeley campus. In the wild,
where the cubs spend some time outside the den, Frank
had noticed many mixed-sex sets of twins, but few
twins of the same sex. He was puzzled, but without
easy access to the dens, there were no answers. When
he established the captive colony, however, he began to
observe some revealing behavior. Within minutes of
birth, the older sibling would attack the younger one,
often inflicting fatal wounds.
There are a few theories about this lethal competition. Because females stay in the clan and inherit their
mothers rank, sisters eventually will compete with one
another for dominance. And for males, killing off a
brother means sole access to the mothers milk and
therefore better health and larger size. For them, size
and strength are important to survival and success in
joining a strange clan. The survivor grows faster;
thats clear, but thats expensive evolutionarily, Frank
says. The killer cub is destroying some of his own gene
line, and the mother loses 25 percent of her offspring
this way, he explains.
Frank thinks that even though the mother cannot
enter the den where the siblings are battling, she may
be influencing the outcome. He doesnt know how, but
he speculates she may have a biological reason for
rearing more sons. Low-ranking females try to ensure
the survival of both cubs, Frank says, but alpha females
have a preponderance of singleton male cubs. To him,
that suggests alpha females may be gambling on a son
that, by having many mates, can spread her genes further than a daughter.
All females breed, but there is stiff competition
among males for breeding rights. A very fit and strong
male can obviously produce more offspring, and spread
more of his genetic material. Because an alpha female
gets the greatest share of the kill, her offspring do also.
That means her sons are more likely to be larger and
healthier.
41
RELATIONSHIPS: Readers have to sort out fact

from theory and conjecture in this text. For
instance, the author presents as a fact the idea
that spotted hyenas hunt as often as they
scavenge (see paragraph one), but she identifies
as theories the explanations behind the lethal
competition between cubs.
Figure 18: More Challenging Text (Prose Fiction)
PURPOSE: The narrators goal in the text is relatively straightforward: to present a

character sketch of her mother.
PROSE FICTION: This passage is adapted from the short story
Mother by Andrea Lee (1984 by Andrea Lee).
It was easy for me to think of my mother in connection with caves, with anything in the world, in fact,
that was dimly lit and fantastic. Sometimes she would
rivet Matthew and me with a tale from her childhood:
how, at nine years old, walking home through the
cobblestone streets of Philadelphia with a package of
ice cream from the drugstore, she had slipped and fallen
down a storm drain accidentally left uncovered by
workmen. No one was around to help her; she dropped
the ice cream she was carrying (something that made a
deep impression on my brother and me) and managed
to cling to the edge and hoist herself out of the hole.
The image of the little girlwho was to become my
motherhanging in perilous darkness was one that
haunted me; sometimes it showed up in my dreams.
RICHNESS: The narrator uses rather a large

number of images throughout the text, but these
images usually have a connection to everyday
things in a way that makes them still easily
accessible to students. For instance, the first
paragraphs scene describing the narrators
mother hanging in perilous darkness is made
more concrete and vivid by noting that she
dropped the ice cream she was carrying in order
to save herself from falling.
Perhaps her near-fatal tumble was responsible for

