n,

WORKSHOP ON
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT SIMULATORS

INTRODUCTION TO CANDU
SYSTEMS AND OPERATION

Dr. G. T. BEREZNAI
and Dr. G. HARVEL
Faculty of Energy Systems and Nuclear Science,
University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa,
Ontario, Canada (2011)

preliminary lecture notes, intended only for distribution to participants.

INTRODUCTION TO CANDU

SYSTEMS and OPERATION

SESSION 1:
SESSION 2:
SESSION 3:
SESSION 4:
SESSION 5:

OVERALL UNIT
REACTOR
HEAT TRANSPORT
STEAM, TURBINE & FEEDWATER
ADVANCED CANDU REACTOR
Lecture Notes
prepared by:
Dr. George Bereznai
Dean, Energy Systems and
Nuclear Science, at the University of
Ontario Institute of Technology,
Canada
[email protected]
[email protected]

2.

MAJOR CANDU SYSTEMS

The portion of this workshop that deals with CANDU Systems and Operations is organized into
four Sessions. Each Session encompasses a major portion of a CANDU unit, and covers a
system or a group of functionally related systems. The role and relation of the systems
discussed in a Session to the overall generating unit is introduced and related to the rest of the
Workshop with the aid of the Course Map shown on the diagram.
Item 1. In Session 1 we look at the Overall Nuclear Electric Generating Unit as an entity. I am
using the yellow background in the diagram to illustrate what is meant by the term Overall Unit:
it is the complete physical plant that is involved in having the energy in the nuclear fuel
converted through various processes to electrical energy. This Session concentrates on the
main building blocks that make up an operating unit and the interactions between these blocks.
Each of the subsequent Sessions will look at the main systems and groups of systems of
the overall unit.
Item 2. In the second Session we look at the main components of the reactor and of the reactor
regulating system.
We will see how the natural uranium fuel is held in the fuel channels and how it is cooled
by the heavy water of the heat transport system. We will also look at the types of instruments
and techniques that are used to measure the power produced by the reactor, the control
algorithms that compare the power measurements with the desired power level, and how the
devices used to control the nuclear reaction change the power output of the reactor.
Using the simulator, you will perform several reactor operations under both normal and
malfunction conditions, and gain a good appreciation of the rate and magnitude of power level
changes, and the mechanisms through which the regulating system control reactor power.
Item 3. Session 3 is about the Heat Transport System, which in CANDUs uses heavy water to
transfer the energy released by the nuclear fuel in the reactor to generate steam to drive the
turbine and generator. You will learn the key features of the Main Circuit, how the pressure and
inventory of heavy water is controlled in the heat transport system. It is quite a complex system,
and it is shown in sufficient detail on the simulator to let you do some interesting exercises
under normal as well as several malfunction conditions.
Item 4. Session 4 is about the systems that are often referred to collectively as the Balance of
Plant: the steam, turbine and feedwater systems. Important control systems are associated with
these, including the steam generator pressure and level control systems and the turbine control
system.
On the simulator a variety of malfunctions involving each of the above systems will be
dealt with.

3.

NUCLEAR STEAM SUPPLY SYSTEM

The diagram shows the following major components of the CANDU Nuclear Steam Supply
System, the Reactor, Fuel Handling, Heat Transport, Feedwater and Steam systems. The Fuel
Handling System provides fresh fuel and removes spent fuel from the Reactor. The heat
generated in the Reactor from the fissioning of nuclei in the fuel is removed by the Heat
Transport system heavy water and is transferred in the Steam generators to the Feedwater,
which is ordinary light water, and the resultant steam is supplied to the Turbine.
(1) The Reactor Assembly consists of (a) the Calandria, which is a stainless steel
horizontal cylindrical vessel that holds the heavy water moderator and reflector. There are
hundreds of Fuel Channels installed in the Calandria vessel and supported by the End Shield
that close off the two ends of the Calandria. Arrow (b) points to one of the Fuel Channels, each
of which consists of a calandria tube that surrounds a pressure tube that contains 12 natural
uranium fuel bundles and carries the pressurized heavy water heat transport coolant. There are
380 such fuel channels in a CANDU 6 reactor, and 480 in a CANDU 9 reactor.
The Calandria is surrounded by a Shield Assembly, indicated by arrow (3), made of
concrete and steel, and containing light water. There are In-core Flux Detectors installed from
the top of the Calandria, and Ion Chambers that are housed at the side of the Calandria, as
indicated by arrows (d). The Reactivity Mechanisms are shown by arrow (e) as being inserted
from the top of the calandria.
(2) The Heat Transport System consists of two main loops, identified by the labels on the
diagram. Each of the two loops has a hot-leg as indicated by arrows (b1) and (b2), a pair of
boilers in each loop, at arrows (c1) and (c2), and a cold-leg shown at (d1) and (d2) to complete
each loop. The actual system is of course much more complicated, with two circulating pumps
per loop, reactor inlet and outlet headers and piping connections to every pressure tube. The
heat transport coolant heavy water is continuously circulated through each loop, carrying the
heat from the reactor to the steam generators and back to the reactor. The coolant is under high
pressure so that only a small amount of boiling takes place near the outlets of the hottest fuel
channels. We will look at the pressure and inventory control system, and other heat transport
auxiliary systems later in this Session.
(3) The Steam Generators transfer the heat from the heavy water coolant of the heat
transport system on the primary side to the light water on the secondary side to form steam.
The steam is sent to the Balance Of Plant systems, most of it to the Turbine, and a much
smaller amount to the Feed Heating system. After passing through the Turbine the steam is
condensed in the Condenser, and the water is subsequently raised in temperature and pressure
before returning it to the Steam Generators in the form of Feedwater.
(4) The Fuel Handling System takes fresh fuel bundles, as indicated by arrow (a) and
feeds them into the designated fuel channel. After a residency time of approximately one year,
the spent fuel bundles, indicated by arrow (b) are removed from the fuel channel by the
computerized remote controlled fuel handling system, and transfers them to the irradiated fuel
bay, where the bundles will reside for at least seven years, before they can be transferred to dry
storage.

4.

FUEL HANDLING AND STORAGE

Typical refuelling operations require that each day eight fuel bundles are replaced in one or two
channels. Apart from the loading of new fuel bundles into the magazines of the new fuel ports, all other
operations are controlled remotely from the control room using digital computers.
The Fuel Handling and Storage Facilities to support this operation include:
(1) receiving, storing, inspecting and loading new fuel into fuelling machines;
(2) on-line removal of spent fuel and insertion of fresh fuel;
(3) cooling of irradiated fuel during its removal and transfer to storage bays;
(4) underwater storage of irradiated fuel until it can be transferred to dry storage (at least six years).
(1) New fuel is received, inspected and stored in the New Fuel Storage room that is located in the
Service Building.
When required for use in the reactor, the fuel bundles are transferred to the New Fuel Transfer
Room in the Reactor Building. The fuel bundles, typically eight at a time, are loaded manually into one of
the two magazines of the new fuel port.
Transfer of the new fuel bundles into the fuelling machine that is designated to hold the fresh fuel
is controlled remotely.
(2) Fuelling Machines
Two fuelling machines, connected to either end of a fuel channel, are needed to change the fuel in a
CANDU reactor.
One fuelling machine inserts new fuel bundles into the fuel channel, in the same direction as the
flow of coolant in that channel, left to right in this diagram. The irradiated or spent fuel bundles are
pushed into the other fuelling machine at the downstream end of the fuel channel. Typically either four or
more often eight of the 12 fuel bundles in a fuel channel are exchanged during a refuelling operation.
Either of the two fuelling machines can load fresh fuel or receive spent fuel. The direction of
loading, and hence the role that each machine will have, depends on the direction of coolant flow in the
fuel channel being refuelled, since the flow direction alternates between adjacent channels.
(3) Irradiated Fuel
Following the placement of the irradiated fuel bundles in the fuelling machine the fuel channel is
reclosed. The fuelling machine then moves to the Discharge Port, where the fuel bundles are transferred
into an elevator, which lowers them into the water filled Discharge Bay.
The irradiated fuel bundles are moved under water through a Transfer Canal into the Reception
Bay, where they are loaded onto storage trays or baskets and passed into the Irradiated Fuel Storage
Bay.
All the transfer operations from the Fuelling Machine to the Irradiated Fuel Storage Bay take
place under water, ensuring that the fuel is cooled at all times during removal and transfer, to prevent
fuel overheating and possible damage to the bundles.
(4) Irradiated Fuel Storage Bay
Irradiated fuel bundles are stored in the Irradiated Fuel Storage Bay for a minimum of six years before
they can be transferred to dry storage. The storage volume of the bays has sufficient capacity of a
minimum of 10 years accumulation of irradiated fuel. Operations in the Storage Bays are carried out
under water, using special tools aided by cranes and hoists.
Defective fuel is placed into protective cans before transfer to the Defective Fuel Bay, in order to
limit the spread of contamination.
Because CANDU uses natural uranium fuel, neither the new nor the irradiated fuel can achieve
criticality in air or in ordinary light water, regardless of the storage configuration.

5.

MODERATOR SYSTEMS

All CANDU reactors use heavy water as the moderator, in a system that is completely separate from the
reactor coolant heavy water. About 4% of the reactor thermal power appears in the moderator, due to
gamma radiation, the slowing down of fast neutrons, and heat transferred from the fuel channels.
The Moderator Systems consist of the Main Circuit, which circulates the heavy water through the
calandria and heat exchangers to remove the heat generated in the moderator during reactor operation.
The operating pressure at the moderator free surface near the top of the Calandria is slightly
above atmospheric. A Helium Cover Gas system provides an inert atmosphere at this surface.
Liquid Poisons can be added to the moderator for reactor control and shutdown, and removed
via the Purification system.
A Heavy Water Collection system collects any heavy water that leaks from the moderator and
associated systems.
(1) The Moderator Main Circuit, removes the heat generated in the moderator during reactor operation
and maintains the moderator level in the Calandria. The Calandria is normally full, and the Head Tank is
designed to maintain the level within the required range by allowing moderator swell and shrink that
result from temperature fluctuations. The pressures and temperatures in the Calandria are kept at
slightly above atmospheric conditions.
Two 100% capacity pumps circulate the heavy water moderator through the calandria and two
heat exchangers. The moderator heat is rejected to the Recirculated Cooling Water (RCW) System.
The heavy water in the Calandria provides a heat sink in the unlikely event of a loss of coolant
accident coincident with failure of emergency core cooling.
(2) A Cover Gas System above the free moderator surface is needed to prevent moisture in the air
down-grading the heavy water concentration, and the accumulation of a potentially explosive mixture of
deuterium and oxygen gases that result from the radiolysis of the heavy water.
Helium, which is chemically inert and not activated by neutron irradiation, is used as the cover
gas. The system controls the concentration of deuterium and oxygen gasses by catalytically recombining
them to re-form heavy water.
The Cover Gas System includes two compressors and two recombination units through which
the cover gas is circulated.
(3) The Liquid Poison System adds negative reactivity to the moderator when required, such as:
(a) to provide a means of reactivity control by adding dissolved poison to the moderator;
(b) to provide a means of rapid reactor shutdown by injection of poison into the moderator; this is
done by Reactor Shutdown System (SDS) #2;
(c) to provide a means of guarantying reactor shutdown by dissolving excess poison into the
moderator.
The liquid poisons employed are boron as boric anhydride, and gadolinium as gadolinium nitrate,
dissolved in D2O.
(4) The Moderator Purification System has the following main functions:
(a) maintain the purity of heavy water so that the excess production of deuterium and oxygen
gases through radiolysis is minimized;
(b) minimize the corrosion of components by removing impurities and controlling the pD level of
the heavy water;
(c) control reactivity by reducing the concentration of dissolved poisons boron and gadolinium in
the moderator, under the unit operators control;
(d) remove the excess gadolinium that was injected in response to a Reactor Shutdown System
#2 trip, once the conditions for restarting the unit have been established.
The system consists of a filter and ion exchanger columns.
(5) The Moderator D2O Collection System collects any heavy water leakage from the moderator and
associated systems and transfers it into the heavy water management systems for Cleanup and
Upgrading.

6.

HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEM

The Heat Transport Main Circuit uses pressurized heavy water to remove the heat produced in
the reactor. The heat is carried to the steam generators where it boils the light water on the secondary
side to produce steam.
The Heat Transport system must provide for the continuous cooling of the fuel, and it has to
contain any fission products that may be released from the fuel.
The Main circuit, as shown on the diagram, consists of two loops, each with a figure of eight
coolant flow pattern. Reactor inlet and outlet headers connect the fuel channels through feeder pipes to
the rest of the main circuit. There are four steam generators of the vertical U-tube type with an integral
preheating section. The four heat transport system pumps are vertical single discharge, electric motor
driven, centrifugal pumps with multi-stage mechanical shaft seals.
Under normal operating conditions the Pressurizer maintains the required system pressure.
No chemicals are added to the heat transport system for reactivity control.
(1) Two Loops
The Main Circuit, as shown on the diagram, consists of two loops. Only four representative channels are
shown, two per loop, with the coolant flow in opposite directions as the two legs of each loop pass
through the Reactor. The illustration is indicative of the flow pattern for the actual number of fuel
channels, since the coolant flow through the core is bi-directional, i.e. in opposite directions in adjacent
fuel channels.
Each loop serves half of the reactor. The fuel channels are divided for this purpose about the
vertical centre-plane of the reactor. Having a steam generator and a circulating pump at the ends of
each loop, the overall effect is a figure of eight coolant flow pattern. The arrows point to the circuit for
Loop 1.
(2) The four Steam Generators transfer heat from the reactor coolant, contained on the steam generator
primary side, to light water to produce steam on the secondary side. The CANDU 6 and 9 steam
generators consist of an inverted vertical U-tube bundle in a cylindrical shell. Steam separating
equipment is provided in the steam drum in the upper part of the shell. The steam leaving the steam
generator has less than 0.25 percent moisture by weight.
Feedwater enters the baffled preheater section of the steam generator, and flows over the D2O
outlet end of the U-tube bundle. Water at saturated temperature from the preheater mixes with
recirculating water flowing over the hot leg section of the tube bundle.
(3) The four heat transport Main Circuit Pumps are vertical single discharge, centrifugal pumps
with multi-stage mechanical shaft seals. Each pump is driven by a vertical, totally enclosed, air-water
cooled squirrel cage induction motor.
The pump/motor unit has sufficient rotational inertia so that, on loss of motor power, the rate of
coolant flow reduction matches the reactor power rundown following reactor trip. Natural circulation
maintains fuel cooling after the pumps stop.
(4) Headers
Each pressure tube receives its coolant flow via a feeder pipe connected to a Reactor Inlet Header
(RIH), and the coolant leaves the pressure tube via another feeder pipe connected to the Reactor Outlet
Header (ROH). In CANDU 6 there are four RIH and four ROH, as shown in the diagram. The CANDU 9
design has combined two of the Inlet Headers, one on either end of the Reactor.
The feeders that connect each fuel channel to the reactor inlet and outlet headers are sized such
that the coolant flow to each channel is proportional to channel power. The enthalpy increase of the
coolant is therefore the same for each fuel channel assembly.
The operating pressure at the Reactor Outlet Header is 10 MPa. In order to maximize unit
thermal efficiency, boiling in the core at high power is permitted, leading to an Reactor Outlet Header
steam quality of up to 4% at full power.

(5) Heat Transfer Path

Please refer to the arrow numbers shown on the diagram.
(a) The coolant emerges hot, shown by red colour, from the fuel channels.
(b) All the feeders from a quarter of the fuel channels are connected to the given ROH, from
which the hot heavy water flows to the steam generators, where it is transfers heat to the light
water on the secondary side.
(c) The once again cooled heavy water enters the Heat Transport Circulating pump, then flows to
the RIH.
(d) The RIH distributes the coolant to each of the feeder pipes connected to it, sending the
coolant to the inlet of the fuel channels, flowing in the opposite direction from the earlier set.
(e) The coolant is heated once again as it flows past the fuel, and emerges at the other end of the
reactor, flowing through the ROH, the Steam Generator, and the Circulating pump.
(f) The loop is completed with the coolant going through the RIH back to the first set of fuel
channels.
(6) The Pressurizer maintains the required system pressure under normal operating conditions.
The Pressurizers liquid and steam are kept at saturation, and at a pressure that is slightly higher than
the saturation conditions in the reactor outlet header at 100%FP.
Pressurizer and hence heat transport pressure can be raised by adding heat to the liquid via
electric heaters, and the pressure can be reduced by bleeding steam out of the pressurizer.
During a reactor power increase the outlet header pressure rises as a result of the swell in the
system. The level setpoint in the pressurizer increases automatically so that all the swell resulting from
power increases is stored in the pressurizer.
The level in the pressurizer, and hence the heat transport system inventory, is normally
controlled via the Heat Transport feed and bleed flows. In cases when the Pressurizer is isolated from
the Main Circuit, the feed and bleed flows also control the system pressure.

7.

STEAM GENERATOR AND MAIN STEAM SYSTEMS

The Steam Generator and Main Steam Systems include the four Steam Generators, the piping and
valves that direct the flow of steam to the Turbine, to other steam loads, or to by-pass these loads when
the need arises.
As discussed earlier, the heavy water reactor coolant of the Heat Transport System flows
through hundreds of small inverted U tube bundles in each of the four Steam Generators (only one
shown in the diagram) and transfers heat to the light water supplied by the Feedwater System. The
steam from the Steam Generators is fed by separate piping, called Steam Mains to the Turbine Steam
Chest via the Turbine Stop Valves, and its flow is controlled by the Governor Valves.
When the turbine cannot accept the full steam flow, the excess steam can be discharged to the
atmosphere or bypass the turbine by flowing directly to the condenser.
Over-pressure protection is provided by four Safety Relief Valves on each steam main.
(1) Steam Flow Measurements are made in each of the four Steam Mains, and are used for:
(a) Input to the Reactor Regulating System for the computation of Reactor Thermal Power .
(b) Input to the Steam Generator Level Control program to control the opening of the Feedwater
valves.
(c) Display by the Computerized Plant Display System and on the Control Room Panel
Instruments.
(2) There is a Main Steam Isolation Valve in each of the four Steam Mains. These are motorized valves
that are normally open, and are closed remote-manually only after the reactor had been shut down.
They are provided for the purpose of being able to isolate each Steam Generator from the rest of the
system, typically in cases that involve leakages from the primary side of the Steam Generators to the
secondary side.
(3) There are four Steam Safety Relief Valves (also called Main Steam Safety Valves or MSSV) in each
of the four Steam Mains, but only one per line is shown in the diagram. These are spring-loaded valves
with auxiliary pneumatic operators. Their combined capacity is such that three out of the four MSSVs
provide a flow of 115% of the steam flow from each steam generator. The valves have staggered set
pressures, and will open between 5.11 MPa and 5.24 MPa.
(4) There is an Atmospheric Steam Discharge Valve, in short ASDV, in each of the four Steam Mains.
These valves have a total capacity of 10% of the units full power steam flow.
The ASDVs are normally closed, and are controlled by the Steam Generator Pressure Control
program. They are opened when the Main Steam Header Pressure rises above the ASDV setpoint,
which is typically 70 kPa above the Main Steam Header Setpoint. The valve opening is proportional to
the pressure error. The ASDVs are also used to provide a heat sink for the reactor when the main
condenser is unavailable.
The ASDVs open fully before the CSDVs begin to open. They are capable to go from closed to
fully open in less than 2 seconds.
(5) There are two Condenser Steam Discharge Valves, in short CSDVs connected from the Main Steam
Header to the Condenser. Only one of these is shown on the diagram. These valves have a combined
capacity of 100% of the units full power steam flow in case of a load rejection. The turbine bypass
system is sized to permit a continuous steam flow to the condenser of up to 60% of full power steam
flow.
The main function of these valves is to bypass the steam to the condenser when the turbine is
not available, so that the reactor can continue to operate at up to 60%FP, in order to prevent a poisonout.
The CSDVs are normally closed, and are controlled by the Steam Generator Pressure Control
program. They are opened when the Main Steam Header Pressure rises above the CSDV setpoint,
which is typically 100 kPa above the Main Steam Header Setpoint. The CSDVs are capable to go from
closed to fully open in less than 1 second.

(6) There are Turbine Stop Valves (also called Main Stop Valves) upstream of the turbine control valves.
These are hydraulically operated spring-closed valves that are normally open. Their main function is to
close rapidly when required to protect the turbine against over-speed if the turbine control valves fail.
Only one of these valves is shown on the diagram.
(7) There is an Isolation Valve in each of the steam lines to the various Auxiliary Systems. These are
motorized valves that are normally open, and are closed either by automatic logic or remote-manually
from the Main Control Room. They are provided for the purpose of being able to isolate each Auxiliary
System from the Main Steam Header, typically in cases that involve leakages from the primary side of
the Steam Generators to the secondary side.

8.

FEEDWATER SYSTEM

The feedwater system supplies demineralized and preheated light water to the steam
generators. The flow to each steam generator is via a set of valves, that include pneumatic
control, motorized isolation, and check valves.
Varying the feedwater flow to each Steam Generator controls its level. The level setpoint
is varied as a function of reactor power to ensure a consistent inventory of water in the steam
generators, despite the expansion of the water with increased boiling.
The actual level measurement is combined with measurements of steam and feedwater
flow, and the resultant control signal is used to adjust the feedwater control valve opening.
(1) Feedwater Flow Measurements are made in each of the four Feedwater Lines. These
measurements are used for:
(a) Input to the Reactor Regulating System for the computation of Reactor Thermal
Power.
(b) Input to the Steam Generator Level Control program to control the opening of the
Feedwater valves.
(c) Display by the Computerized Plant Display System and on the Control Room Panel
Instruments.
(2) The Isolation Valves drawn in each of the Feedwater lines on the diagram are in fact a set of
six valves, consisting of three parallel lines, each having a Control Valve and an Isolation Valve
in series, as shown in the red line diagram.
The Isolation Valves are motor driven and are normally open. They are closed either by
automatic logic or remote-manually from the Main Control Room. They are provided for the
purpose of being able to isolate each Feedwater Flow Control Valve, typically in cases when the
associated control valve needs to be removed from the flow path.
(3) There is a Check Valve, also called non-return valve, in the Feedwater line upstream of the
flow entering each Steam Generator.
These valves are provided to prevent backflow in the unlikely event of feedwater pipe
failure.

9.
TURBINE, GENERATOR, CONDENSATE AND FEEDHEATING SYSTEMS
The diagram shows the main systems involved in converting the heat energy of the steam in the
turbine to rotational energy, which in turn drives the generator to convert the mechanical energy
to electrical energy.
In order to extract maximum energy from the steam, it needs to be condensed to a
pressure and temperature that is as low as practicable. This takes place in the condenser, with
the heat being removed to the environment by the condenser cooling water.
The feedheating system uses extraction steam from the turbine to raise the temperature
of the feedwater before returning it to the steam generator. The flows, temperatures and
pressures of the steam and feedheating systems are designed to optimize the thermodynamic
efficiency of the steam cycle.
The following items highlight each of the main components in the turbine, generator and
feedheating systems.
(1)
The Main Steam Header collects the steam flow from the individual steam mains coming
from each of the four steam generators, and distributes the steam to various loads.
Under normal operating conditions most of the flow is via the Governor Valves to the
high pressure turbine. Smaller amounts go to the Steam Reheater, the high pressure heaters
and some auxiliary loads.
If the Steam Generator Pressure rises above predetermined setpoints, usually because
the turbine is unable to accept the full steam flow, steam release valves to the atmosphere and
to the condenser open to discharge the excess steam, and to control steam pressure at its
setpoint.
The diagram shows the Steam Mains, the steam flow to the Steam Reheater, the
Governor Valve and the Condenser Steam Discharge Valves.
(2)
The High Pressure Turbine is a double-flow unit, designed to work with saturated inlet

steam. The amount of steam flowing to the high pressure turbine is controlled by the Governor

Valves. Emergency Stop Valves in series with the Governor Valves are fully open under normal

operating conditions, but will close rapidly in the event of a turbine trip.

(3)
Separator and Reheater.

Steam exiting the high pressure turbine has about 10% moisture content, which must be

removed prior to admitting the steam to the low pressure stages.

The Separator uses mechanical means to remove much of the moisture content, and in
the Reheater live steam raises the steam to superheated conditions.
(4)
The Low Pressure Turbine stage consists of three double flow low pressure cylinders.
The steam from the Reheater passes through a set of intercept and release valves which, in the
case of a turbine trip, will stop the flow of steam to the low pressure cylinders (intercept valves
close) and bypass the steam to the condensers (release valves open).
Each of the three low pressure turbine cylinders is connected to a separate condenser
shell where the exhaust steam is condensed.
(5)
The Generator is a three-phase four-pole machine directly coupled to the turbine. In the
case of electrical system operating at 60 Hz, the generator typically operates at 1800 rpm, and
for 50 Hz systems at 1500 rpm. The output voltage is typically 24,000 volts, and is connected
via forced air cooled, isolated phase bus duct to the step-up Main Output Transformer.
Cooling of the rotor winding and stator core is by hydrogen, and of the stator winding by
water.

(6)
The Condenser consists of three separate shells, one for each low pressure turbine
cylinder. The exhaust steam from each turbine cylinder flows into the shells where it is
condensed by flowing over tube bundle assemblies through which cooling water is pumped.
The condensed steam collects in the bottom of the condenser, in what is called the hot
well. The condenser is capable of handling 100% steam flow for a few minutes, to allow reactor
power to be reduced to 70% full power or lower, and at these levels the condenser can accept
by-pass steam flow continously.
(7)
The Feedwater Heating System uses extraction steam to preheat the feedwater in order
to optimize thermodynamic efficiency and to raise the temperature of the feedwater to the
desired value for admission to the steam generators.
The main components of the Feedheating System are shown on the diagram. Starting
from the Condenser Hot Well, the condensate is pumped through three low pressure heater
units. In the Deaerator dissolved oxygen and other non-condensable gases are removed. The
associated Storage tank acts as a reserve of feedwater, and by locating it high in the turbine
building, it also provides the net positive suction head to the main feedwater pumps. Typically
three large feed pumps and one auxiliary pump are used to return the feedwater to the steam
generators.
Two high pressure heaters raise the temperature of the feedwater to a sufficient level to
minimize thermal shock when entering the preheater section of the steam generator, where the
feedwater temperature is raised to saturation value.

10.
REACTOR SHUTDOWN SYSTEMS (SDS#1 and SDS#2)
In this and the next two sections we take a brief look at what are called the Special Safety
Systems. These systems do not take any part in normal power plant operations, but are
poised to act. In other words, they are waiting and watching in case the processes and their
control systems cannot keep key operating parameters within prescribed limits. In such cases,
when there is the potential for fuel failure to occur with a risk of radioactivity release, these
special safety systems spring into action. If the control of reactor power is not assured, one or
both Reactor Shutdown Systems will shut it down. If cooling of the fuel is judged to be
insufficient, Emergency Core Cooling will be implemented; and if there is a risk, or perhaps an
actual release of radioactivity from any of the plant systems, then the Containment System will
ensure that no unsafe level of radiation is released to areas outside the plants boundary.
(1)
There are two full capability reactor shutdown systems in CANDU units. They are called
Shutdown System Number 1, in short SDS1, and Shutdown System Number 2, or SDS2.
These two reactor shutdown systems are functionally and physically independent of each
other, and each is able, on its own, to shut down the reactor and to keep it in the shutdown
state.
As shown in the diagram, SDS1 uses solid neutron absorbing rods that are dropped into
the core, while a liquid poison is injected into the moderator for SDS2. There is a very high level
of functional independence provided by using two such fundamentally different methods of
shutdown.
There is also a large measure of physical independence between systems as a result of
the shutdown rods having been positioned vertically through the top of the reactor, while the
poison injection tubes are located horizontally through the sides of the reactor.
The desired very high level of independence is further enhanced by using diversity
between the two shutdown systems in every possible area, such as the types of instruments
used, the choice of trip parameters, the type and source of control equipment hardware, the
software languages used, and even the membership of the design and analysis teams.
(2)
Shutdown System Number 1 is the primary method of quickly shutting down the reactor.
SDS1 employs instruments that give parameter measurements and logic systems that process
these measurements, that are different and independent from the corresponding components of
SDS2 and the reactor regulating system. When the conditions for a reactor trip are detected by
the SDS1 circuits, they send signals to de-energize the clutches that hold the neutron absorbing
shutdown rods in their poised positions above the reactor core, allowing them to fall into the
core.
The design philosophy of the trip systems is based on triplicating the measurement and
processing of each signal, and initiating their protective action when any two of the three
channels indicate that a trip condition exists based on any one variable, or a combination of
different variables.
(3)
Shutdown System Number 2 uses the rapid injection into the Moderator of a liquid that
contains a strong neutron absorbing substance, for CANDU this is concentrated gadolinium
nitrate. Such a liquid is called a poison because it rapidly shuts down the nuclear chain
reaction.
The liquid poison is held in tanks outside the reactor, and the gas spaces above the
liquid poison tanks are connected by a highly reliable set of quick opening valves to a tank
containing helium under a high pressure. The triplicated parameter sensors and logic circuits of
SDS2 are fully independent of the equipment and circuits of SDS1 and of the reactor control
system, as I pointed out earlier. When the SDS2 logic system determines that there is a
requirement for it to shut down the reactor, the fast-acting valves are opened, and the high
pressure helium expels the liquid poison from the tanks into the horizontal tubes that are
installed through the side of the calandria and through the injection nozzles into the moderator
heavy water.

