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Lorentz force
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In physics, particularly electromagnetism, the Lorentz force is the combination of electric and magnetic force on a point charge due

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Electromagnetism

to electromagnetic fields. If a particle of charge q moves with velocity v in the presence of an electric field E and a magnetic field B,

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then it will experience a force. For any produced force there will be an opposite reactive force. In the case of the magnetic field, the
reactive force may be obscure, but it must be accounted for.

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(in SI units). Variations on this basic formula describe the magnetic force on a current-carrying wire (sometimes called Laplace
force), the electromotive force in a wire loop moving through a magnetic field (an aspect of Faraday's law of induction), and the

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force on a charged particle which might be traveling near the speed of light (relativistic form of the Lorentz force).

Electric fieldConductor

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The first derivation of the Lorentz force is commonly attributed to Oliver Heaviside in 1889,[1] although other historians suggest an

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earlier origin in an 1865 paper by James Clerk Maxwell.[2] Hendrik Lorentz derived it a few years after Heaviside.[citation needed]

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1.1 Charged particle

Magnetostatics

1.2 Continuous charge distribution

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2 History

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MagnetizationMagnetic flux

3 Trajectories of particles due to the Lorentz force

BiotSavartlaw

4 Significance of the Lorentz force

Magnetic dipole moment

5 Lorentz force law as the definition of E and B

Gauss's law for magnetism

6 Force on a current-carrying wire

Electrodynamics

7 EMF

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Lorentz force law

8 Lorentz force and Faraday's law of induction

Electromagnetic induction

9 Lorentz force in terms of potentials

Faraday's law

10 Lorentz force and analytical mechanics

Lenz's lawDisplacement current

11 Equation (cgs units)

Maxwell's equations

12 Relativistic form of the Lorentz force

Electromagnetic field

12.1 Covariant form of the Lorentz force

()

Coulomb's lawGauss's law

Electric flux / potential energy

Contents
1 Equation (SI units)

What links here

Electrostatic dischargeInduction

Electromagnetic radiation

12.1.1 Field tensor

Maxwell tensorPoynting vector

LinardWiechertpotential

12.1.2 Translation to vector notation

Jefimenko's equations

12.2 STA form of the Lorentz force

Eddy current

13 Applications

Catal

London equations

14 See also

etina

Electrical network

15 Footnotes

Dansk

Electric currentElectric potential

16 References

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VoltageResistance

17 External links

Eesti

Ohm's law

Series circuitParallel circuit

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Equation (SI units)

Esperanto

Direct currentAlternating current

[edit]

Electromotive forceCapacitance

See also: SI units

InductanceImpedance

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Resonant cavitiesWaveguides

Charged particle [edit]

Covariant formulation

Hrvatski

The force F acting on a particle of electric charge q with instantaneous velocity v, due to an external electric field E and magnetic

Bahasa Indonesia

field B, is given by:[3]

Electromagnetic tensor
(stressenergytensor)

slenska

Four-current

Italiano

Electromagnetic four-potential

Scientists

Basa Jawa

where is the vector cross product. All boldface quantities are vectors. More explicitly stated:

AmpreCoulombFaradayGauss
HeavisideHenryHertzLorentz
MaxwellTeslaVoltaWeber

Latina

rsted

Latvieu

in which r is the position vector of the charged particle, t is time, and the overdot is a time derivative.

Magyar

A positively charged particle will be accelerated in the same linear orientation as the E field, but will curve perpendicularly to both the

Nederlands

instantaneous velocity vector v and the B field according to the right-hand rule (in detail, if the thumb of the right hand points along

v t e

v and the index finger along B, then the middle finger points along F).

Norskbokml

B is called the magnetic force.[4] According to some definitions, the

Norsk nynorsk

The term qE is called the electric force, while the term qv

Piemontis

term "Lorentz force" refers specifically to the formula for the magnetic force,[5] with the total electromagnetic force (including the

Polski

electric force) given some other (nonstandard) name. This article will not follow this nomenclature: In what follows, the term "Lorentz

Portugus

force" will refer only to the expression for the total force.

Romn

The magnetic force component of the Lorentz force manifests itself as the force that acts on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic

Shqip

field. In that context, it is also called the Laplace force.