my mothers lasting attraction to the bizarre side of life.
Beneath a sometimes prudish exterior, she quivered
with excitement in the same way her children did over
newspaper accounts of trunk murders, foreign earthquakes, graves hidden in the New Jersey pine barrens.
When she commented on these subjects, she attempted
a firm neutrality of tone but gave herself away in the
heightened pitch of her voice and in a little breathy
catch that broke the rhythm of each sentence she spoke.
This was the voice she used to whisper shattering bits
of gossip over the phone. When Mr. Tillet died, I
heard her say once, with that telltale intake of breath,
the funeral parlor did such a poor job that his daughter
had to wire her own father together.
At home Mama was a housekeeper in the grand
old style that disdains convenience, worships thrift, and
condones extravagance only in the form of massive
Sunday dinners, which, like acts of God, leave family
members stunned and reeling. Her kitchen, a long, dark,
inconvenient room joined to a crooked pantry, was
entirely unlike the cheerful kitchens I saw on television, where mothers who looked like June Cleaver
unwrapped food done up in cellophane. This kitchen
had more the feeling of a workshop, a laboratory in
which the imperfect riches of nature were investigated
and finally transformed into something near sublimity.
The sink and stove were cluttered with works in
progress: hot plum jelly dripping into a bowl through
cheesecloth; chocolate syrup bubbling in a saucepan;
string beans and ham bones hissing in the pressure
cooker; in a vat, a brownish, aromatic mix for root beer.
The instruments my mother used were a motley
assemblage of blackened cast-iron pots, rusty-handled
beaters, graters, strainers, and an array of mixing bowls
that included the cheapest plastic variety as well as tall,
archaic-looking stoneware tubs inherited from my
grandmother, who had herself been a legendary cook.
STYLE: The richness of the text comes mainly

from its specificity. For example, to illustrate that
the narrators mother was an extravagant cook,
we are told that she had a motley assemblage of
cooking devices. Each broad trait described is
supported by numerous such details.
42
Mama guarded these ugly tools with jealous solicitude,

suspicious of any new introductions, and she moved in
her kitchen with the modest agility of a master
craftsperson.
Like any genuine passion, her love of food
embraced every aspect of the subject. She read cookbooks like novels, and made a businesslike note in her
appointment book of the date that Wanamakers
received its yearly shipment of chocolate-covered
strawberries. Matthew and I learned from her a sort of
culinary history of her side of the family: our grandfather, for instance, always asked for calf brains scrambled with his eggs on weekend mornings before he
went out hunting. Grandma Renfrew loved to drink
clabbered milk, and was so insistent about the purity of
food that once when Aunt Lily had served her margarine instead of butter, she had refused to eat at Lilys
table for a year. My mothers sole memory of her
mothers mother was of the withered woman scraping
an apple in the corner of the kitchen, and sucking the
pulp between her toothless jaws.
Mama took most pleasure in the raw materials that
became meals. She enjoyed the symmetry, the unalterable rules, and also the freaks and vagaries that nature
brought to her kitchen. She showed me with equal
pleasure the handsome shape of a fish backbone; the
little green gallbladder in the middle of a chicken liver;
and the double-yolked eggs, the triple cherries, the
peculiar worm in a cob of corn. As she enjoyed most
the follies, the bizarre twists of human nature and experience, so also she had a particular fondness for the odd
organs and connective tissues that others disdained.
Gristle is delectable, she would exclaim as Matthew
and I groaned. The best part of the cow!
43
STRUCTURE: Adding somewhat to the richness

of the text is that stories are sometimes told within
the larger story. For instance, the fifth paragraph
recounts part of the family culinary history: how
the narrators grandfather liked calf brains and
how her grandmother was picky enough about
food to create a yearlong squabble between her
and Aunt Lily.
Figure 19: More Challenging Text (Social Science)

RICHNESS: The text includes a good deal of historical information about the commons
in England and elsewhere.
SOCIAL SCIENCE: This passage, which describes land practices in the commons (tracts of land that belonged to and were
used by a community as a whole), and the enclosure movement (when the commons were taken over by private interests
and fenced off), is adapted from the essay The Place, the
Region, and the Commons by Gary Snyder, which is included
in his book The Practice of the Wild (1990 by Gary Snyder).
I stood with my climbing partner on the summit of