(4)
Both SDS1 and SDS2 respond automatically to carefully chosen parameters, which
include neutronic as well as process system signals. In addition to choosing as many different
parameters to be measured as possible, if the same or similar trip parameter is used than the
type of instrument, and its electrical supply will be different.
Typical variables that are used as trip parameters include the following:
- high neutron power
- high rate of log neutron power
- low heat transport coolant flow
- high heat transport pressure
- low pressurizer level
- low steam generator level
- high containment building pressure
(5)
The desired very high level of independence between SDS1, SDS2 and the reactor
regulating system is further enhanced by using diversity between these systems in every
possible area, such as the types of instruments used, the source of electric and pneumatic
power, the location and spatial orientation of wire runs, the choice of trip parameters, the type
and source of control equipment hardware, the software languages used, and even the
membership of the design and analysis teams.

11.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC

This diagram shows a simplified schematic or block diagram of a typical nuclear power plant such as
CANDU.
In order to help to explain how the control systems maintain the energy balance and do their
control functions, I have broken down the diagram into five main groups of systems, namely the Nuclear
Steam Supply Process Systems, the Steam Utilization Process Systems, the Nuclear Steam Supply
Control Systems, the Steam Utilization Control Systems, and the Special Shutdown Systems.
By selecting each of these five topics we can build up the schematic diagram in a step-by-step
fashion.
(1)
Nuclear Steam Supply Process Systems
On this very much simplified diagram, I used only two blocks and the interconnecting circuit to represent
the Nuclear Steam Supply Process Systems.
The Reactor block, the principle source of energy for the power plant, is indicated to include the
nuclear fuel, the reactor coolant and the moderator.
The Steam Generator block is where the transfer of energy from the heavy water reactor coolant
on the primary side to the light water on the secondary side of the steam generator takes place.
The Heat Transport system is shown only as the interconnection between the reactor and the
steam generator blocks, with the pump symbol indicating the flow of coolant around the circuit,
transferring heat from the reactor to the steam generator.
As we will see, from an overall unit control point of view, these three process systems of the
Nuclear Steam Supply side of the plant are the ones of principle interest.
(2)

For the Steam Utilization Process Systems I have chosen to highlight two groups of systems.
In the upper part of the diagram are the High and Low Pressure Turbines, with the Moisture
Separator and Reheater between them, and the condenser at the outlet of the low pressure stage. The
generator is connected to the same shaft as the turbine. As we will see, these are the systems
principally involved with unit electrical output control and steam generator pressure control.
The lower part of the diagram shows the main blocks of the feedheating system, including the
Condensate Extraction pumps, Low and High Pressure Heaters, the Deaerator and the Feedwater
pumps. We will see how steam generator level control is accomplished in connection with the feedwater
system.
(3)
The two Nuclear Steam Supply Control Systems that we need to consider at this stage are the
Reactor Regulating System and the Heat Transport Pressure and Inventory Control System.
The Reactor Regulating System has the task of keeping reactor power at the required level, and
to maneuver it from one level to another at specified rates.
The Heat Transport Pressure Control System maintains the high pressure required to keep the
coolant in the liquid state. During power operations, the pressure is constant, it only changes when the
unit is not producing electric power and the reactor is in a shutdown state.
Because of thermal expansion, the volume of heavy water in the main circuit changes as a
function of operating temperature, so control of the heavy water inventory is an integral part of the Heat
Transport Pressure Control System.
(4)
The two Steam Utilization Control Systems that we will deal with in this course are the Steam
Generator Pressure Control System and the Steam Generator Level Control System.
The valves connected to the steam line from the steam generator to the turbine are involved in
steam generator pressure control and protection. Under normal operating conditions the steam flow is
from the steam generator through the Emergency Stop Valves that are fully open, and through the
Governor Valves. The openings of the Governor Valves alter the amount of steam that flows to the
turbine, and hence the power produced by the turbine. Changes in steam flow also affect the steam
generator pressure.

If the pressure rises above a specified margin, the Atmospheric Steam Discharge Valves open to
limit the rise in steam pressure. If the pressure increases further, the Condenser Steam Discharge
Valves open to bypass the turbine and discharge the steam directly to the condenser.
In case the Atmospheric and Condenser Steam Discharge Valves cannot maintain steam
pressure below a specified value, the Safety Relief Valves open to ensure that the steam pressure does
not exceed the safety limit.
Steam Generator Level Control is achieved by altering the openings of the Feedwater Flow
Control Valves. By increasing the valves openings, the flow of feedwater and hence steam generator
level will increase, while the converse takes place if the valves openings are decreased.
(5)
Special Shutdown Systems.
All the systems that we have discussed so far have various safety devices and operating limits as
integral parts of the design of each system. In nuclear power plants, there are additional safety features,
and in particular special safety systems, that are designed to prevent the reactors power level from
going too high, ensuring that there is cooling of the fuel at all times, and that any radioactivity that may
be inadvertently released from the fuel or any other station system, is contained within the reactor
building structure.
In CANDU plants, there are two independent Reactor Shutdown Systems, each of which is fully
capable to shut down the reactor and to keep it in the shutdown state.
The Emergency Core Cooling System has a high pressure injection part, an intermediate
pressure injection component, and equipment for low pressure recovery operation.
The Containment system is designed to withstand the largest expected pressure increase, and to
ensure that no unsafe amounts of radiation are released to the public under either normal or accident
conditions.

12.

CANDU NORMAL AND ALTERNATE MODES OF UNIT CONTROL

In this section we look at how the overall unit control modes are realized for CANDU power
plants.
There are two basic alternatives, but one of these has two variants.
First we have NORMAL mode, in which the turbine leads the reactor.
The second case is ALTERNATE mode, in which the reactor leads the turbine, and the
turbine is under Steam Generator Pressure Control.
We distinguish a third case, when the reactor is in ALTERNATE mode, but the turbine
is Manually controlled. This mode is only used during certain stages of start-up and shutdown.
(1)
In NORMAL mode, the unit operator specifies the target value of generator output
setpoint and its rate of change.
The Unit Power Regulator uses the target values to change the generator power setpoint
from its existing value to the new value. It also compares the setpoint with the actual generator
output power, and in case of a difference sends a signal to the Turbine Controller, requesting a
corrective action. The Turbine Controller will adjust the Governor valves to eliminate the error.
The Steam Generator Pressure Controller continuously monitors steam generator
pressure. In response to a pressure error, it calculates a change in the reactor power setpoint,
and sends the change request to the Reactor Regulating System.
The Reactor Regulating System computes a new setpoint based on the request from the
Steam Generator Pressure Controller. It also compares the actual Reactor Power with the
demanded power setpoint, and makes changes to the reactivity mechanisms so as to eliminate
the reactor power error.
Changes in reactor power will result in changes in the heat generated in the reactor and
through the actions of the heat transport system, to the amount of heat transferred to the steam
generators. As the amounts of heat given up in the steam generators change, there will be
corresponding changes in steam generator pressure.
If the steam pressure rises above a predetermined level, the Steam Generator Pressure
Controller will open the ASDVs, and if there is a further increase in pressure, the CSDVs also.
(2)
In ALTERNATE mode, the unit operator specifies the target value of reactor power
setpoint and its rate of change.
The Reactor Regulating System uses the target values to change the reactor power
setpoint from its existing value to the new value. It also compares the setpoint with the actual
reactor power, and makes changes to the reactivity mechanisms so as to eliminate the reactor
power error.
Changes in reactor power will result in changes in the heat generated in the reactor and
through the actions of the heat transport system, to the amount of heat transferred to the steam
generators. As the amounts of heat given up in the steam generators change, there will be
corresponding changes in steam generator pressure.
The Steam Generator Pressure Controller continuously monitors steam generator
pressure, and compares it with the setpoint, which is constant, except under certain startup and
shutdown conditions. In case of a pressure error, it sends a signal to the Turbine Controller,
requesting a corrective action. The Turbine Controller will adjust the Governor valves to
eliminate the error.
If the steam pressure rises above a predetermined level, the Steam Generator Pressure
Controller will open the ASDVs, and if there is a further increase in pressure, the CSDVs also.

(3)
The Turbine Controller may be disconnected from the steam generator and placed under
MANUAL control under certain startup and shutdown conditions. The reactor will be in
ALTERNATE mode in such a case, as described in item (2).
The Steam Generator Pressure Controller has no effect on the Governor valves in this
mode of operation. The only control action it has is to open the steam discharge valves in case
the steam pressure rises above the setpoints for the ASDVs and CSDVs.

13.

SIMPLIFIED BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE MAIN PROCESS AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

In Section 8 we extend what we have learned in the previous four sections about overall unit control. We
will look at how the systems involved in overall unit control interact with the main process systems under
normal operating conditions. We also will take a brief look at two other control systems that are not
directly involved in Overall Unit Control, but which do have important control actions in maintaining heat
transport pressure and inventory, and steam generator level at the correct values. I will use this
simplified block diagram to illustrate each of six important areas of CANDU process and control systems.
(1)
The first set of blocks I would like to consider are the Reactor, the Moderator and the Reactor
Regulating System. The main interactions are shown on the diagram, and they include:
- fresh fuel being added to the reactor and spent fuel being removed,
- the flow of heat transport heavy water that removes the heat generated by the reactor,
- the flow of moderator heavy water to and from the reactor, removing the heat generated in the
calandria heavy water and other structures,
- the Reactor Regulating System, which measures the power level in the reactor, compares it with
the operator specified setpoint, and makes adjustments to the reactivity mechanisms to eliminate
any error between the actual and demanded reactor power levels.
(2)
The second set of blocks includes the Main Heat Transport System and the Heat Transport
Pressure and Inventory Control System. The main interactions are shown on the diagram, and they
include:
- the flow of heat transport heavy water that removes the heat generated by the reactor and
transfers it to the Steam Generators,
- the Heat Transport Pressure and Inventory Control System, which is responsible for maintaining
a pressure of 10 - 11 Mega Pascals in the main circuit. The pressure in the main circuit is kept at
a constant value, irrespective of power level, but because the volume of heavy water in the main
circuit varies as a function of the operating temperature, the inventory control system adds or
removes liquid as needed from the main circuit.
(3)
The third set of blocks includes the Steam Generator and Main Steam System, the Feedwater
System, and the Steam Generator Pressure and Level Control Systems. The main interactions are
shown on the diagram, and they include:
- the flow of heat transport heavy water that transfers the heat generated by the reactor to the
Steam Generators;
- the flow of steam from the Steam Generators to the Turbine;
- the flow of condensed steam from the Turbine via the Condenser and the Feedwater System
back to the Steam Generators;
- the Steam Generator Pressure Control System, which is responsible for maintaining a pressure
in the order of 4.7 Mega Pascals in the steam generators. The pressure is kept at a constant
value irrespective of power level. In NORMAL mode, the pressure control system alters the
reactor power setpoint to eliminate any pressure error. In ALTERNATE mode the position of the
governor valves is altered to keep steam generator pressure constant;
- the Steam Generator Level Control System adjusts the Feedwater flow in response to changes
of inventory of light water in the steam generators: volumetric changes due to temperature
differences, variations in steam or feedwater flow, and level fluctuations are all taken into account
by the Steam Generator Level Control System.
(4)
The forth set of blocks includes the Turbine and Generator, the Turbine Controller and the Unit
Power Regulator Systems. The main interactions are shown on the diagram, and they include:
- the flow of steam from the Steam Generators to the Turbine;
- the flow of condensed steam from the Turbine via the Condenser to the Feedwater System;
- the output of electrical energy from the Generator to the Electric Power System;
- the monitoring of Turbine and Generator parameters by the Turbine Control System, and the
sending of control signals from the Turbine Controller to the Governor Valves, Emergency Stop
Valves, Atmospheric and Condenser Steam Discharge Valves;
- the Unit Power Regulator System, which receives the demanded generator power level from the
operator, compares it with the actual generator output, and subject to the status of the Turbine
parameters, instructs the Turbine Controller to make the necessary adjustment in valve openings
to match the actual and demanded generator power levels.

(5)
The fifth topic to be considered on the block diagram is the Electric Power System. It includes the
Electric Output System and Plant Electrical Distribution System. The main interactions are shown on the
diagram, and they include:
- the flow of electrical energy from the Generator to the Bulk Electric Power System, which is often
simply called the Grid;
- the output of the generated electrical energy, after transformation, to the Grid;
- the flow of electrical energy from the Grid, after transformation, to the plant systems;
- and it is important to note, that as shown on the diagram, all the plant systems receive electrical
energy at various voltages from the Plant Electrical Distribution System.

(6)

The sixth topic to be considered on the block diagram is called Common Services. It includes all
the water and pneumatic systems, communication systems, chemical and waste handling, transportation
of materials and equipment, and many others. These are far too numerous to cover in this course, but as
indicated in the diagram, Common Services, in one form or another, interact with all the systems that
constitute an operating nuclear generating station.

14.
COMPUTERIZED PLANT CONTROL SYSTEMS
So far in this Session we have looked at various aspects of overall unit control. In this section I
have summarized some key aspects of the five main CANDU process control systems. As
noted earlier, the control algorithms for each of these systems is implemented in the form of
software, executed on both of a units Digital Control Computers. In the table I have listed for
each program the parameters being measured, the variables that are controlled, and the
variables that are manipulated by the control system.
(1)
The Unit Power Regulator or in short form UPR program has as input the
measurement of electrical output from the unit, which is compared with the setpoint for
unit power output. The variable that is controlled is the electrical output of the
generator, and this is accomplished by varying the steam flow into the turbine by
altering the opening of the governor valves.
(2)
The Reactor Regulating System or in short form RRS program has as inputs
various measurements of reactor neutron power, both for the reactor as a whole and
its spatial distribution, as well as measurements that indicate the thermal power being
produced by the reactor. The total reactor neutron power is compared with the reactor
power setpoint to compute the reactor power error. The variable controlled is the
neutron flux, by altering the positions of the various reactivity mechanisms, such as
the insertion or removal of control rods, and the level of water in the liquid zone
controllers.
(3)
The Heat Transport Pressure and Inventory Control System or is short form HTP&I
program has as input Reactor Outlet Header (ROH) Pressure. This pressure is controlled
relative to the pressure setpoint that is constant during normal power operations. ROH
Pressure is controlled via the pressure of the Pressurizer, and the inventory of heavy water in
the Main Heat Transport circuit is controlled via the level of the Pressurizer. The variables
manipulated are the Pressurizer steam bleed valves and the heaters, to control Pressurizer
pressure, and the feed and bleed of heavy water to and from the main circuit are used to
control Pressurizer level.
(4)
The Steam Generator Pressure Control System or is short form SGPC program has as
inputs Steam Generator Pressure and Reactor Power. This pressure is controlled relative to the
pressure setpoint that is constant during normal power operations. Steam Generator Pressure
is controlled in NORMAL mode by altering the Reactor Power setpoint, and in ALTERNATE
mode by altering the steam flow through the Governor valves. In case of high pressure, SGPC
will open steam discharge valves to the atmosphere and to the condenser.
(5)
The Steam Generator Level Control System or is short form SGLC program has as
inputs Steam Generator Level, Reactor Power, Steam flow and Feedwater flow. The variable
controlled is level, but in a manner that ensures that the inventory of light water in the steam
generators is constant at all power levels. Steam Generator Level is controlled by altering the
feedwater flow, by changing the opening of the feedwater control valves.

15.

CANDU 9 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS

The diagram shows the changes in the main unit parameters as reactor power and generator
output are reduced from the normal operating value of 100% full power to zero output. The
parameter changes illustrated are essentially the same whether the unit is operating in
NORMAL or ALTERNATE mode, only the magnitude, direction and relative timing of the
short term parameter transients would differ.
In NORMAL MODE generator power decreases in response to the power level reduction
request input via the UPR program, and reactor power follows the decrease. In ALTERNATE
MODE reactor power decreases in response to the power level reduction request input via the
RRS program, and generator power follows.
The other plant parameters are held either constant by their respective control systems, or
change in response to programmed setpoint changes, or as consequence of the reduced
operating power level.
Heat Transport Pressure is kept constant at 10 MPa by the HT pressure control system.
Heat Transport Flow is kept constant by the mail circulating pump flow characteristics.
The Heat Transport Coolant Temperature change across the reactor slightly increases when
power is reduced below 100%FP because reactor inlet temperature drops as power is reduced
while the reactor outlet temperature remains essentially constant while there is boiling near the
outlet of most channels. Once the outlet channel temperatures fall below the saturation
temperature, the coolant temperature change across the reactor also falls as a function of
decreasing reactor power.
Pressurizer Level decreases in response to the programmed level setpoint decrease of the HT
Inventory Control program.
Steam Generator Pressure is kept constant by the Steam Generator Pressure Control program.
Steam Generator Level decreases in response to the programmed level setpoint decrease of
the Steam Generator Level Control program.
Steam Flow decreases due to the Governor Valve opening being reduced by the Steam
Generator Pressure Control program.
Feedwater flow decreases due to the decrease in Steam Flow.

2.

CANDU REACTOR ASSEMBLY FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

The diagram illustrates many of the essential features of the CANDU reactor:
- the large horizontal cylinder shaped Calandria that contains the low pressure Moderator;
- the Pressure Tubes that traverse the Calandria from one end to the other and hold the fuel
and the high pressure heavy water coolant, and allow for on-line refuelling;
- the Reactivity Control mechanisms, Shutdown Rods and associated vertical in-core flux
measuring devices that penetrate the Calandria from the top;
- the Ion Chambers, horizontal in-core flux measuring devices and the second reactor
shutdown systems liquid poison injection nozzle assemblies that penetrate the Calandria
from the side;
- the end shields and the concrete walls of the vault that provide both structural support and
radiation shielding.
(1)
The calandria is the main structural component to hold the fuel channels and to contain
the moderator such that a controlled nuclear fission chain reaction will occur to produce heat.
The Calandria shell is closed and supported by the End Shields at each end. The fuel channels
are supported principally by the End Shields. The Calandria and the End Shields are
themselves supported by the walls of the Reactor Vault.
(2)
The heat generated in the fuel by nuclear fission is removed by the pressurized heavy
water coolant that flows around and through the fuel bundles. Each fuel channel holds 12 fuel
bundles. At either end, each pressure tube is connected by a feeder pipe to the respective
header of the main heat transport system. The flow of coolant in adjacent fuel channels is in
opposite directions, i.e. the flow through the core is bi-directional. The CANDU 6 reactor has
380 fuel channels, the CANDU 9 reactor has 480.
(3)
At both ends of the fuel channels the zirconium pressure tubes are connected to
stainless steel end fittings, which provide mechanical connections for the fuelling machines.
The on-line refuelling system uses two identical fuelling machines, which are attached to the
ends of the channel to be refuelled. One machine inserts new fuel at one end of the channel
and the second machine removes irradiated fuel at the other end. The complete refuelling
operation of a channel is achieved by remote control while the reactor is operating.
(4)
The Calandria vessel is made of stainless steel and is usually fabricated at a significant
distance from the power plant site. Its design has to accommodate the specified range of
temperatures, pressures, radiation fields and loads acting on it during fabrication,
transportation, storage, installation, normal and abnormal operation, and all design basis
events including earthquakes. Installation of the various equipment, such as the pressure
tubes, reactivity mechanisms and flux detectors takes place at the power plant site. The
concrete vault that houses the calandria and all related reactor components are built during the
construction of the plant, and must also withstand a design basis earthquake.
(5)
The vertical and horizontal reactivity control devices, both for reactor regulation and
shutdown, and the neutron flux detector assemblies are positioned in the Calandria. They are
inside guide tubes that pass through the thimbles and in between the calandria tubes, and are
attached at the bottom of the Calandria.

(6)
In the axial direction of the Core, radiation and thermal shielding is provided by the End
Shields. Each End Shield consists of an inner and outer tubesheet, which are joined by lattice
tubes and a peripheral shell. The space inside the End Shield is filled with steel balls and
ordinary water. The water is circulated through a cooling system to remove the absorbed heat.
In the radial direction, light water is used to provide shielding, in addition to the vault
walls. For CANDU 6 the vault itself is filled with water. For CANDU 9 a Shield Tank, which
surrounds the Calandria and is connected to the End Shields contains the light water for both
thermal and biological shielding.
The shielding is designed to allow personnel access to the reactor face once the reactor
has been shut down.
(7)
The reactor assemblies are designed to allow all the major components to be easily
replaced or refurbished during the extended (up to 60 years) operating life of the reactor. Such
components include all the reactor control and shutdown mechanisms, the flux detectors, the
pressure tubes, the feeder pipes, but not the calandria-shield tank assembly.

2.1

CANDU 9 REACTOR ASSEMBLY

This diagram shows additional details of the reactor assembly as compared with the figure on
the previous page. Also note that this diagram illustrates a CANDU 9 reactor assembly: it has a
shield tank, and the vault contains air, while the CANDU 6 Reactor Assembly shown on the
previous page did not have a shield tank, but instead had the reactor vault filled with water.
(1)
The arrows point to the six walls that form the vault: above and below, behind, in front of
and on both sides of the reactor. The approximate dimensions of the CANDU 9 reactor vault
are: 20 m high, 20 m wide and 12.5 m deep
(2)
The reactivity mechanism deck holds all the flux measuring and controlling devices that
penetrate the Calandria from above the reactor. The in-core vertical flux detectors measure the
flux distribution in the core for both control and protection purposes. The vertical reactivity
control devices include the different types of reactor control rods and the reactor shutdown
rods.
(3)
There are horizontal flux measuring devices and reactivity control units that penetrate the
Calandria from the side. Arrow (a) points to one of the liquid poison injection nozzle assemblies
of the second reactor shutdown system, which are used for the rapid shutdown of the reactor by
the injection of liquid poison into the moderator. Arrow (b) points to one of the Ion Chamber
assemblies, each of which measures the flux for the purpose of both regulation and protection.
Arrow (c) indicates one of the horizontal in-core flux detector assemblies, used to provide flux
measurement for the second shutdown system.
(4)
The Shield Tank has a diameter of 13.3 m, and in combination with the End Shields, a
length of 8.1 m. The Shield Tank and End Shields completely surround the Calandria, as shown
by arrow (a). The space between the Shield Tank shell and the Calandria is filled with ordinary
light water. The two End Shields are filled with steel balls and light water, as indicated by
arrows (b) and (c). Such shielding allows maintainers to work in the reactor vault and in the
fuelling machine vault when the reactor is in the shutdown state. The water in the End Shields
is cooled to remove the heat transferred from the heat transport system and generated by
neutron absorption.
Arrow (d) points out the three main components that form the structure of the End
Shields: the Calandria Side Tubesheet, the Lattice Tubes, and the Fuelling Machine Side
Tubesheet.
Arrow (e) indicates the position of one of the Shield Tank over-pressure rupture disc and
piping assemblies.
(5)
The Calandria contains the Moderator heavy water, and also forms the inner shell of the
Shield Tank. It has a diameter of 8.5 m and is 6 m long.
(6)
The Reactor Core is regarded as the volume that contains the fuel, which in the case of
CANDU corresponds essentially to the volume defined by the pressure tubes inside the
Calandria. This volume is approximately 7 m in diameter and 6 m in length. Note that the
diameter of the core is 1.5 m less than that of the Calandria, the volume of heavy water
between the core and the Calandria wall acts as a reflector of thermal neutrons.

2.2 CALANDRIA AND FUEL CHANNEL ASSEMBLIES

This diagram shows a cross section of the Calandria, End Shield and Fuel Channel assemblies.
Many of the components shown on the previous page can be seen more clearly on this figure.
The inset shows additional details of a Pressure Tube containing the fuel bundles.
(1) The Calandria Shell and the two End Shields form the Calandria vessel. Note that the
diameter of the Calandria shell is stepped down to the smaller diameter of the End Shields,
this is done to allow for thermal flexing of the Calandria shell and also to optimize the
volume of heavy water for the purpose of neutron reflection.
Each of the two End Shields consists of an inner (or calandria side) and an outer (or
fuelling machine side) tubesheet, which are joined by lattice tubes and a peripheral shell to
form a closed vessel that is filled with carbon steel balls and shield cooling water.
(2) There is an End Fitting, at arrows (a) at each end of every fuel channel. The End Fitting
has a number of purposes, as indicated on the diagram. One of these is to provide the
connection between the Pressure Tube and the Reactor Inlet or Outlet Header of the Heat
Transport System. This is done via the Feeder Pipe as indicated by Arrow (b).
A second function is to allow on-power refuelling, whereby the fuelling machine removes
the Channel Closure Plug, shown at arrow (c).
There is a Liner Tube, at arrow (d), that extends through the End Fitting to assist the
movement of fuel bundles and the flow of coolant in and out of the Pressure Tube.
A Shield Plug, at arrow (e), is located inside the Liner Tube of the End Fitting, to provide
radiation shielding where the End Fitting passes through the Reactor End Shield. It also
holds the fuel bundles in the core against the flow of coolant.
A Positioning Assembly, at arrow (f) is attached to each End Fitting to hold the entire fuel
channel assembly in place. One end is locked in place while the other allows for pressure
tube elongation that takes place under the normal operating conditions of neutron flux and
coolant temperature.
(3) The portion of the Fuel Channel that is within the Calandria consists of the Pressure Tube
and the Calandria Tube. The Pressure Tubes hold the fuel in the reactor core and allow the
pressurized Heat Transport coolant to flow through them and to remove the heat generated
in the fuel. As indicated on both the main diagram and the inset, the Pressure Tube is
surrounded by the Calandria Tube, and the annular space between them is maintained by
spacers and is filled with a gas.

3. MAIN FEATURES OF THE FUEL BUNDLE:

Please point your mouse to the words FUEL BUNDLE in blue letters to see a photograph of fuel
bundles being inspected. Since each bundle weighs about 25 kilograms they can be easily
handled by one person. The use of natural uranium eliminates the possibility of the fuel going
critical in either air or light water.
(1) CANDU 6 and CANDU 9 reactors use fuel bundles made up of 37 fuel pencils or elements.
Each fuel pencil consists of a Sheath and End Cap that form the so called fuel cladding,
made of Zircalloy-4 and enclosing the UO2 fuel pellets. The Fuel Bundle holds together the
37 fuel elements by two End Plates. The elements are spaced from each other by the End
Plates and by Inter Element Spacers at the middle of the bundle. Bearing Pads on the
outer pencils support the bundle in the fuel channel.
(2) All the structural components, such as the Fuel Sheath, the End Caps, the End Plates, the
Inter Element Spacers and the Bearing Pads are made from Zircaloy-4, because it has the
desired characteristics of low neutron absorption, low hydrogen pickup and good corrosion
resistance.
(3) The fuel is made of natural uranium dioxide with 0.71% U235 content, and is formed into
high density pellets. There are typically 30 fuel pellets in a fuel pencil. A thin graphite layer,
called Canlub is applied on the inner surface of the fuel sheath to reduce the effects of
interactions between the pellets and the cladding that would result from changes in reactor
power level.
(4) Other than the End Plates and the Inter Element Spacers, no other structural components
are required for a fuel bundle, since they are supported by the Pressure Tube and held in
place by the Shield Plugs. Because the fuel elements are in a horizontal position,
gravitational pellet relocation cannot take place. A fully loaded fuel bundle weighs about 25
kilograms, of which more than 90% is uranium oxide fuel.

4.

REACTIVITY CONTROL DEVICES

The next few displays present the devices used to control the reactivity of a CANDU core.
These devices or mechanisms are used for both regulation (i.e. control) and protection (i.e.
safety).
As explained in Session 1, all the devices used for reactor regulation are inserted from the top
of the reactor, as are the safety system devices for Reactor Shutdown System #1, while for
Shutdown System #2, horizontally mounted poison injection nozzle assemblies are used.
The reactor regulating system of CANDU reactors control both the total neutron flux as well as
its spatial distribution. Control of the flux shape is important for the following reasons:
the physical dimensions of the core of a CANDU 6 or 9 reactor are large in relation to the
average distance traveled by a neutron, hence local neutron flux disturbances could
develop while bulk power is held constant;
an even flux distribution is necessary to achieve maximum extraction of energy (burn-up)
from each fuel bundle;
preventing local flux peaks is essential to minimizing damage to the fuel.

4.1

LIQUID ZONES

In order to control the spatial flux distribution in the reactor, the core is divided into 14 regions or
zones. These zones can be thought of as lightly coupled regions of the core, which means that
there is a high probability that a neutron born in the centre of one of these zones will cause
fission in the same zone.
In order to control the flux in each zone, two requirements must be met: first the flux has to be
measured in each zone, and second, there must be a means of controlling the reactivity in each
zone, independently of every other zone.
(1). Heavy water moderated reactors such as CANDU rely on a very high level of purity
(better than 99%) of D2O. Even a small amount of H2O present in the moderator or the heat
transport coolant will absorb a significant number of neutrons, and causing a reduction in fuel
conversion efficiency. The fact that light water acts as a strong neutron absorber in a heavy
water moderated reactor can be used to devise an effective reactivity control mechanism.
Control rods made of neutron absorbing material will distort the flux throughout their range of
travel. However, having a light water compartment in a given location of the core, by varying the
level of the water in these compartments, the local flux can be altered, without affecting the flux
in other parts of the core.
Such a system of compartments containing variable amounts of light water distributed in a
CANDU reactor core is called the liquid zone control system. On the diagram five of the 14
zones are shown enlarged, with the arrows indicating that the level of water in each
compartment is variable. As we will see, the level change is achieved by altering the flow
differential in and out of each compartment. The small amounts of water flow do not disturb the
flux, relative to the effects of the volumes that accumulate in each zone compartment.
(2)
The 14 zones are distributed as two axial halves, each half having seven zones. In the
illustration the front half has zones 8 to 14, and the back half zones 1 to 7. The configuration
of the zones can also be thought of as seven axial pairs, these being 1 & 13, 2 & 14, 3 & 10, 4
& 11, 5 & 12, 6 & 8, 7 & 9. As illustrated, there are three compartments in each of the two zone
controller units that traverse the central zones, namely 3, 4, 5 and 10, 11, 12 respectively, and
two compartments in each of the four zone controller units that traverse the outer zones, these
being 1 & 2, 6 & 7, 8 & 9, 13 & 14.
(3)
The Reactor Regulating System controls the level of water in each compartment. If all
the zone levels increase, there will be a negative reactivity change, and the neutron flux will
decrease. Increasing or decreasing the level of water in all the compartments by the same
amount changes the total or bulk reactor power. Note on the diagram that all the zones have
the same level, indicating a uniform flux distribution.
(4)
The Reactor Regulating System can also change the water level in each zone
compartment by different amounts. In this way the neutron flux shape can be altered to different
values in the various zones, while keeping the overall power level constant. In the diagram, I
am illustrating a side to side as well as a back to front flux tilt and the corresponding differences
in zone levels.