Simple English
Slovenina

Continuous charge distribution [edit]

Slovenina
/srpski

For a continuous charge distribution in motion, the Lorentz force equation becomes:

Srpskohrvatski /

Suomi

where dF is the force on a small piece of the charge distribution with charge dq. If both sides of this equation are divided by the

Svenska

volume of this small piece of the charge distribution dV, the result is:

Tagalog

/tatara

where f is the force density (force per unit volume) and is the charge density (charge per unit volume). Next, the current density

Trke

corresponding to the motion of the charge continuum is

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so the continuous analogue to the equation is[6]

Lorentz force F on a charged

particle (of charge q) in motion
(instantaneous velocity v). The E
field and B field vary in space and
time.

The total force is the volume integral over the charge distribution:

ByeliminatingandJ, using Maxwell's equations, and manipulating using the theorems of vector calculus, this form of the equation
can be used to derive the Maxwell stress tensor , in turn this can be combined with the Poynting vector S to obtain the
electromagneticstressenergytensor T used in general relativity.[6]
In terms of and S, another way to write the Lorentz force (per unit 3d volume) is[6]

Lorentz force (per unit 3-volume)

f on a continuous charge
distribution (charge density)in
motion. The 3-current density J
corresponds to the motion of the
charge element dq in volume
element dV and varies throughout
the continuum.

where c is the speed of lightanddenotesthedivergence of a tensor field. Rather than the amount of charge and its velocity in electric and magnetic fields, this
equation relates the energy flux (flow of energy per unit time per unit distance) in the fields to the force exerted on a charge distribution. See Covariant formulation of
classical electromagnetism for more details.

History

[edit]

Early attempts to quantitatively describe the electromagnetic force were made in the
mid-18th century. It was proposed that the force on magnetic poles, by Johann
Tobias Mayer and others in 1760[citation needed], and electrically charged objects, by
Henry Cavendish in 1762[citation needed], obeyed an inverse-square law. However, in
both cases the experimental proof was neither complete nor conclusive. It was not
until 1784 when Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, using a torsion balance, was able to
definitively show through experiment that this was true.[7] Soon after the discovery in
1820 by H.C.rsted that a magnetic needle is acted on by a voltaic current, AndrMarieAmpre that same year was able to devise through experimentation the
formula for the angular dependence of the force between two current elements.[8][9]

Beam of electrons moving in a circle, due to

the presence of a magnetic field. Purple light
is emitted along the electron path, due to the
electrons colliding with gas molecules in the
bulb. A Teltron tube is used in this example.

and magnetic fields.[10]

Trajectory of a particle with a positive or

negative charge q under the influence of a
magnetic field B, which is directed
perpendicularly out of the screen.

The modern concept of electric and magnetic fields first arose in the theories of

Charged particles experiencing the Lorentz force.

In all these descriptions, the force was always given in terms of the properties of the
objects involved and the distances between them rather than in terms of electric

Michael Faraday, particularly his idea of lines of force, later to be given full
mathematical description by Lord Kelvin and James Clerk Maxwell.[11] From a modern perspective it is possible to identify in Maxwell's 1865 formulation of his field
equations a form of the Lorentz force equation in relation to electric currents,[2] however, in the time of Maxwell it was not evident how his equations related to the forces
on moving charged objects. J. J. Thomson was the first to attempt to derive from Maxwell's field equations the electromagnetic forces on a moving charged object in terms
of the object's properties and external fields. Interested in determining the electromagnetic behavior of the charged particles in cathode rays, Thomson published a paper
in 1881 wherein he gave the force on the particles due to an external magnetic field as[1]

Thomson derived the correct basic form of the formula, but, because of some miscalculations and an incomplete description of the displacement current, included an
incorrect scale-factor of a half in front of the formula. It was Oliver Heaviside, who had invented the modern vector notation and applied them to Maxwell's field equations,
that in 1885 and 1889 fixed the mistakes of Thomson's derivation and arrived at the correct form of the magnetic force on a moving charged object.[1][12][13] Finally, in
1892, Hendrik Lorentz derived the modern form of the formula for the electromagnetic force which includes the contributions to the total force from both the electric and
the magnetic fields. Lorentz began by abandoning the Maxwellian descriptions of the ether and conduction. Instead, Lorentz made a distinction between matter and the
luminiferous aether and sought to apply the Maxwell equations at a microscopic scale. Using Heaviside's version of the Maxwell equations for a stationary ether and
applying Lagrangian mechanics (see below), Lorentz arrived at the correct and complete form of the force law that now bears his name.[14][15]

Trajectories of particles due to the Lorentz force

[edit]

Main article: Guiding center

In many cases of practical interest, the motion in a magnetic field of an electrically charged particle (such as an
electron or ion in a plasma) can be treated as the superposition of a relatively fast circular motion around a point
called the guiding center and a relatively slow drift of this point. The drift speeds may differ for various species
depending on their charge states, masses, or temperatures, possibly resulting in electric currents or chemical
separation.