Glacier Peak looking all ways round, ridge after ridge
and peak after peak, as far as we could see. He said:
You mean theres a senator for all this? It is easy to
think there are vast spaces on earth yet unadministered,
perhaps forgotten, or unknown, but it is all mapped and
placed in some domain. In North America there is a lot
that is in the public domain, which has its problems, but
at least they are problems we are all enfranchised to
work on.
American public lands are the twentieth-century
incarnation of a much older institution known across
Eurasiain English called the commonswhich was
the ancient mode of both protecting and managing the
wilds of the self-governing regions. It worked well
enough until the age of market economies, colonialism,
and imperialism. Let me give you a kind of model of
how the commons worked.
Between the extremes of deep wilderness and the
private plots of the farmstead lies a territory which is
not suitable for crops. In earlier times it was used
jointly by the members of a given tribe or village. This
area, embracing both the wild and the semi-wild, is of
critical importance. It is necessary for the health of the
wilderness because it adds big habitat, overflow territory, and room for wildlife to fly and run. It is essential
even to an agricultural village economy because its natural diversity provides the many necessities and amenities that the privately held plots cannot. It enriches the
agrarian diet with game and fish. The shared land supplies firewood, poles and stone for building, clay for
the kiln, herbs, dye plants, and much else. It is especially important as seasonal or full-time open range for
cattle, horses, goats, pigs, and sheep.
PURPOSE: The first paragraph might lead a

reader to assume that this will be a personal
narrative about the authors experience, but in fact
the text quickly veers away from direct experience
into a history and explanation of the concept of
the commons.
STYLE: After the opening paragraph, the text
adopts a formal, informative tone in the process of
explaining the history and nature of the commons.
By the end of the text the tone becomes
somewhat more critical as the author relates some
of the negative consequences of the enclosure
movement. These shifts make reading the text
somewhat of a challenge.
VOCABULARY: The text uses a number of terms

and concepts related to the commons that are
unlikely to be familiar to many students: for
example, agricultural village economy. The author
provides the needed context to understand these
terms, but students will likely have to read
carefully to understand them.
In the abstract the sharing of a natural area might

be thought of as a matter of access to common pool
resources with no limits or controls on individual
exploitation. The fact is that such sharing developed
over millennia and always within territorial and social
contexts. In the peasant societies of both Asia and
Europe there were customary forms that gave direction
to the joint use of land. They did not grant free access
to outsiders, and there were controls over entry and use
by member households. The commons is both specific
land and the traditional community institution that
determines the carrying capacity for its various subunits and defines the rights and obligations of those
who use it, with penalties for lapses. Because it is traditional and local, it is not identical with todays public
44
domain, which is land held and managed by a central

government. Under a national state such management
may be destructive (as it is becoming in Canada and the
United States) or benign, but in no case is it locally
managed. One of the ideas in the current debate on how
to reform our public lands is that of returning them to
regional control.
An example of traditional management: what
would keep one household from bringing in more and
more stock and tempting everyone toward overgrazing?
In earlier England and in some contemporary Swiss villages, the commoner could only turn out to common
range as many head of cattle as he could feed over the
winter in his own corrals. This meant that no one was
allowed to increase his herd from outside with a cattle
drive just for summer grazing.
There is a well-documented history of the commons in relation to the village economies of Europe and
England. In England from the time of the Norman
Conquest the knights and overlords began to gain control over the many local commons. From the fifteenth
century on the landlord class increasingly fenced off
village-held land and turned it over to private interests.
The enclosure movement was backed by the big wool
corporations who found profit from sheep to be much
greater than that from farming. The wool business had a
destructive effect on the soils and dislodged peasants.
The arguments for enclosure in Englandefficiency,
higher productionignored social and ecological
effects and served to cripple the sustainable agriculture
of some districts.
The enclosures created a population of rural homeless who were forced in their desperation to become the
worlds first industrial working class. The enclosures
were tragic both for the human community and for natural ecosystems. The fact that England now has the
least forest and wildlife of all the nations of Europe has
much to do with the enclosures.
45
RELATIONSHIPS: The last two paragraphs

detail a rather subtle sequence of events
involving the enclosure movement and some of
its consequences. Readers not only have to pay
attention to what happened but also to causeeffect relationships such as the ecological damage
done to England as a result of enclosure.
Figure 20: Complex Text (Humanities)
PURPOSE: While this story has some familiar narrative elements, such as characters
and suspense, its real purpose is to illustrate a larger point: that a person can connect
the interior life and the outer world or, for a time anyway, choose to live inside his
or her mind.
HUMANITIES: This passage is adapted from the essay The
Interior Life by Annie Dillard, which appeared in her book An
American Childhood (1987 by Annie Dillard).
The interior life is often stupid. Its egoism blinds it