4.2

LIQUID ZONE LEVEL CONTROL SYSTEM

The area of each cylindrical light water zone compartment is fixed, so the volume of water, and
hence its reactivity worth can be varied by controlling the level of the water in each
compartment. Since the purpose of level control is to control the flux, both neutron flux and
zone compartment water level need to be measured in order to ensure that the control system
is behaving as intended. In this section we look at a somewhat simplified system of a liquid
zone controller.
(1) Near the centre of each zone there is a flux detector that measures the local flux, as shown
by arrow (a). The output of the flux detector is read by the Digital Control Computer (DCC),
as indicated by arrow (b). After some processing in the DCC, this signal is compared with
the flux setpoint that is also calculated by the Reactor Regulating System (RRS) in the
DCC. On each iteration of RRS the program computes a control signal based on the error
between the setpoint and the flux measurement.
In case of a Reactor Trip the computer generates a control signal to fill zones at a rate of
0.5%FP/sec, while on a Reactor Setback the control signal is for a 0.15%FP/sec fill rate.
The control signal output from the DCC is at arrow (c), and is applied to a current to air
pressure transducer.
(2) The control signal, in the form of air pressure, is applied to a valve that varies the flow of
water into the zone compartment. The valve is of the air to close type, as indicated by the
A/C symbol.
(3) The outflow from the zone compartment is kept at a constant value, so any changes in the
inflow will alter the amount of water in the compartment, and hence its level. The constant
outflow is achieved by keeping the Helium pressure above the water surface at a constant
value, by a system of Helium feed and bleed, that is adding or removing Helium as needed
to keep the gas pressure in the compartment at a constant value.
(4) The DCC also measures the actual water level in each compartment, and ensures that no
zone goes completely empty or full.
(5) A system of Helium cover gas above the water and a controlled inflow of Helium to the
bottom of the compartment are used to measure the water level.

4.3

ADJUSTER RODS

The liquid zones, as described in the previous three sections, are the principal means of fine
bulk reactivity as well as spatial flux control. However, the limited range of reactivity change
between empty and full for all the zones, and the differential reactivity changes that can be
realized by the relative levels between zones require other, more coarse methods of reactivity
control. Solid neutron absorbers in the form of control rods are used to provide reactivity control
beyond the capabilities of the liquid zone system. In CANDU reactors, these control rods are
called either Adjusters or Mechanical Control Absorbers, depending on their function and
design. In this section we look at Adjuster Rods, and in the next section I will briefly describe
the Mechanical Control Absorbers.
(1)
In CANDU reactors, there are three rows of Adjuster Rods as shown in the upper
diagram. All three rows have the same arrangement, with the rods being located symmetrically
relative to the centre line of the reactor. The rods near the outer parts of the core are shorter
than the ones closer to the middle, to follow the circular shape of the core. In CANDU 6 reactors
there are 21 Adjuster Rods, and for CANDU 9 reactors 24 Adjusters are used. The Adjuster
Rods have the following three purposes:
(a) As shown in the diagram, the neutron flux without the Adjuster Rods would have a
cosine shape. A reactor with this neutron flux and power distribution would only be
able to produce maximum power from the bundles near the centre of the core, all the
other bundles would be producing less and less power as their position moved away
from the centre.
To achieve maximum reactor power and fuel burnup, as many as possible of the fuel
bundles should be producing power at their rated value. This requires flatting, or adjusting
the flux, as shown in the diagram, with the use of the Adjuster Rods. Hence the name for
these control rods. Of course there is a penalty in terms of fuel burn-up, as the Adjuster
Rods absorb some of the neutrons that could otherwise cause fission.
(b) The liquid zone controllers, as described previously, have a limited range of reactivity
control. If there is a need to supply positive reactivity beyond the normal control range
of the zone controllers, typically in the case when the zone controller water levels
have been reduced as much as possible, withdrawal of Adjuster Rods can provide
additional positive reactivity. Such situations may arise during fast power increases, or
if there has been a delay in refuelling the reactor.
(c) If reactor power is reduced significantly after prolonged, at least several days of
operation at a given, usually 100% full power level, Xenon poison will build up in the
core. By withdrawing the Adjuster Rods, the negative reactivity effect of Xenon can be
compensated up to the reactivity worth of the Adjuster Rods. In case of a fast reactor
shutdown such as a reactor trip from 100% full power, the complete withdrawal of all
the Adjuster Rods will be able to compensate for the Xenon poison for typically 35
minutes. This is called the poison override time.

(2) In a CANDU 9 core there are 24 adjuster rods, made of stainless steel.
The rods are arranged in three rows across the radial direction of the core, with each row
containing eight rods. The rods are normally fully inserted in the core to shape the flux and
to be a source of positive reactivity.
The Adjuster Rods, as all reactivity control mechanisms, are normally moved by the
Reactor Regulating System to control bulk reactor power. When such movements take
place, they involve a pre-designated group of rods, since the movement of a single rod
would not normally provide a sufficient rate of reactivity change. Each such group of rods is
called a bank. There are eight banks of Adjuster Rods in a CANDU 9 reactor. The banks
are designed to have approximately equal reactivity values, so banks containing rods in
high flux regions will have two rods, intermediate flux regions will have three, and low flux
regions four Adjuster Rods in the bank. The rods in a bank are chosen so that their
withdrawal will not cause excessive flux distortions, and the banks are designed to be
withdrawn in a sequence that also minimizes distortion of the spatial flux. Conversely,
since as the Adjusters are withdrawn the flux will tend to assume the cosine shape, the
maximum power that the reactor can produce is limited by the number of Adjuster Rods
that are not fully inserted, that is partially or fully withdrawn, from the core.
The maximum total reactivity that may be gained on withdrawal of all adjuster rods is in the
order of 16 - 18 mk, and the maximum reactivity change rate of any one bank of adjusters
is + 0.07 mk/second.
As I mentioned earlier, the operation of the adjusters is normally controlled by the reactor
regulating system, but they can also be operated manually under prescribed conditions.

4.4

MECHANICAL CONTROL ABSORBERS

As described in the previous two sections, the liquid zones have limited range of reactivity
control, and solid neutron absorbers in the form of control rods are used to provide reactivity
control beyond the capabilities of the liquid zone system. In CANDU reactors, these control rods
are called either Adjusters or Mechanical Control Absorbers, depending on their function and
design. In Section 5 we looked at the Adjuster Rods, which can provide additional positive
reactivity by withdrawal from the core. In this section I will briefly describe how additional
negative reactivity can be realized by inserting the Mechanical Control Absorber Rods into the
core.
(1) In CANDU 6 and 9 reactors there are four mechanical control absorber rods or MCAs, as
shown in the diagram. They consist of tubes of cadmium sandwiched between stainless
steel tubes.
(2) The normal position of the Control Absorbers is out of the core, i.e. they are poised for
insertion when needed. Such need typically arises during power level changes, particularly
during large power level reductions, in part due to the temperature effects that result in an
inherent reactivity increase on a power level reduction. The MCAs are also designed to
realize a rapid step-like reduction in reactor power when required by Stepback conditions.
(3) The Mechanical Control Absorbers, as all reactivity control mechanisms, are normally
moved by the Reactor Regulating System to control bulk reactor power. They can be
driven into the core to supplement the negative reactivity of the liquid zone control units, or
dropped partially into the reactor to affect a fast reactor power reduction of typically
40%FP, called a stepback. On a reactor trip the MCAs are fully dropped into the core to
assist fast reactor shutdown. It is also possible to operate the Control Absorbers manually
under prescribed conditions.
(4) For normal reactivity control purposes the Mechanical Control Absorbers are driven into or
out of the reactor core by the Reactor Regulating System in one of two banks. At full
speed the rods can cover the full travel distance in 150 seconds. The actual driving speed
can be varied by the Reactor Regulating System from 50% to 100% of full speed,
depending on the power error.
(5) When required to achieve a sudden reduction of reactor power the MCAs can be dropped
by releasing their clutches. When dropped, the elements are fully inserted into the core in
three seconds.
(6) If only a partial reduction of reactor power is required, for example a step-like reduction by
40% FP, the clutches can be re-energized while the elements are dropping to achieve a
partial insertion to any intermediate position.
(7) The total reactivity worth of the four Mechanical Control Absorbers is about 10 mk.

4.5

SHUTDOWN RODS

CANDU 6 and 9 reactors have two fully independent reactor shutdown systems, and these are
also independent of the systems and components used for reactor regulation. The Shutdown
Rods provide the means of large reactivity insertion for Shutdown System Number One, in short
SDS#1, in the form of 32 solid neuron absorbing rods that are dropped into the core on an
SDS#1 initiated reactor trip. The arrangement of the 32 rods is shown in top view on the
diagram.
(1) The Shutdown Rods are very similar in construction to the Control Absorbers, consisting of
tubes of cadmium sandwiched between stainless steel tubes. The normal position of the
Shutdown Rods is out of the core, i.e. they are poised for insertion when the reactor
needs to be rapidly shut down. Shutdown Rods in the out-of-core position are indicated by
arrows (a), and in the fully inserted position by arrows (b) on the diagram.
(2) When all 32 Shutdown Rods are in their fully inserted position, their total reactivity worth is
between -60 and -70 mk. The reactivity worth of the Shutdown Rods is such that in the
case of two of the most effective rods not dropping into the core, the reactor will still be
safely shut down for all design basis accidents.
(3) In order to increase the speed of insertion for the Shutdown Rods, a small accelerating
force is applied to them in the form of a compressed spring that covers the top 0.6 metres
of travel for each rod. With this spring assisted gravity drop, the Shutdown Rods are fully
inserted in 2 seconds.
(4) The withdrawal of the Shutdown Rods is controlled by the Reactor Regulating System, by
driving the motor that withdraws the Shutdown Rods. However, the clutch between the
motor and the shaft that pulls the Rods is part of the Safety System. Until the clutch is
energized and closed, the rods cannot be pulled. This design achieves the desired
independence between Reactor Shutdown and Regulation.
(5) The Shutdown Rods are withdrawn as soon as the trip signal has been cleared and the trip
has been reset by the operator.
(6) The Shutdown Rods are grouped into two banks, and are withdrawn one bank at a time.
(7) Withdrawal of the Shutdown Rods is interrupted if:

control is switched to manual, or

the flux power error is excessive, or

the reactor is tripped, or

the log-rate exceeds 7 percent per second.

4.6

SUMMARY OF REACTIVITY CONTROL DEVICES

All the reactivity devices considered in this Section, for regulation as well as shutdown
purposes, are installed from above the Calandria. The drive motors, connections for electrical,
water and Helium supplies are all made at the Reactivity Mechanism Deck. Because the solid
control rods, including Adjusters, Control Absorbers and Shutdown Rods need to travel from
being fully inserted into the core to a position that is completely out of the core, there must be
sufficient distance between the top of the Calandria and the bottom of the Reactivity
Mechanism Deck to make room for these rods in their out of core positions. All the reactivity
devices in CANDU 6 and 9 are neutron absorbers, and they function by having more or less
neutron absorbing material in the reactor. Control is provided for the following effects:
(1) Long-term bulk reactivity is mainly controlled by on-power refuelling. This is the only
method for adding absolute positive reactivity to the core, instead of only reducing the
amount of negative reactivity.
(2) Small, frequent reactivity changes, for both global and spatial neutron power, are controlled
by the liquid zone control system.
(3) Positive reactivity for xenon override and fuelling machine unavailability, is provided by
withdrawing Adjuster Rods from their normal position in the core shown as (a) to their
parked position above the Calandria, at position (b).
(4) Negative reactivity to supplement the liquid zones, particularly for fast power reductions
and to override the negative fuel temperature effect for large power level decreases, is
provided by the insertion of mechanical control absorbers from their normal poised
position at (a), to part way or all the way to their fully inserted position at (b).
(5) Excess reactivity due to fresh fuel and decay of xenon following a long shutdown, are
compensated by adding poison to the moderator.
(6) Rapid shutdown of the reactor is by dropping solid control absorbers (shutdown rods) into
the core, from position (a) to position (b), and/or by the fast injection of large amounts of
liquid poison into the moderator, as indicated by arrow (c).

5.

REACTOR REGULATING SYSTEM (RRS)

The next few pages present the instrumentation and signal processing used by the Reactor
Regulating System. Included are the various methods of Neutron Flux and Thermal Power
Measurements, and how they are combined to deteremine actual reactor power. The control
algorithms are implemented as computer programs that receive the measurement signals,
process them, and using the reactor setpoint, compute the demanded power and the power
error. The control programs determine which reactivity mechanism is to move, by what amount
and at what rate. RRS is designed to perform the following functions:
(1) Automatic control of reactor power to a given setpoint, and maneuvering between any two
power levels between 10-5%FP and 100%FP.
(2) Maintaining the neutron flux distribution close to its nominal design shape.
(3) Insertion or removal of reactivity devices at controlled rates to maintain a reactivity balance
in the core.
(4) Monitoring of a number of important plant parameters and reduction of reactor power when
any of these parameters is out of limits.
(5) Withdrawal of shutdown rods from the reactor automatically when the trip channels have
been reset following reactor trip on SDS#1.

5.1

REGULATING SYSTEM ION CHAMBERS

(1) There are three horizontally mounted ion chamber assemblies of the type shown on the
previous diagram at the side of the calandria. One ion chamber from each housing
supplies a signal for the purpose of reactor regulation that is fed to an amplifier. The
amplifier processes the input signal from the ion chamber so as to produce three different
output signals. Each of these signals, and remember that that there are three such
amplifiers so that each of these signals is in fact triplicated, are used for different purposes:
(a) The range of the Linear N signals is from 0 to 150 %FP, and they are connected to
indicating meters on the Main Control Room Panels.
(b) The range of the Log N signals are from 10-5 to 150 %FP. These signals are
displayed on the Main Control Room Panels, and they are connected as Analogue Inputs
shown as A/I, to both digital control computers DCCX and DCCY.
(c) The range of the Log N Rate signal are from -15 to +15 %/sec. These signals are
displayed in the Main Control Room and are connected as A/Is to both DCCs.
(2) Since the ion chamber signal is based on a measurement of the leakage flux, it is not an
accurate measure of the absolute value of the flux inside the reactor. Hence the Lin N
signal cannot be used directly to control reactor power, but it is a useful indication to have
in the Control Room.
(3) At low power levels the inaccuracy of the ion chamber reading due to local flux distortions
is relatively small and not so significant, so at low power levels the Log N signal can be
used directly for control of reactor power. It is used by the Reactor Regulating System
(RRS) to control power below 15%FP.
(4) The Log N Rate signal is not affected by the inaccuracies in the absolute value of the ion
chamber signal, since it is only concerned with the rate of change of the signal. The Log N
Rate signal is used in RRS as part of the power error calculation. It is also used to
generate a Stepback signal on high Log N Rate.

5.2 IN-CORE VERTICAL FLUX DETECTORS FOR THE REACTOR REGULATING SYSTEM
For the control of the reactor power in the linear or power generation range, from above 5%FP,
CANDUs use the Inconel type in-core flux detectors. These detectors are located in the 14
control zones, so that both the spatial distribution and the total flux of the reactor are measured
and controlled. The diagram illustrates a segment of the core, in a region that includes 16 fuel
channels, and shows one such in-core flux detector between the row of fuel channels and
spanning a distance of approximately three lattice pitches.
There is a distinction between the Vertical In-Core Flux Detectors used for reactor regulation
and the Horizontal in-Core Flux Detectors used for the second reactor shutdown system.
(1) In CANDU reactors there are 28 in-core Vertical Flux Detectors (VFDs) using Platinum clad
Inconel to measure the neutron flux in each of the 14 reactor zones. Each zone has two
detectors to provide redundancy, and as shown on the diagram, the two detectors from the
same zone are connected to two different amplifiers.
(a) Although these detectors are self-powered as I explained in the previous section, the
signals generated by the detectors need to be amplified before they can be connected
to the DCCs. The design has two amplifiers supplied from a given 120V Class 2
source, and to ensure redundancy, each of a pair of amplifiers receives its input signal
from a VSD located in two different zones, as illustrated.
(b) Each amplifier outputs a Lin N signal that is connected as A/I to both DCCs. It is this
Linear Neutron signal that is used by the Reactor Regulating System (RRS) to control
power above 5%FP, both spatially and for the reactor as a whole. However, because
of the gamma sensitivities and discussed in the previous section, the flux detector
signals cannot be used directly for the control of reactor power, but need some
corrections. The bulk power measurement needs to be calibrated by the thermal
power measurements, while for the purpose of controlling the spatial power
distribution, the calibration uses the output of the Flux Mapping routine.
(2) The Vanadium detectors I described in the previous section are used for the purpose of
determining an accurate distribution of the neutron flux in the reactor by the use of a Flux
Mapping routine.
In CANDU 6 reactors there are 102, and for CANDU 9 reactors there are 120 Vanadium
detectors distributed throughout the core to measure the local flux. Following amplification
these local flux readings are connected as A/Is to both DCCs. The computers use these
signals as input to a mathematical representation of the flux shapes, and the programs
output estimates of the flux distribution every 2 minutes. These estimates are accurate
linear measures of the flux shape throughout the reactor, but due to the 5.5 minute half-life
of V-52 the desired accuracy is not reached for about 25 minutes following a change of
neutron flux.
The output of the Flux Mapping Routine is used to calibrate the Inconel flux detector
readings for the purpose of fine tuning the zonal power measurement and control, as well
as to reduce reactor power if excessive local power peaks are detected.

5.3 THERMAL POWER MEASUREMENT

So far in this Section we have been dealing with the methods used for measuring the neutron
flux. I have mentioned that neither the ion chamber nor the in-core detector signals are
sufficiently accurate to be used directly, that is without some correction, for the purpose of
controlling reactor power, particularly when that power becomes significant at and above 5%FP.
While the neutron flux is the primary variable of concern, the power generated by that neutron
flux is both the useful output and the parameter that needs to accurately measured and
controlled. Although one can compute the relationship between neutron flux and power output,
it is desirable to have a continuous and accurate measure of the thermal power produced by
the reactor. In this section we look at the two principal means of measuring the thermal power
output of the reactor.
(1) Heat Output from the Reactor
The useful heat output of a CANDU reactor appears in the fuel channels, in the form of heat
transferred from the fuel to the heat transport system coolant. This heat is subsequently
transferred to the light water on the secondary side of the steam generators. There are
therefore two principal places for measuring the thermal output of the reactor: one is the heat
transferred to the coolant as if flows through the reactor, and the other is the heat transferred to
the feedwater between the time it enters the steam generator until it leaves as steam. Let us
look at measuring the heat transfer in the reactor first.
(a) The heat transferred from the fuel coolant can be determined by measuring the flow rate
and the temperature difference between fuel channel inlet and outlet. The coolant flow can
be accurately measured using venturies, orifice plates and similar devices, and in any case
is fairly constant throughout the power levels of interest.
(b) Accurate temperature readings of the coolant at the fuel channel inlet and outlet can also
be obtained, but only following a time delay. The temperature measurements are made
with Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) mounted on the feeder pipes. Due to the
time it takes for the coolant to reach the detector, called the transport lag, and the time
constant of the sensor itself, there is a delay from the time the fuel temperature changes
until this change registers as a correct reading at the RTDs.
(c) An even bigger problem with this method of measuring heat transfer is that the
temperature change will only be an accurate measure of heat input if there is no boiling in
the fuel channel. For CANDU 9 boiling begins at 75%FP, so temperature measurements
above 75%FP will begin to give inaccurate readings as power level rises. Therefore, to
determine thermal power above 75%FP, we need to look at the suitability of using the
measurements across the steam generators.
(2) Heat Input to the Steam Generators
By measuring steam flow and temperature, as well as feedwater flow and temperature, the
amount of heat transferred across the steam generators can be determined. Because the
steam is at saturation conditions, it is in fact easier to measure steam pressure and
compute the corresponding temperature. From these measurements an accurate value for
the heat transferred to the boilers can be obtained, but the transport lag is much longer
than in the case of the coolant temperature measurement.

(3) A combination of the above two measurements is needed to cover the complete power
range. Below 50%FP the temperature change across the reactor is used, and above
70%FP the heat transferred to the steam generators is used to determine reactor thermal
power. In the intermediate range of 50% and 70%FP a linear combination of the two
estimates is used to obtain a smooth transfer from one signal source to the other, as
shown on the diagram.

5.4

REACTOR POWER MEASUREMENT

A nuclear reactor operates over a very wide range of neutron flux levels. During initial start-up it can be
as low as 10-14 of full power. Special start-up instruments that are not installed permanently are used at
these very low levels. We will not deal with these in this course.
The neutron flux levels that need to be measured by the permanently installed instruments read flux
levels from 10-5 to 150% of full power. It is very difficult to obtain accurate measurements over such a
wide range. The type of instruments available and the restrictions on their placement result in additional
difficulties in making accurate neutron flux and reactor power measurements. For these reasons a
number of different devices and techniques are used to determine the flux distribution and the total
power level of the reactor.
(1) Ion Chambers
The wide range of flux measurements are provided by three sets of ion chamber units. They are located
on the outside of the calandria shell at arrow (1), and are therefore able to provide only an indirect
measure of the average neutron flux inside the reactor. The ion chamber signal is processed by the
instrumentation system, at arrow (2), to supply the following measurements to the Reactor Regulating
System:
- log neutron power, 10-5 to 150% full power;
- linear neutron power, 0 to 150% full power;
- rate of change of log power, -15% to +15% of present power per second.
(2) Flux Detectors
In order to measure the neutron flux distribution inside the reactor, flux detectors are distributed
throughout the core (arrow 1). These self-powered detectors cannot measure flux values below about
1%FP, and are used therefore to provide measurements of the local flux between 10% and 120% full
power. The signals from these detectors are processed to give a linear measure of the neutron flux, both
locally and for the overall power level of the reactor.
There are two types of in-core detectors, one uses Vanadium (arrow 2) and the other Platinum
(arrow 3) as the detector material. The sheaths of both types are made of Inconel.
(a) Platinum flux detectors have fast response to changes in neutron flux, and can be used as the input
signal to the Regulating System to control neutron power between 15% and 100%FP. Both the spatial
flux distribution and the total reactor power level are controlled on the basis of the Platinum detectors.
The only problem with these detectors is that they respond not only to neutrons but also to
gamma rays. In order to use these signals for reactor power level control, the signals from the Platinum
detectors must be adjusted to remove the contribution of the gamma rays.
(b) The Vanadium flux detectors have the advantage that they are only sensitive to neutrons, but they
cannot be used directly for reactor power control because of a relatively slow response to changes in
neutron flux. The dominant time constant is about five minutes.
The Vanadium detectors are used as inputs to a flux mapping program, the output of which is
used, along with the Thermal Power measurements, to adjust the Platinum detector readings for spatial
flux control.
(3) Thermal Power
As noted earlier, because of their sensitivity to gamma rays, the Platinum in-core flux detector signals
must be adjusted to ensure that an accurate measure of the neutron flux is obtained. The Platinum
detector signals are calibrated by the use of thermal power measurements taken on the secondary side
of the Steam Generators.
Steam flow, steam pressure, feedwater flow and feedwater temperature measurements are used
to calculate the thermal power that is being transferred to the light water. This thermal power is a
measure of the power produced by the reactor, although the signals will be delayed relative to the actual
reactor power by approximately 20 seconds, due to thermal time constants and transport time. This
delay does not effect the use of the thermal power measurement in calibrating the Platinum signal for
the purpose of overall reactor power control.

6. SIMPLIFIED REACTOR REGULATING SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

This simplified diagram shows the key components of the Reactor Regulating System. These
are the Power Measurement, including both neutron and thermal power measurements, the
computation of Power Error as the difference between Actual and Demanded Power, the
Controller Algorithm that determines the response of the reactivity mechanisms to the power
error, and certain other actions that can override the normal operation of the reactor regulating
system.
(1)
We have studied in the previous sections how the various instruments and methods for
measuring both reactor neutron and thermal power, and why no single measure of reactor
power is acceptable as the basis of reactor control. I will only mention a few of the key factors
here.
(a) In-core flux detectors provide a direct measure of the neutron flux in the reactor. By
distributing these detectors in the core, the local flux in the 14 control zones, as well
as at some 100 locations in the core can be measured. These measurements provide
the basis for both spatial and overall reactor power control between 5%FP and
120%FP. However, because of gamma radiation and detector time constant, these
measurements need to be calibrated against thermal power measurements to achieve
the desired accuracy. Also, at power levels below 5%, the in-core flux detector do not
provide a sufficient signal strength, so at low power levels the neutron flux is
measured by ion chambers. These instruments are located just outside the calandria,
so they measure the leakage flux, and therefore their readings are not an accurate
measure of either the average flux or of its distribution in the core. However, at low
power levels, and for rate of change of flux measurements, neither of these shortfalls
is a problem.
(b) As I mentioned in item (1a), the in-core flux detector readings need to be calibrated
against direct measurements of thermal power. Such measurements can be made at
the reactor, by knowing the coolant flow and its temperature change across the
reactor. Such a measurement will give an accurate value for heat transferred from the
fuel to the coolant, provided no boiling of the coolant takes place. In CANDU 9 boiling
begins at 50 degrees centigrade, so above this power level an alternate method of
thermal power measurement is needed. This is provided by measuring the heat
transferred to the feedwater in the steam generator, by measuring feedwater flow and
temperature and steam flow and pressure. From the steam pressure reading the
temperature can be calculated, since the steam is at saturation conditions. The
computation of heat transferred across the steam generator is more accurate at higher
power levels, so there is a transfer of thermal power computation from the reactor
measurements to the steam generator measurements between 50-70%FP, and above
70%FP, thermal power measurement is based entirely on the steam generator
parameters.
(c) Actual Reactor Power is computed by continuously calibrating the in-core flux detector
readings by the thermal power measurements. Although the latter are delayed by
transport lag and sensor time constant, these delays are not significant as long as
reactor power changes near 1200%FP are taken at the slower rates. For the purpose
of spatial flux control, the 14 zone flux detector signals are corrected on a several
minute long time scale by the Flux Mapping program.

(2) As we will see later in this Session, Power Error is a key parameter in determining the
actions of the Reactor Regulating System. Calculation of the Power Error involves more
than just subtracting demanded power from actual power.
(a) As you know from Session 1, the Reactor Power Setpoint is specified by the Steam
Generator Pressure Control program if the unit is in Normal Mode, and by the
Operator if the unit is in Alternate Mode of control. Both the target value of the setpoint
and the desired rate of power level change are specified.
(b) From the specified target reactor power setpoint and its rate of change the Demanded
Power Routine in RRS calculates the value of Demanded Power for each iteration of
the computer program. Various limits are designed into the routine to ensure that
reactor power is maneuvered at safe rates.
(c) The reactor power control algorithm has both a proportional term and a rate term. The
proportional term is the difference between the magnitudes of actual and demanded
power. The rate term is the difference between the rate of change of actual and
demanded power. The effective power error is the sum of these two terms. When we
say power error, we mean this effective power error.
(3) The power error is the basis for determining which Reactivity Control Device to move and
by what amount. The word move is appropriate not only for the solid control rods, but also
for the liquid zones and for poison addition, since in each of these cases the control signal
moves the appropriate control valve. This movement is usually expressed in terms of valve
lift as the pneumatic controller effective raises or lowers the valve stem.
(4) As we will see in this Session, the actions of the controller can be influenced by and at
times overridden by certain conditions. We will look at the following special conditions:
Setback, Stepback, Reactor Trip and the Reset of a Reactor Trip

6.1 OVERVIEW OF THE CONTROL ALGORITHMS

(1) The five main components of the CANDU Reactor Regulating System control algorithms
are highlighted on the diagram. They are the selection of the Reactor Power Setpoint,
Measurement of Actual Reactor Power, Calculation of Power Error, Control of the
Reactivity Devices, and Reactor Stepback.
(2) In Session 1 we looked at the two main sources of the Reactor setpoint. You recall that in
Normal Mode, reactor power setpoint is determined by the steam generator pressure
control program, so as to eliminate steam generator pressure error. The rate is always the
same, 0.4%FP/sec
In Alternate Mode, the unit operator specifies via the keyboard the reactor power setpoint,
and its rate of change.
There are two other possible sources of the reactor power setpoint, and both of these will
override the previous two. Hold Power, as its name suggests, will stop any power changes
and makes the setpoint equal to the demanded power at the time the Hold Power action
was initiated.
Reactor Setback will make the setpoint equal to a value determined by the conditions
indicating the need for a Setback, and will specify the rate of reduction that is also a
function of the Setback conditions.
When I talk about the Reactor Setpoint, what I really mean is the target value to which
reactor power should be raised. It would not be safe to request a sudden step increase in
reactor power, so the target setpoint is reached at the specified rate. It is the Demanded
Power routine which calculates for each computer iteration the incremental increase
towards the target setpoint. The Demanded Power routine is executed every 0.5 second,
and on each iteration the appropriate increment is added to or subtracted from the value of
demanded power that was computed in the previous iteration. For example a rate of
setpoint increase of 0.4%FP/second will result in Demanded Power increasing by 0.2%FP
on each iteration, until Demanded Power reaches the Target Setpoint.
(3) The Power Error Calculation is done for each of the 14 zones and for the total or bulk
reactor power. In this course we will concern ourselves principally with the bulk power error
only. This is the parameter that determines the main reactor regulating system actions,
particularly when the liquid zones alone are not capable to provide the required change in
reactivity.
(4) As we will see in considerable detail later in this Session, the power error is the basic
parameter that determines the movement of the reactivity control devices, although the
average zone level also has an important role on the nature of the control action taken.
For small changes in power error, and as long as the liquid zone levels are neither too
empty nor too full, changes in liquid zone controller levels are the first and often the only
reactivity mechanism actions needed to eliminate the power error.
If the average zone level falls too low, and/or the power error is excessively negative, in
other words there is need for positive reactivity in the core, withdrawal of the adjuster rods
will be initiated by RRS.