Significance of the Lorentz force

[edit]

While the modern Maxwell's equations describe how electrically charged particles and currents or moving charged
particles give rise to electric and magnetic fields, the Lorentz force law completes that picture by describing the force
acting on a moving point charge q in the presence of electromagnetic fields.[3][16] The Lorentz force law describes the
effect of E and B upon a point charge, but such electromagnetic forces are not the entire picture. Charged particles
are possibly coupled to other forces, notably gravity and nuclear forces. Thus, Maxwell's equations do not stand
separate from other physical laws, but are coupled to them via the charge and current densities. The response of a
point charge to the Lorentz law is one aspect; the generation of E and B by currents and charges is another.
In real materials the Lorentz force is inadequate to describe the behavior of charged particles, both in principle and
as a matter of computation. The charged particles in a material medium both respond to the E and B fields and
generate these fields. Complex transport equations must be solved to determine the time and spatial response of
charges, for example, the Boltzmann equation or the FokkerPlanckequation or the NavierStokesequations. For
example, see magnetohydrodynamics, fluid dynamics, electrohydrodynamics, superconductivity, stellar evolution. An
entire physical apparatus for dealing with these matters has developed. See for example, GreenKuborelations and
Green's function (many-body theory).

Lorentz force law as the definition of E and B

[edit]

In many textbook treatments of classical electromagnetism, the Lorentz force Law is used as the definition of the
electric and magnetic fields E and B.[17][18][19] To be specific, the Lorentz force is understood to be the following

Charged particle drifts in a homogeneous

magnetic field. (A) No disturbing force (B) With an
electric field, E (C) With an independent force, F (e.g.
gravity) (D) In an inhomogeneous magnetic field, grad
H

empirical statement:
The electromagnetic force F on a test charge at a given point and time is a certain function of its charge q and velocity v, which can be parameterized by exactly two
vectors E and B, in the functional form:

This is valid; countless experiments have shown that it is, even for particles approaching the speed of light (that is, magnitude of v = |v| = c).[20] So the two vector fields E
and B are thereby defined throughout space and time, and these are called the "electric field" and "magnetic field". Note that the fields are defined everywhere in space
and time with respect to what force a test charge would receive regardless of whether a charge is present to experience the force.
Note also that as a definition of E and B, the Lorentz force is only a definition in principle because a real particle (as opposed to the hypothetical "test charge" of
infinitesimally-small mass and charge) would generate its own finite E and B fields, which would alter the electromagnetic force that it experiences. In addition, if the
charge experiences acceleration, as if forced into a curved trajectory by some external agency, it emits radiation that causes braking of its motion. See for example
Bremsstrahlung and synchrotron light. These effects occur through both a direct effect (called the radiation reaction force) and indirectly (by affecting the motion of
nearby charges and currents). Moreover, net force must include gravity, electroweak, and any other forces aside from electromagnetic force.

Force on a current-carrying wire

[edit]

When a wire carrying an electrical current is placed in a magnetic field, each of the moving charges, which comprise the
current, experiences the Lorentz force, and together they can create a macroscopic force on the wire (sometimes called the
Laplace force[citation needed]). By combining the Lorentz force law above with the definition of electrical current, the following
equation results, in the case of a straight, stationary wire:
\mathbf{F} = I \boldsymbol{\ell} \times \mathbf{B} \,\!
where is a vector whose magnitude is the length of wire, and whose direction is along the wire, aligned with the direction of
conventional current flow I.
If the wire is not straight but curved, the force on it can be computed by applying this formula to each infinitesimal segment of

Right-hand rule for a current-carrying wire

in a magnetic field B

wire d, then adding up all these forces by integration. Formally, the net force on a stationary, rigid wire carrying a steady
current I is
\mathbf{F} = I\int \mathrm{d}\boldsymbol{\ell}\times \mathbf{B}
This is the net force. In addition, there will usually be torque, plus other effects if the wire is not perfectly rigid.
One application of this is Ampre'sforcelaw, which describes how two current-carrying wires can attract or repel each other, since each experiences a Lorentz force from
the other's magnetic field. For more information, see the article: Ampre'sforcelaw.