and deafens it; its imagination spins out ignorant tales,
fascinated. It fancies that the western wind blows on the
Self, and leaves fall at the feet of the Self for a reason,
and people are watching. A mind risks real ignorance for
the sometimes paltry prize of an imagination enriched.
The trick of reason is to get the imagination to seize the
actual worldif only from time to time.
When I was five, I would not go to bed willingly
because something came into my room. My sister Amy,
two years old, was asleep in the other bed. What did she
know? She was innocent of evil. There was no messiness in her, no roughness for things to cling to, only a
charming and charmed innocence that seemed then to
protect her, an innocence I needed but couldnt muster.
Since Amy was asleep, furthermore, and since when I
needed someone most I was afraid to stir enough to
wake her, she was useless.
I lay alone and was almost asleep when the thing
entered the room by flattening itself against the open
door and sliding in. It was a transparent, luminous
oblong. I could see the door whiten at its touch; I could
see the blue wall turn pale where it raced over it, and
see the maple headboard of Amys bed glow. It was a
swift spirit; it was an awareness. It made noise. It had
two joined parts, a head and a tail. It found the door,
wall, and headboard; and it swiped them, charging them
with its luminous glance. After its fleet, searching passage, things looked the same, but werent.
VOCABULARY: Much of the language the author

usescharming and charmed innocence, for
exampleis both difficult and self-consciously
artistic, requiring students to read carefully and to
reason the meaning of many words and phrases
from context.
STRUCTURE: This text has a sophisticated

structure. At the center of the text is a narrative
about how the author came to realize that the
transparent, luminous oblong that had come into
her childhood bedroom at least once a night, and
that she had so feared, was in fact the headlights
of a passing car.
I dared not blink or breathe. If it found another

awareness, it would destroy it.
Every night before it got to me it gave up. It hit
my walls corner and couldnt get past. It shrank completely into itself and vanished. I heard the rising roar it
made when it died or left. I still couldnt breathe. I
knew that it could return again alive that same night.
Sometimes it came back, sometimes it didnt.
Most often, restless, it came back. The light stripe
slipped in the door, ran searching over Amys wall,
stopped, stretched lunatic at the first corner, raced
wailing toward my wall, and vanished into the second
corner with a cry. So I wouldnt go to bed.
It was a passing car whose windshield reflected
the corner streetlight outside. I figured it out one night.
46
Figuring it out was as memorable as the oblong

itself. Figuring it out was a long and forced ascent to
the very rim of being, to the membrane of skin that both
separates and connects the inner life and the outer
world. I climbed deliberately from the depths like a
diver who releases the monster in his arms and hauls
himself hand over hand up an anchor chain till he meets
the oceans sparkling membrane and bursts through it;
he sights the sunlit, becalmed hull of his boat, which
had bulked so ominously from below.
I recognized the noise it made when it left. That is,
the noise it made called to mind, at last, my daytime
sensations when a car passedthe sight and noise
together. A car came roaring down hushed Edgerton
Avenue in front of our house, stopped, and passed on
shrieking as its engine shifted up the gears. What, precisely, came into the bedroom? A reflection from the
cars oblong windshield. Why did it travel in two parts?
The window sash split the light and cast a shadow.
Night after night I labored up the same long chain
of reasoning, as night after night the thing burst into the
room where I lay awake.
There was a world outside my window and contiguous to it. Why did I have to keep learning this same
thing over and over? For I had learned it a summer ago,
when men with jackhammers broke up Edgerton
Avenue. I had watched them from the yard. When I lay
to nap, I listened. One restless afternoon I connected
the new noise in my bedroom with the jackhammer men
I had been seeing outside. I understood abruptly that
these worlds met, the outside and the inside. Outside,
then, was conceivably just beyond my windows.
The world did not have me in mind. It was a coincidental collection of things and people, of items, and I
myself was one such itema child walking up the sidewalk, whom anyone could see or ignore. The things in
the world did not necessarily cause my overwhelming
feelings; the feelings were inside me, beneath my skin,
behind my ribs, within my skull. They were even, to
some extent, under my control.
I could be connected to the outer world by reason,
if I chose, or I could yield to what amounted to a narrative fiction, to a show in light projected on the rooms
blue walls.
47
RICHNESS: Concepts such as I could yield to