6.2 DEMANDED POWER ROUTINE

In the Demanded Power Routine of the Reactor Regulating System program the value of
Demanded Reactor Power, which is in fact the value of the reactor power setpoint for that
computer iteration, is calculated from the power change that was determined by the Reactor
Setpoint program I described in the previous section.
The diagram illustrates the various factors that the program uses. The horizontal axis shows
time in seconds and the vertical axis Reactor Power in %FP. The example illustrates the case
of a power increase in ALTERNATE MODE.
(1) The example is for a change in Target Reactor Power Setpoint from 70%FP to 80%FP at a
rate of 0.8%FP/sec. The specified Target Reactor Power Setpoint is shown as a step
change by the blue lines. Such a big change would cause an excessively large power
error, so the Demanded Power level change is instead achieved by ramping the
instantaneous setpoint up to the target value at the specified rate, in this example
0.8%FP/sec.
(2) The Demanded Power Routine executes once in every 0.5 second. On each iteration the
amount of change in demanded power is computed as a constant times the difference
between the target and current values of the setpoint, and added to the value of demanded
power from the previous iteration.
(3) During large differences between Target Setpoint and Demanded Power, the specified rate
of setpoint change is used as an upper limit on the step size per iteration, keeping the step
changes between successive iterations small. Since the rate is specified per second, half
of the nominal rate is the maximum amount that can be added on each program iteration.
In the example, the maximum step increase in Demanded Power is 0.4%FP on each
iteration.
(4) As the Target Setpoint is approached, the difference between Target Setpoint and
Demanded Power becomes progressively smaller, and the size of demanded power
change on each iteration will decrease, resulting in a smooth approach to the Target
Setpoint, minimizing the tendency for actual reactor power to overshoot the target value.
(5) The diagram illustrates what happens on a HOLD POWER operation. In the upper part of
the diagram you can see the step-wise increase in Demanded Power towards the Power
Setpoint Target. In the lower part you see what happens on the iteration following the
pressing of the HOLD POWER button: the Power Setpoint Target is set equal to the value
Demanded Power has on that iteration, and the change in demanded power is stopped.
(6) Although it may be possible for the operator to enter on the keyboard a incorrect values of
Target Reactor Power Setpoint and Rate, the actual reactor power setpoint changes are
limited by the control program to safe rates and upper limits.
(7) Another part of the program includes a deviation limiter, which prevents the power setpoint
from being more than 5% above the actual power. This feature is designed to preclude the
possibility of a large power increase at excessive rates.

6.3 POWER ERROR CALCULATION

(1) The bulk power error is a measure of the difference between the measured power and the
demanded power of the reactor, plus a rate of change of power error term.
power error = k1(actual power - demanded power) + k2(actual rate - demanded rate)
The unit of power error is %FP. In terms of control system design, this is a proportional
plus derivative type of controller. The difference between actual and demanded power is
the proportional term, and constants k1 is the proportional gain. The difference between
the actual and demanded rates is the derivative term, and k2 the derivative gain constant.
This is a very important relationship, as it has a fundamental role in RRS determining the
movements of reactivity devices.
(2) The sign of the power error determines whether to
(a) increase or decrease the levels of the zones
(b) remove or insert adjuster rods
(c) remove or insert the mechanical control absorbers.
We will see the decision rules for each of these reactivity mechanism actions in the next
few sections.
(3) When the power error is zero, no movement of devices will be ordered, although device
movements ordered before the error became zero will be completed.
(4) Note that reactor power control is based entirely on the measurements of neutron and
thermal power. Although the method of control is by varying the reactivity worth of the
various control mechanisms, the actual value of reactivity or of reactivity error is not
computed in order to achieve reactor control.

6.4 SETBACK ROUTINE

(1) The setback routine reduces reactor power promptly in a RAMP fashion if any parameter
exceeds specified operating limits. These conditions are designed to protect the fuel from
overheating, to protect the various reactor structures, to protect the turbine, and to protect
against any loss of heat sink. In each case the Setback is activated to ensure that the
reactor is controlled to safe power levels and that the fuel is cooled at all times.
(2) The rate at which reactor power is reduced and the power level at which the setback ends
are specified for each Setback condition..
(3) The setback overrides other reactor power demands and is accompanied by alarm window
annunciation.

Setback
Conditions
Zone Control System Failure
Spatial Control Off Normal
Zone power > 110 % at full power
Flux tilt >20 % above 60 % full power
Flux tilt >40 % between 20 & 40 %FP
High Local Neutron Flux
High Steam Generator Pressure
Low Deaerator Level
High Moderator Level
Turbine Trip or Loss of Line
End Shield Flow
End Shield Temperature
Sustained Low Condenser Hot Well Level
Manual

Setback Rate
(percent per
second)
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.5
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.5

End Point
(percent of Full
Power)
60
60
20
20
60
10
2
2
60
2
2
2
2

(4) Unit control mode will be placed in ALTERNATE mode whenever SETBACK is activated.

6.5 STEPBACK ROUTINE

(1) The Stepback Routine monitors a number of plant parameters and reduces reactor power
in a STEP fashion by dropping the mechanical control absorbers either fully or partly into
the reactor. In principal, the actions of the Stepback function are designed to avoid a
reactor trip. However, if a reactor trip does occur, the Stepback function is activated, so
that all the control absorbers will be dropped into the core, thereby aiding the rapid
shutdown of the reactor.
(2) Unit control mode will be placed in ALTERNATE mode whenever STEPBACK is activated.

Stepback Conditions
Reactor Trip

2/3 contacts on SDS1 or SDS2

All Heat Transport Pumps Trip

Control Absorber Response

Full rod drop
Full rod drop

Single pump trip

Full rod drop

Trip of two pumps at same end of reactor

Full rod drop

Heat Transport High Reactor Outlet Header

Full rod drop

Pressure & Reactor Power > 1 %FP

High Zone Power

Full rod drop

High Rate of Log Neutron Power

Full rod drop

Low Moderator Level

Full rod drop

Low Steam Generator Level

Full rod drop

7. REACTIVITY DEVICE CONTROL

The method of reactivity device control in CANDUs can be illustrated by the diagram shown on
this and subsequent pages. It shows power error in %FP on the horizontal axis and average
zone level on the vertical axis.
Inside the region shown in blue, that is for power errors between 4 and +3%FP and average
liquid zone levels between 15 and 80%, reactor power control is achieved by the actions of the
liquid zone control system. Outside this region, as we will see, the actions of the liquid zones
are supplemented by adjuster and control absorber rod movements.
(1) Let us remind ourselves of the reactivity control devices available to the Reactor
Regulating System. The primary method of short-term reactivity control is by varying the
liquid level in the zone controllers. As illustrated in the diagram, under normal operating
conditions the adjusters, shown in maroon, are fully inserted, the control absorbers,
coloured green, are fully withdrawn and the average liquid zone control compartment level,
in blue, is around 50%. If the zones are unable to provide the required reactivity effect,
other devices are operated by the reactor regulating system.
(2) A shortage of negative reactivity will be indicated by either
(a) a high zone controller level, that is the average zone level is above 80% full, or
(b) a positive power error. Remember that this is the effective power error, that is, it
includes both the proportional and the derivative terms;
(c) both cases indicate insufficient negative reactivity, and will cause the mechanical
control absorbers to be driven into the core, one bank at a time; if any adjusters are
not fully in the core, they too will be inserted.
(3) A shortage of positive reactivity will be indicated by either
(a) a low zone controller level, that is the average zone level is below 15%, or
(b) a negative power error. You should be noticing that there is an area of overlap
between the regions of low zone level and negative power error, as there was in the
case of high; zone level and positive power error.
(c) Both cases of low zone levels and negative power error will result in the adjusters to
be driven out of the core in a predefined sequence, and if any absorbers are not fully
out of the core, they too will be driven out.
In the next two sections we take a closer look at the logic that drives adjuster and control
absorber rods.

7.1

ADJUSTER RODS

As we have seen, the Adjuster rods are normally fully inserted into the core, so as to flatten the
neutron flux and to provide a reserve of positive reactivity when the range of control of the liquid
zones has been used up, that is they have reached their low level limit, and in particular as a
reserve of positive reactivity, approximately 17 mk, to override xenon transients following
certain power level reductions.
(1) The diagram illustrates the control logic that determines when the adjuster rods are driven
into the core, when they are driven out of the core, and when they are not being moved by
RRS. In all cases, the movement of the adjuster rods is designed to return the operating
point, that is the intersection of power error and average zone level, to the central region,
shown in maroon colour on this diagram.
(2) Auto out-drive is initiated by RRS for average zone levels below 15% AND for power errors
less than 4%FP; also for all liquid zone levels when the power error is less than 4%FP,
with a second bank being drive out if the power error falls below 6%FP. Note that I am
using AND in capital letters as the logical operator.
(3) Auto in-drive is initiated by RRS for average zone levels above 75% AND for power errors
that are more than 4%FP; also for all liquid zone levels when the power error is greater
than 4%FP.
(4) If the operating point is within the normal range of control for the liquid zones, RRS will not
initiate adjuster drive movement, but it is good operating practice not to leave rods partially
in the core. It is important to remember that for the operation of the CANDU Simulator, the
maximum reactor power that is allowed without the risk of fuel damage, is reduced by 5%
for each bank of adjuster rods that are not fully inserted into the core. Since there are eight
banks of rods, with all of them fully or at least partially withdrawn, maximum power should
be limited to 60%FP. This restriction is not part of the Reactor Regulating System, nor will
there be any indications of problems by the simulation, but should be observed by you at all
times as you operate the Simulator as a matter of good operating practice.

7.2

CONTROL ABSORBER RODS

You will recall that the usual position of the Control Absorber rods is completely outside the
core. They are driven into the core to provide negative reactivity when the liquid zones have
used up their range of control, that is they have reached their high level limit. The control
absorbers can also be dropped into the core fully or part way by the Stepback program. The
total reactivity worth of the four control absorbers is about 9 mk.
(1) The diagram illustrates the control logic that determines when the control absorber rods
are driven into the core, when driven out of the core, and when they are not being moved
by RRS.
(2) Auto In-drive is initiated by RRS for average zone levels above 80% AND the power error
greater than 4%FP; also for all liquid zone levels when the power error is greater than
3%FP, with a second bank being driven in if the power error is above 5%FP.
(3) Auto Out-drive is initiated by RRS for average zone levels below 75% AND the power error
is less than 3%FP; also for all liquid zone levels when the power error is less than 4%FP,
with a second bank being driven out if the power error falls below 5%FP.
(4) Absorber drive is stopped if the average zone level is between 75% and 80% AND the
power error is between 4%FP and 3%FP.

7.3

SHUTDOWN ROD WITHDRAWAL LOGIC

Although the Shutdown Rods are part of Reactor Shutdown System #1, and as such are to be
fully independent of the Reactor Regulating System, the latter is used for the purpose of
withdrawing the Shutdown Rods. Independence is maintained by separating the motor that
drives out the shutdown rods under the control of RRS by a clutch from the shaft of the rod
withdrawing mechanism by a clutch, which is entirely under the control of SDS#1.
The reason for using RRS to withdraw the Shutdown Rods is to ensure that reactor power
control is maintained during Shutdown Rod withdrawal, and that under no circumstance will the
withdrawal of the Shutdown Rods result in the insertion of excessive amounts of reactivity.
The following are the factors that need to be understood and remembered for the withdrawal
logic of the Shutdown Rods:
(1) Dropping of the shutdown rods is controlled by Shutdown System #1.
(2) Withdrawal of the rods is controlled by the Reactor Regulating System.
(3) Withdrawal is inhibited until the reactor trip signal is cleared and SDS#1 is RESET.
(4) For withdrawal, the Shutdown Rods are arranged in two banks, and the withdrawal is
stopped if the power error or the rate log power change exceed specified limits.
(5) Manual withdrawal is allowed only if computer control is unavailable. The operator may
also select individual rods to be driven in or out under manual control, provided the
prescribed unit operating procedures are being followed.

8.

REGULATING SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

The diagram shows all the key components of the Reactor Regulating System that we have
discussed in this Session. It is in the form of a feedback control loop, showing the processes
being controlled, the parameters measured, the control algorithms and the final control
elements.
The process measurements are taken from the Reactor, including neutronic and thermal power
measurements, and from the Steam Generator. These two process blocks have been
highlighted in a blue coloured frame.
The readings of the Vanadium Flux detectors are input to the Flux Mapping Program, the ion
chamber and Platinum clad Inconel flux detector signals, along with coolant flow and
temperature readings, feedwater flow and temperature, steam flow and pressure are all input to
the Power Measurement and Calibration program. The blocks responsible for Reactor Power
Control in RRS are enclosed by a red frame. Additional programs to implement Reactor Power
Control are Demanded Power Routine, which receives the Reactor Power Setpoint for the given
mode of operation, including Reactor Setback, compares it with the Actual Reactor Power value
and computes the effective power error. Based on the sign and magnitude of the power error
the Reactivity Device Controls program determines what signals to send to each of the
reactivity control devices. In the case that a Reactor Stepback condition is detected, signal is
sent to open the clutches holding the Mechanical Control Absorbers.
All the signals to the Reactivity Devices are connected via Hardware Interlocks, these two
blocks being highlighted in orange frames. The change in position of the Reactivity
Mechanisms, plus any Liquid Poison that may be manually added, will alter the reactivity and
hence the neutron and thermal power of the core, thereby closing the control loop.

1.

INTRODUCTION

This Session deals with the Heat Transport System, including the Main Circuit, the Pressure
and Inventory Control Systems. The principal purpose of the Heat Transport System is to cool
the fuel at all times, and it also forms one of the barriers designed to ensure that the
radioactivity in the fuel is not released to the environment.
The diagram shows the key components of the Main Circuit, namely:
(1) Pressure Tubes
(2) Feeder Pipes
(3) Reactor Inlet and Outlet Headers
(4) Steam Generators
(5) Circulating Pumps
(6) Interconnecting Piping

2. THE HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEM

The Heat Transport System, which is often called the Primary Heat Transport or PHT system,
has many sub-systems. On the diagram the following four systems are shown: the Main Circuit,
the Pressure and Inventory Control System, the Shutdown Cooling System and the Purification
System.
(1) The diagram shows one of the two loops of the Main Circuit. Starting from the upper fuel
channel and following the direction of coolant flow, we see that the pressure tube is
connected via a feeder pipe to one of the Reactor Outlet Headers, from there to the Steam
Generator, the coolant next passes through the thousands of inverted U tubes and
transfers its heat to the light water on the secondary side, then the flow is directed to the
inlet of one of the circulating pumps, after the pumps the coolant flows to the Reactor Inlet
Header, and finally via a feeder pipe to the next pressure tube, where it flows through the
reactor in a direction opposite to the adjacent pressure tube, then completes a similar path
through the second Reactor Outlet Header, Steam Generator, Reactor Inlet Header, and
back to the original fuel channel. There are 120 such fuel channel pairs connected in
parallel between the Reactor Inlet and Outlet Headers in each of the two loops, making up
the total of 480 fuel channels in the Heat Transport System of a CANDU 9 reactor. All this
equipment in the Main Circuit is designed to achieve the following functions:
(a) transport the heat produced by the fission of natural uranium fuel in the pressure
tubes to the steam generators, where the heat is transferred to light water to produce
steam;
(b) provide cooling of the reactor fuel at all times during reactor operation and provide for
the heavy water coolant to remove decay heat when the reactor is shut down;
(c) each heat transport pump has sufficient rotational inertia so that the rate of coolant
flow reduction matches the rate of power reduction following a reactor trip if power to
the pump motor is lost, and the system design allows decay heat removal by natural
circulation in case of a total loss of pumping power;
(d) limit the effect of postulated loss-of-coolant accidents to within the capability of the
safety systems and provide a path for emergency coolant flow to the reactor fuel in the
event of such an accident;
(e) provide containment for fission products that may be released from defected fuel
during normal operating conditions.
(2) The Pressure and Inventory Control System maintains the required pressure of the heavy
water coolant in the main circuit using the Pressurizer, provides make-up water to the main
circuit via the Feed Pumps, and holds the excess inventory for the system in the D2O
Storage Tank. It also provides over-pressure relief and degassing of the coolant via the
Bleed Condenser, and it cools the heavy water to allow its purification and storage.
The diagram highlights the system with a red coloured frame and the labels of the main
pieces of equipment. Note that the bottom of the Pressurizer is connected to one of the
Reactor Outlet Headers, and its top to the Bleed Condenser. Note also that there is a flow
from the Reactor Inlet Header to the Bleed Condenser, and an outflow from the bottom of
the Bleed Condenser to the HT Purification system. The functions of the D2O Storage
Tank and the Pumps highlighted on the diagram will be discussed further in Section 10.

(3) The Shutdown Cooling System cools the heat transport heavy water below the 177C limit
possible with the steam generators, and has the capability to indefinitely remove reactor
decay heat following shutdown.
The diagram highlights the system with a red coloured frame and the labels of the main
pieces of equipment. The flow of heavy water is taken from the Reactor Outlet Headers
through the Shutdown Cooling Pumps and the Shutdown Cooling Heat Exchangers, and
returned to the Main Circuit at the Reactor Inlet Headers.
(4) The Purification System limits the accumulation of corrosion products and other fine solids
in the coolant, and controls the chemistry of the reactor coolant, so that the pD value is
maintained at the required level.
The diagram highlights the system with a red coloured frame and the labels of the main
pieces of equipment. The flow of heavy water is taken from the bottom of the Bleed
Condenser, it passes through a Heat Exchanger, Filter and Ion Exchange columns. The
cooled and purified heavy water goes either into the D2O Storage Tank, or its pressure is
raised by the Pressurizing Pumps, which are also called the Feed Pumps, its temperature
is raised by heat exchange in the Bleed Condenser, and is then returned to the Main
Circuit.

3. MAIN CIRCUIT EQUIPMENT

The illustration is a three dimensional computer representation of the main heat transport circuit
equipment. The four steam generators are shown in blue, and adjacent to each is one of the
main circulating pumps and its motor, in green colour. The Reactor Inlet and Outlet Headers are
in yellow, and these are connected to the pressure tubes by the hundreds of feeder pipes,
shown as thin green vertical lines that connect at various angles to the pressure tubes. The
calandria is purple coloured, as are the horizontal flux detectors and poison injection
assemblies, while the vertical flux detector and reactivity mechanisms are in green, going from
the top of the calandria to the orange coloured reactivity mechanism platform. Please make
certain that you are able to find all these system components on the diagram.
(1) The schematic diagram of the Main Circuit shows the two cross-connected figure-of-eight
loops. I labeled the upper circuit as Loop 1, and the lower circuit as Loop 2, and indicated
the interconnection between the two loops. As we saw in the previous section, each loop
consists of 240 pressure tubes each with an inlet and an outlet feeder pipe, although the
diagram only shows two of the pressure tubes. The two loops are interconnected at their
respective reactor outlet headers.
If you place the cursor over the words feeder pipes in blue letters, you will see a
photograph of the face of a CANDU reactor. The Fuel Channels terminating in the End
Fittings, and the Feeder Pipes connected to the End Fittings can be seen.
By selecting the successive action arrows, you can see the highlights I put on the diagram
for each of the following Items. At Item(2) are the reactor inlet headers, Item (3) shows the
reactor outlet headers, Item (4) the main circulating pumps that are driven by electric
motors, and Item (5) the steam generators.
Various pipes that connect the above components to one another complete the Main
Circuit. Note that there are no valves in either of the main loops, so it is not possible in a
CANDU 9 heat transport main circuit to isolate any part of a given loop, or one loop from
the other. There are valves that connect the main circuit to the pressure and inventory
control system, as we will see later in this Session.

4. MAIN CIRCUIT FLOWS AND PRESSURES

The diagram shows the direction of coolant flow around the main circuit, the feed flow into, and
the bleed flow out of the main circuit. The pressures around the loop are also shown. The
CANDU 9 heat transport pressure control system is designed to maintain the reactor outlet
header pressure at 10 Mega Pascals. Under normal operating conditions the Pressurizer
achieves this pressure control.
There is a pressure drop of 1.8 Mega Pascals around half the loop due to fluid friction,
principally across the steam generator and the pressure tubes. Each circulating pump raises
the coolant pressure to compensate for the pressure drop. Most of the power driving the pump
motor appears as heat added to the coolant, approximately 11 Megawatts for a CANDU 9
circulating pump.
There is a small amount heavy water that is normally removed from the main circuit, called the
bleed flow, for the purpose of purification and chemical control. This flow is taken from the
pump outlet, the point of highest pressure in the circuit. There is an amount of feed that is
supplied to the main circuit to maintain the heavy water coolant inventory, this flow is to the inlet
of the circulating pump, which is the point of lowest pressure in the main circuit.
The key design requirements for the main circuit flow and pressure are to ensure that the fuel is
cooled at all times. In particular:
(1) The main circuit pressure must be maintained so that there is adequate saturation margin
in the reactor outlet headers, and that the required net positive suction head for the
circulation pumps is provided.
(2) There must be at all times continuous flow to provide cooling of the fuel.
(3) The main circuit must be filled with heavy water, except under specific shutdown
conditions.

5.

PRESSURE AND INVENTORY CONTROL

The diagram highlights the main features of the Heat Transport Pressure and Inventory Control
System. The purpose of this system is to maintain the pressure of the Main Circuit at the
specified setpoint, and the corresponding mass of heavy water in the Main Circuit. In this
context the word inventory means the amount of heavy water mass. Under normal operating
conditions the Pressurizer keeps the Main Circuit Pressure at its setpoint of 10 MPa, and also
accommodates changes in inventory via Pressurizer level control. This is called the Normal
Mode of pressure control, but it does not relate to Normal Mode of Unit control. If the
Pressurizer has to be isolated from the Main Circuit, then the feed and bleed system will control
both pressure and inventory, and pressure control is said to be in Solid Mode.
The key equipment and control systems are highlighted on the diagram. You should make sure
that you can identify each of these and the relevant interconnections on the diagram.
The Pressurizer is connected to the reactor outlet header via the pressurizer isolation valve,
and to the Bleed Condenser through the steam bleed valve. The outflow from the Bleed
Condenser goes to the Storage Tank through the Bleed Condenser Level Control valve, and
the Feed Pump supplies feed flow to the Main Heat Transport Circuit. Bleed flow from the Main
Circuit goes to the Bleed Condenser.
The Pressurizer and the Bleed Condenser each have a Pressure Control System and a Level
Control System. The Inventory of heavy water in the main circuit is controlled by a system of
Feed and Bleed, and under normal operating conditions there is a small flow of Main Circuit
heavy water through the Purification system.

6. PRESSURIZER NORMAL MODE

The Pressurizer is designed to control the pressure and the inventory of heavy water in the
Main Circuit for all normal operating conditions. This section describes how the Pressurizer
Pressure is controlled, and in Section 9 we will look at the role of the Pressurizer Level
controller in heavy water inventory control. The Pressurizer is a large vertical cylindrical carbon
steel vessel, having a volume of 130 cubic metres.
(1) The Pressurizer is connected to the Main Heat Transport System at one of the Reactor
Outlet Headers by the pressurizer connection line, as indicated by arrow (a). The
Pressurizer Isolation Valve, at arrow (b), is a remotely controlled motorized valve, and is
fully open under normal operating conditions. This allows the free flow of heavy water
between the Pressurizer and the Main Circuit, is response to changes in the differences
between the Main Circuit and Pressurizer pressures until they are equalized. The valve is
closed to isolate the Pressurizer from the Main Heat Transport Circuit during maintenance
shutdowns.
(2) The Pressurizers liquid and steam are kept at saturation, and at a pressure that is slightly
lower than the saturation conditions in the reactor outlet header at 100%FP. For CANDU 9
the Reactor Outlet Header setpoint is normally 10 MPa.
(3) The pressure in the Pressurizer, and at the same time in the Main Circuit, can be raised by
adding heat to the liquid via electric heaters. A variable heater is used under normal steady
state conditions. ON-OFF heaters are turned ON if the pressure drops below the range of
the variable heater. There are a total of six heaters in a CANDU 9 Pressurizer, normally
one is variable and the other five operate in ON-OFF mode. The total capacity of the six
heaters is 2.1 Megawatts.
(4) The pressure in the Pressurizer, and therefore in the Main Circuit, can be reduced by
bleeding steam out of the pressurizer. If the pressure increases beyond the range of the
pressurizer pressure control valves, two steam relief valves discharge additional steam to
the Bleed Condenser until the pressure is reduced to the normal control range. To achieve
cooldown of the pressurizer, cool heavy water can be sprayed into the steam space to
condense some of the steam.
(5) During a reactor power increase the Reactor Outlet Header pressure rises as a result of
the swell in the system. The level setpoint in the pressurizer is increased automatically so
that all the swell resulting from power increases is stored in the pressurizer. The opposite
takes place on a reactor power decrease.
(6) The level in the pressurizer, and therefore the heat transport system inventory, is normally
controlled via the main circuit feed and bleed valves. A pressurizer level below the setpoint
indicates that there is insufficient heavy water inventory in the Main Circuit, so some
additional amount is fed into the Main Circuit from the D2O Storage Tank, until the level in
the Pressurizes reaches the setpoint. A Pressurizer level above the setpoint is an
indication of excess heavy water inventory in the Main Loop, and the bleed flow is
increased, along with decreasing the feed flow if there is any, until the level error is
eliminated. We will take a more detailed look in Section 6 at how the Main Circuit coolant
inventory is controlled by the feed and bleed system via the pressurizer level controller.

7. BLEED CONDENSER
The principal purpose of the Bleed Condenser is to reduce the pressure and temperature of the
heavy water coolant that flows out of the Main Circuit and of the heavy water steam that flows
out of the Pressurizer. The Bleed Condenser is designed to be part of the Primary Heat
Transport System pressure boundary, and it also provides the means to degas, that is to allow
for the removal of non-condensable gasses, mostly nitrogen, from the heat transport coolant
heavy water.
Like the Pressurizer, the Bleed Condenser when operating normally contains heavy water and
steam at saturation conditions, but at a much lower pressure than the Pressurizer, around 1.7
Mega Pascals. It is a vertical cylindrical carbon steel vessel, much smaller than the Pressurizer,
having a volume of 25 cubic metres.
(1) Under normal operating conditions the Bleed Condenser receives liquid bleed flow from the
Main Heat Transport Circuit and steam bleed flow from the Pressurizer. In case of over
pressure conditions in the Main Circuit, the Liquid Relief (LR) valve opens until the pressure
is reduced to an acceptable level. Over-pressure conditions in the Pressurizer result in
additional steam flow to the Bleed Condenser through the Pressurizer over-pressure steam
relief valves.
(2) The incoming liquid bleed and relief flows expand and flash into steam and mix with any
steam flow from the Pressurizer. The heavy water steam is cooled in the Bleed Condenser
and its pressure is reduced by a large amount, in the order of 8 Mega Pascals. Much of the
incoming steam is condensed, and although the vessel operates with heavy water at
saturation, the mixture of water and steam is at a much reduced temperature and pressure.
(3) While pressure control in the Pressurizer is achieved by either adding heat to the liquid or
bleeding steam from the vessel, in the case of the Bleed Condenser its pressure is
controlled by varying the amount of cool heavy water flowing in the reflux tube bundle and
by spraying cool heavy water into the vapour space. The Reflux Flow is part of the feed flow
going to the Main Circuit, while the Spray Flow mixes with the other inflows of heavy water in
the Bleed Condenser.
(4) The Reflux Flow and the Spray Flow are regulated by control valves (a) and (b) as
demanded by the bleed condenser pressure controllers. Under normal operating conditions
Bleed Condenser pressure is controlled by varying the Reflux Flow. Since the Reflux Flow is
part of the Feed Flow into the Main Circuit, the respective control loops are designed to
meet the requirements of both Reflux Flow for the purpose of Bleed Condenser pressure
control, and Feed Flow for the purpose of Main Circuit inventory control.
If the Bleed Condenser pressure rises by a specified amount above the setpoint of the
pressure controller regulating Reflux flow, additional cooling is provided by the Spray Flow.
The setpoint of the Bleed Condenser pressure controller that regulates the Spray Flow is
set somewhat higher than that of the Bleed Condenser pressure controller that regulates
Reflux flow.
(5) The level in the Bleed Condenser is controlled by regulating the outflow from the Bleed
Condenser that goes through the Bleed Cooler to the Purification System or bypassing it to
the suction of the D2O Feed Pump.