EMF

[edit]

The magnetic force (q v

B) component of the Lorentz force is responsible for motional electromotive force (or motional EMF), the phenomenon underlying many

electrical generators. When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, the magnetic force tries to push electrons through the wire, and this creates the EMF. The
term "motional EMF" is applied to this phenomenon, since the EMF is due to the motion of the wire.
In other electrical generators, the magnets move, while the conductors do not. In this case, the EMF is due to the electric force (qE) term in the Lorentz Force equation.
The electric field in question is created by the changing magnetic field, resulting in an induced EMF, as described by the MaxwellFaradayequation (one of the four
modern Maxwell's equations).[21]
Both of these EMF's, despite their different origins, can be described by the same equation, namely, the EMF is the rate of change of magnetic flux through the wire.
(This is Faraday's law of induction, see above.) Einstein's special theory of relativity was partially motivated by the desire to better understand this link between the two
effects.[21] In fact, the electric and magnetic fields are different faces of the same electromagnetic field, and in moving from one inertial frame to another, the solenoidal
vector field portion of the E-field can change in whole or in part to a B-field or vice versa.[22]

Lorentz force and Faraday's law of induction

[edit]

Main article: Faraday's law of induction

Given a loop of wire in a magnetic field, Faraday's law of induction states the induced electromotive force (EMF) in the wire is:
\mathcal{E} = -\frac{\mathrm{d}\Phi_B}{\mathrm{d}t}
where
\Phi_B = \iint_{\Sigma(t)} \mathrm{d} \mathbf{A} \cdot \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}, t)
is the magnetic flux through the loop, B is the magnetic field,(t)isasurfaceboundedbytheclosedcontour(t), at all at time t, dA is an infinitesimal vector area
elementof(t) (magnitude is the area of an infinitesimal patch of surface, direction is orthogonal to that surface patch).
The sign of the EMF is determined by Lenz's law. Note that this is valid for not only a stationarywirebutalsoforamoving wire.
From Faraday's law of induction (that is valid for a moving wire, for instance in a motor) and the Maxwell Equations, the Lorentz Force can be deduced. The reverse is
also true, the Lorentz force and the Maxwell Equations can be used to derive the Faraday Law.
Let(t) be the moving wire, moving together without rotation and with constant velocity vand(t) be the internal surface of the wire. The EMF around the closed path
(t) is given by:[23]
\mathcal{E} =\oint_{\part \Sigma (t)} \mathrm{d} \boldsymbol{\ell} \cdot \mathbf{F} / q
where
\mathbf{E} = \mathbf{F} / q
is the electric field and d is an infinitesimalvectorelementofthecontour(t).
NB: Both d and dA have a sign ambiguity; to get the correct sign, the right-hand rule is used, as explained in the article Kelvin-Stokes theorem.
The above result can be compared with the version of Faraday's law of induction that appears in the modern Maxwell's equations, called here the Maxwell-Faraday
equation:
\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = -\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t} \ .
The Maxwell-Faraday equation also can be written in an integral form using the Kelvin-Stokes theorem:.[24]
So we have, the Maxwell Faraday equation:

and the Faraday Law,

The two are equivalent if the wire is not moving. Using the Leibniz integral rule and that div B = 0, results in,

and using the Maxwell Faraday equation,

since this is valid for any wire position it implies that,

\mathbf{F}= q\,\mathbf{E}(\mathbf{r},\ t) + q\,\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r},\ t).