what amounted to a narrative fiction, to a show in
light projected on the rooms blue wallseven
the very idea of an interior life as the author
defines itare likely unfamiliar to many students.
Figure 21: Complex Text (Social Science)
RICHNESS: The text is replete with names, terms, and concepts.

SOCIAL SCIENCE: Adapted from Ronald W. Smith and Frederick
W. Preston, Sociology: An Introduction. 1977 by St. Martins
Press, Inc.
Discussions over whether or not human behavior

differs from all other forms of animal behavior have
been a part of sociology from its beginning. During the
late 1930s, when sociology finally became accepted in
the academic establishment, the question took on new
importance. George A. Lundberg, the most famous and
articulate spokesperson for the school that views sociology as a pure science (like physics), was roundly criticized by Robert M. MacIver, a sociologist who for
many years had maintained that human life is unique
and that therefore the methods of a science of society
must be distinct from those of other sciences. . . .
That particular debate has never been fully
resolved, nor can it be. The behavior of human beings
is, no doubt, exceedingly complex when compared to
that of many other forms of life. Yet even if we accept
the notion that human behavior is unique, many of the
assumptions of a science of society are still valid. The
scientific demands for rigor and careful collection of
data are very much a part of sociology. It is in this
sense that almost all scholars agree sociology is a science. Practitioners of the discipline are careful to back
their statements about behavior with observations. It is
not enough to state that you feel or think that the
middle class believes this or that. It is necessary, if you
are acting as a scientist, to (1) define what you mean by
the middle class and (2) describe the procedures you
used in collecting and analyzing the data that led you to
make a particular statement about the beliefs of that
group.
What we are noting here is that science is, in part,
a system which requires rigorous and precise definitions as well as empirical (observational) evidence.
Utilizing such a system of organized facts, collected in
an agreed-upon and repeatable manner, sociologists
have gathered an impressive amount of information
over the years. They can explain what groups tend to
behave in certain ways and why. They can demonstrate
that much of what is thought to be common sense and
a known fact may really be nonsensical and factually
inaccurate when examined in a scientific manner. . . .
PURPOSE: The text is complex in no small part

because it lacks an immediately obvious thesis
statement or clear-cut controlling purpose. The
first paragraph might lead readers to think that the
focus of the text is on human versus animal
behavior, but the true focus is revealed later on
when the authors move to the question of to what
degree sociology is a science.
STRUCTURE: Like the purpose, the structure is
revealed only by a careful reading. The first
paragraph might suggest that the text will present
two sides of a debate on the uniqueness (or lack
thereof) of human behavior, with Lundberg and
MacIver playing central roles. But that debate is
only a backdrop for the central issue: to what
degree sociology is a science.
VOCABULARY: There are a large number of both

uncommon and familiar words used in specialized
ways in the text: for example, empirical and
repeatable.
Despite the impressive collection of data sociology has available to it today, MacIvers reservations
about the possibility of a science of society are still
shared by a number of sociologists. Many feel that sociologist can understand the critical elements in human
interaction only by taking the role of the otherby perceiving the world from one point of view of the subject
of their investigation. This perspective, of course, does
not mean that one must be the subject of investigation.
To use two analogies from pure science, one does not
have to be a molecule to understand the relationships of
chemical equations; nor does one have to give birth to
understand the process of birth. . . .
48
Sociologists who stress taking the role of the other