8. PRESSURE CONTROL BY FEED AND BLEED SOLID MODE

In Section 6 we looked at how the pressure of the Main Heat Transport Circuit can be controlled
by the use of a Pressurizer. It is also possible, indeed at times necessary, to be able to control
the Main Circuits pressure when the Pressurizer is isolated from the Main Circuit. This method
relies on forcing additional heavy water coolant into the already full Main Circuit to raise its
pressure, or releasing some of the coolant, while still keeping the circuit filled, to reduce its
pressure. Adding extra coolant is a process called feed, and removing some coolant is
referred to as bleed, so such a system of pressure control is called feed and bleed.
(1) In order to pressurize the heat transport system without raising its temperature, a system
other than a pressurizer is needed. Some of the early CANDU heat transport systems were
designed without a pressurizer, and used a system of feed and bleed to control Heat
Transport Main Circuit pressure. As shown on the diagram, the bleed flow is taken from the
Main Circuit and is connected to the Bleed Condenser, which is at a much lower pressure.
The feed flow must be at a pressure higher than the pressure in the Main Circuit at the
point where the feed enters the main loop. The high pressure is provided by the Feed
Pumps and the flow of feed is through the Feed valves.
(2) By using a source of coolant at a pressure higher than the main heat transport system,
namely the D2O Feed Pumps, it is possible to raise heat transport system pressure by
simply forcing more liquid into it. To reduce the pressure, some of the liquid is removed
from the main circuit. Such a pressure control system is also called solid, because it
relies on the tensile strength of the vessels and piping that make up the main circuit, and
on the slight but finite compressibility of water.
(3) The Bleed flow is taken from the outlet of one of the heat transport pumps and it
discharges into the bleed condenser via the bleed valves as two phase flow. The steam is
condensed in the Bleed Condenser, its pressure having been reduced to about 1.7 Mega
Pascals.
(4) The Feed flow to the Main Circuit is supplied through the feed control valves and is
connected to the main circuit at the circulating pump suction line. One heavy water feed
pump is normally operating and takes water from the heavy water storage tank and/or the
heat transport purification system. Note that part of the feed flow goes through the Bleed
Condenser so that some of the heat from the bleed flow that is given up in the Bleed
Condenser is recovered. Arrow (a) points to the Feed valve (actually two valves in parallel
to provide redundancy), and arrow (b) points to the Reflux Valve, and it is the sum of these
two flows that makes up the overall Feed flow that is supplied by the Feed Pumps, at arrow
(c). We saw in Section 7 that the Reflux valve was regulated by the Bleed Condenser
Pressure Controller. In the next section we will see how the Feed and Bleed valves are
controlled.

9. INVENTORY CONTROL
So far in this Session I have been discussing mostly how the pressure of the Heat Transport
Main Circuit is controlled. In this section I will concentrate on Inventory control, although as you
should appreciate from the previous sections, controlling the pressure of the Main Circuit also
involves controlling the inventory of heavy water in the Main Circuit, and vice versa. The word
inventory in this context means the mass of heavy water.
(1) Inventory control for the heat transport system is achieved by feed and bleed, and is
designed to compensate for volume changes as a function of coolant temperature.
Inventory and Pressure Control are closely linked, since changing one will alter the other.
What is very important to understand is that there are significant differences in handling
inventory between normal and solid modes of pressure control.
(2) When Heat Transport Pressure Control is in normal mode the Pressurizer Pressure
Control system controls the pressure of the Main Circuit, while the Inventory of heavy water
is controlled by the Pressurizer Level Control system. In other words, as indicated by the
red lines on the diagram, the amount of feed into the Main Circuit and the amount of bleed
out of the Main Circuit are controlled so that the Pressurizer level is maintained at its
setpoint. Recall that the Pressurizer level setpoint changes as a function of reactor power,
to match the expected shrink and swell of the coolant as a function of temperature
changes. Short term inventory changes will be reflected by Pressurizer level changes, and
the feed and bleed system will eliminate pressurizer level error by supplying heavy water
from or storing it in the D2O Storage tank.
(3) When the Pressurizer is isolated from the main circuit, typically under warm-up and cooldown conditions, it can play no role in either pressure or inventory control. Under these
conditions, both heat transport pressure and inventory control are performed
simultaneously by the feed and bleed circuit. This condition is referred to as the solid
mode of Heat Transport Pressure Control. In the solid mode feed and bleed flows are
regulated by the heat transport reactor outlet header pressure controller, and all inventory
changes are via the D2O Storage Tank.
(4) Note that the same equipment i.e. feed and bleed circuit is used for inventory control in
either mode, but in normal mode the setpoint is pressurizer level as indicated by arrow
(a), and in solid mode the setpoint is heat transport solid mode pressure, shown by
arrow (b). It is also very important to remember that in normal mode pressurizer level
setpoint is a function of reactor power.

10. STORAGE AND CHEMICAL CONTROL

In the previous sections I made passing references to the D2O Storage Tank and to the Heat
Transport Purification System. In this section we take a closer look at the functions and
equipment associated with D2O Storage and Chemical Control.
(1) The D2O Storage Tank is used to hold the excess inventory of heavy water in the Heat
Transport system. Units that use a Pressurizer for main circuit pressure and inventory
control need the Storage Tank for inventory changes during system warm-up and
cooldown, and in case of certain abnormal operations. For a feed-and-bleed type Heat
Transport pressure control system the Storage Tank is the only source and sink for the
volume of coolant added to or removed from the main circuit.
(2) The temperature and pressure of the bleed flow from the heat transport system must be
reduced to around 60C in order to avoid damage to the ion exchange resin in the
purification system, to ensure feed pump net positive suction head, and before transfer to
the Storage Tank.
(3) The required temperature reduction is achieved by the Bleed Cooler identified at arrow (a),
in which the outflow from the Bleed Condenser is cooled using recirculated service water.
The flow of cooling water is regulated by the Bleed Cooler Temperature Control valves, at
arrow (b). In case the temperature of the heavy water is too high and presents a risk of
damage to the ion exchange columns, the Bleed Condenser level control valves, at arrow
(c) close automatically. This action, however, reduces and in some cases prevents any
further outflow from the Bleed Condenser. If the temperature and/or pressure at the outlet
of the Bleed Condenser are too high, the motorized valves in the inlet and outlet lines of
the Purification System close and the by-pass valve opens.

11. HEAT TRANSPORT OVER-PRESSURE PROTECTION

All vessels under pressure must have some form of over-pressure protection. Since the Heat
Transport System operates at pressures in the order of 10 Mega Pascals, the main system as
well as key pieces of equipment are each provided with their own means of over-pressure
protection. Because of the high cost of heavy water and the potential for the coolant to be
radioactive, special measures have been devised to contain the outflow of heavy water from a
circuit component where over-pressure protection is applied. Either pneumatic control valves or
fast acting relief valves are used for over-pressure protection in the Heat Transport System.
(1) The Liquid Relief valves are designed to prevent main heat transport high pressure
transients exceeding system limits. Opening the Liquid Relief (LR) valves to the bleed
condenser will usually avoid a reactor trip on high Heat Transport pressure.
(2) The Pressurizer Over-pressure Relief Valve provides pressure relief for the pressurizer in
the event of equipment failure, such as one or more heaters remaining ON when no longer
required, or some types of control system failures that result in a high pressure transient.
This protection is provided by the pressurizer over-pressure (O/P) steam relief valves to
the bleed condenser.
(3) In cases when one of the valves connecting bleed or relief flow to the Bleed Condenser
fails in the open position, the bleed condenser will fill up and reach the pressure of the
main circuit. This condition is sometimes referred to as the Bleed Condenser going solid
as it becomes part of the heat transport system boundary. As such, the Bleed Condenser
itself must have protection to prevent its own pressure and that of the rest of the heat
transport system from exceeding the prescribed limits. This protection is provided by the
bleed condenser relief valves to the reactor building sumps.
(4) I had mentioned the need to protect the Purification System from excessively high
temperatures. Similarly, the ion exchange columns have to be protected against excessive
pressures. The purification circuit is protected by closing the motorized valve in the inlet
line (a), the one in the outlet line (b), and opening the by-pass valve (c), if the inlet pressure
to the Purification System exceeds the specified limit.
(5) To prevent over pressure damage to the reflux feed line, the Relief Valve will open and by
pass some of the flow to the storage tank tie line.

12. CANDU 9 PRESSURE AND INVENTORY CONTROL SYSTEM

The diagram shows the main equipment of the CANDU 9 pressure and inventory control
system. In this Session we have covered all the main pieces of equipment in this system, and
you should be able to recognize and recall the main design and operating parameters and
functions of the equipment and how they perform to meet the systems operating requirements.
You will need to enlarge the diagram on your screen and/or use the printed version in your
notes to see the details more clearly. You will also need to make sure that you can correlate the
equipment as described in this Session and as implemented on the simulator. You will do this to
some extent in Problem 4.1.
Please select each action arrow and make sure that you can recall the purpose of each piece of
equipment and how it interacts with the rest of the Pressure and Inventory Control System.
(1) Pressurizer and associated valves
(2) Bleed Condenser and associated valves
(3) Feed and Bleed valves, Feed pumps
(4) Bleed Cooler
(5) Over-pressure Protection
(6) D2O Storage and Purification

1. INTRODUCTION
This Session describes the functions and characteristics of the Steam, Turbine, Generator and
Feedwater systems. The Steam and Feedwater systems form the normal heat sink for the
energy produced by the Reactor and transferred to the Steam Generators by the Heat
Transport system. As such, the operation of the Steam and Feedwater systems is important
from the reactor safety point of view, and since the steam normally drives the turbine-generator,
also for the economic operation of the unit.
The diagram shows the systems described in this Session, namely:
(1) The Steam Generator, where the heat from the Heat Transport System heavy water is
transferred to the secondary sides light water. The feedwater that enters the steam
generators leaves as dry steam. Because the basic process that takes place in the steam
generators is the boiling of water, the steam generators are often referred to as boilers.
(2) The Main Steam System collects the steam from the four steam generators and distributes
it to the various steam loads. During normal operations, most of the steam flows to the
turbine. If the turbine is not available, the steam can flow directly to the condenser or be
released to the atmosphere.
(3) The Turbine converts the latent heat energy of the steam to rotational energy. The Turbine
in a CANDU generating unit consists of one high pressure stage followed by three parallel
low pressure stages.
(4) The Generator is connected to the same shaft as the Turbine and it converts the rotational
energy of the Turbine to produce electricity. In this course we will not go into any details
regarding the Generator and the electrical system.
(5) The steam that has passed through the low pressure turbine is cooled and converted back
to water in the Condenser. Cooling of the Condenser involves the rejection of
approximately 65% of the energy produced by the reactor, requiring a large amount of
water and a large heat sink, such as the sea, river or lake.
(6) The Feedwater and Feedheating system pumps and heats the condensate and returns it to
the steam generators.
In this Session I summarize the main processes that take place in the above systems, and also
describe the key features of the steam generator level control system.

2. STEAM GENERATOR
There are four identical steam generators in a CANDU unit. A typical steam generator is shown
on the diagram. The tube bundle, in the shape of an inverted U, carries the heat transport
heavy water, called the primary side, from which the heat is transferred to the light water on the
secondary side. The tube sheet supports the thousands of tubes that make up the tube bundle.
The temperature of the incoming feedwater is raised to the saturation point in the integral
Preheater. Boiling takes place throughout the rest of the steam generator, and the dry steam
leaves at the top of the steam generator.
(1) The hot pressurized heat transport heavy water enters the boiler and passes up through
what is referred to as the hot leg of the tube bundle. Past the U-bend the heavy water has
given up some of its heat, so the down side is called the cold leg. Throughout the length
of the tube bundle the heat that is transferred from the heavy water to the light water
causes the latter to boil. The final stage of heat transfer before the heavy water leaves the
steam generator takes place in the Preheater, where the feedwater is brought to the
saturation temperature. Once past the Preheater, the Feedwater is at saturation
conditions, and the additional heat that it receives causes further boiling, that is increasing
the steam content and reducing the water content of the steam-water mixture. Since the
mixture is at saturation, it has the same temperature and pressure throughout the boiling
section of the steam generator.
(2) As the feedwater turns into a steam-water mixture it becomes lighter and will rise in the
steam generator. The section along the tube bundle is also called the riser for this
reason. The steam-water mixture at the top of the tube bundle does not contain a lot of
steam, it is about 90% water. It is essential that as much as possible of the water be
removed from the mixture before the steam leaves the steam generator. High moisture
content would damage the piping and valves in the steam lines, and most importantly
could do severe damage to the turbine. It is therefore essential that only dry steam leaves
the boiler.
(3) As the steam-water mixture rises above the tube bundle it enters the Steam Drum. An
arrangement of steel plates, called Cyclone Separators force the steam-water mixture
into a swirling centrifugal motion, which results in the water droplets moving to the outside
area of the separator where they are drained off. The steam flows upwards as it becomes
lighter with the removal of the moisture content. The final stage of drying the steam takes
place in a second stage of water removal called scrubbers, which are located above the
cyclone separators. The steam that leaves the steam drum had its moisture content
reduced to about 0.1% from the 90% that entered the steam drum.
(4) The water that is separated from the steam in the cyclone separator and steam scrubber
drains to the outside of the steam generator's Tube Shroud and flows down in the
Downcomer annulus that is formed between the Tube Shroud and the Shell. The water
falls to the bottom of the steam generator where it re-enters the tube bundle area to be
heated once again. The amount of water cycling through the tube bundle and the
Downcomer, is typically ten times as much as feedwater entering the boiler.
(5) The feedwater flow in the steam generator starts at the Preheater. Using the heat that
remains in the heavy water after much of it has been used to boil the light water, the
Preheater heats the feedwater to near saturation temperature. Inside the steam generator
the feedwater circulates up around the tube bundle and down the downcomer many times
while acquiring the latent heat of vaporization, and eventually leaving the steam generator
as saturated steam.

3. MAIN STEAM SYSTEM

The diagram shows a simplified diagram of the Steam System for a typical CANDU unit.
Starting from the Boilers, under normal operating conditions the steam flows to the High
Pressure Turbine as indicated by arrow (a), then through the Moisture Separator to the
Reheater, indicated at arrow (b), from there to the Low Pressure Turbine, and finally at arrow (c)
the steam is exhausted to the Condenser, where it is returned to the liquid phase. This section
deals with the steam flow through the Main Steam System to the High Pressure Turbine.
(1) As we have seen before, the steam generators, being pressure vessels, must have
protection against over-pressure. Steam pressure is normally controlled by varying the
steam flow through the Governor Valves, but if steam pressure rises above predetermined
limits, the Atmospheric and Condenser Steam Discharge Valves can be opened by the
Steam Generator Pressure Control System. If the pressure continues to increase, then the
Safety Valves installed on top of the boiler will open to protect the steam system from over
pressure.
(2) The pressure from the boilers drives the steam to the high pressure (HP) turbine through
the Emergency Stop Valves (ESV) and the Governor Valves (GV). Under normal operating
conditions the Emergency Stop Valves are fully open and the Governor Valves are
adjusted to control steam flow into the turbine. The steam safety and discharge valves are
normally closed.
(3) The purpose of the Emergency Stop Valves is to quickly stop the steam flow to the turbine
to prevent it from over-speeding and getting damaged when the load on the generator is
suddenly removed. Following a turbine trip, when the turbine is to be restarted, the ESVs
are first opened with the Governor valves closed, so that the ESVs are available to perform
their protective function once steam is again admitted to the turbine.
(4) The Governor Valves control the quantity of steam flowing to the turbine. As we have seen
in Session 1, in Normal Mode the governor valves are adjusted to control the electrical
output of the unit. In Alternate Mode with the generator synchronized to the grid, the
Governor valves are adjusted to maintain steam pressure constant, and in the process also
alter generator output. When the generator is not connected to the grid, the governor
valves are used to control the speed of the turbine. In cases when the generating unit is the
only or main supplier of electricity to the system, the governor valves also control the
frequency of the load island.

4. STEAM UTILIZATION IN THE TURBINE

As indicated on the diagram, the steam comes into the High Pressure Turbine from the steam
generators at arrow (a). After the High Pressure Turbine the steam passes through the moisture
separator and reheater which are not shown on this particular diagram, and then is distributed
at arrow (b) to the three parallel connected Low Pressure Turbines. Each of the three LP
Turbines exhausts the steam flow to its own Condenser, as indicated by arrow (c).
(1) From the governor valve the steam passes through the HP turbine. Some of the latent heat
of the steam is converted to rotational energy, and in this process the moisture content of
the steam increases to about 10% when it leaves the HP Turbine. The pressure and
temperature of the steam as it leaves the High Pressure Turbine have been reduced to
approximately 900 kPa and 170C. The moisture will need to be removed and the pressure
and temperature raised before the steam enters the low pressure turbines.
(2) The steam outlet from the HP Turbine stage passes to the moisture separator which
removes the moisture in the steam without changing its temperature and pressure. The
water is collected in the Separator Drains Tank and is pumped to the Deaerator.
(3) The Reheater is used to raise the temperature and pressure of the steam that flows from
the Separator to the Reheater, at arrow (a). As shown on the diagram at arrow (b), a flow
of steam is taken directly from the boiler to the Reheater, and its heat is used to raise the
pressure and temperature of the steam from the moisture separator to 230C and 900 kPa,
which correspond to superheated conditions. Since the Reheater drains are at saturation
temperature, they can be returned directly to the steam generators, as shown by the red
line. In some station designs the Reheater Drains are connected to the High Pressure
Heaters.
(4) Before entering the LP turbine, the steam passes through intercept valves. In a fashion
similar to the emergency stop valves, these valves shut off the flow of steam to the LP
Turbine in case the load to the generator is disconnected. The amount of energy in the
volume of steam in the HP Turbine, Moisture Separator, Reheater and the interconnecting
pipes is such that it could result in over-speeding the turbine and damaging it.
(5) The steam finally passes through the Low Pressure Turbine and is then exhausted to the
Condenser at approximately 5 kPa(a), 35C and 10% moisture content. The diagram
shows a typical Low Pressure Turbine stage. The steam enters near the center of the
turbine, flows through the turbine blades in both directions, and is then exhausted to the
Condenser at the two ends of the Turbine.

5. TURBINE BYPASS
When the turbine is unable to accept the steam flow, typically following a turbine trip, during
turbine shutdown or a rapid reduction in generator output, the steam flow can bypass the
turbine and flow directly to the condenser. The diagram illustrates the flow of steam when the
ESVs and GVs are closed, and the CSDVs are open, with the red arrows showing the flow of
steam to the Condenser.
(1) Condenser Steam Discharge Valves (CSDVs) are installed to allow the steam to bypass
the turbine and flow directly to the condenser on loss of turbine so that the reactor can
continue to operate at the power required to prevent a poison-out. They are also used to
discharge steam on a loss of line, or on a turbine trip, so that the main steam safety valves
do not lift. There are 12 CSDVs, connected in such a way that each valve discharges
steam to one half of one condenser shell. The total capacity of the CSDVs is 100%FP flow
rate. This capacity is usually needed for about one minute, while the reactor power is
runback to 60%FP. Under normal operating conditions the steam generator presure will
need to rise 100kPa above its setpoint for the CSDVs to begin to open.
(2) Atmospheric Steam Discharge Valves (ASDV) are low capacity valves used to control
steam generator pressure via the steam pressure control program. They are opened in
proportion to the pressure error, normally with an offset of 70 kPa in the steam pressure
setpoint. These valves may also be used to provide a heat sink during shutdown for decay
heat removal when the main condenser is unavailable.
6. EXTRACTION STEAM
The efficiency of the thermo-dynamics of the steam and feedwater cycle can be optimized by
taking some of the energy of the steam at various points between the main steam header and
the low pressure turbine and using it to heat the feedwater.
Extraction Steam is supplied to the following heat exchangers:
(a) three stages of low pressure heaters;
(b) the deaerator that forms the forth stage of feedwater heating;
(c) the fifth stage consists of two high pressure heaters connected in parallel.

7. TYPICAL CANDU MAIN STEAM SYSTEM

A typical CANDU Main Steam System contains a large number of valves for control and safety
purposes.
(1) Turbine Stop Valves
(2) Condenser Steam Discharge Valves
(3) Atmospheric Steam Discharge Valves
(4) Main Steam Safety Valves
(5) The Feedwater Flow is controlled by a set of valves which are described in Sections 12
and 13 of this Session.
(6) The Main Steam Flow Measurements are used as part of the Steam Generator Level
Control system, as described in Sections 14 and 15 of this Session.

8. FEEDWATER SYSTEM
The feedwater system encompasses the flow of water from the condenser to the steam
generators, and its heating through the Low Pressure Heaters, Deaerator and High Pressure
Heaters. Starting at arrow
(a) The water leaving the condenser is at relatively low temperature and pressure. The
Condensate Extraction Pump (CEP) pumps the water from the Condenser Hotwell
through the Low Pressure Heaters into the Deaerator. As shown by arrows
(b) a series of heat exchangers raises the Condensate temperature to about 170C. The
heating stages include the Low Pressure Heaters, the Deaerator and the High
Pressure Heaters. The final stage of feedheating takes place in the Preheater, which
as I describe in Section 2 of this Session is integral to the steam generator, as
indicated by arrow
(c) The Preheater increases the temperature of the feedwater to almost saturation
conditions. Since the steam generator is normally operated above 4 MPa, high
pressure and high capacity pumps are needed to force the feedwater into the steam
generators. As indicated by arrow
(d) the boiler (or steam generator) feed pumps (BFP) take their suction from a line coming
from the Deaerator and pump the feedwater through the High Pressure Feedheaters
and the Feedwater Regulating Valves into the steam generator.
9. LOW PRESSURE FEEDHEAT SYSTEM
The flow of feedwater begins at the Condenser Hotwell. As shown on the diagram, the steam
from the Low Pressure Turbine enters the Condenser at the top. The steam is cooled and
condensed by the cooling water flowing through the horizontal condenser tubes and collects in
the Hotwell at the bottom of the Condenser. The Condenser Cooling Water enters at the Inlet
Box and leaves the Condenser through the Outlet box, as indicated by blue arrows.
(1) The Condensate Extraction Pump (CEP) delivers the condensate from the Condenser
Hotwell to the Low Pressure heaters.
(2) The LP feedheaters use extraction steam from the LP turbines as their heating medium.
The extraction steam condenses in the shell of the heater. A separate pump recovers this
condensate by pumping it to the condenser hotwell. The feedwater leaves the last LP
feedheater at approximately 100C.

10. DEAERATOR AND STORAGE TANK

(1) The Deaerator is the next stage in the feedwater heating process. This is the highest
vessel in the feedheating system, in order to ensure that a net positive suction head is
provided for the steam generator feed pumps. The Deaerator adds heat to and removes
non-condensable gases from the feedwater.
(2) The diagram illustrates the main parts and fluid flows in the Deaerator, the top part, and the
associated Storage Tank, the bottom part. The incoming feedwater enters the Deaerator
near the top at arrow (a) and sprays downward over cascade trays, referenced by arrow
(b). Extraction steam indicated by arrow (c) from the LP turbine enters the Deaerator near
the bottom and passes upward. As a result the feedwater heats up to about 125C. The
deaerated feedwater and condensed steam drain from the Deaerator into the Storage
Tank.
11. HP FEEDHEATING SYSTEM
The High Pressure Feedheating System includes the steam generator feed pumps and the
High Pressure Heaters.
(1) The boiler feed pumps (BFP) take suction from the Deaerator Storage Tank and raise the
feedwater pressure to between 4 and 7 MPa. The pumps discharge the high pressure
feedwater to the high pressure (HP) feedheaters.
(2) The HP feedheaters heat the feedwater to about 170C. HP feedheater operation and
construction are similar to that of the LP feedheaters. Extraction steam from the HP
turbine normally supplies the heat, as shown by arrow (a). The condensed steam, at arrow
(b) is directed to the Deaerator Storage Tank.

12. STEAM GENERATOR FEED PUMPS AND LEVEL CONTROL VALVES

The diagram shows the main pieces of equipment typical for a CANDU High Pressure
Feedwater system. Starting with the Deaerator, highlighted in a blue frame, the flow of
feedwater is to the suction of the steam generator feedpumps, shown inside a purple frame.
The two parallel high pressure heaters are indicated by a green frame, and the four sets of
feedwater flow control valves, which are controlled by the steam generator level controller, are
highlighted by the red frames.
(1) Two 50% capacity main steam generator feed pumps are required to supply the necessary
flow to the steam generators above 25% full power, and one additional pump is on
standby. At some stations three 33% pumps are used, for example the system modelled
on the Simulator.
(2) One auxiliary pump is also provided, it is sized so that it can supply the flow to remove
decay heat in case of a loss of Class IV supply to the main pumps. You will find two such
pumps on the Simulator. The choice depends on the reliability of the pump used.
(3) Connections to the Condensate system allow for recirculating flow when the pumps are
operating but the level control valves are closed. These lines are shown in red on the
diagram. Additional details are available on the Simulator.
(4) The level in each steam generator is controlled individually. Because of safety, range of
control and maintenance considerations, each steam generator has a set of three control
valves for feedwater control connected in parallel: one small valve to control feedwater
during shutdown, startup, and low power operation, and two larger valves to control
feedwater for on-power conditions. Each of the two large valves can handle the full power
flow requirements. Isolating valves are provided for each control valve.
The highlighted portion shows one typical set of valves for one steam generator. Flow to the
valves is indicated by the vertical arrow, flow from the valves towards the steam generators
by the horizontal arrow. Note that the large control valves Fail Closed (FC) on a loss of air
pressure, while the auxiliary valve Fails Open (FO). Either of a pair of large control valves
can supply 100% flow to its steam generator. Each control valve has a motorized isolating
valve (shown with the square flag) in series with it.

13. STEAM GENERATOR LEVEL CONTROL REQUIREMENTS

(1) The steam generators are the normal heat sinks for the reactor, so in order to ensure
cooling of the fuel, it is very important to maintain the ability of the steam generators to
remove the heat from the heat transport system. Heat removal ability requires that there be
an adequate volume of water in the steam generators to be converted to steam, and the
means to remove the steam. As I note in Section 3 of this Session, normal steam flow is to
the Turbine. However if the turbine is not available, the atmospheric and condenser
discharge valves are able to control the flow of steam while maintaining the steam pressure
at the set-point.
(2) If steam generator level goes too high, there is a potential of water droplet carry-over to the
high pressure turbine, which could damage the turbine blades. The level control system
needs to ensure that steam generator level is maintained between the required limits. This
is not a simple task, because of the level of water under boiling conditions can vary by
significant amounts under a variety of system upset conditions, depending on how much
steam is contained in the form of bubbles in the water. In order to ensure that the turbine is
protected from water carry-over, the turbine will be automatically tripped if the level in the
steam generator goes too high.
(3) The volume of water at a constant steam generator level will decrease as reactor power is
increased because of bubble formation. To keep the volume of water constant at all power
levels, steam generator level set-point varies as a function of reactor power.
(a) Sudden changes is steam generator pressure will also impact on steam generator
level: an increase in pressure will collapse the bubbles, dropping level, while a sudden
decrease in pressure will result in more bubbles and will raise the level.
(b) Sudden changes in steam flow will result in sudden pressure changes and hence
steam generator level changes.
(c) Sudden changes in feedwater flow will also impact on bubble formation and will
therefore cause level changes (in addition to the change resulting from the water
volume change itself).
(4) In order to control steam generator level close to its set-point, the control algorithm
includes steam flow and feedwater flow, in addition to steam generator level
measurements. This is called three element control, because three different signals are
used to determine the controller action. The controller acts on the feedwater control valves
to regulate the flow of feedwater into the steam generator. Because of the interrelations
between level measurement, volume of water in the steam generator, the flow of water into
the steam generator, changes in steam flow and pressure, the level controller algorithm is
quite complex.

14. STEAM GENERATOR LEVEL - ONE ELEMENT CONTROL

Under low power conditions or if the flow measurements are not available, the steam generator
level controller can be operated as a single element controller. The setpoint and hence the
single element may be either level or feedwater flow, if an accurate flow measurement is
available.
(1) In the case of One Element Level Control, the setpoint is the desired steam generator
level, which is compared with the measured level.
As shown by arrow (a), the level error is computed as the difference between the level setpoint and the actual (that is measured) level. The resultant controller signal is fed to the
feedwater control valves actuator at arrow (b), which will alter the valve opening and
hence the flow of feedwater to the steam generator.
For example an actual level below the set-point results in a positive error, which will
increase the valve opening and hence allow more feedwater to flow into the steam
generator.

(2) In the case of One Element Flow Control, the setpoint is the desired feedwater flow, which
is compared with the measured flow.
As shown by arrow (a), the flow error is the difference between the flow set-point and the
actual (that is measured) flow. The resultant controller signal is fed to the feedwater control
valves actuator at arrow (b), which will alter the valve opening and hence the flow of
feedwater to the steam generator.
For example an actual flow lower than the set-point will result in a positive error signal,
which will increase the valve opening, and hence allow more feedwater to flow into the
steam generator.

15. STEAM GENERATOR LEVEL - THREE ELEMENT CONTROL

Three element control of steam generator level involves the three process measurements that
principally affect the volume of water in the steam generator. These are highlighted on the
diagram: the actual steam generator level at arrow (a), the actual steam flow at arrow (b) and
the actual feedwater flow at arrow (c). By actual I mean the measured parameter in each
case.
(1) By comparing steam flow and feedwater flow we get an indication of the flow mismatch
independently of a level error.
(2) The flow error is the difference between the steam flow and the feedwater flow.
(3) Either a feedwater flow lower than the steam flow, or an actual level higher than the level
set-point, or as long as the magnitude of a positive level error is larger than the magnitude
of a negative flow error, there will be a positive error signal, which will increase the valve
opening.