Faraday's law of induction holds whether the loop of wire is rigid and stationary, or in motion or in process of deformation, and it holds whether the magnetic field is
constant in time or changing. However, there are cases where Faraday's law is either inadequate or difficult to use, and application of the underlying Lorentz force law is
necessary. See inapplicability of Faraday's law.
Ifthemagneticfieldisfixedintimeandtheconductingloopmovesthroughthefield,themagneticfluxB linking the loop can change in several ways. For example, if the
B-field varies with position, and the loop moves to a location with different B-field,B will change. Alternatively, if the loop changes orientation with respect to the B-field,
the BdA differential element will change because of the different angle between B and dA,alsochangingB. As a third example, if a portion of the circuit is swept
through a uniform, time-independent B-field, and another portion of the circuit is held stationary, the flux linking the entire closed circuit can change due to the shift in
relativepositionofthecircuit'scomponentpartswithtime(surface(t) time-dependent). In all three cases, Faraday's law of induction then predicts the EMF generated
bythechangeinB.
Note that the Maxwell Faraday's equation implies that the Electric Field E is non conservative when the Magnetic Field B varies in time, and is not expressible as the
gradient of a scalar field, and not subject to the gradient theorem since its rotational is not zero. See also.[23][25]

Lorentz force in terms of potentials

[edit]

See also: Mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field, Maxwell's equations and Helmholtz decomposition
The E and B fields can be replaced by the magnetic vector potential A and (scalar) electrostatic potential by
\mathbf{E} = - \nabla \phi - \frac { \partial \mathbf{A} } { \partial t }
\mathbf{B} = \nabla \times \mathbf{A}
whereisthegradient,isthedivergence, is the curl.
The force becomes
\mathbf{F} = q\left[-\nabla \phi- \frac{\partial \mathbf{A}}{\partial t}+\mathbf{v}\times(\nabla\times\mathbf{A})\right]
and using an identity for the triple product simplifies to

\mathbf{F} = q\left[-\nabla \phi- \frac{\partial \mathbf{A}}{\partial t}+ \nabla(\mathbf{v}\cdot\mathbf{A})-(\mathbf{v}\cdot\nabla)\mathbf{A} \right]

using the chain rule, the total derivative of A is:
\frac{\mathrm{d}\mathbf{A}}{\mathrm{d}t} = \frac{\partial\mathbf{A}}{\partial t}+(\mathbf{v}\cdot\nabla)\mathbf{A}
so the above expression can be rewritten as;
\mathbf{F} = q\left[-\nabla (\phi-\mathbf{v}\cdot\mathbf{A})- \frac{d\mathbf{A}}{\mathrm{d}t}\right]
whichcantaketheconvenientEulerLagrangeform

Lorentz force and analytical mechanics

[edit]

See also: Momentum

The Lagrangian for a charged particle of mass m and charge q in an electromagnetic field equivalently describes the dynamics of the particle in terms of its energy,
rather than the force exerted on it. The classical expression is given by:[26]
L=\frac{m}{2}\mathbf{\dot{r}}\cdot\mathbf{\dot{r}}+q\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{\dot{r}}-q\phi
where A and are the potential fields as above. Using Lagrange's equations, the equation for the Lorentz force can be obtained.
Derivation of Lorentz force from classical Lagrangian (SI units)
For an A field, a particle moving with velocity v = has potential momentum q\mathbf{A}(\mathbf{r},t) , so its potential energy is q\mathbf{A}(\mathbf{r},t)\cdot\mathbf{\dot{r}} . For a
field, the particle's potential energy is q\phi(\mathbf{r},t) .
The total potential energy is then:
V=q\phi-q\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{\dot{r}}
and the kinetic energy is:
T=\frac{m}{2}\mathbf{\dot{r}}\cdot\mathbf{\dot{r}}
hence the Lagrangian:
L=T-V=\frac{m}{2}\mathbf{\dot{r}}\cdot\mathbf{\dot{r}}+q\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{\dot{r}}-q\phi
L=\frac{m}{2}(\dot{x}^2+\dot{y}^2+\dot{z}^2) + q(\dot{x}A_x+\dot{y}A_y+\dot{z}A_z) - q\phi
Lagrange's equations are
\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}t}\frac{\partial L}{\partial \dot{x}}=\frac{\partial L}{\partial x}
(same for y and z). So calculating the partial derivatives:

equating and simplifying:

and similarly for the y and z directions. Hence the force equation is:
\mathbf{F}= q(\mathbf{E} + \mathbf{\dot{r}}\times\mathbf{B})

The potential energy depends on the velocity of the particle, so the force is velocity dependent, so it is not conservative.