consider their subject more an art than a science. They
emphasize the difference between scientific knowledge
and artistic understanding. Knowledge pertains to what
we grasp intellectuallyfacts. Understanding refers to
what might be called gut-level acquaintance. . . .
The distinction between knowledge and understanding is a major difference between sociology as science and sociology as art. In addition, there are
important differences in method. Sociologists as scientists are more concerned with certain criteria of formal
scientific inquiry. In particular, they feel they must conduct their investigations in such manner that another
person could exactly duplicate, or replicate, the
process. . . .
Sociologists as artists, by contrast, are less concerned with factual data and the ability to have an
investigation replicated. In a study on alcoholism, they
might utilize literary works, informal interviews, participant observation (the researcher lives among and
observes the subjects), and other techniques more
geared to feeling as an alcoholic feels than to describing alcoholics. They would not make the assumption
that anyone trained in such techniques of investigation
could duplicate the process and achieve the same
results. However, the sociologist as artist does not
ignore the principles of scientific inquiry. . . . The
investigator may perceive this world as an artist, but he
or she must describe it in an orderly and rigorous
manner as a scientist.
49
RELATIONSHIPS: In the last three paragraphs,

the authors contrast the concepts of knowledge
and understanding, two words that are often used
interchangeably in everyday speech. Appreciating
the subtle distinction the authors make is critical to
appreciating the difference between sociology as
art and sociology as science.
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and Adult Education.
53
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Reading Between The Lines: What The ACT Reveals About College Readiness in Reading

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Reading Between The Lines: What The ACT Reveals About College Readiness in Reading

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COLLEGE

Founded in 1959, ACT is an independent, not-for-profit organization

2006 by ACT, Inc. All rights reserved.

Reading Between the Lines

A Message from ACTs CEO and Chairman ......................... i

1 Our Students Are Not Ready for College

2 Ready or Not: What Matters in Reading? ....................... 11

3 Taking Action: How to Help All Students

A Message from ACTs CEO and Chairman

ACTs College Readiness

Figure 1: 2005 ACT-tested High School Graduates Meeting

Figure 2: ACT-tested High School Graduates Meeting Reading Benchmark, 19942005 2

The High Costs of Not Being Ready

International comparisons, such as the Programme for International

NAEP Trends in Average Reading Scale Scores for Students

290+ 290+ 290+ 288 288

257 257 260 258 258

212+ 209+ 211+ 211+ 212+ 212+

1988 199019921994 1996

+ Significantly different from 2004.

Unfortunately, poor reading skills continue to limit opportunities

Students Are Losing Momentum

Figure 3: EXPLORE-, PLAN-, and ACT-tested Students Meeting Reading

The data in this figure are based on approximately 352,000 students.

State Reading Standards: Were Getting

Figure 4: EXPLORE-, PLAN-, and ACT-tested Students Meeting Reading

At the high school level, 20 of these 28

Overall (including Iowa, which has not

High School Reading Instruction

[A]s a group, the teachers reporting on a class of

High school English teachers . . . are

If this is true of English teachers, how much truer must it be of teachers in

But even where reading is an element of the high school curriculum

Maximum Average Score Increase

ACT research has well documented the strong positive impact

Students who meet the ACT Benchmark

The figures show that students who meet the

Met Reading Benchmark

Figure 6: Fall 2003 College Enrollment for 2003

enroll in college (74 percent vs. 59 percent);

Based on approximately 1.2 million students.

Did Not Meet Reading Benchmark

Did Not Meet Benchmark

Percent Acheiving Grade

Did Not Meet Benchmark

Percent Acheiving GPA

Met Reading Benchmark

Did Not Meet Reading Benchmark

Figure 8: ACT-tested High School Graduates Meeting

Figure 9: Fall 2004 Second-year College Retention

Based on approximately 779,000 first-year college students.

But what differentiates students who meet the Reading Benchmark

ACT Reading Benchmark

ACT Reading Test Score

Figure 10: Performance on the ACT Reading Test by Comprehension Level

Figure 10 shows essentially no difference in student performance on

Richer, less plain

Some difficult, contextdependent words

As shown in Table 1, the three types of texts represent a continuum of