1.

INTRODUCTION

This session provides and overview of the main features of the Advanced CANDU Reactor
(ACR) and the design of the nuclear electric power plant that will have as its source of energy
the ACR. The reference design that is considered in this session is the ACR-700, but key
comparisons with the ACR-1000 will made as appropriate. The simulator that is used to
illustrate the design and operating features of the ACR is based on the 700 MWe unit size.
(1)

Similarities with CANDU 6

The ACR design is based on the use of individual horizontal pressure tubes that contain
the proven, simple and economical fuel bundle design and on-power fuelling. The
separate, cool, low-pressure moderator continues to be heavy water, giving the ACR
similar excellent neutron economies as all other CANDU reactors. The heat transport
system is under pressure so that only limited amount of boiling takes place near the
outlets of the hottest channels. Heat is transferred in the steam generators that are part
of a balance of plant system which is very similar to previous CANDUs.
The two independent shutdown systems (SDS) have been retained, with shutdown rods
in SDS#1 and poison injection into the moderator for SDS#2.

(2)

Significant new system-level features

The major innovation in ACR is the use of slightly enriched uranium fuel, and light water
as the coolant, which circulates in the heat transport system. This results in a more
compact reactor design and a reduction of heavy water inventory, both contributing to a
significant decrease in cost compared to CANDU reactors that employ natural uranium
as fuel and heavy water as coolant.
The ACR design uses higher pressures and temperatures of reactor coolant and main
steam, which result in improved thermal efficiency compared to the existing CANDU
plants. These thermal-hydraulic characteristics contribute significantly to improve the
economics of the ACR-based generating unit.

(3)

Significant new control features

In contrast to the dual digital control computer (DCC) systems used in previous
CANDUs, most of the process control functions for the ACR plant are implemented using
a distributed control system (DCS). The distributed control system receives and executes
operator commands entered via the plant display system, and provides data acquisition
for the monitoring, alarm annunciation, display and data recording functions that are
performed by the plant display system.
The distributed control system is a modular digital control system, which uses a number
of programmable digital controllers connected to data communication networks that have
been designed to provide very high reliability and data security. The system includes
comprehensive fault detection, redundancy, and switchover features, to provide a very
high degree of immunity to random component failures.

2.

ACR AND CANDU COMPARISON

(1)

Similar features:
The main components of the modular horizontal fuel channels are the concentric
pressure and calandria tubes. These are made of the same materials as other recent
CANDUs, but differ somewhat in dimensions, as we will see in section 5.
The physical arrangement of the fuel design follows the 43 element CANFLEX
configuration, that retains the outside dimensions and other detailed features of the 50
cm long CANDU fuel bundle. The basis of this relatively simple design has been very
successful at all previous CANDU power plants.
The heavy water moderator contained in the calandria and separated from the pressure
tubes by calandria tubes remains a low pressure system, kept at temperatures only
slightly above ambient conditions, that also acts as a reflector and provides a back-up
heat sink to cool the fuel.
On-power refueling has been a hallmark of CANDUs, and contributes to the high
capacity factors that have been demonstrated by the units during their operating life. The
existing fuelling machine and fuel transfer designs can be readily adapted to the ACR.
The passive shutdown systems have been retained from earlier units, and are
characterized by each system, acting alone, being 100% capable of shutting down the
reactor.
To minimize the time required to gain the necessary construction and operating licenses,
the well established equipment and licensing basis of previous CANDUs has been
followed.

(2)

Different system-level features

A key and distinguishing feature of the ACR is the use of slightly-enriched uranium (SEU)
fuel, as well as having dysprosium as a burnable neutron absorber in the centre fuel
element of the bundle to reduce the coolant void reactivity during postulated accidents.
An average enrichment of 2.1% by weight U-235 is used for the fuel pellets in the fuel
elements of the inner, intermediate and outer rings. This allows for operations at
extended burn-up conditions and to compensate for the loss of reactivity due to the use
of the burnable absorber material in the centre fuel element. All previous CANDUs used
natural uranium, but the new design has a very low negative void coefficient, it allows
higher critical heat flux, and permits increased operating and safety margins of the
reactor.
The use of SEU fuel results in a more compact reactor design that leads to a reduction of
heavy water inventory, with corresponding savings in construction and operating costs.
Further savings result from replacing heavy water with light water as the reactor coolant.
Such a configuration was not possible while natural uranium was used as fuel.
Further improvements in plant equipment configuration became possible as a result of
the above changes, such as the reduction of steam generators from the previous low of
four to only two in the ACR-700 design.
The use of SEU fuel allows increased thickness of pressure tubes, which in turn leads to
higher heat transport system temperatures. The consequences are higher operating
pressures and temperatures on the secondary side, and significant improvements in the
units thermal efficiency.
The smaller reactor core not only saves on the cost of heavy water, but also
manufacturing, shipping and construction costs.

3.

KEY ACR FEATURES

A typical power block of the two-unit plant layout is shown in the diagram. The layout and
buildings are designed to minimize the footprint and achieve a short, practical construction
schedule. The arrangements of the main structures within the reactor building, reactor auxiliary
building, and turbine building of each unit are essentially identical. The individual units of the
two-unit plant share control, maintenance, administration, services areas, and some common
process systems. The ACR-700 two-unit integrated plant is self-sufficient, containing all the
facilities required for day-to-day operations.
(1)

For the ACR-700 the nominal gross electrical output of the reference generator is 753
MWe and the estimated unit service power load is about 50 MWe, yielding a net unit
electrical output of approximately 703 MWe. The thermal power produced by the reactor
and transferred to the steam generators is 2034 MWth.

(2)

Simple, robust advanced design with passive resistance to severe accidents assures that
the ACR-700 can be licensable internationally. The primary vehicle for establishing the
licensability of the design is the assurance that it can be licensed in Canada.
Furthermore, the ACR-700 addresses the key requirements of the IAEA to the extent
applicable and when not in conflict with the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commissions
(CNSC) requirements.

(3)

The fuel design has evolved from the fuel used in the Pickering and Bruce reactors, and
that used in all of the CANDU 6 reactors, to the improved CANFLEX fuel bundle already
demonstrated in the CANDU 6 Pt. Lepreau reactor. It is in the form of SEU dioxide
pellets, sheathed and sealed in zirconium alloy tubes. Forty-three tubes are assembled
between end plates to form a fuel bundle. Each fuel channel contains 12 bundles.

(4)

The reactor consists of a set of 292 horizontally aligned fuel channels arranged in a
square pitch. The fuel channels contain the fuel and the high pressure light water
coolant. They are mounted in a calandria vessel containing the heavy water moderator.
Individual calandria tubes surround each individual fuel channel.
The calandria vessel is enclosed by endshields, which support each end of the calandria.
They are filled with shielding balls and water to provide shielding. The fuel channels are
located by adjustable restraints on the two endshields and are connected by individual
feeder pipes to the Heat Transport System.
The calandria vessel is enclosed in a concrete vault (calandria vault) filled with light
water for shielding. The calandria vault is closed at the top by the reactivity mechanisms
deck.

4.

CANFLEX-ACR FUEL

(1)

The 43-element CANDU 6 CANFLEX Mk 4 fuel bundle forms the basis for the ACR
bundle design. The bundle includes 2 different element sizes.

(2)

The centre and inner ring consist of eight elements with a diameter of 13.5 mm. The
center pin contains burnable poison (U, Dy)O2 pellet with 7.5% wt Dysprosium in natural
Uranium. The inner ring has enriched uranium pellets with an average enrichment of
2.1% by weight U-235.

(3)

The outer two rings consist of 35 elements with a smaller, 11.5 mm diameter, and just
like the inner ring, contain 2.1% by weight U-235.

(4)

Significantly improved CHF margins and lower linear element ratings allow the fuel to be
used to increase channel power, resulting in better optimization of the core.

(5)

Much higher fuel burn-ups can be achieved relative to natural uranium. The expected
burn-up in the ACR is 20,000MWd/tU, which is 2.8 times the burn-up of natural Uranium
fuel in CANDU 6, typically 7,500 MWd/tU. Apart from lower fuel costs, the ACR will
produce considerably less volume of spent fuel.

(6)

The ACR-700 requires about 6 new fuel bundles per full power day. This requires
fuelling approximately 3 fuel channels using a 2-bundle-shift fuelling scheme.

5.

FUEL CHANNEL

The reactor for the ACR-700 consists of 292 fuel channels arranged on a square pitch of 220
mm. Each fuel channel consists of a zirconium/niobium alloy pressure tube, which is
surrounded by a zirconium alloy calandria tube with a gas gap in between. The pressure tube
is separated from the calandria tube by a set of garter springs placed at strategic locations
along the channel. The calandria tubes are fixed at each end to the cylindrical calandria. The
diagram shows a detailed view of a typical fuel channel assembly.
(1)

Each channel operates with twelve Canflex fuel bundles, which are replaced on-power at
a rate that compensates for reactivity loss due to fission product build-up in the core.

(2)

The fewer channels and tighter lattice pitch result in a much more compact core. The
inside diameter of the ACR Calandria at 5.2 metres is 31.6 % less than that for a CANDU
6 Calandria, which is 7.6 metres.

(3)

The diagram illustrates the significant reduction in lattice pitch, from 286 mm in the
natural uranium fuelled CANDUs to only 220 mm in the ACR-700 lattice. At the same
time, the outside diameters of the pressure tubes and calandria tubes have increased.
The overall effect is a large reduction in Moderator volume to Fuel volume ratio from 16.4
to 7.1.

(4)

The average channel power has increased from 5.3 MW in CANDU 6 to 6.8 MW in the
ACR, while peak channel power has increased by less than 10 %.

6.

ACR CALANDRIA AND FUEL CHANNELS

Similarly to CANDU 6, the ACR reactor assembly comprises a cylindrical structure, the
calandria assembly, within a water-filled, carbon steel-lined concrete structure, the calandria
vault, as well as the fuel channel assemblies, and reactivity control units. The calandria vault is
built of ordinary concrete, and is filled with light water. The water serves both as a thermal
shield and as a cooling medium.
The ACR reactor design retains the small diameter horizontal fuel channels that contain high
pressure, high temperature heat transport system coolant. This allows the use of a separate
low pressure moderator system in which the reactivity control devices operate.
(1)

Calandria assembly
The calandria assembly of the ACR is similar to that of CANDU 6, but of smaller size. It
comprises the calandria vessel, two end shields, two end shield supports, two
embedment rings and internal piping for end shield and vault cooling. This assembly
forms a multi-compartment structure which supports and contains the fuel channel
assemblies, reactivity control units, heavy water moderator and reflector, demineralised
light water, carbon steel balls, and plate shielding.
The calandria assembly, including the calandria tubes, has a target operating life of 60
years at a lifetime plant capacity factor of 90%.

(2)

Calandria tubes
The calandria tubes span the calandria shell horizontally on a 220 mm square pitch to
form a circular lattice array. The calandria tubes are in-core components, and form a
part of the calandria vessel pressure boundary.

(3)

Pressure tubes
Each pressure tube is surrounded by a calandria tube, the two being held concentric by
bearings at both ends, located in the end shield lattice tubes, supplemented by annulus
spacers positioned at approximately one-metre intervals along the length. The space
between the tubes is filled with the annulus gas (carbon dioxide) that insulates the hot
pressure tube from the relatively cold moderator, thereby improving thermal efficiency.

(4)

End shields
Two end shields are integral parts of the calandria assembly, one end shield being
welded to each end of the calandria. Each end shield is composed of lattice tubes (292),
one shell, and two tubesheets, namely the calandria tubesheet and the fuelling
tubesheet.
The calandria tubesheet is common to both the end shield and the calandria. It is
exposed to heavy water moderator on the calandria side, and to a flow of cooling light
water on the end shield side. The balance of the end shield consists of the fuelling
tubesheet (which faces the fuelling machine vault), the end shield shell, and the lattice
tubes. The lattice tubes are concentric to the pressure tubes and are joined to the
tubesheets.

(5)

Thimbles and guides

Tubular thimbles, which separate the calandria vault light water from the moderator
heavy water and cover gas, provide access for the reactivity control units into the
calandria. Absorber guides for the reactivity control units penetrate the calandria, passing
between the calandria tubes and locking into locators on the opposite wall of the
calandria shell.

7.

REACTIVITY MECHANISMS

The layout of the reactivity mechanisms deck and the horizontal reactivity control units are
shown in the diagram. Reactivity control units include the neutron flux measuring devices, the
zone control units and control absorber units that are used for regulating reactor power, and the
shutoff units for shutdown system 1, and a liquid gadolinium injection system for shutdown
system 2.
(1)

Control Absorber Units

Eight control absorbers are mounted vertically and adjust the flux level at times when
greater reactivity rate or depth is required than that provided by the zone control system.
They use boron carbide as the neutron absorbing material. The diagram shows the
locations of these units, as seen from the top of the reactor.
The absorber elements are normally motored down on command from the Reactor
Regulating System. They can also be dropped when a rapid reduction in reactivity is
required. The motor design allows insertion and withdrawal speeds to be varied within a
predetermined range to suit plant needs.

(2)

Zone Control Units

There are nine zone control units (ZCUs) with one absorber unit in each of the upper and
lower halves of the reactor. The reactor is divided into 18 zones, 9 each in the upper and
lower halves of the reactor. The units are arranged symmetrically in the reactor in three
rows of three, with the middle row located on the reactors axial centreline. An
independently controlled absorber element is assigned to each zone for local power
regulation. Control of local and bulk power is accomplished by adjusting the position of
each absorber element in its assigned zone under the control of the reactor regulating
system computer. Each zone control unit covers two zones and consists of two absorber
elements suspended by wire ropes, a vertically oriented guide shared by the two
absorber elements, and a drive mechanism to support and position the absorber
element.
The absorber elements are rectangular in cross-section. A connection is provided at the
top of each absorber element for the attachment of the multi-strand wire rope that it is
supported by.
Each absorber guide can accommodate two independently controlled absorber elements
in parallel guide ways. The bottom of each guide extends down into a thimble running off
the bottom of the calandria to provide a place for the lower absorber element to be
withdrawn to when not needed in the reactor.
The drive mechanism provides for independent control of each of the two absorber
elements it supports in a common housing. The wire ropes connecting it to the absorber
elements are wound onto a pair of sheaves inside the drive mechanism. Each sheave is
independently driven by an electric motor through a self-locking gear train, allowing the
absorber elements to be moved up and down on command.

(3)

SDS#1 Shutoff Units

There are 24 shutoff units in the ACR-700. Just like the control absorbers, they use
boron carbide as the neutron absorbing material. Because of the smaller core size, no
spring is required to accelerate the rods into the core, they are dropped under the
influence of gravity only.

(4)

SDS#2 Injection Nozzles

As in the case of CANDU 6, these units are part of shutdown system #2, and can quickly
terminate reactor operation. The physical dimensions are again different from CANDU 6,
due to the different calandria dimensions. Reactor shutdown is accomplished by injecting
a neutron absorbing liquid (poison) into the heavy water moderator between the
calandria tubes in the calandria.
The liquid injection shutdown system is comprised of six liquid injection shutdown units,
six pressure vessels containing a gadolinium nitrate solution, a helium supply tank, a
mixing tank, valves, and piping.

(5)

Vertical Flux Detector Units

Several vertical and horizontal in-core flux detector units are installed in the reactor. The
vertical flux detector units extend down from the reactivity mechanisms deck into the
reactor. The horizontal flux detector units extend through the reactor vault wall in the
liquid injection shutdown system equipment room into the reactor.
Platinum clad vertical flux detector elements, that are similar in function but different in
length from the ones in CANDU 6, provide flux data to the RRS to control the zone
control units in each of the eighteen zones. Additionally, a large number of vanadium flux
detectors on the vertical units provide inputs to the flux mapping routine. The vertical flux
detector units also have elements that provide inputs to SDS1. The horizontal platinum
flux detector units provide inputs to SDS2.

8.

REACTOR REGULATING SYSTEM

The Reactor Regulating System (RRS) of the ACR, as shown in the general block diagram, is
essentially the same as for CANDU 6, except for the change in zone control from liquid to solid
rods, and the corresponding elimination of Adjuster Rods. The following description is included
to encourage course participants to review the diagram (which shows some reactor regulating
features more clearly than earlier illustrations), and to review RRS in the ACR configuration.
(1)

Power measurement
The power measurement and calibration routine uses measurements from a variety of
sensors (self-powered in-core flux detectors, fission chambers, process instrumentation)
to arrive at calibrated estimates of bulk and zonal reactor power.

(2)

Demand power routine

The demand power routine computes the desired reactor power setpoint and compares it
with the measured bulk power to generate a bulk power error signal that is used to
operate the reactivity devices.

(3)

Reactivity control devices

The primary reactivity control devices are the 18 zone control absorber elements
(configured as nine units each containing two absorber elements). The zone control
absorber element insertions are varied in unison for bulk power control, or differentially
for tilt control.

(4)

Reactor power setpoint calculation

In the Turbine Leads mode of operation the reactor power setpoint is calculated by the
steam generator pressure control program. In the Reactor Leads mode of operation
the reactor power setpoint is set by the operator, or, in the case of abnormal plant
conditions requiring power reductions, is automatically calculated by the RRS program.

(5)

Stepback and Setback

In addition to controlling reactor power to a specified setpoint, the reactor regulating
system monitors a number of important plant variables, and reduces the reactor power
when any of these variables exceed specified limits. This power reduction may be fast
(stepback), or slow (setback), depending on the possible consequences of the variable
lying outside its normal operating range.

9.

HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEM

The key difference in the ACR heat transport system, relative to all previous CANDUs, is the
use of ordinary water, instead of heavy water. Not only does this reduce the capital cost of the
plant in direct savings of the cost of heavy water, but it leads to many simplifications, such as
eliminating the need for collection and upgrading of heat transport heavy water. There are
corresponding operation and maintenance savings. The headers, steam generators and pumps
are located above the reactor to provide thermosyphoning if power is lost to the heat transport
pumps, as in previous designs.
(1)

Single figure of eight main circuit

There are two pumps, one steam generator, an inlet header and an outlet header,
located at each end of the reactor. The bottom of each steam generator has two inlet
pipes that connect to the reactor outlet header. Each steam generator also has two
outlets that are connected to the suction line of two heat transport pumps. Each heat
transport pump has double discharge pipes that connect to the reactor inlet header.
Each inlet header supplies coolant flow to the inlets of the fuel channels located at each
end of the reactor via individual feeder pipes.
The coolant flow is in the figure-of-eight loop configuration used in the CANDU 6 plant,
with the heat transport pumps in series and the coolant making two core passes. The
equipment arrangement results in bi-directional coolant flow through the core. The
headers and feeders are arranged so that 50 percent of the fuel channels are served by
each inlet header and are uniformly distributed throughout the core. The headers, steam
generators and pumps are all located above the reactor.
The pressure in the reactor outlet headers is controlled by a pressurizer connected to the
reactor outlet header at one end of the reactor.
The two reactor outlet headers are interconnected to assure flow stability in the HTS.
The interconnect line is equipped with two restriction orifices to optimize the
effectiveness of the interconnect line.

(2)

Two steam generators

Two identical steam generators with integral preheaters transfer heat from the reactor
coolant on the steam generator primary side to raise the temperature of, and boil,
feedwater on the steam generator secondary side. The steam generator consists of an
inverted vertical U-tube bundle installed in a shell. Steam-separating equipment is
housed in the upper portion of the shell. A steam generator is shown in the diagram, and
can be seen to be similar in shape to the ones used in previous CANDUs, but having its
dimensions optimized for the ACR-700 system parameters.

(3)

Four main circuit pumps

The four heat transport pumps are vertical, single stage centrifugal pumps with single
suction and double discharge. A typical heat transport pump is shown in the diagram.
Each pump is driven by a vertical, totally enclosed, airto-water cooled squirrel cage
induction motor. The motor has built-in inertia to prolong pump rundown on loss of
power.

(4)

Two inlet and two outlet headers

There are two reactor outlet headers, one at each end of the reactor. Each of the reactor
outlet headers receives the flow from the outlet feeders on one reactor face and
conducts the flow to two steam generator inlet lines, which lead to a single steam
generator.
There are two reactor inlet headers, one at each end of the reactor. Each of the reactor
inlet headers receives the flow from two heat transport pumps through four discharge
lines and channels the flow to the inlet feeders on one reactor face. The ACR-700
reactors are designed for reactor inlet header operating temperature value of about
280C.

10.

MAIN STEAM HEADER AND VALVES

The main steam lines supply steam from the two steam generators in the reactor building to the
turbine through the steam balance header at a constant pressure. Also at the outlet nozzles of
each steam generator, venturi flow restrictors are installed to reduce the main steam line break
pressure inside the Reactor Building containment. The required steam generator level is
controlled by varying the feedwater flow to each steam generator, as in CANDU 6. Steam
generator pressure is also controlled in a manner similar to CANDU 6. Condenser steam
discharge valves and the atmospheric steam discharge valves, as well as main steam safety
valves are provided for pressure protection of the steam generator secondary side. Main steam
isolation valves are provided to limit blowdown to one steam generator in the event of a steam
line break to limit containment pressure and also to isolate the main steam supply to the turbine
in the event of steam generator tube leak, after reactor shutdown when the long term cooling
system is placed in service and the heat transport system is depressurized.
(1)

Steam Generator
Two identical steam generators with integral preheaters transfer heat from the reactor
coolant on the steam generator primary side to raise the temperature of, and boil,
feedwater on the steam generator secondary side. The steam generator consists of an
inverted vertical U-tube bundle installed in a shell. Steam-separating equipment is
housed in the upper portion of the shell. A steam generator is shown in the diagram.

(2)

Main Steam Header

Steam is produced in the two steam generators and fed into four separate steam mains,
which pass through the reactor building wall and are routed to the turbine building where
they connect to the main steam header.

(3)

Main Steam Supply Lines

One main steam isolation valve is installed on each steam line, downstream of the main
steam safety valves and upstream of the atmospheric steam discharge valve, to isolate
the steam generators for certain postulated scenarios involving main steam line breaks
and steam generator tube leaks.

(4)

Control Valves
Condenser steam discharge valves are also provided to discharge live steam to the
turbine condenser and discharge steam during severe transients, such as loss of line or
turbine trip, so as to avoid activating the main steam safety valves. Atmospheric steam
discharge valves are used to control steam generator pressure and to provide a heat
sink when the main condenser is either unavailable or inadequate.

(5)

Safety Valves
Main steam safety valves are provided in each steam main to protect the steam
generators from overpressure and to remove heat from the fuel during accident
conditions.

11.

STEAM GENERATOR FEEDWATER SYSTEMS

The feedwater system takes hot, pressurized feedwater from the feedwater train and
discharges the feedwater into the preheater section of the steam generators. As shown in the
diagram, the Feedwater system is similar to that of CANDU 6, the main difference being that
there are only two steam generators, and that the secondary side operates at higher steam
pressures and temperatures. Thermodynamic optimization of the feedheating system is done at
each site, taking into consideration the characteristics of the site and the condenser cooling
system.
(1)

Feedwater
The feedwater is demineralized and preheated light water. The feedwater piping carries
the feedwater from the deaerator through the steam generator feed pumps, high
pressure feedwater heaters, and the feedwater control valves, to the steam generators.

(2)

Feedwater mains
Two feedwater mains run from the turbine building into the reactor building. Each main
connects to one steam generator. Each feedwater main is equipped with a swing check
valve located on the steam generator platform. This valve prevents back flow of
feedwater out of the steam generator on a loss of feedwater supply.

(3)

Feedwater control valves

Two 110% feedwater control valves with isolating valves are provided in each feedwater
main. A smaller control valve is provided in parallel with the main feedwater control
valves and is used during low flow operation. Flow elements measure feedwater flow
rate to each steam generator. Flow measurement is required for gross power
determination and for steam generator level control.

(4)

Emergency feedwater
If normal feedwater to the steam generators is unavailable, the reserve water system
provides emergency water coolant to the steam generators for long term decay heat
removal. Supply line to each steam generator is provided for this purpose. A check
valve in each line prevents backflow and circulation between steam generators during
normal plant operation.

12.

ACR OVERALL UNIT CONTROL

Overall Unit Control (OUC) of the ACR, as shown in the diagram, is essentially the same as for
CANDU 6. The following description is included to encourage course participants to review the
diagram (which shows some overall unit control features more clearly than earlier illustrations),
and to review OUC in the ACR configuration.
(1)

Warmup operation
Warmup of the HTS is controlled by the steam generator pressure control program from
any temperature. The warmup rate is set by the operator. The cooldown proceeds in
the same way as warmup until the temperature is below 177C, at which stage the long
term cooling system can take over. During warmup, the reactor power is adjusted
according to steam generator pressure error, as in the Turbine Leads mode, but uses a
feed forward term based on the desired temperature rate instead of the turbine load.
Alternatively, the operator can place the setpoint in the Reactor Leads mode and
request a steady reactor power level known to give approximately the rate of warmup
desired.

(2)

Cooldown operation
Cooldown proceeds in much the same way, except that reactor power is not involved.
The reactor is shut down when cooldown is initiated. Cooldown would normally make
use of the condenser steam discharge valves. The discharge capacity of the valves is
approximately proportional to steam generator pressure and, as this pressure decreases
during cooldown, progressively larger valve openings are required to maintain a given
temperature rate. If the main condenser is unavailable, cooldown is possible via the
atmospheric steam discharge valves, at a rate limited by the capacity of these valves.

(3)

Log power operation

In the low log power ranges, the reactor power setpoint cannot be controlled from the
steam generator pressure, because even a very large relative change in the reactor
power will have little or no effect on steam generator pressure. In this range, reactor
power calculation by RRS is based upon the measurements of neutron flux by the fission
chambers. Steam generator pressure is controlled by the ASDVs and CSDVs.

(4)

Reactor Leads mode

In the Reactor Leads mode of operation where the plant as a base load power source,
reactor power is controlled to a setpoint supplied by the operator. The steam generator
pressure control program then manipulates the plant loads to keep steam drum pressure
constant.

(5)

Turbine Leads mode

In the Turbine Leads mode at-power operation of the unit, the generator load is
adjusted by suitably positioning the turbine load setpoint. The reactor power is raised or
lowered to maintain steam generator pressure at its setpoint, and therefore follows
generator load changes.
The turbine-generator controller changes the generator load in response to requests
from the local operator or from a remote load control centre, and thereafter maintains the
load at the desired setpoint except in cases of grid frequency upsets, when the action of
the turbine speed governor prevails. The nuclear steam supply system will follow such
governor initiated load changes through the action of the steam generator pressure
controller.

CANDU-9 COMPACT SIMULATOR

USER MANUAL

Lecture Notes
prepared by:
Dr. George Bereznai
Dean, Energy Management and
Nuclear Science, at the University of
Ontario Institute of Technology,
Canada
[email protected]

CONTENTS
1.

2.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 SIMULATOR STARTUP
1.2 SIMULATOR INITIALIZATION
1.3
LIST OF CANDU 9 COMPACT SIMULATOR DISPLAY SCREENS
1.4 COMPACT SIMULATOR DISPLAY COMMON FEATURES
SIMULATOR DISPLAY PAGES
2.1 PLANT OVERVIEW PAGE
2.2 SHUTDOWN RODS PAGE
2.3 REACTIVITY CONTROL PAGE
2.4
PHT MAIN CIRCUIT
2.5 PHT FEED AND BLEED
2.6
PHT INVENTORY CONTROL
2.7
PHT PRESSURE CONTROL
2.8 BLEED CONDENSER CONTROL
2.9 STEAM GENERATOR FEED PUMPS PAGE
2.10 STEAM GENERATOR LEVEL CONTROL PAGE
2.11 STEAM GENERATOR LEVEL TRENDS PAGE
2.12 STEAM GENERATOR LEVEL MANUAL.
2.13
EXTRACTION STEAM PAGE CONTROL
2.14 TURBINE GENERATOR PAGE
2.15 RRS / DPR PAGE
2.16 UPR PAGE
2.17 TREND

Simulator User Manual

1.

INTRODUCTION

The CANDU-9 Compact Simulator was originally developed to assist Atomic Energy
of Canada Limited (AECL) in the design of the plant display system. The
specification for the Simulator required that the software be capable of execution on
a Personal Computer (Pentium 100 or equivalent), to operate essentially in real time,
and to have a dynamic response with sufficient fidelity to provide realistic signals to
the plant display system. The Simulator also had to have a user-machine interface
that mimicked the actual control panel instrumentation, including the plant display
system, to a degree that permitted the development and operation of the simulator in
a stand-alone mode, i.e. in the absence of the plant display system equipment.
These features also made the Simulator suitable as an educational and training tool.
The minimum hardware configuration for the Simulator consists of an IBM
compatible Personal Computer, 16 Mbytes RAM with 256 external Cache, at least
0.5 Mbytes enhanced IDE hard drive, 2 Mbytes VRAM, hi-resolution video card
(capable of 1024x768), 15 inch or larger high resolution SVGA colour monitor,
keyboard and mouse. The operating system is Windows for Workgroups 3.11 or
Windows 95.
The requirement of having a single PC to execute the models and display the main
plant parameters in real time on a high resolution monitor implied that the models
had to be as simple as possible, while having realistic dynamic response. The
emphasis in developing the simulation models was on giving the desired level of
realism to the user. That meant being able to display those plant parameters which
are most critical to operating the unit, including the ones that characterize the main
process, control and protective systems. The current configuration of the Simulator is
able to respond to the operating conditions normally encountered in power plant
operations, as well as to many malfunctions conditions, as summarized in Table 1.
The simulation uses an on object oriented approach: basic models for each type of
device and process to be represented are developed in FORTRAN. These basic
models are a combination of first order differential equations, logical and algebraic
relations. The appropriate parameters and input-output relationships are assigned to
each model as demanded by a particular system application.
The interaction between the user and the Simulator is via a combination of monitor
displays, mouse and keyboard. Parameter monitoring and operator controls
implemented via the plant display system at the generating station are represented
in a virtually identical manner on the Simulator. Control panel instruments and
control devices, such as push-buttons and hand-switches, are shown as stylized
pictures, and are operated via special pop-up menus and dialog boxes in response
to user inputs.
This Operating Manual assumes that the user is familiar with the main characteristics
of thermal nuclear power plants, as well as understanding the unique features of the
CANadian Deuterium Uranium(CANDU) reactors.