The relativistic Lagrangian is

L = -mc^2\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{\dot{\mathbf{r}}}{c}\right)^2} + e \mathbf{A}(\mathbf{r})\cdot\dot{\mathbf{r}} - e \phi(\mathbf{r}) \,\!
The action is the relativistic arclength of the path of the particle in space time, minus the potential energy contribution, plus an extra contribution which quantum
mechanically is an extra phase a charged particle gets when it is moving along a vector potential.
Derivation of Lorentz force from relativistic Lagrangian (SI units)
The equations of motion derived by extremizing the action (see matrix calculus for the notation):

\mathbf{P} -e\mathbf{A} = \frac{m\dot{\mathbf{r}}}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{\dot{\mathbf{r}}}{c}\right)^2}}\,

are the same as Hamilton's equations of motion:
\frac{\mathrm{d}\mathbf{r}}{\mathrm{d}t} = \frac{\partial}{\partial \mathbf{p}}\left ( \sqrt{(\mathbf{P}-e\mathbf{A})^2 +(mc^2)^2} + e\phi \right ) \,\!
\frac{\mathrm{d}\mathbf{p}}{\mathrm{d}t} = -{\partial \over \partial \mathbf{r}}\left ( \sqrt{(\mathbf{P}-e\mathbf{A})^2 + (mc^2)^2} + e\phi \right ) \,\!
both are equivalent to the noncanonical form:
\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}t}\left ( {m\dot{\mathbf{r}} \over \sqrt{1-\left(\frac{\dot{\mathbf{r}}}{c}\right)^2}} \right ) = e\left ( \mathbf{E} + \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B} \right ) . \,\!
This formula is the Lorentz force, representing the rate at which the EM field adds relativistic momentum to the particle.

Equation (cgs units)

[edit]

See also: cgs units

The above-mentioned formulae use SI units which are the most common among experimentalists, technicians, and engineers. In cgs-Gaussian units, which are somewhat
more common among theoretical physicists, one has instead
\mathbf{F} = q_\mathrm{cgs} \left(\mathbf{E}_\mathrm{cgs} + \frac{\mathbf{v}}{c} \times \mathbf{B}_\mathrm{cgs}\right).
where c is the speed of light. Although this equation looks slightly different, it is completely equivalent, since one has the following relations:

where0 is the vacuum permittivityand0 the vacuum permeability. In practice, the subscripts "cgs" and "SI" are always omitted, and the unit system has to be assessed
from context.

Relativistic form of the Lorentz force

[edit]

Covariant form of the Lorentz force [edit]

Field tensor [edit]
Main articles: Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism and Mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field
Using the metric signature (-1,1,1,1), The Lorentz force for a charge q can be written in covariant form:
\frac{\mathrm{d} p^\alpha}{\mathrm{d} \tau} = q U_\beta F^{\alpha \beta}
where p is the four-momentum, defined as:
p^\alpha = \left(p_0, p_1, p_2, p_3 \right) = \left(\gamma m c, p_x, p_y, p_z \right) \, ,
\scriptstyle \tau the proper time of the particle, F the contravariant electromagnetic tensor
F^{\alpha \beta} = \begin{pmatrix} 0 & E_x/c & E_y/c & E_z/c \\ -E_x/c & 0 & B_z & -B_y \\ -E_y/c & -B_z & 0 & B_x \\ -E_z/c & B_y & -B_x & 0 \end{pmatrix}
and U is the covariant 4-velocity of the particle, defined as:
U_\beta = \left(U_0, U_1, U_2, U_3 \right) = \gamma \left(-c, u_x, u_y, u_z \right) \, ,
where \scriptstyle \gamma is the Lorentz factor defined above.
The fields are transformed to a frame moving with constant relative velocity by:
F'^{\mu \nu} = {\Lambda^{\mu}}_{\alpha} {\Lambda^{\nu}}_{\beta} F^{\alpha \beta} \, ,
where is the Lorentz transformation tensor.
Translation to vector notation [edit]
The=1component(x-component) of the force is
\frac{\mathrm{d} p^1}{\mathrm{d} \tau} = q U_\beta F^{1 \beta} = q\left(U_0 F^{10} + U_1 F^{11} + U_2 F^{12} + U_3 F^{13} \right) .\,
Substituting the components of the covariant electromagnetic tensor F yields
\frac{\mathrm{d} p^1}{\mathrm{d} \tau} = q \left[U_0 \left(\frac{-E_x}{c} \right) + U_2 (B_z) + U_3 (-B_y) \right]. \,
Using the components of covariant four-velocity yields