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Table 1: Summary of Simulator Features.
SYSTEM

SIMULATION SCOPE

DISPLAY
PAGES

neutron flux levels over a

range of 0.001 to 110% full
power, 6 delayed neutron
groups
decay heat (3 groups)
all reactivity control devices
xenon and boron poison
reactor regulating system
reactor shutdown system
HEAT
two phase main circuit loop
TRANSPORT with four pumps, four steam
generators, four equivalent
reactor coolant channels
pressure and inventory
control (pressurizer, degasser
condenser, feed & bleed
control, pressure relief)
operating range is zero
power hot to full power

reactivity
control devices
shutdown rods
reactor
regulating
system

STEAM & boiler dynamics, including

FEEDWATER shrink and swell effects
steam supply to turbine and
reheater
turbine by-pass to condenser
steam relief to atmosphere
extraction steam to feed
heating
steam generator pressure
control
steam generator level control
boiler feed system

steam generator
feed pumps
steam generator
level control
steam generator
level trends
steam generator
pressure control
extraction steam

REACTOR

main circuit
pressure control
pressurizer
control
feed and bleed
control
inventory
control
degasser
condenser
control

TURBINE very simple turbine model

turbineGENERATOR mechanical power and
generator
generator output are
proportional to steam flow
speeder gear and governor
valve allow synchronized
and non-synchronized
operation
OVERALL fully dynamic interaction
overall unit
UNIT
between all simulated
unit power
systems
regulator
unit power regulator
unit annunciation
computer control of all major
system functions

page 3

OPERATOR
CONTROLS

MALFUNCTIONS

reactor power and

rate of change
(input to control
computer)
manual control of
reactivity devices
reactor trip
reactor setback
reactor stepback
circulating pumps
pressurizing pumps
pressurizer pressure
pressurizer level
degas cond.
pressure
degas cond. level
feed & bleed bias
isolation valves for:
pressurizer,
degasser cond., feed
and bleed
level controller
mode: computer or
manual
manual level control
gain & reset time
level control valve
selection
level control
isolation valve
opening
extraction steam
valves
feed pump
operation
turbine trip
turbine run-back
turbine run-up and
synchronization
atmospheric and
condenser steam
discharge valves

reactor setback and

stepback fail
one bank of control
rods drop into the
reactor

main circuit relief

valve fails open
pressurizer relief
valve fails open
pressurizer isolation
valve fails closed
feed valve fails
open
bleed valve fails
open
reactor header break
all level control
isolation valves fail
closed
one level control
valve fails open
one level control
valve fails closed
all feed pumps trip
all safety valves
open
steam header break
flow transmitter
fails
turbine spurious trip
turbine spurious
run-back

Simulator User Manual

1.1

SIMULATOR STARTUP

select program CANDU-9 for execution

click anywhere on CANDU-9 Compact Simulator screen

click OK to Load Full Power IC?

the Simulator will display the Plant Overview screen with all parameters initialized to
100% Full Power

at the bottom right hand corner click on Run to start the simulator

1.2

SIMULATOR INITIALIZATION
If at any time you need to return the Simulator to one of the stored Initialization
Points, do the following:

Freeze the Simulator

click on IC

click on Load IC

click on FP_100.IC for 100% full power initial state

click OK to Load C:\AECL_P2\FP_100.IC

click YES

click Return

Start the Simulator operating by selecting Run.

1.3

LIST OF CANDU 9 COMPACT SIMULATOR DISPLAY SCREENS

1. Plant Overview
2. Shutdown Rods
3. Reactivity Control
4. PHT Main Circuit
5. PHT Feed & Bleed
6. PHT lnventory Control
7. PHT Pressure Control
8. Bleed Condenser Control
9. Steam Generator Feed Pumps
10. Steam Generator Level Control Steam
11. Generator Level Trends
12. Steam Generator Level Manual Ctrl
13. Extraction Steam
14. Turbine Generator

15. RRS / DPR

16. UPR

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1.4

COMPACT SIMULATOR DISPLAY COMMON FEATURES

The CANDU 9 Compact Simulator is made up of 16 interactive display screens or
pages. All of these screens have the same information at the top and bottom of the
displays, as follows:

top of the screen contains 21 plant alarms and annunciations; these indicate
important status changes in plant parameters that require operator actions; each of
these alarms will be discussed as part of the system that is generating it and/or is
involved in the corrective action;

top right hand corner shows the simulator status:

the window under Labview (this is the proprietary software that generates the
screen displays) has a counter that is incrementing when Labview is running; if
Labview is frozen (i.e. the displays cannot be changed) the counter will not be
incrementing;
the window displaying CASSIM (this is the proprietary software that computes
the simulation responses) will be green and the counter under it will not be
incrementing when the simulator is frozen (i.e. the model programs are not
executing), and will turn red and the counter will increment when the simulator is
running;

to stop (freeze) Labview click once on the STOP sign at the top left hand corner; to
restart Labview click on the symbol at the top left hand corner;

to start the simulation click on Run at the bottom right hand corner; to Stop the

simulation click on Freeze at the bottom right hand corner;

the bottom of the screen shows the values of the following major plant parameters:
Reactor Neutron Power (%)
Reactor Thermal Power (%)
Generator Output (%)
Main Steam Header Pressure (kPa)
Steam Generator Level (m)
OUC Mode (Normal or Alternate)

the bottom left hand corner allows the initiation of two major plant events:
Reactor Trip
Turbine Trip

these correspond to hardwired push buttons in the actual control room;

the box above the Trip buttons shows the display currently selected (i.e. Plant

Overview); by clicking and holding on the arrow in this box the titles of the other

displays will be shown, and a new one can be selected by highlighting it;

the remaining buttons in the bottom right hand corner allow control of the simulation
one iteration at a time (Iterate); the selection of initialization points (IC); insertion of
malfunctions (Malf); and calling up the Help screen.

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2.

SIMULATOR DISPLAY PAGES

2.1

PLANT OVERVIEW PAGE

Shows a line diagram of the main plant systems and parameters. No inputs are associated
with this display. The systems and parameters displayed are as follows (starting at the
bottom left hand corner):

MODERATOR system is not simulated

REACTOR is a point kinetic model with six groups of delayed neutrons, the decay

heat model uses a three group approximation; reactivity calculations include

reactivity control and safety devices, Xenon, voiding in channels and power level

changes. The parameters displayed are:

Average Zone Level (% full)

Neutron Power (% full power)
Neutron Power Rate (%/ second)

Heat Transport main loop, pressure and inventory control systems are shown as a

single loop on the Plant Overview display, additional details will be shown on

subsequent displays. The parameters displayed are:

Reactor Outlet Header (ROH) and Reactor Inlet Header (RIH) average
Temperature (C) and Pressure (kPa)
Pressurizer Level (m) and Pressure (kPa); D2O Storage Tank level (m)

The four Steam Generators are individually modeled, but only the level

measurements are shown separately, for the flows, pressures and temperatures

average values are shown. The parameters displayed are:

Boiler 1, 2, 3, 4 Level (m)

Steam Flow (kg/sec)
Steam Pressure (kPa)
Steam Temperature (C)
Moisture Separator and Reheater (MSR) Drains Flow (kg/sec)
Status of control valves is indicated by their colour: green is closed, red is open;
the following valves are shown for the Steam System:

Main Steam Stop Valves (MSV) status only

Condenser Steam Discharge Valves (CSDV) status and % open

Atmospheric Steam Discharge Valves (ASDV) status and % open

Generator output (MW) is calculated from the steam flow to the turbine

Condenser and Condensate Extraction Pump (CEP) are not simulated

Simulation of the feedwater system is very much simplified; the parameters displayed
on the Plant Overview screen are:
Total Feedwater flow to the steam generators (kg/sec)
Average Feedwater temperature after High Pressure Heater (HPHX)
Status of Boiler Feed Pumps (BFP) is indicated as red if any pumps are ON or
green if all the pumps are OFF

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Six trend displays show the following parameters:

Reactor Neutron Power and Reactor Thermal Power (0-100%)

Turbine Power (0-100%)

Boiler Levels - actual and setpoint (m)

Main Steam Header Pressure (kPa)

Pressurizer and Reactor Outlet Header (average) Pressure (kPa)

Pressurizer Level - actual and setpoint (m)

Note that while the simulator is in the Run mode, all parameters are being
continually computed and all the displays are available for viewing and inputting
changes.

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2.2

SHUTDOWN RODS PAGE

The screen shows the status of SDS#1, as well as the reactivity contributions of
each device and physical phenomenon that is relevant to reactor operations.

The positions of each of the two SDS1 SHUTDOWN ROD banks are shown
relative to their normal (fully withdrawn) position.

REACTOR TRIP status is shown as NO (green) or YES (yellow), the trip can
be reset here (as well as on the RRS / DPR page); note that SDS1 RESET
must also be activated before RRS will begin withdrawing the Shutdown
Rods.

The REACTIVITY CHANGE of each device and parameter from the initial

100% full power steady state is shown, as well as the range of its potential

value.

Note that reactivity is a computed not a measured parameter, it can be

displayed on a simulator but is not directly available at an actual plant.
Note also that when the reactor is critical the Total reactivity must be zero.

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2.3

REACTIVITY CONTROL PAGE

This screen shows the Limit Control Diagram, and the status of the three reactivity
control devices that are under the control of RRS.

The Limit Control Diagram displays the Operating Point in terms of Power

Error and Average Liquid Zone level.

POWER ERROR = ACTUAL POWER - DEMANDED POWER

If power error is negative, more (positive) reactivity is needed, hence
liquid zone level will decrease and if this is insufficient, absorber rods and
adjuster rods will be withdrawn from the reactor.
If power error is positive, negative reactivity is needed, hence liquid zone
level will increase and if this is insufficient, absorber rods and adjuster
rods will be driven into the reactor.
The Power Error computation includes the difference between the
magnitudes and rates of change of the actual and demande powers, each
multiplied by a controller constant. The above simple fomula is written
only as a quick reminder of the meaning of the power error term.

The ABSORBERS are moved in two banks, and are normally outside the
core. They are moved by RRS if AUTO is selected, or can be moved manually
if their control is placed into the MANUAL mode. Note that reactor power
should not exceed 80%FP if either of the Control Absorbers is not fully out of
the core.

The ADJUSTERS are moved in eight banks, and are normally fully inserted
into the core. They are moved by RRS if AUTO is selected, or manually if they
are placed in MANUAL mode. Note that maximum reactor power should be
reduced by 5%FP for each Adjuster Rod bank that is not in the fully inserted
position.

The liquid zone system is simlified on this model of the Simulator, and
includes only one zone that represents all of the 14 liquid zones. The average
zone level, water outflow and inflow rates are displayed. When the inlet valve
is in the AUTO position, it is under the control of RRS. By selecting manual
control, the openingof the inlet vale and hence the zone level can be manually
controlled.

The speed of the Absorbers and Adjusters is displayed but cannot be

controlled from this page.

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2.4

PHT MAIN CIRCUIT

This screen shows a simplified layout of the main heat transport system: the 480
coolant channels are represented by only four channels, two per loop showing the
opposite directions of flow in the figure of eight configuration of each loop.
Starting from fuel channel number 1 at the reactor and following the direction of
coolant flow, the system components and parameters shown are:

average channel exit temperature (C)

ROH2 (note that ROH2 pressure and temperature are shown in the box below
the reactor)

SG2

P2 (selection allows START, STOP and RESET operations)

Pressure (kPa) and temperature (C) at the outlet of P2

RIH2 (note that RIH2 pressure and temperature are shown in the box below
the reactor)

fuel channel number 2

average channel exit temperature (C)

ROH1 (note that ROH1 pressure and temperature are shown in the box

above the reactor)

SG1

Feed flow into main loop (kg/sec)

P1 (selection allows START, STOP and RESET operations)

Pressure (kPa) and temperature (C) at the outlet of P1

RIH1 (note that RIH1 pressure and temperature are shown in the box above
the reactor)

flow returns to fuel channel number 1

The same equipment and parameters are shown in the lower loop, except that
instead of feed flow into this loop there is bleed flow out (kg/sec).

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2.5

PHT FEED AND BLEED

This screen shows the Heat Transport pressure control system, including the
pressurizer, bleed (or de-gasser) condenser, pressure relief, feed and bleed circuits
and D2O storage tank.

Starting with the storage tank at the bottom left hand corner, it level is
displayed in meters. The tank supplies the flow and suction pressure for the
Feed (or Pressuring) pumps P1 and P2: normally one pump is running, the
popup menu allows START, STOP and RESET operations.

The Flow (kg/sec) and Temperature (C) of the feed flow are displayed. Part
of the flow goes to the Bleed Condenser to provide spray cooling (via CV14,
kg/sec) and reflux cooling (via CV11, kg/sec), with the reflux flow being
returned to the feed line past the feed control valve CV12; the feed flow then
passes through the feed isolation valve MV18 before entering the main circuit
at the suction of the main circulating pump 1.

Proceeding in an anti-clockwise direction, the Pressure (kPa) and

Temperature (C) of ROH#1 are shown. Flow from the Outlet header is
normally to and from the Pressurizer via MV1, a negative flow (kg/sec)
indicating flow out of the pressurizer. In case of excessive heat transport
header pressure, relief valve CV20 opens and discharges flow (kg/sec) to the
Bleed Condenser. Pressurizer Pressure (kPa), Temperature(C) and Level
(m) are displayed.

Pressurizer pressure is maintained by heaters (in case the pressure falls) and
by steam discharge valves CV22 and CV23 if the pressure is too high.

Bleed Condenser pressure relief is provided via RV1. Parameters displayed

for the Bleed Condenser are: Pressure (kPa), Temperature(C) and Level (m).
Feed flow from main circuit pump 3 (header pressure in kPa) flows (kg/sec)
via Bleed Control valves CV5, CV6 and MV8. Bleed Condenser by-pass is via
MV7.

The outflow from the Bleed Condenser is via MV9, the Bleed Cooler and the
Bleed Condenser Level Control valve CV15 to the Purification Circuit. The
values of Temperature(C) and Flow (kg/sec) into the Purification System are
displayed.

Heat Transport pressure control in NORMAL mode is via the Pressurizer; via
the PHT MODE popup menu SOLID mode can be selected. PRESSURIZER
LEVEL SETPOINT and ROH PRESSURE SETPOINT are also shown.

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2.6

PHT INVENTORY CONTROL

The screen shows the parameters relevant to controlling the inventory in the main
heat transport loop. Either NORMAL or SOLID modes of operation may be selected.
Note that in NORMAL mode, inventory control is achieved by controlling Pressurizer
Level, while in SOLID mode inventory control is by means of maintaining main heat
transport pressure via the feed and bleed valves.

Pressurizer Level is normally under computer control, with the setpoint being
ramped as a function of reactor power and the expected shrink and swell
resulting from the corresponding temperature changes. Level control may be
transferred to MANUAL and the SETPOINT can then be controlled manually.

The amount of feed and bleed is controlled about a bias value that is set to
provide a steady flow of bleed to the Purification System. The amount of flow
may be adjusted by changing the value of the BIAS. The positions of feed and
bleed valves are normally under AUTO control, but may be changed to
MANUAL using the popup menus.

In SOLID mode the ROH PRESSURE (kPa) may be controlled manually via
the popup menu.

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2.7

PHT PRESSURE CONTROL

This screen is similar to the previous one in terms of the ability to select PHT
Pressure Control MODE and SOLID MODE ROH PRESSURE CONTROL. The
difference arise in the control of Pressurizer pressure.

The six HEATERS are normally in AUTO, with the variable Heater (#1)
modulating. The other five heaters are either ON or OFF, and under AUTO
control. Via the popup menus MANUAL operation can be selected, and each
heater may be selected to START, STOP or RESET.

STEAM BLEED CONTROL is via CV22 and CV23. These are normally in
AUTO mode, but may be placed on MANUAL and the valve opening manually
controlled via popup menus.

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2.8

BLEED CONDENSER CONTROL

The parameters required to control Bleed Condenser Pressure and Level are shown
on this screen.

PRESSURE CONTROL is normally achieved via altering the REFLUX flow,

and SPRAY flow only takes place if REFLUX flow is unable to maintain
pressure control. To achieve such a split mode of operation, the SETPOINT
for the Reflux valve, denoted as BLEED CONDENSER PRESSURE
SETPOINT (kPa) is set at a value lower than the BLEED CONDENSER
PRESSURE SETPOINT FOR SPRAY VALVE (kPa). Both valves are normally
on AUTO, but may be selected to MANUAL and the valve opening controlled
directly via popup menus.

LEVEL CONTROL is normally in the AUTO mode about the specified

SETPOINT. However if the BLEED TEMPERATURE AT COOLER EXIT
exceeds a preset value (68C), the control mode is switched to
TEMPERATURE CONTROL mode, which restricts the valve opening so as to
protect the ion exchanger resin.

The LEVEL CONTROL VALVE may be placed on MANUAL for direct control
of the valves position.

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2.9

STEAM GENERATOR FEED PUMPS PAGE

Screen shows the portion of the feedwater system that includes the Deaerator, the
boiler feed pumps, the high pressure heaters and associated valves, with the output
of the HP heaters going to the Steam Generator Level Control Valves. The following
parameters are displayed:

Deaerator Level (m)

Boiler Feedpump Suction Header Pressure (kPa)

Boiler Feed Pump inlet valves (MV63 to MV68), outlet valves (MV13 to MV18)
and associated popup menus allowing them to be opened or closed

Main Boiler Feed Pumps (P1 to P4) and Auxiliary Boiler Feed Pumps p1 and
p2 with associated popup menus for control selections

Recirculating flow control valves FCV153, 253, 353, 453, 553, 653; pressure
control valves PCV555, 565; and associated popup menus for
AUTO/MANUAL selection and controller parameter tuning

High Pressure Heaters HX5A and HX5B and popup menus to select either or
both heaters to be in-service

HP Heater isolation valves MV29 to MV32 and popup menus for open and

close control

Pressure at inlet and outlet of HP heaters (kPa)

Flow at inlet header to Steam Generator Level Control Valves (kg/sec)

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2.10

STEAM GENERATOR LEVEL CONTROL PAGE

Screen shows each of the four boilers and associated level control valves. The
following parameters are described (starting near the top of the screen) for Steam
Generator 1, the same applies to SG 2, 3 and 4.

Steam Generator Flow (kg/sec)

Steam Generator Level (m)

Reheater Flow (kg/sec)

Feedwater Flow (kg/sec)

Large Level Control Valve (LCV103) Status and Opening (%)

Large Level Control Isolation Motorized Valve (MV53) Status and

AUTO/MANUAL Controller Popup Menu

Large Level Control Valve (LCV101) Status and Opening (%)

Large Level Control Isolation Motorized Valve (MV45) Status and

AUTO/MANUAL Controller Popup Menu

Small Level Control Valve (LCV102) Status and Opening (%)

Small Level Control Isolation Motorized Valve (MV49) Status and

AUTO/MANUAL Controller Popup Menu

Steam Generator 1 Level Control (SG1 SGLC) Popup Menu

Steam Generator Level Control Setpoint (SGLC SP) Select Popup Menu
Total Steam Flow (kg/sec) and Total feedwater Flow (kg/sec) to all four Boilers is
shown at the bottom left hand corner.

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2.11

STEAM GENERATOR LEVEL TRENDS PAGE

Screen shows the steam generator level displays, including the actual level, the
alarm, control and trip points. These points are identified as follows:

TT - Turbine Trip

HA - High steam generator level Alarm

CP - Control (or set) Point

VT - Valve Transfer Point

LA - Low Steam generator level Alarm

SB - SetBack reactor

SDS1 - ShutDown System 1 trip

SDS2 - ShutDown System 2 trip

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2.12

STEAM GENERATOR LEVEL MANUAL CONTROL

This screen allows the manual control of the level in each of the four steam
generators. Since the actions are the same for any one steam generator, SG1
is the only one described here.
Under normal operating conditions all level control valves are under DCC

Control. At full power normally one large valve (LCV103 for SG1 at the

100%FP Initial Condition) is in control, the other large valve and the small

valve are closed.

While under DCC control the MAN O/P (Manual Output) station tracks the

DCC signal.

Transferring control from DCC to MANUAL allows direct control of the valves
position by the operator.
For the small valves, transfer from DCC to AUTO allows for tuning of the
controller, and valve control to be transferred from the DCC to either AUTO or
MANUAL control.

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2.13

EXTRACTION STEAM PAGE

Screen shows the extraction steam flows from the Main Steam system to the
Deaerator and the High Pressure Heaters in addition to the steam flow to the
Turbine. The following parameters are displayed:
Main Steam Header Pressure (MPa)
Steam Flow to the Turbine (kg/sec)
Steam flow to the Deaerator from the Main Steam Header (kg/sec)
Extraction Steam flow to the Deaerator (kg/sec)
Extraction Steam flow to the High Pressure Heaters (kg/sec)
Deaerator Level (m)
Deaerator Pressure (kPa)
Valve Status for MSV (Motorized or Emergency Stop Valve) and HPCV (High
Pressure Turbine Control or Governor Valve)
Valve status and popup menus to provide for manual control of motorized

valves MV1, 2 and 3

Valve status and popup menu for AUTO/MANUAL selection and controller

parameter tuning

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2.14

TURBINE GENERATOR PAGE

Shows the main parameters and controls associated with the Turbine and the
generator. The parameters displayed are:

Boiler 1, 2, 3, 4 Level (m)

status of Main Steam Safety Valves (MSSV)

status, opening and flow through the Atmospheric Steam Discharge Valves
(ASDV) and the Condenser Steam Discharge Valves (CSDV)

Steam Flow to the Turbine (kg/sec)

Governor Control Valve Position (% open)

Generator Output (MW)

Turbine/Generator Speed of Rotation (rpm)

Generator Breaker Trip Status

Turbine Trip Status

Turbine Control Status

All the trend displays have been covered elsewhere or are self explanatory
The following pop-up menus are provided:

TURBINE RUNBACK - sets Target (%) and Rate (%/sec) of runback when

Accept is selected

TURBINE TRIP STATUS - Trip or Reset

ASDV and CSDV AUTO/MANUAL Control - AUTO Select, following which the
Manual Position of the valve may be set

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2.15

RRS / DPR PAGE

This screen permits control of reactor power setpoint and its rate of change while under
Reactor Regulating System (RRS) control, i.e. in alternate mode. Several of the parameters
key to RRS operation are displayed on this page.

The status of reactor control is indicated by the four blocks marked MODE,

SETBACK, STEPBACK AND TRIP. They are normally green but will turn yellow

when in the abnormal state.

MODE will indicate whether the reactor is under NORMAL to ALTERNATE

control, this status can also be changed here.
SETBACK status is indicated by YES or NO; Setback is initiated automatically
under the prescribed conditions by RRS, but at times the operator needs to
initiate a manual Setback, which is done from this page on the Simulator: the
Target value (%) and Rate (%/sec) need to be input.
STEPBACK status is indicated by YES or NO; Stepback is initiated automatically
under the prescribed conditions by RRS, but at times the operator needs to
initiate a manual Stepback, which is done from this page on the Simulator: the
Target value (%) need to be input.
TRIP status is indicated by YES or NO; trip is initiated by the Shutdown
Systems, if the condition clears, it can be reset from here. Note however, that
the tripped SDS#1 must also be reset before RRS will pull out the shutdown
rods, this must be done on the Shutdown Rods Page

Key components of RRS and DPR control algorithm are also shown on this screen.
The ACTUAL SETPOINT is set equal to the NORMAL SETPOINT under UPR
control (normal mode), the upper and lower limits on this setpoint can be
specified here.
The ACTUAL SETPOINT is set equal to the ALTERNATE SETPOINT under
RRS control (alternate mode); the value of ALTERNATE SETPOINT is input on
this page.
Operation of HOLD POWER while in normal mode selects alternate mode and
sets DEMANDED POWER SETPOINT equal to the measured Neutron Power.
However, in alternate mode it does not respond as it should.
The computed values of DEMANDED POWER SETPOINT, DEMANDED RATE
SETPOINT and POWER ERROR are shown on this page, both on the block
diagram and on the trend plots.
The Absorbers, the Liquid Zones and the Adjusters can be placed on Manual, but
no manual operation of these devises is possible on this page.
Neutron Power, and Thermal are displayed as part of the block diagram, these
readings are the same as at the bottom of each page. However, PWR LOG
RATE can only be observed on this page.

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2.16

UPR PAGE
This screen permits control of station load setpoint and its rate of change
while under Unit Power Regulator (UPR) control, i.e. normal mode. Control
of the Main Steam Header Pressure is also through this screen, but this is not
usually changed under normal operating conditions.

OUC (overall Unit Control) MODE can be changed from NORMAL to

ALTERNATE.

TARGET LOAD - on selection Station Load (%) and Rate of Change (%/sec)
can be specified; change becomes effective when Accept is selected.
The OPERATOR INP TARGET is the desired setpoint inserted by the
operator; the CURRENT TARGET will be changed at a POWER RATE
specified by the operator.
Note that the RANGE is only an advisory comment, numbers outside the
indicated range of values may be input on the Simulator.

MAIN STEAM HEADER PRESSURE SETPOINT (MPa) - alters the setpoint,

which is rarely done during power operation. Caution must be exercised when
using this feature on the Simulator, since the requested change takes place in
a step fashion as soon as the change is made; changes should be made in
increments of 0.1 MPa.

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2.17

TREND

This screen shows the trend plots for eight simulated plant parameters. The list below gives
the parameter names that may be selected for plotting on any one of the eight trend
displays. The list can be displayed by pointing to the black triangle at the top right hand
corner of the selected plot, holding down the left mouse button and highlighting the desired
parameter.
Note that the vertical axis on each plot has its scale adjusted automatically to correspond to
the maximum and minimum values of the parameter during the time segment indicated by
the horizontal axis.
This trend feature should be used whenever parameters from different systems need to be
viewed on the one display, and none of the other pages has the required combination of
parameters.
Reactor Power (Normalized)
Total Delta mK (mK)
Xenon Load (mK)
Thermal Power Release In Nuclear Fuel
(Normalized)
RIH#1 Coolant Temp (Deg C)
RIH#2 Coolant Temp (Deg C)
RIH#3 Coolant Temp (Deg C)
RIH#4 Coolant Temp (Deg C)
ROH#I Coolant Temp (Deg C]
ROH#2 Coolant Temp (Deg C)
ROH#1 Pressure (kPa)
ROH#2 Pressure (kPa)
RIH#1 Pressure (kPa)
RIH#2 Pressure (kPa)
RIH#3 Pressure (kPa)
RIH#4 Pressure (kPa)
Measured Reactor Thermal Power
(Normalized)
Coolant Flow Rate to Quadrant 1 (kg/s)
Coolant Flow Rate to Quadrant 2 (kg/s)
Coolant Flow Rate to Quadrant 3 (kg/s)
Coolant Flow Rate to Quadrant 4 (kg/s)
Exit Quality in Channel #1 (Normalized)
Exit Quality in Channel #2 (Normalized)
Exit Quality in Channel #3 (Normalized)
Exit Quality in Channel #4 (Normalized)
Pressurizer Pressure (kPa)
Pressurizer Temperature (Deg C)
Pressurizer Level (m)
Pressurizer Level Set Point (m)
PHT Liquid Bleed Flow (kg/s)
PHT Total Liquid Feed Flow (kg/s)
PHT Reflux feed fIow (kg/s)

PHT Liquid Relief Flow (kg/s)

Bleed Condenser Spray Flow (kg/s)
Bleed Condenser Pressure (kPa)
Bleed Condenser Level (m)
Bleed Cooler Outlet Temp (Deg C)
Bleed Condenser Outlet Flow (kg/s)
Deaerator Pressure (kPa)
Deaerator Level (m)
Main Stm to Deaerator PCV Pos (Norm)
Ave Temp of Feedwater at HPHX Outlet (Deg C)
Feed water Flow to Boiler#1 (kg/s)
Feed water Flow to Boiler# 2(kg/s)
Feed water Flow to Boiler#3 (kg/s)
Feed water Flow to Boiler#4 (kg/s)
Boiler#1 Drum Level (m)
Boiler#2 Drum Level (m)
Boiler#3 Drum Level (m)
Boiler#4 Drum Level (m)
Boiler#1 Drum Level Set Point (m)
Boiler#2 Drum Level Set Point (m)
Boiler#3 Drum Level Set Point (m)
Boiler#4 Drum Level Set Point (m)
Main Steam Header Temp(Deg C)
Main Steam Header Pressure (kPa)
Pressure at MSV inlet (kPa)
Steam Flow through ASDV (kg/s)
Steam Flow through CSDV (kg/s)
Total Steam Flow through Relief Valves (kg/s)
Total Steam Flow from Boiler (kg/s)
Steam Flow to Turbine (kg/s)
Turbine Mechanical Power (Normalized)
Turbine Gross Electrical Power (Normalized)
Turbine Speed (RPM)

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CANDU-9 COMPACT SIMULATOR

EXERCISES

Lecture Notes
prepared by:
Dr. George Bereznai
Dean, Energy Management and
Nuclear Science, at the University of
Ontario Institute of Technology,
Canada
[email protected]

CONTENTS

1.

OVERALL UNIT CONTROL

1.1 POWER MANEUVER
1.2
RESPONSE TO POWER MANEUVER (NORMAL MODE)
1.3 TEMPERATURE PROFILE ACROSS A CANDU 9 UNIT

2.

REACTOR REGULATING SYSTEM OPERATION

2.1 POWER MANEUVER IN ALTERNATE MODE
2.2 RESPONSE OF RRS CONTROL ALGORITHM
2.3 REACTOR AND RRS RESPONSE TO POWER MANEUVER
2.4 POWER MANEUVER UNDER MANUAL CONTROL
2.5 MANUAL WITHDRAWAL OF ADJUSTER RODS

3.

REACTOR REGULATING SYSTEM MALFUNCTIONS AND TRIPS

3.1 FAIL OPEN LIQUID ZONE INLET VALVES
3.2
FAIL CLOSED LIQUID ZONE INLET VALVES
3.3 ONE BANK OF ABSORBER RODS DROP
3.4 SDS#1 REACTOR TRIP AND RECOVERY
3.5 SDS#1 REACTOR TRIP AND POISON-OUT
3.6 SDS#1 REACTOR TRIP AND POISON OVERRIDE

4.

HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEM EXERCISES

4.1 PHT LRV (CV20) FAILS OPEN
4.2 PHT STEAM BLEED VALVE (CV22) FAILS OPEN
4.3 PHT FEED VALVE (CV12) FAILS OPEN
4.4 PRZR SURGE VALVE (MV1) FAILS CLOSED
4.5 PHT BLEED VALVE (CV5) FAILS OPEN

5.

STEAM AND FEEDWATER SYSTEM EXERCISES

5.1 FW LCV101 FAILS OPEN
5.2 FW LCV101 FAILS CLOSED
5.3 STEAM GENERATOR #1 FW FT IRRATIONAL
5.4 STEAM GENERATOR PRESSURE CONTROL EXERCISE
5.5 REACTOR TRIP AND UNIT RECOVERY

6.

OVERALL UNIT EXERCISES

6.1 FAIL CLOSED ALL F/W LEVEL CONTROL MOTORIZED VALVES
6.2
ALL MAIN BFPs TRIP
6.3 TURBINE SPURIOUS TRIP
6.4 THROTTLE PT (PRESSURE TRANSMITTER) FAILS LOW
6.5 RIH#1 SMALL BREAK
6.6 MAIN STEAM HEADER BREAK

1. OVERALL UNIT CONTROL

1.1 POWER MANEUVER: 10% Power Reduction and Return to Full Power
(1) Initialize Simulator to 100% full power;
(2) verify that all parameters are consistent with full power operation;
(3) select the UPR page, and change the scale on the Reactor Pwr & Thermal Pwr and
Current Target Load & Turbine Pwr graphs to be between 80 and 110 percent, the
Main Steam Hdr Pressure & SP to 4500 and 5000 kPa, Boiler Level to 13 and 15
meters, and set Resolution to Max Out;
(4) reduce unit power in the normal mode, i.e.
using the UPR display
select TARGET LOAD (%) pop-up menu
in pop-up menu lower target to 90.00% at a Rate of 1.0 %/sec
Accept and Return
(5) observe the response of the displayed parameters until the transients in Reactor
Power and Steam Pressure are completed (approximately 4 minutes and full time
scale on the graph) without freezing the Simulator and/or stopping Labview, and
explain the main changes;
(6) continuing the above operation, raise UNIT POWER to 100% at a rate of
1.0%FP/sec.
ASSIGNMENT:
(a) What is the maximum value of Steam Generator Pressure during the above set of
maneuvers and at what stage of the transients does it occur?
(b) What is the minimum value of Steam Generator Pressure during the above set of
maneuvers and at what stage of the transients does it occur?
(c) Is the turbine leading the reactor or the reactor leading the turbine in the above
transients? Please explain on what parameter observations do you base your answer.

1.2 RESPONSE TO POWER MANEUVER (NORMAL MODE)

Initialize the Simulator to 100%FP, reduce power using UPR in 25% steps at 0.5%/sec
(trip the reactor for the 0% state) and record the following values:
Parameter

Unit 100% 75% 50% 25%

Reactor Power

ROH Pressure

MPa

ROH Temperature
RIH Pressure

Comments

C
MPa

RIH Temperature

Pressurizer Level

HT Pump Flow

Mg/s

Boiler Pressure

MPa

Boiler Temperature

Boiler Level

Steam Flow

kg/s

Feedwater Flow

kg/s

Turbine-Generator
Power

0%

ASSIGNMENT:
Under Comments please note the type of parameter change as a function of reactor
power 0% 100%FP: constant, linear increase or decrease, non-linear increase or
decrease.

1.3 TEMPERATURE PROFILE ACROSS A CANDU 9 UNIT AT FULL POWER

(1) Initialize the Simulator to 100% Full Power;
(2) record the missing values of the parameters in the table below.
Station Equipment

Pressure (kPa)

Temperature (C)

HP Turbine Exhaust

900

170

LP Turbine Inlet

900

230

35

700

100

Reactor Inlet Header

Reactor Outlet Header
Steam Generator

Condenser
LP Heater Outlet
Deaerator
Boiler Feedpump Inlet
HP Heater Outlet
Preheater Outlet

ASSIGNMENT:

Plot these parameters on the attached grid.

130

350

300

250
200
Temp
C
150

100

50

Pump
Suction
Header

PRIMARY SIDE
Reactor Reactor Pump
Inlet
Outlet Suction
Hdr
Hdr
Hdr

Steam
Gen

HP
Turb
Outlet

LP
Turb
Inlet

SECONDARY SIDE
ConLP
Dedenser
Heater
aerOutlet
ator

Boiler
HP
Feed
Heater
Pump
Outlet
Suction

Preheat
Outlet

2.

REACTOR REGULATING SYSTEM OPERATION

2.1 POWER MANEUVER IN ALTERNATE MODE

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

Initialize the Simulator to 100%FP, select ALTERNATE MODE, and record

parameter values in column (1);
reduce power using RRS to 50% at 0.5%/sec, observe parameter changes during
transient, freeze the Simulator as soon as Reactor Neutron Power reaches 50% and
record parameter values column (2);
unfreeze and let parameters stabilize, record parameter values column (3);
return reactor power to 100%FP at 0.5%/sec, freeze as soon as Reactor Neutron
Power reaches 100% and record parameter values column (4);
unfreeze and let parameters stabilize, record parameter values column (5).

Parameter
Reactor Neutron
Power
Reactor Thermal
Power
Average Zone
Level
Actual Setpoint

Unit
%
%
%
%

Demanded Power
%
Setpoint
Demanded Rate %/sec
Setpoint
Power Error
%
Boiler Pressure

MPa

Boiler
Temperature
Boiler Level

Steam Flow

kg/s

Feedwater Flow

kg/s

Governor valve
opening
TurbineGenerator Power

(1)
100%

(2)
50%

(3)
50%

(4)
(5)
100% 100%

Comments

ASSIGNMENT:
(a) Explain the changes in Average Zone Level between each operating state (column):

(1) (2)

(2) (3)

(3) (4)

(4) (5)

(b) In Column (2) Reactor Neutron Power is much lower than Turbine-Generator Power.
Where is the extra energy coming from?

2.2 RESPONSE OF RRS CONTROL ALGORITHM TO POWER MANEUVER

(1) Initialize the Simulator to 100%FP and from the Reactivity Control page note the
position of the operating point on the attached diagram (confirm the value of Average
Zone Level on the Plant Overview page);
(2) insert a power reduction request using RRS to 70%FP at 0.8%/sec and freeze the
simulator (remember that ALTERNATE MODE must be selected if power level
change is to be requested via RRS);
(3) go to the Reactivity Control page, unfreeze, and note the path of the operating point on
the attached diagram, until power error has stabilized at or near zero (about 3 - 4
minutes);
(4) confirm the value of average zone level on the Plant Overview page.

100
90
80
70

R2

AVE
60
ZONE
LEVEL 50
(%)

R1

40
30
20
10
0
-7.0 -6.0 -5.0 -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

POWER ERROR (%FP) = ACTUAL - DEMANDED

(error amplitude and rate)

ASSIGNMENT:
(a) Why does the operating point start out in Region R1, then go to Region R2?

(b) What is the final value of the average zone level?

final zone level higher than the original zone level?

Why is the

2.3 REACTOR AND RRS RESPONSE TO POWER MANEUVER

(1) Initialize the Simulator to 100%FP and from the Reactivity Control page note the
position of the operating point on the attached diagram;
(2) insert a power reduction request using RRS to 10%FP at 0.8%/sec and freeze the
simulator;
(3) go to the Reactivity Control page, unfreeze, and note the path of the operating point on
the attached diagram, until at least one Adjuster Rod bank is out of the reactor (about
20 minutes) - once the first Adjuster Bank is more than 50% withdrawn, place
Absorbers on Manual and drive them fully OUT.

100
90
80
70

AVE
60
ZONE
LEVEL 50
(%)
40
30
20
10
0
-7.0 -6.0 -5.0 -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

POWER ERROR (%FP) = ACTUAL - DEMANDED

(error amplitude and rate)
ASSIGNMENT:
(a) Compare the response to case 2.2 and explain the main differences, particularly the
end state.
(b) Explain what would happen to the reactor if the setpoint remained at 10%FP for
several hours.

2.4 POWER MANEUVER UNDER MANUAL CONTROL

(1) Initialize the Simulator to 100%FP and select ALTERNATE MODE. On the Reactivity
Control page place the controllers for LIQUID ZONE, ABSORBERS and ADJUSTERS
on MANUAL. Do not use liquid zone control during this exercise;
(2) using Absorber and Adjuster drives on Manual, maneuver reactor power so as to
reduce generator power to a level between 80+1%FP and Main Stm Header Pressur
between 4700+50 kPa (if the CSDVs open, place them on MANUAL and keep them
closed).
ASSIGNMENT:
(a) Note the time taken from the start of lowering reactor power until steady operation
within the specified error limits is achieved as compared with a power reduction rate of
0.5%FP/sec;
(b) note any difficulties in controlling the unit.

2.5 MANUAL WITHDRAWAL OF ADJUSTER RODS

(1) Initialize the Simulator to 100%FP and select ALTERNATE MODE. On the Reactivity
Control page place the controllers for LIQUID ZONE, ABSORBERS and ADJUSTERS
on MANUAL. Do not use liquid zone control during this exercise;
(2) manually withdraw the Adjuster rods.
ASSIGNMENT:

Describe and explain the response of the Reactor and related systems.

3. REACTOR REGULATING SYSTEM MALFUNCTIONS AND TRIPS

3.1 FAIL OPEN LIQUID ZONE INLET VALVES
(1) Initialize the Simulator to 100%FP, select ALTERNATE MODE and go to the Reactivity
Control page;
(2) place LIQUID ZONE controller on MANUAL and select Control Valve Position Manual
Output to 100%;
(3) record the following data:
Time (min)

0.5

10

Average Zone Level (%)

Reactor Neutron Power (%FP)
Reactor Power Error (%)
Generator Output (%FP)

ASSIGNMENT:
(a) What happens to Reactor Neutron Power and how the Reactor Regulating responds?
(b) Explain why reactor power oscillates after the initial transient is over?
(c) What should the operator do to stop the oscillations in reactor power?

3.2 FAIL CLOSED LIQUID ZONE INLET VALVES

(1) Initialize the Simulator to 100%FP, select ALTERNATE MODE, and go to the
Reactivity Control page;
(2) place LIQUID ZONE controller on MANUAL and select Control Valve Position Manual
Output to 0%;
(3) record the following data:
Time (sec)

10

20

30

40

50

60

120

Average Zone Level (%)

Reactor Neutron Power (%FP)
Reactor Power Error (%)
Generator Output (%FP)
ASSIGNMENT:
(a) Describe the responses of the Reactor and Reactor Regulating System.
(b) Explain the differences between Exercise 3-1 and 3-2, noting the difference in reactor
physics response.
(c) Why does the reactor trip?

3.3 ONE BANK OF ABSORBER RODS DROP

(1) Initialize the Simulator to 100%FP and from the Reactivity Control page note the
position of the operating point on the attached diagram;
(2) insert the Malfunction One Bank of Absorber Rods Drop (use a five second time
delay) and the note the time;
(3) observe system response on the Reactivity Control page and note the path of the
operating point on the attached diagram;
(4) note OUC mode and reactor power level;
(5) clear the malfunction;
(6) once the Absorbers have fully withdrawn from the reactor, raise reactor power to a
level dependent on the number of Absorber banks out of the reactor and note the time
when maximum reactor power level is reached;
(7) for each bank partially or fully out, reactor power is limited by 5% (i.e. one bank 95%FP, two banks - 90%FP, etc).
100
90
80
70

AVE
60
ZONE
LEVEL 50
(%)
40
30
20
10
0
-7.0 -6.0 -5.0 -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

POWER ERROR (%FP) = ACTUAL - DEMANDED

(error amplitude and rate)

ASSIGNMENT:
(a) Explain what happened to OUC MODE and Reactor Power after the malfunction was
inserted.
(b) What is the maximum power level that you could achieve?

______

(c) How many Adjuster Rods were out of the core?

______

(d) How long after the insertion of the Malfunction was maximum
reactor power achieved?

______

3.4 SDS#1 REACTOR TRIP AND RECOVERY

Check the time calibration factor of the Simulator on your computer, and compute the real
time response by multiplying all time measurements taken during this exercise by the time
calibration factor.
(1) Initialize the Simulator to 100%FP;
(2) manually trip the reactor;
(3) observe the response of the overall unit;
(4) wait until Generator power is zero and reactor neuron power less than 0.1%;
(5) reset Reactor Trip and SDS#1;
(6) record the time (using the display under the chart recorders) needed to withdraw all
shutdown rods, and compute the real time from the measured time;
(7) raise reactor power to 60%FP, using the following rates of power level setpoint
increases:
Actual Neutron Power
N < 0.5 %FP
0.5 < N < 5 %FP

Rate of Target Increase

0.01 %FP/sec

0.1 %FP/sec

5 < N < 20 %FP

0.2 %FP/sec

20 < N < 60 %FP

0.8 %FP/sec

(8) observe the response of the reactor regulating system and the reactivity changes that
take place.

ASSIGNMENT:
(a) what is the (real) time taken to withdraw all the adjuster rods from the reactor?
(b) what is the (real) time needed to raise reactor power to 60%FP after the shutdown
rods have been withdrawn?

3.5 SDS#1 REACTOR TRIP AND POISON-OUT

(1) Initialize the Simulator to 100%FP;
(2) manually trip the reactor;
(3) observe the response of the overall unit;
(4) record the value of Xenon reactivity every ten minutes following the reactor trip;
Time (min)

10

20

30

40

50

60

Xenon (mk)
(5) wait one hour (real time, i.e. measured time X TCF) before resetting Reactor Trip and
SDS#1;
(6) after the shutdown rods have been withdrawn observe the status of the reactivity
control devices;
(7) attempt to raise reactor power note response;
(8) note the reactivity changes that have taken place, in particular note the magnitude and
estimate the rate of change of Xenon reactivity build-up.
ASSIGNMENT:
(a) How many minutes after the reactor trip did the last Adjust Rod bank drive out?
(b) What was the rate of increase of Xenon reactivity at that time (mk/minute)?
(c) Why is it not possible to raise reactor power one hour after the reactor trip?

3.6 SDS#1 REACTOR TRIP AND POISON OVERRIDE

Before starting this exercise make sure that you do a time calibration of your simulator and
that all times calculated and measured are corrected by the appropriate time calibration
factor.
(1) Using the data from the previous two exercises, estimate the time available to the
operator from the initiation of the reactor trip until the trip must be reset to avoid a
poison outage: the desired end state of this exercise is reactor power at 60%FP and
less than one bank of adjuster rods left in the core (i.e. the last bank is partially
withdrawn);
(2) initialize the Simulator to 100%FP;
(3) manually trip the reactor;
(4) wait until the above calculated time has expired;
(5) reset Reactor Trip and SDS#1;
(6) raise reactor power to 60%FP;
(7) note the final state of the adjuster rods and Average Liquid Zone level.
ASSIGNMENT:
Note and explain any differences between Poison Override time you computed and the
result you obtained, i.e. record the time that elapses between tripping the reactor and
recovering reactor power to 60%FP, as well as the number of Adjuster Rod banks not fully
withdrawn from the core.

4.

HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEM EXERCISES

4.1 PHT LRV (CV20) FAILS OPEN

(1) Initialize the Simulator to the 100% full power state;
(2) record the initial parameter values;
(3) insert malfunction PHT LRV (CV20) FAILS OPEN;
(4) record the following parameters.
PARAMETER

START

2 min

5 min

10 min

End

Reactor Neutron Power

Heat Transport (ROH)
Pressure
Pressurizer Pressure
Pressurizer Level
Bleed Condenser
Pressure
Bleed Condenser Level
Feed Flow
Bleed Flow
Storage Tank Level

ASSIGNMENT:
(a) Why are all Pressurizer Heaters switched ON shortly after the start of the event?
(b) Why does Pressurizer Level fall?
(c) After Bleed Cdzr Pressure reaches about 8.5 MPa, why does it fluctuate?
(d) What will happen if this condition is allowed to continue for several hours?
(e) What should the unit operator do to ensure reactor safety?

4.2 PHT STEAM BLEED VALVE (CV22) FAILS OPEN

(1) Initialize the Simulator to the 100% full power state;
(2) record the initial parameter values;
(3) insert malfunction PHT STEAM BLEED VALVE (CV22) FAILS OPEN;
(4) record the following parameters.
PARAMETER

START

2 min

5 min

10 min

End

Reactor Neutron Power

Heat Transport (ROH)
Pressure
Pressurizer Pressure
Pressurizer Level
Bleed Condenser
Pressure
Bleed Condenser Level
Feed Flow
Bleed Flow
Storage Tank Level

ASSIGNMENT:
(a) Why is Pressurizer Level decreasing after the malfunction is inserted?
(b) Why is ROH Pressure decreasing?
(c) Why does the Reactor Trip?
(d) What corrective action should the unit operator perform to prevent the Reactor Trip?

4.3 PHT FEED VALVE (CV12) FAILS OPEN

(1) Initialize the Simulator to the 100% full power state;
(2) record the initial parameter values;
(3) insert malfunction PHT FEED VALVE (CV12) FAILS OPEN;
(4) record the following parameters.
PARAMETER

START

2 min

5 min

10 min

End

Reactor Neutron Power

Heat Transport (ROH)
Pressure
Pressurizer Pressure
Pressurizer Level
Bleed Condenser
Pressure
Bleed Condenser Level
Feed Flow
Bleed Flow
Storage Tank Level

ASSIGNMENT:
(a) What are the initial consequences of the increased Feed flow?
(b) Which control system responds to correct the excess Feed flow? What is the controller
action?
(c) What corrective action could the unit operator take?

4.4 PRZR SURGE VALVE (MV1) FAILS CLOSED

(1) Initialize the Simulator to the 100% full power state;
(2) record the initial parameter values;
(3) insert malfunction PRZR SURGE VALVE (MV1) FAILS CLOSED;
(4) in NORMAL OUC Mode lower generator output to 50% at a rate of 0.5%FP/sec;
(5) record and explain the changes in the following parameters.
PARAMETER

START

2 min

5 min

10 min

End

Reactor Neutron Power

Heat Transport (ROH)
Pressure
Pressurizer Pressure
Pressurizer Level
Bleed Condenser
Pressure
Bleed Condenser Level
Feed Flow
Bleed Flow
Storage Tank Level

ASSIGNMENT:
(a) What is the consequence of this malfunction if there is no change in reactor power
level?
(b) What is the consequence of this malfunction when the power level is changed?
(c) What corrective action should the unit operator take?

4.5 PHT BLEED VALVE (CV5) FAILS OPEN

(1) Initialize the Simulator to the 100% full power state;
(2) record the initial parameter values;
(3) insert malfunction PHT BLEED VALVE (CV5) FAILS OPEN;
(4) record and explain the changes in the following parameters.
PARAMETER

START

2 min

5 min

10 min

End

Reactor Neutron Power

Heat Transport (ROH)
Pressure
Pressurizer Pressure
Pressurizer Level
Bleed Condenser
Pressure
Bleed Condenser Level
Feed Flow
Bleed Flow
Storage Tank Level

ASSIGNMENT:
(a) What are the initial consequences of the increased Bleed flow?
(b) Which control system responds to correct the excess Bleed flow? What is the controller
action?
(c) What corrective action could the unit operator take?

5. STEAM AND FEEDWATER SYSTEM EXERCISES

5.1 FW LCV101 FAILS OPEN
(1) From a Simulator Initial state of 100% full power, insert the malfunction
FW LCV101 FAILS OPEN;
(2) observe unit response on Steam Generator Level Control and Steam Generator
Level Trend displays.
ASSIGNMENT:
(a) What are the main system responses?
(b) What would the Operator need to do to maintain power production?
(3) Repeat the above but view only the Plant Overview page until the alarm
Stm Gen Level Hi is received.
(4) Take the appropriate Operator actions to maintain power production.

5.2 FW LCV101 FAILS CLOSED

(1) Initialize the Simulator to 100 %FP;
(2) change Control Mode Select to OPERator and select 3-ELEment control for SG1 and
SG3;
(3) for SG1 change selection of LCV from #3 to #1;
(4) after feedwater and boiler level transients are over, insert malfunction
LCV101 FAILS CLOSED.

FW

ASSIGNMENT:
(a) Explain the responses of feedwater flow, steam flow and pressure, and boiler level on
all four steam generators.

(5) Initialization the Simulator to 100 %FP;

(6) change Control Mode Select to OPERator and select 1-ELEment control for SG1 and
SG3;
(7) for SG1 change selection of LCV from #3 to #1;
(8) after feedwater and boiler level transients are over, insert malfunction
LCV101 FAILS CLOSED.

FW

ASSIGNMENT:
(b) Explain the responses of feedwater flow, steam flow and pressure, and boiler level on
all four steam generators.
(c) Explain the main differences in response between (a) and (b).

5.3 STEAM GENERATOR #1 FW FT IRRATIONAL

(1) Initialize the Simulator to 100 %FP;
(2) insert malfunction STEAM GENERATOR #1 FW FT IRRATIONAL.
ASSIGNMENT:
(a) Explain the responses of feedwater flow, steam flow and pressure, and boiler level on
all four steam generators.
(b) What would be the correct operator action?

(3) Initialization the Simulator to 100 %FP;

(4) insert malfunction STEAM GENERATOR #1 FW FT IRRATIONAL;
(5) perform the correct operator action.
ASSIGNMENT:
(c) Explain the responses of feedwater flow, steam flow and pressure, and boiler level on
all four steam generators.
(d) Explain the main differences in response between (a) and (c).

5.4 STEAM GENERATOR PRESSURE CONTROL EXERCISE

Using Simulator pages Plant Overview, Turbine-Generator and UPR, design a procedure
to verify the following features of the Steam Generator Pressure Control program:
(1) the boiler pressure error at which the ASDVs open
(2) the boiler pressure error at which the CSDVs open
(3) the % reactor power to which the steam flow through 100% open ASDVs corresponds

final reactor power

final generator power

% reactor power through ASDVs

governor valve opening

ASSIGNMENT:

Describe your procedure and record the results.

5.5 REACTOR TRIP AND UNIT RECOVERY

(1) Initialize the Simulator to 100 %FP;
(2) manually Trip the Reactor;
(3) confirm Reactor Trip (neutron power decreasing rapidly, all shutdown rods in the core);
(4) once Neutron Power is below 0.01 %FP and Turbine speed is at 5 RPM, begin power
recovery operation;
(5) reset Reactor Trip;
(6) raise Reactor Power to 10 %FP, using the following rates of power level setpoint
increases:
Actual Neutron Power
N < 0.5 %FP
0.5 < N < 5 %FP
5 < N < 10 %FP

Rate of Target Increase

0.01 %FP/sec

0.1 %FP/sec

0.2 %FP/sec

(7) reset Turbine Trip, select TRU ENABLE, synchronize the generator and load to about
10 %FP;
(8) in ALTERNATE mode raise Reactor Power and Generator Power to a level determined
by the number of Adjuster Rod banks not fully in the core:
FINAL POWER = 100%FP - (5 x number of rod banks not fully in core)%
ASSIGNMENT:
(a) Record the reactor (%FP) and generator power level (%FP and MW) reached when
power recovery has been completed.
(b) Ensure that for the allowed reactor power the generator is producing the maximum
power.
(c) How many Adjuster Rod banks were not fully in the core when the maximum power
production recorded in (b) was achieved?

6.

OVERALL UNIT EXERCISES

Begin each of the following exercises from the Plant Overview page. Initialize the Simulator
to 100% FP. Before inserting the specific malfunction, change the plot parameter limits as
follows:
Reactor Power minimum value

80 %

Turbine Power minimum value

80 %

Main Steam Header Pressure lower limit

4000 kPa

Pressurizer and ROH Pressure lower limit

9000 kPa

Pressurizer level and Setpoint

6m

After inserting the malfunction (use a 5 second delay), note the main system responses,
and how you can identify each malfunction, or at least identify the system (and simulator
display) where the malfunction is most likely to be found.

6.1 FAIL CLOSED ALL FEEDWATER LEVEL CONTROL VALVE MOTORIZED VALVES
(1) Observe the main parameter changes that take place in the first minute, in particular
Reactor Neutron and Thermal Power, Presssurizer Level and Setpoint, Boiler Levels,
PRZR/ROH Pressure, Steam Generator Pressure, Feedwater Flow.
(2) Once Reactor Setback is initiated, freeze the simulator.
ASSIGNMENT:
(a) Describe the main parameter changes including the above, and write a brief
explanation for the parameter changes in terms of the process system responses and
the control system responses.
(3) Unfreeze (RUN) the simulator and clear the malfunction.
(4) Place each SG level control MV on Manual and OPEN.
ASSIGNMENT:
(b) In what sequence should the MVs be open? Why?
(5) Raise reactor power and generator output to 100% FP and return to Turbine-leadingReactor mode of unit control.
(6) Check that all equipment states and parameter values are consistent with 100% FP
condition.

6.2 ALL MAIN BFPs TRIP

ASSIGNMENT:
Describe the units response and explain the main differences between the responses to
this malfunction and the one in exercise 6.1.

6.3 TURBINE SPURIOUS TRIP

ASSIGNMENT:
(a) List the initial alarms after the malfunction had been inserted.
(b) Describe the state (main energy balance) of the unit.
- Reactor Power
- Heat Transport ROH Pressure
- Steam Generator Pressure
- Generator output
One minute after inserting the malfunction, freeze the simulator.
(c) Describe the response and effect of each of the main control programs:
- BPC
- UPR
- RRS
- TRU
- BLC
- PHTP&I
- PRZR Level
Run the simulator for 5 minutes and again observe the response and effect of each of the
main control programs.
(d) Briefly describe and explain the response and effect of each of the main control
programs. Note the value of key parameters after one and further five minutes.
(e) What operator actions are required?
Remove the malfunction and return the unit to maximum generator output permitted by the
reactor (i.e. 100 %FP - 5% for each Adjuster bank not fully in the core).
(f) What was the maximum power level reached above and how many Adjuster Rod
banks were not fully in the core?

6.4 THROTTLE PT (PRESSURE TRANSMITTER) FAILS LOW

ASSIGNMENT:
(a) List the initial alarms after the malfunction had been inserted.
(b) Describe the state (main energy balance) of the unit:
- Reactor Power
- Heat Transport ROH Pressure
- Steam Generator Pressure
- Generator output
(c) Observe and explain the response and effect of each of the main control programs:
- BPC
- UPR
- RRS
- TRU
- BLC
- PHTP&I
- PRZR Level
When Main Steam Header Pressure recovers to < 5000 kPa, Clear the malfunction.
Raise Reactor power to 60 %FP.

Reset turbine trip.

Load generator to 60 %FP.

(d) Explain what further steps and precautions you would take in raising unit output to
100%FP.

6.5 RIH#1 SMALL BREAK

(a) List the initial alarms after the malfunction had been inserted.
(b) Describe the state (main energy balance) of the unit.
- Reactor Power
- Heat Transport ROH Pressure
- Steam Generator Pressure
- Generator output
(c) Observe and explain the response and effect of each of the main control programs:
- BPC
- UPR
- RRS
- TRU
- BLC
- PHTP&I
- PRZR Level
(d) What specific Heat Transport System parameter(s) identify the loss of coolant from the
main circuit?
After the malfunction is identified (5 - 10 minutes) remove the malfunction and return the
unit to full power operations.
(e) Explain what precautions you would take in raising unit output to 100%FP.

6.6 MAIN STEAM HEADER BREAK

(a) List the initial alarms after the malfunction had been inserted.
(b) Describes the state (main energy balance) of the unit.
- Reactor Power
- Heat Transport ROH Pressure
- Steam Generator Pressure
- Generator output
(c) Observe and explain the response and effect of each of the main control programs:
- BPC
- UPR
- RRS
- TRU
- BLC
- PHTP&I
- PRZR Level
(d) What specific Steam System parameter(s) identify the loss of steam from the system?