Thecalculationfor=2,3(forcecomponentsinthey and z directions) yields similar results, so collecting the 3 equations into one:
\frac{\mathrm{d} \mathbf{p} }{\mathrm{d} \tau} = q \gamma\left( \mathbf{E} + \mathbf{u} \times \mathbf{B} \right) \, ,
which is the Lorentz force.
Using the definition of the Lorentz factor and the chain rule, we arrive at:
\frac{\mathrm{d} \mathbf{p} }{\mathrm{d} t} = q \left( \mathbf{E} + \mathbf{u} \times \mathbf{B} \right)\, .
This is precisely the Lorentz force law in the non-relativistic case; however, now \vec{p} is relativistic, being equal to \vec{p}=\gamma m_0 \vec{u} .

STA form of the Lorentz force [edit]

The electric and magnetic fields are dependent on the velocity of an observer, so the relativistic form of the Lorentz force law can best be exhibited starting from a
coordinate-independent expression for the electromagnetic and magnetic fields,[27] \mathcal{F} , and an arbitrary time-direction, \gamma_0 , where
\mathbf{E} = (\mathcal{F}\cdot\gamma_0)\gamma_0
and
i\mathbf{B} = (\mathcal{F}\wedge\gamma_0)\gamma_0

\mathcal F is a space-time bivector (an oriented plane segment, just like a vector is an oriented line segment), which has six degrees of freedom corresponding to boosts
(rotations in space-time planes) and rotations (rotations in space-space planes). The dot product with the vector \gamma_0 pulls a vector (in the space algebra) from the
translational part, while the wedge-product creates a trivector (in the space algebra) who is dual to a vector which is the usual magnetic field vector. The relativistic
velocity is given by the (time-like) changes in a time-position vector v=\dot x , where
v^2 = 1,
(which shows our choice for the metric) and the velocity is

The proper (invariant is an inadequate term because no transformation has been defined) form of the Lorentz force law is simply

Note that the order is important because between a bivector and a vector the dot product is anti-symmetric. Upon a space time split like one can obtain the velocity, and
fields as above yielding the usual expression.

Applications

[edit]

The Lorentz force occurs in many devices, including:

Cyclotrons and other circular path particle accelerators
Mass spectrometers
Velocity Filters
Magnetrons
Lorentz force velocimetry
In its manifestation as the Laplace force on an electric current in a conductor, this force occurs in many devices including:
Electric motors

Magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters

Railguns

Electrical generators

Linear motors

Homopolar generators

Loudspeakers

Linear alternators

See also

[edit]

Hall effect

Moving magnet and conductor problem

Scalar potential

Electromagnetism

AbrahamLorentzforce

Helmholtz decomposition

Gravitomagnetism

Larmor formula

Guiding center

Ampre'sforcelaw

Cyclotron radiation

Field line

Hendrik Lorentz

Magnetic potential

Maxwell's equations

Magnetoresistance

Formulation of Maxwell's equations in special

relativity

Footnotes
1. ^ a

bc

2. ^ a

Oliver Heaviside By Paul J. Nahin, p120

Huray, Paul G. (2009). Maxwell's Equations . Wiley-

IEEE. p. 22. ISBN 0-470-54276-4.

3. ^ a

See Jackson page 2. The book lists the four modern

Maxwell's equations, and then states, "Also essential for

consideration of charged particle motion is the Lorentz force
equation, F = q ( E+ v B ), which gives the force acting on a
point charge q in the presence of electromagnetic fields."
4. ^ See Griffiths page 204.
5. ^ For example, see the website of the "Lorentz Institute": \
[1]
6. ^ a

, or Griffiths.
bc

Wikimedia Commons has

media related to Lorentz
force.

[edit]

Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to

electrodynamics. reprint. with corr. (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle

River, New Jersey [u.a.]: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-805326-

15. ^ Whittaker, E. T. (1910). A History of the Theories of Aether

and Electricity: From the Age of Descartes to the Close of the
Nineteenth Century .Longmans,GreenandCo.pp.420
423. ISBN 1-143-01208-9.
16. ^ See Griffiths page 326, which states that Maxwell's
equations, "together with the [Lorentz] force law...summarize
the entire theoretical content of classical electrodynamics".
17. ^ See, for example, Jackson p777-8.
18. ^ J.A. Wheeler, C. Misner, K.S. Thorne (1973). Gravitation.
W.H.Freeman&Co.pp.7273.ISBN 0-7167-0344-0.. These
authors use the Lorentz force in tensor form as definer of the
electromagnetic tensor F, in turn the fields E and B.
19. ^ I.S. Grant, W.R. Phillips, Manchester Physics (2008).
Electromagnetism (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 122.
ISBN 978-0-471-92712-9.

0.
7. ^ Meyer, Herbert W. (1972). A History of Electricity and
Magnetism.Norwalk,Connecticut:BurndyLibrary.pp.3031.
ISBN 0-262-13070-X.
8. ^ Verschuur, Gerrit L. (1993). Hidden Attraction : The History
And Mystery Of Magnetism. New York: Oxford University
Press.pp.7879.ISBN 0-19-506488-7.
9. ^ Darrigol, Olivier (2000). Electrodynamics from Ampre to

20. ^ I.S. Grant, W.R. Phillips, Manchester Physics (2008).

Electromagnetism (2nd Edition). John Wiley & Sons. p. 123.
ISBN 978-0-471-92712-9.
21. ^ a

SeeGriffithspages3013.

22. ^ Tai L. Chow (2006). Electromagnetic theory . Sudbury MA:

Jones and Bartlett. p. 395. ISBN 0-7637-3827-1.
23. ^ a

Landau,L.D.,Lifshits,E.M.,&Pitaevski,L.P.(1984).

Einstein. Oxford, [England]: Oxford University Press. pp. 9,

Electrodynamics of continuous media; Volume 8 Course of

25. ISBN 0-19-850593-0.

Theoretical Physics

10. ^ Verschuur, Gerrit L. (1993). Hidden Attraction : The History

And Mystery Of Magnetism. New York: Oxford University
Press. p. 76. ISBN 0-19-506488-7.
11. ^ Darrigol, Olivier (2000). Electrodynamics from Ampre to
Einstein.Oxford,[England]:OxfordUniversityPress.pp.126
131,139144.ISBN 0-19-850593-0.
12. ^ Darrigol, Olivier (2000). Electrodynamics from Ampre to
Einstein. Oxford, [England]: Oxford University Press. pp. 200,
429430.ISBN 0-19-850593-0.
13. ^ Heaviside, Oliver. "On the Electromagnetic Effects due to
the Motion of Electrification through a Dielectric" .
Philosophical Magazine, April 1889, p. 324.
14. ^ Darrigol, Olivier (2000). Electrodynamics from Ampre to
Einstein. Oxford, [England]: Oxford University Press. p. 327.
ISBN 0-19-850593-0.

References

[edit]

(Second ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-

Heinemann.p.63(49pp.205207in1960edition).ISBN 07506-2634-8.
24. ^ Roger F Harrington (2003). Introduction to electromagnetic
engineering

. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. p. 56.

ISBN 0-486-43241-6.
25. ^ M N O Sadiku (2007). Elements of elctromagnetics
(Fourth ed.). NY/Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 391.
ISBN 0-19-530048-3.
26. ^ Classical Mechanics (2nd Edition), T.W.B. Kibble, European
Physics Series, Mc Graw Hill (UK), 1973, ISBN 0-07-0840180.
27. ^ Hestenes, David. "SpaceTime Calculus" .

The numbered references refer in part to the list immediately below.

Feynman, Richard Phillips; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew L. (2006). The Feynman lectures on physics (3 vol.). Pearson / Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-90472.: volume 2.
Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, [NJ.]: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-805326-X.
Jackson, John David (1999). Classical electrodynamics (3rd ed.). New York, [NY.]: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W., Jr. (2004). Physics for scientists and engineers, with modern physics. Belmont, [CA.]: Thomson Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-53440846-X.
Srednicki, Mark A. (2007). Quantum field theory . Cambridge, [England] ; New York [NY.]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86449-7.

External links

[edit]

Interactive Java tutorial on the Lorentz force

Lorentz force (demonstration)

National High Magnetic Field Laboratory

[dead link]

Faraday's law: Tankersley and Mosca

Notes from Physics and Astronomy HyperPhysics at Georgia State University ; see also home page
Interactive Java applet on the magnetic deflection of a particle beam in a homogeneous magnetic field
Categories: Concepts in physics

Electromagnetism

by Wolfgang Bauer

Maxwell's equations

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